On taking laplace transform of equation (2.

14), We get,
E(s) = K~ 4~(s) = K~ (2.15)

4~(s)

The equation (2.15) is the transfer function of the synchro error detector.

Note : If the motor employed is an ac servomotor. then the signal

conditioning circuit

willnot include a demodulator

2.4CONTROLLERS ___ ___ ______________

A controller is a device introduced in the system to modify the error signal and
to produce a control signal. The manner in which the controller produces the control
signal Is called the control action. The controller modifies the transient response of
the system. The controllers may be electrical, electronic, hydraulic or pneumatic,
depending on the nature of signal and the system. Only electronic controllers are
presented in this section.

The following six basic control actions are very common among industrial
analog controllers. They are

(i) two-position or on-off control action

(ii) proportional control action

(iii) integral control action

(iv) proportional- plus- integral control action

(v) proportional-plus-derivative control action and

(vi) proportional-plus-integral-plus-derivative control action.

Depending on the control actions provided the controllers can be classified as

follows.

1. Two position or on-off controllers

2. Proportional controllers

3. Integral controllers

4. Proportional-plus-integral controllers

5. Proportional-plus-derivative controllers

6. Proportional-plus-integral-plus-derivative controllers
 ON-OFF (OR) TWO POSITION CONTROLLER

The on-off or two position controller has only two fixed positions. They are
either on or off. The on-off control system is very simple in construction and
hence less expensive. For this reason, it is very widely used in both industrial
and domestic control systems.

The on-off control action may be provided by a relay. There are different
types of relay. The most popular one is electromagnetic relay. It is a device
which has NO (Normally Open) and NC (Normally Closed) contacts, whose
opening and closing are controlled by the relay coil. When the relay coil is
excited, the relay operates and the contacts change their positions (i.e., NO NC
~

and NC—> NO)

Let the output signal from the controller be u(t) and the actuating error
signal be e(t). In this controller, u(t) remains at either a maximum or minimum
value.

u(t) = u1 for e(t)>0

= u2 for e(t)<0 (2.16)

Fig 2.9 : Block diagram of on-off controller

~ PROPORTIONAL CONTROLLER (P CONTROLLER) -

The proportional controller is a device that produces a control signal, u(t)

which is proportional to the input error signal, e(t).

In P-controller, u(t) cc e(t)

.~. u(t) = K e(t) (2.17)
Where, K~ = Proportional gain or constant
On taking laplace transform of equation (2.17)
We get,
U(s)=K~E(s) (2.18)
(s)K (2.19)
E(s) ~
~1
 The equation (2.18) gives the Output of the P-controller fOr the input b(s) and
equation (2.19) is the transfer function of the P-controller. The block diagram of the
P-controller is shown in fig 2.10.

Fig 2.10: Block diagram ofproportional controller

From the equation (2.18) we can conclude that the proportional controller
amplifies the error signal by an amount K~. Also the introduction of the controller on
the system increases the loop gain by an amount K~. The increase in loop gain
improves the steady state tracking accuracy, disturbance signal rejection and the
relati’~e stability and also makes the system less sensitive to parameter variations.
But increasing the gain to very large values may lead to instability of the system. The
drawback in P-controller is that it leads to a constant steady state error.

Example of electronic P-Controller

The proportional controller can be realized by an amplifier with adjustable

gain. Either the non-inverting operational amplifier or the inverting operational
amplifier followed by sign changer will work as a proportional controller. The op-
amp proportional controller is shown in fig 2.11 and 2.12

Fig 2.11 : Up-amp P-controller using

non inverting amp! jfler Fig 2.12: Op-amp P-controller using
inverting ampl~/Ier
 By deriving the transfer function of the controllers shown in fig 2.11 and fig
2.12 and comparing with the transfer function of P- controller defined by equation
(2.19), it can be shown that they work as P-controllers.
Analysis of P-controller shown in fig 2.11

Fig 2.13

(2.21)

(2.22)

rig i.i~ : r~quivaienr circuit oj ampiijier Fig 2.15: Equivalent circuit of sign changer

