HUMAN BEHAVIOUR, GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT

Module Descriptor
Title: Human Behavior, Growth and Development
Reference BSWD 224
Description: The program is designed for students interested in the development of children
and adults and how knowledge of development can be applied to educational
issues. The purpose of the program is to introduce Social Work practitioners
and future researchers to theory and research on child, adolescent, and adult
development and to reflect on potential applications to education.

The program seeks to apply developmental theory and research to issues such as
gender equity, bilingualism, literacy development, academic achievement
among high-risk populations, educational progress of immigrants, promotion of
inter-group relations, prevention of the consequences of risk in the lives of
children and adolescents, effective learning and thinking, brain processes in
learning, children's emotional development, the effects of daycare and
preschool on young children, and the development of interpersonal
relationships.
Stage 2
Semester 2
Staff: TBA
Teaching Hours: 45 class contact.
55 hours directed study.
50 hours independent study.
150 hours in total
Learning By the end of the course, students should be able to: -
Outcomes:
a) Identify the physiological and environmental factors, which enhance or
retard human growth and development of personality.
b) Apply knowledge and skills associated with promoting self-awareness
and bringing about normal, healthy Health Human Development.
c) Translate the knowledge and skills acquired into action /service of
assisting parents, teacher and policy makers on issues regarding growth,
behavior and development
Syllabus Unit 1. Introduction to the course
- Definition of key concepts: (Growth, Maturation, Behaviour and
heredity).
- Factors influencing growth and development. 3hrs

Unit 2. The growth and development process

- Stages of human development

- Pre-natal period
 - Conception
- How sexes are formed 3hrs

Unit 3. Why couples produce same sex children

Twins formation, types, genetic defects and abnormalities.
Infertility/sterility/ barrenness
Causes
- Social reaction of pregnancy
- Factors that influence pre-natal health. 3hrs

Unit 4. Birth process and its effects to later development.

Post-natal stage (Neonatal, Infancy stage, Childhood, Adolescence and
old age)
Implications of growth and development to a social worker 3hrs

Unit 5. Personality Development (Sigmund Freud all port alcatel theories).

- Psycho-analytical theory
- Basic human instincts
- Structure of personality 3hrs

Unit 6.Defence mechanisms

- Personality development
- Factors affecting personality development.
- Implications to social workers 3hrs

Unit 7. Stress
- Sources of stress (Conflict, Frustrations, Life change event
- Copying with stress. 3hrs

Unit 8. Social Development:

- What is Socialization
- Characteristics of child play 3hrs

Unit 9.Types of play

- Importance of play to a child development
- Eight stages of Erickson theory of social development.
- Implications of socialization to a social development worker. 3hrs

Unit 10. Language Development

- Elements of language
- Factors that influences language development 3hrs

Unit 11.Functions of language

- Theories of language development
- Stages of language development
- Importance of the language to a development social work 3hrs
 Unit 12. Cognitive Development
- Piaget four periods of cognitive development
- Session motor period 0-2
- The pre-operational stage 2-7
- The period of concrete operation 7-12
- The period of formal operations 12 years.
- Importance of cognitive development to social development worker.
- 3hrs

Unit 13: Children and development

- Analysis of children
- Children statute, rights and responsibilities

- Child protection
- Children’s needs
- Early childhood and development
- Effects of HIV/AIDS on children 3hrs

Unit unit14: Youth and development

- Analysis of youth-definition and characteristics
- Youth problems and needs in different settings
- Adolescence development
- Methods of working with youth
- Youth policy
- Roles of a youth worker 3hrs
Unit 15. Moral Development
- Definition of morals
- Levels of moral behavior
- Piaget theory of moral development
- Kolheberg’s theory of moral development
- Mechanisms for enforcing morality 3hrs

Bibliography Core Reading:

Akiiki Enon J. Caesar: (1996).Introduction to General Psychology.

Department of Educational psychology, Makerere University,
Hilgard Ernest R., Richard C. Atkinson: (1967). Introduction to
Psychology, 4th edition, Stanford University USA,

Howard H: Kendler: (1974). Basic Psychology, University of California 3rd

ed.,

Mark H: Social psychology USA, 1988-89.

