Lectures

On
Basic Thermodynamics
(Fundamental Concepts & Definitions)
(Module 1)

By
Dr. Nidhi Baranwal

Department of Mechanical Engineering

Atria Institute of Technology
Basic Concepts of Thermodynamics

Definition of Thermodynamics

• Thermodynamics is defined as the science of energy.

• The name Thermodynamics stems from the Greek words therme (Heat)
and dynamics (Power).
– Clearly depicting the early efforts to convert heat into power.

• Engineering Thermodynamics is the subject that deals with the

study of the science of thermodynamics and the usefulness of this
science in the design of each & every process, device or system
involving the effective utilization of energy and matter for the
benefit of mankind.

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 Why Thermodynamics?
If we like to,
• Rise the temperature of water in kettle
• Burn some fuel in the combustion chamber to propel an aircraft.
• Cool our room on a hot humid day. Heat up our room on a cold winter night.
What is the smallest amount of electricity/fuel can get away with?

Thermodynamics questions allows us to answer some of these. What is the largest

energy we can get out of these efforts?
If we burn
• some coal/gas in a power plant to generate to generate electricity
• Petrol in a car engine.

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 Macroscopic and Microscopic Approaches
 Macroscopic approach is to thermodynamics is concerned with the gross
behavior or overall behavior, which is sometimes also called as classical
thermodynamics. These effects can be seen by human senses or measured
by instruments.
• A property is a macroscopic characteristics of a system, e.g., pressure,
temperature.

 In microscopic approach, the effect of molecular motion is considered.

E.g., At microscopic level, the pressure of a gas is not constant, the
temperature of a gas is a function of the velocity of molecules.

State - Refers to the energy content of a given system. The state is defined by
specifying certain variables such as temperature, pressure, volume and
composition.

Process – When any of the properties of a system change, the state changes
and the system is said to have undergone a process.
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Selected Areas of Application of Engineering
Thermodynamics
 Automobile engines
 Turbines, compressors, pumps
 Fossil- and nuclear-fueled power stations
 Propulsion systems for aircraft and rockets Combustion systems
 Cryogenic systems
 Heating, ventilating, and air-conditioning systems
 Cooling of electronic equipment
 Alternative energy systems
 Solar-activated heating, cooling, and power generation
 Geothermal systems
 Ocean thermal, wave, and tidal power generation
 Wind power 5
Thermodynamic system

A specified collection of matter is called a system, which is defined by the mass

and the composition.
boundary
system surroundings

a. Open system: Mass and energy are exchanged with its surroundings.

b. Closed system: NO mass is exchanged with its surroundings.

c. Isolated system: Neither mass nor energy are exchanged.

Matter,
open closed Energy isolated
energy

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 Homogeneous vs heterogeneous system
a. A system is homogeneous if every intensive property has the same value
for every point of the system
Z=mz

b. A system is said to be heterogeneous if the intensive property of one

portion is different from the property of another portion.

Z   mi zi
i

Phase: It refers to a quantity of matter that is homogeneous throughout in both

chemical composition and physical structure.
 Homogeneity in physical structure means that the matter is all solid, or all
liquid, or all vapor (or equivalently all gas).

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Thermodynamic properties
The properties define the thermodynamic state of a system.

a. Intensive property: does not depend on the mass (m) or does not change
with subdivision of the system (e.g., P, T).

b. Extensive property: does depend on the mass (m) or does change with
subdivision of the system (e.g., m, V).

* An intensive property is also called a specific property if

Z
z
m
For example, volume V is an extensive property, so v = V/m (i.e., volume per
unit mass) is a specific property and an intensive property.

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Units of Mass, Length, Time, and Force
The SI base units for mass, length, and time are kg, m and s.

Temperature: The SI base unit for temperature is the kelvin, K.

T [K] = T [°C] + 273.15

T [°F] = 1.8∙T [°C] + 32

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Absolute, gage and vacuum pressure

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1) Consider a car at a chilly temperature of 44°F. If the pressure is 101 kPa, what is
the density of air in the car? How would increasing the temperature to 77°F change
the density of air in the car?
Ans: 1257 g/m3, decrease by 77 g/m3/m3

Adiabatic wall: A boundary through which heat cannot flow easily.

Diathermic wall: A boundary through which heat can flow.

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1. Which of the following is an example of a system where the transfer of energy is
important?
a) The computer I am currently using
b) All of the other choices are correct
c) A convection oven
d) The battery in your phone
e) The air-conditioning unit in your home
Correct

2. Why does the table heat when you set your mug of fresh hot coffee on it?
a) Energy is transferred from the hot mug to the table.
b) Frictional forces between the mug and table cause heat transfer from the mug
to the table.
c) Static electricity builds as the mug sits on the table, which causes heat to
accumulate.
d) Energy is transferred from the table to the mug.
Correct