In fig 2.11, the input e(t) is applied to positive input. By symmetry of op-amp
the voltage of negative input is also e(t). Also: we assume an ideal op-amp so that
input current is zero. Based on the above assumptions the equivalent circuit of the
controller is shown in fig 2.13

By voltage division rule,

(2.20)

On taking laplace transform of equation 2.20 we get

The equation (2.22) is the transfer function of op-amp P-controller. On

comparing equation (2.22) with equation (2.19), we get,
Proportional gain, K~ = R ~(2.23)

Therefore by adjusting the values of and R2 the value of gain, K~ can be

varied. Analysis of P-controller shown in fig 2.12

The assumption made in op-amp circuit analysis are

1. The voltages at both inputs are equal

2. The input current is zero.

Based on the above assumptions, the equivalent circuit of op-amp amplifier and
sign changer are shown in fig 2.14 and 2.15
 e(t)
From fig 2.14, e(t) 11R1, Ii =
.~. (2.24)
u1(t)—11R2 (2.25)

Substitute for I~ from equation (2.24) in equation (2.25)

e(t)
... u1(t)=———-—.R2 (2.26)
u(t)
From fig 2.15, u(t) = —12R, .~. 12 = (2.27)
u1(t) = 12R (2.28)

Substitute for 12 from equation (2.27) in equation (2.28)

u1(t) =—~1.R = —u(t)
.~. (2.29)

On equating the equations (2.26) and (2.29) we get

—u(t) = —~-~-.R2

u(t) = e(t) (2.30)

On taking laplace transform of equation (2.30) we get

U(s)=~2-E(s) (2.31)’
U(s)R2 (2.32)

E(s) R1

The equation (2.32) is the transfer function of op-amp P-controller. On

comparing equation (2.32) with equation (2.19) we get,
Proportional gain, K~ = -~- (2.33)

Therefore by adjusting the values of R1 and the value of gain K~ can be varied.
 INTEGRAL CONTROLLER (I-CONTROLLER)

The integral controller is a device that produces a control signal u(t) which is

proportional to integral of the input error signal, e(t).

In I controller, u(t) czfe(t) dt

-

u(t) = K.fe(t) dt
.~. (2.34)

Where, K.= Integral gain or constant

On taking laplace transform ofequation (2.34) with ze~ro initial conditions we

get
U(s)=K1-~ (2.35)
~ (236)
E(s) s

The equation (2.35) gives the output of the I-controller for the input E(s) and

equation (2.36) is the transfer function of the I-controller. The block diagram of I-
controller is shown infig2.16

Fig 2.16 : Block diagram of an integral controller

The integral controller removes or reduces the steady error without the need for
manual reset. Hence the I-controller is sometimes called automatic reset. ‘fhe
drawback in integral controller is that it may lead to oscillatory response of increasing
or decreasing ampIitud~ which is undesirable and the system may become unstable.

Example of electronic I-controller

The integral controller can be realized by an integrator using op-amp followed

by a ;ign changer as shown in fig 2.17

By deriving the transfer function of the controller shown in fig 2.17 and
comparing vith the transfer function of I-controller defined by equation(2.36), it can
be shown that twork as I-controller.
 Fig 2.17: 1-controller using op-amp

Analysis of I-controller shown in fig 2.17

The assumptions made in op-amp circuit analysis are,

1. The voltages of both inputs are equal.

2. The input current is zero.

Based on the above assumptions the equivalent circuit of op-amp integrator and
sign changer are shown in fig 2.18 and 2.19

Fig 2.18 Equivalent cfrcuit of integrator Fig 2.19 : Equivalent circuit of sign
changer
e(t)
From fig2.18, e(t)=i1R1, .‘Ij (2.37)
u1(t)=—_-1-—5 i1dt (2.38)

Substitute for i1 from equation (2.37) in equation (2.38)

(2.39:
 From fig 2.19, u(t) = —12R, •. = —u(t) (2.40)
u;(t) = 12R (2.41)

Substitute for 12 from equation (2.40) in equation (2.41),

u(t)
.~. u1(t) = —-—~—R = —u(t) (2.42)

On equating the equation (2.39) and (2.42) we get,

—u(t)=—1 $ e(t)dt
u(t) = R1C, $e(t) dt (2.43)

On taking laplace transform of equation (2.43) with zero initial conditions, we

get
U(s)= —~ (2.44)
R1C1 s
U(s) 1 (2.45)
E(s) R1C1 s

The equation (2.45) is the transfer function of op-amp 1-controller. On

comparing equation(2.45) with equation (2.36) we get
Integralgain, K1 = R1C1 (2.46)

Therefore by adjusting the values of R1 and C1 the value of gain K1 can be

varied.