 Websites:
www.britannica.com/.../human-behaviour/.../Physical-growth-.
numerons.files.wordpress.com/.../development-of-human-behavior.p...
www.ngu.ac.in/SYLLABUS/MSW/SEM1/MSW113.pdf http://www.mcgraw-
hill.co.uk/html/0335223672.html cw.routledge.com/textbooks/.../multiple-
choice-questions.asp -

HUMAN BEHAVIOR, GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT

BSWD 224

UNIT 1. INTRODUCTION TO THE COURSE

- Definition of key concepts: (Growth, Maturation, Behavior and heredity).
- Factors influencing growth and development. 3hrs

GROWTH: CONCEPT AND DEFINITION Growth refers to physical increase in some

quantity over time. It includes changes in terms of height, weight, body proportions and
general physical appearance.
• In Encyclopedia Britannica, growth is defined as “an increase in size or the amount of an
entity”. It means growth involves all those structural and physiological changes that take
place within individual during the process of maturation. For example, growth of a child
means the increase in weight, height and different organs of the child’s body.

• Hurlock has defined Growth as “change in size, in proportion, disappearance of old features
and acquisition of new ones”.

• Growth refers to structural and physiological changes.

Thus, growth refers to an increase in physical size of whole or any of its part and can be
measured.
DEVELOPMENT: CONCEPT AND DEFINITION. Development refers to the qualitative
changes in the organism as whole.
• Development is a continuous process through which physical, emotional and intellectual
changes occur.

• It is a wider and comprehensive term than growth. It is also possible without growth.

• In Webster’s dictionary development is defined as “the series of changes which an organism

undergoes in passing from an embryonic stage to maturity.”

• In Encyclopedia Britannica is the term development defined as “the progressive change in

size, shape and function during the life of an organism by which its genetic potential are
translated into functioning adult system.”

• So, development includes all those psychological changes that take in the functions and
activities of different organs of an organism.

• Development is continuous and gradual process (Skinner).

• Development is concerned with growth as well as those changes in behavior which results
from environmental situation.”

Thus, development is a process of change in growth and capability over time due to
function of both maturation and interaction with the environment.

Development is a result of maturation. Maturation refers to the biological (genetic) changes in

the individual that result from the interaction of genetic makeup and Environment.

Maturation
Maturation is the process of reaching a stage of full or advanced development. In other words,
maturation is the process of maturating (or maturing) or of reaching maturity. The word is often
used to refer to the process of a person developing physically or starting to act more grown-up
(more mature).

Behavior
Behavior or behavior is the range of actions and mannerisms made by individuals, organisms,
systems or artificial entities in some environment. These systems can include other systems or
organisms as well as the inanimate physical environment.
Hereditary Factors: - Heredity exerts an influence on human development. The child carries
genetic endowments from his/her parents. It is genetically transmitted characteristics from
one generation to the next.

Factors influencing growth and development. 3hrs

Human growth and development is the process in which the changes occur in all the aspects of
an organism from conception to death. It is a natural process for each and every child to grow.
But it is observed that all children do not grow in the similar fashion. Some children’s physical
growth occur earlier than others.
Environmental Factors: - Another important factor of human development is the
environment where an individual lives.

Social Environment
The social environment influences on child development are those that affect the social
relationships that children will form throughout their lives and the quality of said relationships,
whether with their families, or the neighborhood where they reside.

Emotional Environment

The emotional environment in child development refers to how well their interpersonal and
relational needs are being met at home.

Economic Environment

The economic environment in child development essentially refers to the financial situation in
which a child grows up. Economic factors primarily affect child development since child rearing
is an expensive endeavor. Research asserts that the most preventable negative impact on a child's
development is a direct result of the economic environment. There are claims that children from
low-income families have poorer health, and are more likely to perform poorly in school than
their wealthier counterparts.
UNIT 2. THE GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT PROCESS

Stages of Development

Development is a continuous process from neonatal to adulthood. Though the growth ceases
after adolescence, adolescence is not the end for development. Each developmental stage has a
new set of challenges and opportunities.

1. Infancy: Development progress in cephalo-caudal direction and also from the midline to the
lateral direction. A three to four-month variation can be there in achieving the
developmental milestone. Social development is a cortical function that develops earlier than
motor skills. Lack of social smile by four weeks is of concern. At birth, the infant is equipped
with primitive reflexes.
2. Early and late childhood: Between ages 1 and 3 years, locomotion and language are crucial.
The best predictor of cognitive function is language. Fine motor skills are related to self-help
skills. The most common development in early childhood is to establish self-identity. A child
may have independent existence by three years of age.
3. Adolescence: Adolescence is hallmarked by puberty changes, which occur two years earlier
in females than in males. Puberty changes are assessed using the Tanner staging. Acceptance
of a new body and separation from home, and establishing oneself as an independent adult in
society are the significant challenges in puberty.