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3. Which of the following is an extensive property?
a) Volume
b) Density
c) Temperature
d) Concentration
Correct
4. Your car thermometer tells you it is -10 degrees Fahrenheit outside on a brisk
day. What is the absolute temperature in Kelvin?
a) 450 K
b) -15 K
c) -26 K
d) 250 K
Correct
5. Consider a garden hose attached to your home. The system is only the garden
hose. Water moves into the hose from your home and leaves the hose to water your
plants. The entrance velocity and exit velocity are equal. Is this system an open
system or a closed system?
a) Need more information
b) A closed system
c) An open system 13
6) If the absolute pressure is 16 atm, what is the gauge pressure?
a) 17 atm
b) 14 atm
c) 15 atm
d) 16 atm
Correct c)

7) Consider a vertical piston/cylinder system. The piston has 50 g mass and a

given radius of 3 cm. What is the pressure due to the piston?
a) 183 Pa
b) 177 Pa
c) 169 Pa
d) 173 Pa
Correct d)

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Thermodynamic equilibrium
A system is in thermodynamic equilibrium if it is in mechanical, chemical and
thermal equilibrium.

Mechanical equilibrium: the pressure difference between the system and its
surroundings is infinitesimal (no mechanical work transfer involved).

Thermal equilibrium: the temperature difference between the system and its
surroundings is infinitesimal.

 Two bodies are in thermal equilibrium if both have the same temperature
reading even if they are not in contact.
 Two systems are said to be equal in temperature, when there is no change in
their respective observable properties when they are brought together (They
will not exchange heat).

Chemical equilibrium: No mass transfer and chemical reactions involved

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Definition of Temperature
• A thermodynamic property that determines whether a system is in thermal
equilibrium with other systems.

Zeroth law of thermodynamics

The zeroth law of thermodynamics states that if two thermodynamic systems
are in thermal equilibrium with a third system, then they are in thermal
equilibrium with each other.

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 Processes and cycles
 Any change that a system undergoes from one
equilibrium state to another equilibrium state is
called as process.
e.g., Isothermal, isobaric, quasi-
equilibrium processes
 Series of state through which a system passes
during a process is known as path.
 A system said to have undergone a cycle if it
returns to its initial state at the end of the
process.
 Cycles that are repeated periodically play prominent
roles in many areas of application.
 Steady flow system: A system is said to be at
steady state if none of its properties changes
with time.

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 Quasi-static Processes
A quasi-static process is one in which
 The deviation from thermodynamic equilibrium is infinitesimal.
 All states of the system passes through are equilibrium.
It is an idealized process and is not a true representation of an actual process.
But many actual processes closely approximate it.

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Thermometers: Any body with at least one measurable property that changes
as its temperature changes can be used as a thermometer.

Constant-volume gas thermometer

 The thermometric substance is the gas

(normally hydrogen or helium), and the
thermometric property is the pressure
exerted by the gas.

 As temperature increases, the gas

expands, forcing mercury up in the open
tube.

 T = a + b∙P

 The gas is kept at constant volume.

 The gas thermometer is used as a
standard worldwide by bureaus of
standards and research laboratories
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2) A temperature scale of certain thermometer is given by the relation t = a∙ln(P) +
b, where a and b are constants, P is thermometric property. If at ice point and
steam point, the thermometric properties are found to be 1.5 and 7.5, respectively.
What will be the temperature corresponding to the thermometric property of 3.5 on
Celsius scale.

3) The temperature T on thermometric scale is defined as t = a∙ln(K) + b, where a

and b are constant. The values of K are found to be 1.83 and 6.78 at 0°C and
100°C, respectively. What will be the temperature corresponding to the K = 2.42.
VTU July 2005
Ans- a = 76.355, b = -46.14, T = 21.34°C

4) A platinum resistance thermometer has a resistance of 2.8 ohm at 0°C and 3.8
ohm at 100°C. Assuming the relation between resistance and temperature as R =
R0(1 + αt), where R0 is resistance at 0 °C and α is a constant. Find the temperature
when the resistance is 5.8 ohm.

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Comparison of temperature scales

Temperature scales are defined by the

numerical value assigned to a standard
fixed point.

As a matter of convenience, the

temperature at one standard fixed point is
273.16 K. This makes the temperature
interval from the ice point 1 (273.15 K) to
the steam point 2 equal to 373.15 K.

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5) A new absolute temperature scale is proposed. On this scale the ice point of
water is 150°S and the steam point is 300 °S. Determine the temperature in °C that
correspond to 100°S and 400°S, respectively.

6) A new scale N of temperature is devised in such a way that the freezing point of
ice is 100°N and the boiling point of water is 400 °N. What is the temperature
reading on this new scale when the temperature is 150 °C? At what temperature
both the Celsius and the new scale reading would be the same?
[VTU July 2019]

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Mercury-in-glass thermometer

 Mercury-in-glass thermometers consist of a sealed glass tube calibrated in

degrees Centigrade and/or degrees Fahrenheit, with a mercury-filled reservoir at
one end.

 The mercury in the reservoir expands with increased temperature, climbing

higher up the thermometer, and it contracts and recedes as the temperature falls.

Constant-pressure gas thermometer

 The thermometric substance is the gas (normally hydrogen or helium), and the
thermometric property is the volume.

 An apparatus based on Charles law in which a rigid vessel is filled with a gas,
usually hydrogen or helium, at low pressure and its volume measured as its
temperature is increased while its pressure is maintained constant.

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