PROPORTIONAL PLUS INTEGRAL CONTROLLER (P1 CONTROLLER) -

The proportional plus integral controller (P1-controller) produces an output

signal consisting of two terms-one proportional to error signal and the other
proportional to the integral of error signal.

In P1 controller, u(t) a [e(t) + 5e(t) dt]

—

u(t) K~ e(t) +
.~. e(t)dt (2.47)

Where, K~ = Proportional gain

and 1~ = Integral time.
 On taking laplace transform of equation (2.47)
with zero initial
conditions we get~ K~
E(s)

U(s) = K~ E(s)+— (2.48)

U(s) ( i~
= K~~l +::i~~~~J (2.49)

The equation (2.48) gives the output of the P1-controller for the input E(s)
and equation (2.49) is the transfer function of the P1 controller. The block diagram of
P1-controller is shown in fig 2.20.

Fig 2.20: Block diagram of P1 controller

The advantages of both P-controller and I-controller are combined in P1-

control ler. The proportional action increases the loop gain and makes the system less
sensitive to variations of system parameters. The integral action eliminates or reduces
the steady state error.

The integral control action is adjusted by varying the integral time. The change
in value of affects both the proportional and integral parts of control action. The
inverse of the integral time T. is called the reset rate.

Example of electronic P1-controller

The P1-controller can be realized by an op-amp integrator with gain followed

by a sign changer as shown in fig 2.21.
 By deriving the transfer function of the controller shown in fig (2.21) and
comparing with the transfer function of P1-controller defined by equation (2.49), it
can be proved that the circuit shown in fig 2.21, work as P1-controller.

Fig 2.22: Equivalent circuit of integrator Fig 2.23 : Equivalent circuit of sign changer

Analysis of P1-controller shown in fig 2.21.

The assumptions made in op-amp circuit analysis are,

1. The voltages at both inputs are equal.

2. The input current is zero.

Based on the above assumptions the equivalent circuit of op-amp integrator and
sign changer are shown in fig 2.22. and 2.23.

e(t)
From fig 2.22, e(t) = i1R1, ‘1 = (2.50)
u1(t)=—i1R2— ~-.$i1dt (2.51)

Substitute for i1 from equation (2.50) in equation (2.51),

e(t) 1• re(t)
..ui(t)=—-j-R2--~—j-j—dt (2.52)
—u(t)

Fig 2.21 : P1 control/er using op-amp

From fig 2.23, u(t)= ~121~ ~ ‘2 = R (2.53.)
u1(t) = 12R (2.54)

Substitute for ‘2 from equation (2.53) in equation (2.54),

u(t)
(2.55)

Fig 2.21 : P1 control/er using op-amp

 On equating the equations (2.52) and (2.55) we get,

—u(t) = —~R2 —--~--J~ dt

R1 C2 R1
.~. u(t) = .~2~e(t) + R1C2 Je(t) dt (2.56)

On taking laplace transform of equation (2.56) with zero initial

conditions, we get U(s)=~2~E(s)+ 1 E(s)

R1 R1C2 s
... =R2 11+ 1 (2.57)
•E(s) R1 ~ R2C2s)

The equation (2.57) is the transfer function of op-amp P1-controller. On

comparing equation(2.57) with equation (2.49) we get

Proportional gain, K.,, =

Integral time, T1 = R2C2

By varying the values of R1 and R2, the value of gain K~ and T. can be
adjusted.

PROPORTIONAL PLUS DERIVATIVE CONTROLLER (PD-CONTROLLER)

The proportional plus derivative controller produces an output signal consisting

of two terms-one proportional to error signal and the other proportional to the
derivative of error signal.