Psychosocial Development

Erikson has postulated eight stages of psychosocial development.

1. Trust and mistrust in infancy (< 1 year): Infants develop trust with a warm response from
the caretaker.
2. Autonomy and doubt in the toddler age group (one to three years): Children feel
autonomous if caregivers encourage independence. Otherwise, they will doubt their abilities.
3. Initiative and guilt in the preschool age group (three to six years): By imaginative play,
children experiment with their ambitions. If parents do not encourage their initiative, the
children will feel guilt.
4. Industry and inferiority in early school years: In school, children learn to work as a group.
They will have inferiority feelings if the peer environment is hostile.
5. Identity and role confusion in adolescence: Self-identity is a significant development
during adolescence.
6. Intimacy and isolation in early adulthood: Those who cannot establish relationships or
intimacy are prone to be socially isolated.
7. Generativist and stagnation in middle adulthood: Parenting is the best example to guide
the younger generation.
8. Ego integrity and despair in late adulthood: People who are not satisfied with what they
did during their lifetime will be in despair.

Cognitive Development

Jean Piaget developed the theory of cognitive development. Piaget’s theory is widely used in
education programs to prepare teachers to instruct students in developmentally appropriate ways.
The theory is based on four stages:

 Sensorimotor — In the sensorimotor stage (birth to 2 years old), children learn object
permanence, which is the understanding that people and objects still exist even when they’re
out of view.
 Preoperational — in the preoperational stage (2-7 years old), children develop symbolic
thought, which is when they begin to progress from concrete to abstract thinking. Children in
this stage often have imaginary friends.
 Concrete operational — in the concrete operational stage (7-11 years old), children solidify
their abstract thinking and begin to understand cause and effect and logical implications of
actions.
 Formal operational — In the formal operational stage (adolescence to adulthood), humans
plan for the future, think hypothetically, and assume adult responsibilities.

Stages of Prenatal Development

Germinal Stage

The germinal stage begins at conception when the sperm and egg cell unite in one of the two
fallopian tubes. The fertilized egg is called a zygote. Just a few hours after conception, the
single-celled zygote begins making a journey down the fallopian tube to the uterus.

Ectoderm: Skin and nervous system

Endoderm: Digestive and respiratory systems

Mesoderm: Muscle and skeletal systems

Finally, the blastocyst arrives at the uterus and attaches to the uterine wall, a process known as
implantation.

Embryonic Stage

At this point, the mass of cells is now known as an embryo. The beginning of the third week
after conception marks the start of the embryonic period, a time when the mass of cells becomes
distinct as a human. The embryonic stage plays an important role in the development of the
brain.
Over the next few days, more ridges form and fold inward until a hollow tube is formed. Once
this tube is fully formed, cells begin to form near the center.

The tube begins to close and brain vesicles form. These vesicles will eventually develop into
parts of the brain, including the structures of the forebrain, midbrain, and hindbrain.

Around the fourth week, the head begins to form, quickly followed by the eyes, nose, ears, and
mouth. The blood vessel that will become the heart start to pulse. During the fifth week, buds
that will form the arms and legs appear.

By the eighth week of development, the embryo has all of the basic organs and parts except those
of the sex organs. At this point, the embryo weighs just one gram and is about one inch in length.

By the end of the embryonic period, the basic structures of the brain and central nervous system
have been established. At this point, the basic structure of the peripheral nervous system is also
defined.

The production of neurons, or brain cells, begins around day 42 after conception and is mostly
complete sometime around the middle of pregnancy.

As neurons form, they migrate to different areas of the brain. Once they have reached the correct
location, they begin to form connections with other neural cells, establishing rudimentary neural
networks.

Fetal Stage

Once cell differentiation is mostly complete, the embryo enters the next stage and becomes
known as a fetus. The fetal period of prenatal develop marks more important changes in the
brain. This period of development begins during the ninth week and lasts until birth. This stage is
marked by amazing change and growth.

Between the ninth and twelfth week of gestation (at the earliest), reflexes begin to emerge. The
fetus begins to make reflexive motions with its arms and legs.4

During the third month of gestation, the sex organs begin to differentiate. By the end of the
month, all parts of the body will be formed. At this point, the fetus weighs around three ounces.
The fetus continues to grow in both weight and length, although the majority of the physical
growth occurs in the later stages of pregnancy.

The end of the third month also marks the end of the first trimester of pregnancy. During the
second trimester, or months four through six, the heartbeat grows stronger and other body
systems become further developed. Fingernails, hair, eyelashes, and toenails form.5Perhaps most
noticeably, the fetus increases about six times in size.

How sexes are formed

When is baby’s sex determined?

Sex is determined at conception by the combination of X and Y sex chromosomes a baby

receives from the egg and the sperm. All eggs contain one X chromosome, while sperm contain
either an X chromosome or a Y chromosome.

Embryos with XY chromosomes develop male sex organs, while those with XX chromosomes
develop female sex organs. That means the sperm determines a baby’s sex!

There are 70 different genes located on the sex chromosomes that define a baby’s sex.
Throughout pregnancy, exposure to hormones decided by your baby’s genes affect a baby’s
anatomy, physiology and even behavior.

What sex do you start as in the womb?

Up until about week 7 to week 8 of pregnancy, both sexes have what’s known as a “genital
ridge” — i.e. an identical preliminary set of genitalia that will eventually differentiate to become
either male or female sex organs.

That means that our sex organs come from the same foundations: The testes in men are
equivalent to labia and ovaries in women, and the penis is the equivalent of the clitoris.

When does an embryo become male or female?

Between week 7 and week 12 of pregnancy, the foundations of your baby’s sex organs develop.
Male sex

If it weren’t for the male hormone testosterone, all babies would develop female sex organs. At
around week 7, male genitalia begin to develop when the Y chromosome signals for the start of
testosterone production.

At about week 9, a baby boy’s genitals begin the process of becoming male. The genital ridge
starts lengthening to form the penis. The penis and clitoris, however, actually remain the same
size until about 14 weeks.

Female sex

In girls, the ovaries will first appear around weeks 11 to 12 of pregnancy. And by about week 20,
a baby girl will have somewhere near 7 million primitive eggs. That eye-popping number will
eventually whittle down to about 2 million by the time she’s born.

At 22 weeks, the vagina opens on the surface of the perineum.

When can you tell the sex of a baby?

At around 18 to 22 weeks of pregnancy, a level 2 anatomy ultrasound can commonly determine

whether a baby is male or female by looking for a penis, although technicians do occasionally
make the wrong call. They can mistake an umbilical cord for a penis, or sometimes a penis isn’t
visible because it’s pushed between the baby’s closed legs.

An ultrasound done at 13 weeks usually as part of the nuchal translucency screening — can also
give a very good clue as to your baby's sex.

You can find out even earlier at around week 10 of pregnancy if your practitioner
recommends noninvasive prenatal testing (NIPT), a screening that analyzes fetal DNA from your
baby’s placenta floating in your blood. It can very accurately determine a baby’s sex, though it’s
not 100 percent precise.
The only way to know your baby’s sex for sure before birth is with a more intensive diagnostic
test like amniocentesis or chorionic villus sampling (CVS), which look at your baby’s own DNA.

UNIT 3. WHY COUPLES PRODUCE SAME SEX CHILDREN

Twins formation, types, genetic defects and abnormalities.

Infertility/sterility/ barrenness

Causes

-Social reaction of pregnancy

-Factors that influence pre-natal health.

Twins formation

Conception happens when a sperm fertilizes an egg to form an embryo. However, if there are
two eggs present in the womb at the time of fertilization or the fertilized egg splits into two
separate embryos, a woman can become pregnant with twins.

There are two types of twin

Identical twins

This type of pregnancy happens when a fertilized egg splits into two separate embryos. These
embryos are monozygotic, which means that they have identical genes. Identical twins are the
same sex as each other and look very alike.

There are 3 types of identical twins.

About one-third of identical twins split soon after fertilization and form completely separate tins.
Like fraternal twins, these twins have separate placentas.

The other two-thirds split after they attach to the wall of the womb. As a result, they share a
placenta. The technical name for this is monochromic.
In a very small number of identical twins, splitting might happen even later. In this case, both
twins share an inner sac, called the amnion, in addition to sharing a placenta. The technical name
for this is monoamniotic twins. They’re often called MoMo twins.