In PD controller, u(t) a [e(t) + ~ e(t)]

u(t) = K~ e(t) + KPTd -~_e(t)
.~. (2.58)

Where, K.,, = Proportional gain

and Td = Derivative time

On taking laplace transform of equation (2.58) with zero initial

conditions we get,
U(s) = K~ E(s) + K~ Td sE(s) • ..(2.59) .. .

..-~-~=K (1+Tds) (2.60)

E(s) “

Fig 2.21 : P1 control/er using op-amp

 The equation (2.59) gives the output of the PD-controller for the input E(s) and

equation (2.60) is the transfer function of PD-controller.

The block diagram of PD-controller is shown in fig 2.24.

Fig 2.24 : Block diagram of PD- controller

The derivative control acts on rate of change of error and not on the actual error
signal. The derivative control action is effective only during transient periods and so
it does not produce corrective measures for any constant error. Hence the derivative
controller is never used alone, but it is employed in association with proportiotial and
integral controllers. The derivative controller does not affect the steady-state error
directly but antipates the error, initiates an early corrective action and tends to
increase the stability of the system. While derivative control action has an advantage
of being anticipatory it has the disadvantage that it amplifies noise signals and may
cause a saturation effect in the actuator.

The derivative control action is adjusted by varying the derivative time. The
change in the value of K.,, affects both the proportional and derivative parts of
control action. The derivative control is also called rate control.

Example of electronic PD-controller

The PD-controller can be realized by an op-amp differentiator with gain

followed by a sign changer as shown in fig 2.25.
Fig 2.21 : P1 control/er using op-amp
 Fig 2.25 PD controller using op-amp

By deriving the transfer function of the controller shown in fig 2.25 and
comparirig with the transfer function of PD-controller defined by equation (2.60) it
can be proved that
•the circuit shown in fig 2.25 will work as PD-controller.

Fig 2.21 : P1 control/er using op-amp

 Analysis of PD-controller shown in fig 2.25

The assumptions made in op-amp circuit analysis are,

1. The voltages at both inputs are equal.

2. The input current is zero~

Based on the above assumptions the equivalent circuit of op-amp differentiator

and sign changer are shown in fig 2.26 and 2.27.

Fig 2.26: Equivalent circuit of d~fferentiator Fig 2.27: Equivalent circuit of

sign changer
e(t) de(t)
From fig2.26, 11 =—+C1 dt (2.61)
~—u1(t)
i1R2 = -u1(t), ..“ = R2
•

(
2
.
6
2
)

On equating the equations (2.61) and (2.62) we get,

u~t) = _[~Le(t)+ R2C1 ~e(t)J
.... (2.63)
• From fig 2.27, u(t) -12R, = ...u(t)
~ ‘2 (2.64)
u1(t)=12R (2.65)

Substitute for 12from equation (2.64) in equation (2.65),

u(t)
u1(t) = —--—-R = —u(t) (2.66)

Fig 2.21 : P1 control/er using op-amp

 On equating the equations (2.63) and (2.66) we get,

— u(t) = — —e(t) + R2C1—e(t)

u(t) = ~2~e(t) ± R~C1 -~-e(t)
.~. (2.67)

On taking laplace transform of equation (2.67) with zero initial

conditions, we get
U(s) = E(s) + R2C1 S E(s) (2.68)
U(s) = ~ (i + R~C1 s) (2.69)

E(s) R1

The equation (2.69) is the transfer function of op-

amp PD-controller. On comparing equation(2.69) with equation (2.60)
we get,

Proportional gain, K~ =

Derivative time, Td = R1C1

By varying the values ofR1 and R~, the value of gain

K~ and Td can be adjusted.

PROPORTIONAL PLUS INTEGRAL PLUS DERIVATIVE CONTROLLER

(PID-CONTROLLER)

The PID-controller produces an output signal consisting of three terms-one

proportional to error signal, another one proportional to integral of error signal and
the third one proportional to derivative of error signal.