Identical twins happen in around 1 in 250 pregnancies in Australia.

Although identical twins have the same genes, they don’t always look the same. This is because
children’s health and development are shaped not only by genes but also by experiences in the
womb and after birth. For example, a twin who gets less blood from a shared placenta might
weigh less at birth.

No identical, or fraternal, twins: This type of pregnancy occurs when there are two eggs
present in the womb at the time of fertilization, and sperm fertilize both of them. These embryos
are dizygotic, which means that they do not have identical genes and may not be the same sex.
Same-sex twins with separate placentas can be fraternal or identical. For health reasons, it’s good
to know whether your twins are fraternal or identical.

 trying to work out the chance of having more twins in future pregnancies (only fraternal
twins run in families)
 making sure they have the right information about their genetic make-up
 being able to answer questions from family, friends and others
 Being involved in twin research.
 Just being curious

Some identical twins are mirror twins – for example, their hair parts on opposite sides, they are
oppositely handed, or they have birthmarks on opposite sides of their body. In some rare cases,
their internal organs can be mirror images of each other. It’s not known why some twins are like
this.

In very rare cases, twins can be born physically joined together in different ways. These twins,
called conjoined twins (previously called Siamese twins), can happen if the fertilized egg splits
quite late after fertilization.
Triplets (1 in 5000 births) and quadruplets (less than 1 in 100 000 births) can develop as a result
of combinations of fraternal and identical twinning. There are no reliable figures for quintuplets
(5 babies) and sextuplets (6 babies).

Fraternal twins are common after fertility treatment because healthcare professionals often place
two fertilized embryos into a woman’s womb to increase the chances of a successful pregnancy.

Factors that increase the odds of having twins

Some women are more likely than others to give birth to twins. The factors that increase the odds
include:

 Advancing age of the mother – women in their 30s and 40s have higher levels of the sex
hormone estrogen than younger women, which means that their ovaries are stimulated to
produce more than one egg at a time.
 Number of previous pregnancies – the greater the number of pregnancies a woman has
already had, the higher her odds of conceiving twins.
 Heredity – a woman is more likely to conceive fraternal twins if she is a fraternal twin, has
already had fraternal twins, or has siblings who are fraternal twins.
 Race – Black African women have the highest incidence of twins, while Asian women have
the lowest.
 Assisted reproductive techniques – many procedures rely on stimulating the ovaries with
fertility drugs to produce eggs and, often, several eggs are released per ovulation.

Fertilization
Hormones secreted by the ovaries, and a small gland in the brain called the pituitary, control the
menstrual cycle. The average cycle is around 28 days. After a menstrual period, rising levels of
the hormone oestrogen help to thicken the lining of the womb (the endometrium) and release an
egg from one of the ovaries (ovulation).
If the egg is fertilized on its journey down the fallopian tube, it lodges in the thickened womb
lining, starts dividing and evolves into an embryo.
Identical or ‘monozygotic’ twins
Around one in three sets of twins is identical. This occurs because the fertilized egg divides in
two while it is still a tiny collection of cells. The self-contained halves then develop into two
babies, with exactly the same genetic information.

Approximately one quarter of identical twins are mirror images of each other, which means the
right side of one child matches the left side of their twin.
Fraternal or ‘dizygotic’ twins
Around two in three sets of twins are fraternal. Two separate eggs (ova) are fertilized by two
separate sperm, resulting in fraternal or ‘dizygotic’ (two-cell) twins.
The proposed ‘third-twin type’
Some researchers believe there may be a third type of twin, although medical opinion is still
divided. It is proposed that the egg splits in two, and each half is then fertilised by a different
sperm. This theory is an attempt to explain why some fraternal twins look identical.
Gestation for twins
The normal length of gestation for a single baby is around 40 weeks. However, gestation for
twins, either identical or fraternal, is usually around 38 weeks. This shorter time is due to the
increased demands on the mother’s body, and the inability of the babies to receive all the
nutrients they need in utero.
Giving birth to twins
Childbirth can give rise to complications when just one baby is present, so twins present extra
potential for difficulties. It is advised that women carrying twins give birth in hospital, rather
than at home..
Zygosity testing
It is difficult to tell if twins are identical or fraternal at birth. Some identical twins may be born
with individual sets of membranes, which may lead to the mistaken assumption that the babies
are fraternal..

GENETIC ABNORMALITIES
Kolata (1985) reports that there are many inherited traits that bring about abnormality.

Such defects include;

i) Phenylketonuria (PKU)
Kolata reports that PKU is caused by a recessive gene which destroys the production of enzymes
that metabolize proteins. Therefore the protein accumulates in the body inform of an acid called
phenylalanine acid. This toxic chemical destroys the central nervous system and the brain. This
condition may lead to mental retardation, emotional disturbances or personality disorders.
ii) Sickle cell anemia
This is also caused by recessive genes that lead the Red blood cells to be eaten up. Taking up
the sickle shape. The cells clamp together therefore blocking the transfer of oxygen supply in
the blood. The common, effects can include pneumonia, heart and kidney failure, swollen
painful joints, jaundice (attacks the liver) such a person may die by the age of 8 years or 15 –
18 year.
iii) Huntington’s chorea
This abnormality is an inherited defect by a dominant gene, whose on set is by middle
Adulthood 30 – 50 years. It leads to gradual degeneration of muscles making it difficult for
muscles to move and there by becoming unable to speak and even lose mental stability. It
leads to death. Other defects may include hemophilia, diabetic’s muscular dystrophy.
c) TERATOGENIC
Newton (1972) and Richardson (1971) concur that there are defects which are a result of
maternal conditions which are transmitted to the child. (Environmental conditions in the
mother) such defects may be a result of age,
i) Nutritional deficiencies especially lack of a balanced diet in the last semester (last 3 months
of pregnancy.
ii) Drugs and alcohol
Montago (1962) reports that drugs and alcohol especially those taken in excess doses can be
dangerous to developing children e.g. Aspirin, mycin, tabs eg. Gentamycin, etc. Research has
documented that excessive dozes tend to lead to defects in teeth, pre – mature birth,
hydrocephalus – accumulation of fluid in the head, mental retardation, eye and ear defect,
fetal alcohol syndrome.
iii) Diseases
iv) Emotional/stress (state if the mother)
Spezzanu (1981) reports that the feeling of fear, anxiety, rage or discomfort experienced by
the mother may lead to the release of chemicals and hormones which are poisonous to the
baby e.g Adrenalin, acetylcholine. Such reaction stimulates heart rate and breathing rate
which will affect the child. The experiences will lead to digestive problems, irritability, heart
disease, abnormalities of the lungs.
v) Age at birth
Rugh & Settlers (1977) have stressed that at the optimal age which is (20 – 35) when the
hormones are at best. Giving birth at an early or later age is risky because the ova are
dictating i.e. getting old. Such conditions may result into
i) Asphyxia i.e long & difficult labor which may lead to death.

ii) Anoxia – lack of oxygen which might lead to brain damage.

iii) Other defects may include low birth weight, infant mortality etc.

Infertility/sterility/ barrenness

These factors can cause male infertility:

Enlarged veins (varicocele) in the scrotum, the sac that holds the testicles.

Genetic disorders, such as cystic fibrosis.

High heat exposure to testicles from tight clothing or frequent use of hot tubs and saunas.

Injury to the scrotum or testicles.

Low sperm count or low testosterone (hypogonadism).

Misuse of anabolic steroids.

Premature ejaculation or retrograde ejaculation (semen flows back into the bladder).

Testicular cancer and treatments.

Undescended testicles.

Causes of female infertility may include:

Ovulation disorders, which affect the release of eggs from the ovaries. These include hormonal
disorders such as polycystic ovary syndrome. Hyperprolactinemia, a condition in which you have
too much prolactin the hormone that stimulates breast milk production also may interfere with
ovulation. Either too much thyroid hormone (hyperthyroidism) or too little (hypothyroidism) can
affect the menstrual cycle or cause infertility. Other underlying causes may include too much
exercise, eating disorders or tumors.
Uterine or cervical abnormalities, including abnormalities with the cervix, polyps in the uterus
or the shape of the uterus. Noncancerous (benign) tumors in the uterine wall (uterine fibroids)
may cause infertility by blocking the fallopian tubes or stopping a fertilized egg from implanting
in the uterus.
Fallopian tube damage or blockage, often caused by inflammation of the fallopian tube
(salinities). This can result from pelvic inflammatory disease, which is usually caused by a
sexually transmitted infection, endometriosis or adhesions.
Endometriosis, which occurs when endometrial tissue grows outside of the uterus, may affect
the function of the ovaries, uterus and fallopian tubes.
Primary ovarian insufficiency (early menopause), when the ovaries stop working and
menstruation ends before age 40. Although the cause is often unknown, certain factors are
associated with early menopause, including immune system diseases, certain genetic conditions
such as.
Pelvic adhesions, bands of scar tissue that bind organs that can form after pelvic infection,
appendicitis, endometriosis or abdominal or pelvic surgery.
Cancer and its treatment. Certain cancers particularly reproductive cancers often impair female
fertility. Both radiation and chemotherapy may affect fertility