In PID controller, u(t) a [e(t) + fe(t) dt + ~-e(t)] d

—

.~. u(t) K~ e(t) ±—_P-f e(t)dt + KPTd ~—e(t)

(2.70)

Where, K~ = Proportional gain

• = Integral time.
= Derivative time

Fig 2.21 : P1 control/er using op-amp

On taking laplace transform of equation (2.70)
with zero initial
conditions we get, K E(s)
U(s)= K~E(s)+—1. —+ K~ Td sE(s) (2.71)
T1 s

Fig 2.21 : P1 control/er using op-amp

 U(s)~ u1+~+TdS~ . (2.72)

E(s) ~ T1s )

The equation (2.71) gives the output of the PID-controller

for the input E(s) and equation (2.72) is the transfer function of
the PID controller. The block diagram of PIDcontoller is shown in fig
2.28.

Fig 2.28: Block diagram of PID- controller

The combination of proportional control action, integral control action

and derivative control action is called PID-control action. This combined action has

the advantages of the each of the three individual control actions.

The proportional controller stabilizes the gain but produces a steady state error.
The integral controller reduces or eliminates the steady state error. The
derivative controller reduces the rate of change of error.

Example of electronic PID-controller

The PID controller can b~ realized by op-amp amplifier with integral

and derivative action followed by sign changer as shown in fig 2.29.

Fig 2.21 : P1 control/er using op-amp

 Fig 2.29 : PID controller using op-amp

By deriving the transfer function of the controller shown in fig (2.29) and
comparing with the transfer function of PID-controller defined by equation (2.72) it
can be proved that the circuit shown in fig 2.29 work as PID-controller.

Analysis of PID-controller shown in fig 2.29

The assumptions made in op-amp circuit analysis are.

Fig 2.21 : P1 control/er using op-amp

 uLy~Fj~s

Fig 2.30: Equivaje~~

circuit of ampl~fler Fig

1. The voltages of both inputs are equal.

2. The input current is zero.

Based on the above assumptions the equivalent circuit of op-ampampjjfier and

sign changer are shown in fig 2.30 and 2.31.

:
I~quiva
/en~
circuit
of sign
change

Fig 2.21 : P1 control/er using op-amp

 r
e(t) de(t)
From fig 2.30, Ii + C1~1 (2.73)

On taking laplace transform of equation (2.73) with zero initial conditions we get,

• 11(5)_.L E(s)+C1 sE(s)

I1(s)(L÷csJE(S) (2.74)
From fig2.30 i1R2 +~—fijdt=_uj(t) (2.75)

On taking laplace transform of equation (2.75) with zero initial conditions we get,

1
r(~) R2 +±
C2
.~. l1(s) + —U1 (s) (2.76)

Fig 2.21 : P1 control/er using op-amp

 Substitute for 11(s) from equation (2.74) in equation (2.76)

I_~_+CtsJ E(s) [R2 +_-~---]= -U1(s)

,. C~s

_1~i + + 1 + R2Cis~) E(s) = U1(s)

(2.77)
~R1 C2 R1C2s )
u(t)
Fromfig2.31,u(t)-12R, ~ (2.78)
u1(t)12R (2.79)

Substitute for 12 from equation (2q78) in equation (2.79)

u1(t)=—-~~K=—u(t) (2.80)

On taking laplace transform of equation (2.80) we get,

U1(s)=—U(s) (2.81)

From equation (2.77) and (2.81) we get,

~ 1 +R2C1s’)E(s) ~R1 C2 R1C2s )

...2~2=1R2C2÷~~1C1+
E(s) ~ R1C2 R1C2s

=~ IR +R1C1 ~ •+R1C1s~ (2.82)

~ R~C~ R2C2s )

The equation (2.82) is the transfer function of op-amp PID-confroller. On

comparing equation(2.82) with equation (2.72) we get,

Proportional gain, K~
Derivative time,Td = R1C1
Integral time, T1 = R2C2

Also, R1C1+R2C2 =1
R2C2

Fig 2.21 : P1 control/er using op-amp

By varying the values of R1 and R2 the values of ~ Td and T1 are adjusted.

Fig 2.21 : P1 control/er using op-amp

Q2.19 What is Proportional controller and what are its advantages?

The Proportional controller is a device that produces a control

signal which is
proportional to the input error signal.

The advantages in the proportional controller are improvement

in steady-state
tracking accuracy, disturbance signal rejection and the relative
stability. It also
makes a system less sensitive to parameter variations.

Q2.20 What is the drawback in P-controller?

The drawback in P-controller is that it develop a constant steady-

state error.

Q2.21 What is integral control action?

In integral control action, the control signal is proportional to integral of

error signal. Q2.22 What is the advantage and disadvantage in integral cont,’oller?

The advantage in Integral controller is that it eliminates or

reduces the steady-state error. The disadvantage is that it can
make a system unstable.

Q2.23 Write the transfer function of P. P1, PD and PID controllers.

U(s)
The transfer function of P-controller, yE(s) =
U(s) ( 1
The transfer function of P1-controller, K1,~ 1+ —

E(s) ~ T1s

The transfer function of PD-controller, = K (1+ Tds)

E(s) ~

The transfer function of PID-controller, U(s) = K 11+ —~— + Tds

Fig 2.21 : P1 control/er using op-amp

 E(s) ‘\ 1s

Where K~ = Proportional gain

T1 = Integral time constant

Td = Derivative time constant.

Fig 2.21 : P1 control/er using op-amp

Q2.24 What is Reset rate?

Fig Q2.29

The reset rate is the reciprocal of integral time or reset time. The

Fig 2.21 : P1 control/er using op-amp

 reset rate is the number of thnes per minute thatthe proportional
part ofthe control action is duplicated and it is measured in terms
of repeats/minute.
Q2.25 Why derivative control is not employed in isolation?

A derivative control mode in isolation produces no corrective

efforts for any constant errors. Because, it acts only on rate of
change of error.
Q2.26 What is P1 controller?

The P1 controller is a device which produces a control signal

consisting of two terms-one proportional to error signal and the
other proportional to the integral of error signal.
Q2.27 What is PD controller?

The PD controller is a device which produces a control signal

consisting of two terms-one proportional to error signal and the
other proportional to the derivative of error signal.
Q2.28 What is PID controller?

The PID controller is a device which produces a control signal

consisting of three terms-one proportional to error signal,
another one proportional to integral of error signal and the third
one proportional to derivative of error signal.

Q2.29 Give an example of electronic PID controller

The electronic P11) controller can be realized by an op-amp

amplifier with integral and derivative action followed by sign
changer, as shown in figure Q2.29.

Fig 2.21 : P1 control/er using op-amp

Q2.30 Sketch the step response of a P and P1 controller?

Fig çj2..w

Fig Q2.3

Let e(t) be the input signal to the controller and u(t) be the output
signal to the controller. The input and output signals are shown
in the figure Q2.30.

Q2.31 Sketch the ramp response ofP,PD and PID controller?

Fig 2.21 : P1 control/er using op-amp

 Let e(t) be the input signal to the controller and u(t) be the output
signal to the controller. The input and output signals are shown
in the figure Q2.31.
Q2.32 What is Servomotor?

The motors used in automatic control system or in

servomechanism are called servomotors. They are used to
convert electrical signal to angular motion.
Q2.33 What are the characteristic of servomotors?

1. Linear relationship between the speed and electric control

signal
2. Steady-state stability
3. Wide range of speed control.

4. Linearity of mechanical characteristic throughout the entire

speed range~

5. Low mechanical and electrical inertia and

6. Fast response.

Fig 2.21 : P1 control/er using op-amp

TABLE 1.2 Properties of Laplace Transforms

Fig 2.21 : P1 control/er using op-amp

INITiAL VALUE THEOREM

The initial value theorem states that, if f(t) and df(t)/dt are both

laplace transformable, if F(s) is laplace transform of f(t) and if ~

sF(s) exists,

men Lt f(t) = Lt sF(s)

t—+O S-4(X)

FINAL VALUE THEOREM

The final value theorem states that, if f(t) and df(t)/dt are both

laplace transformable, if F(s) is laplace transform of f(t) and if

s~O sF(s) exists, Then Lt f(t) = Lt sF(s)

~ s-30

Fig 2.21 : P1 control/er using op-amp