Many of the risk factors for both male and female infertility are the same. They include:

Age. Women's fertility gradually declines with age, especially in the mid-30s, and it drops
rapidly after age 37. Infertility in older women is likely due to the lower number and quality of
eggs, and can also be due to health problems that affect fertility. Men over age 40 may be less
fertile than younger men.

Tobacco use. Smoking tobacco or marijuana by either partner may reduce the likelihood of
pregnancy. Smoking also reduces the possible effectiveness of fertility treatment. Miscarriages
are more frequent in women who smoke. Smoking can increase the risk of erectile dysfunction
and a low sperm count in men.
Alcohol use. For women, there's no safe level of alcohol use during conception or pregnancy.
Alcohol use may contribute to infertility. For men, heavy alcohol use can decrease sperm count
and motility.

Being overweight. Among American women, an inactive lifestyle and being overweight may
increase the risk of infertility. For men, sperm count also may be affected by being overweight.

Being underweight. Women at risk of fertility problems include those with eating disorders,
such as anorexia or bulimia, and those who follow a very low-calorie or restrictive diet.

Exercise issues. A lack of exercise contributes to obesity, which increases the risk of infertility.
Less often, ovulation problems may be associated with frequent strenuous, intense exercise in
women who are not overweight.

Prevention

Some types of infertility aren't preventable. But several strategies may increase your chances of
pregnancy.

Couples

Have regular intercourse several times around the time of ovulation for the highest pregnancy
rate. Intercourse beginning at least five days before and until a day after ovulation improves your
chances of getting pregnant.

Men

Although most types of infertility aren't preventable in men, these strategies may help:

Avoid drug and tobacco use and drinking too much alcohol, which may contribute to male
infertility.

Avoid high temperatures found in hot tubs and hot baths, as they can temporarily affect sperm
production and motility.
Avoid exposure to industrial or environmental toxins, which can affect sperm production.

Women

For women, a number of strategies may increase the chances of becoming pregnant:

Quit smoking. Tobacco has many negative effects on fertility, not to mention your general
health and the health of a fetus. If you smoke and are considering pregnancy, quit now.

Avoid alcohol and street drugs. These substances may impair your ability to conceive and have
a healthy pregnancy. Don't drink alcohol or use recreational drugs, such as marijuana, if you're
trying to get pregnant.

Limit caffeine. Women trying to get pregnant may want to limit caffeine intake. Ask your
doctor for guidance on the safe use of caffeine.

Exercise moderately. Regular exercise is important, but exercising so intensely that your
periods are infrequent or absent can affect fertility.

Avoid weight extremes. Being overweight or underweight can affect your hormone production
and cause infertility.

FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE PRE-NATAL HEALTH. 3HRS

Prenatal Risk Factors for Developmental Delay in Newcomer Children
Key points

Developmental disabilities can occur singly or concurrently in one person. They might involve a
cognitive or sensory difficulty, social or communications/language-related problem, a motor
impairment, adaptive delay or some combination of these.
Risk factors in the perinatal period include pregnancy-related complications, prematurity and low
birth weight, and infection exposure during pregnancy or at time of birth.

Lack of access to quality care during pregnancy, delivery and soon after birth can significantly,
adversely affect outcomes for both mother and child, including contributing to developmental
disabilities.
The lack of maternal and child health care is a significant problem in developing countries. Lack
of health insurance and inadequate access to health care for newcomers in Canada could
similarly adversely affect health outcomes.

Environmental Influences on Prenatal Development

The environment can have an important influence on development, and this also includes the
prenatal period.

Today, researchers understand a greater deal about teratogens, a term used to describe the broad
range of conditions and substances that can increase the risk of prenatal problems and
abnormalities.

Infectious Diseases That Can Impact Prenatal Development

Many diseases are capable of affecting a growing fetus. For example, doctors discovered that
when a mother contracts rubella (also known as the German measles) early in her pregnancy

Impact of Medications on Prenatal Development

In the past, doctors believed that the placenta served as a barrier to protect the growing fetus
against toxins. During the 1960s, a number of pregnant women were prescribed the drug
thalidomide which caused more than 10,000 infants to be born missing legs, arms, or ears. The
birth defects caused by the drug made the dangers of certain medications very clear.3

Some medications can affect the fetus as early as 10 to 14 days after conception. For these, it is
essential to cease taking the medication before you become pregnant.

Fortunately, because doctors and mothers-to-be are far more aware of the potential dangers, the
rates of medication-linked birth defects have been reduced considerably over the past few
decades.
Psychoactive Substances and Prenatal Development

Prenatal damage caused by psychoactive drugs such as alcohol, cocaine, heroin, inhalants, and
tobacco is still far too common.

Babies exposed to psychoactive drugs in-utero may show signs of drug withdrawal after birth,
such as crying, startling, difficulty sleeping, and erratic eating..

What impact can these psychoactive substances have on development?

Tobacco use can result in low birth-weight as well as an increased risk of abnormalities such as
urinary tract and limb malformations.

Alcohol use during pregnancy causes fetal alcohol syndrome which is characterized by facial
abnormalities including a smaller than average head size, a flattened nose, wide spacing between
the eyes, and a narrow upper lip.

Using marijuana during pregnancy is discouraged and could potentially lead to low birth weight
and hamper cognitive development before and after birth.

How to Minimize Environmental Dangers

Fortunately, the effects of many environmental dangers can be minimized or even avoided
entirely. Thanks to increased awareness of the effects of diseases, medications, and psychoactive
substances, mothers are able to better ensure that they are healthy and free of harmful substances
by the time they conceive a child.

While environmental dangers pose a definite risk to the growing fetus, they do not always cause
harm.

The specific time of when the growing organism is exposed to the danger can play a major role
in the ultimate outcome. Throughout prenatal development, there are times of greater
susceptibility known as critical periods.
In addition to abstaining from drugs, alcohol, medications, and other substances, proper medical
care, social support, and postnatal care can all play an important role in minimizing the dangers
of environmental toxins.

UNIT 4. BIRTH PROCESS AND ITS EFFECTS TO LATER DEVELOPMENT.

It involves four stages of labor: the shortening and opening of the cervix during the first stage,
descent and birth of the baby during the second, the delivery of the placenta during the third, and
the recovery of the mother and infant during the fourth stage, which is referred to as the
postpartum.

Stages of labor

Labor is divided into four stages.

1. The first stage of labour is the slow opening of your cervix.

2. The second stage is the birth of your baby.
3. The third stage is separation and birth of the placenta.
4. The fourth stage is the first two hours after birth.

The main signs of labor starting are:

 contractions
 a ‘show’ (a mucous blood-tinged vaginal discharge)
 Waters breaking.
First stage of labor

The first stage of labor has three phases:

 Early labor: Your cervix gradually effaces (thins out) and dilates (opens) to about 6
centimeters (cm) by the end of this phase.
 Active labor: Your cervix begins to dilate more rapidly and opens up further to 10 cm.
Contractions are longer, stronger, and closer together.
 Transition: During the last part of active labor, contractions are even longer, stronger, and
closer together – this can be the most difficult part of your entire labor.

The first stage of labor is the longest stage, especially if you are giving birth for the first time,
and can last anywhere from days to a few hours. Early labor usually takes the longest amount of
time and transition the shortest.

Timing contractions
1:53 min
Wondering if you're in true labor? Timing your contractions is one way to determine if it's time
for the big event. Watch the video to learn how.
Phase 1: Early labor

What to expect

 Contractions start. You'll start getting contractions at relatively regular intervals. Note that
early labor contractions are sometimes hard to distinguish from irregular Braxton Hicks
contractions, also called false labor.
 Contractions get longer, stronger and closer together. Eventually they'll be coming every
four to five minutes and lasting 40 to 60 seconds each. (Some women have much more
frequent contractions during this phase, but the contractions will still tend to be relatively
mild and last no more than a minute.) Early labor ends when your cervix is about 6 cm
dilated and your progress starts to accelerate.
 You may feel some pain. Sometimes early labor contractions are quite painful. If your labor
is typical, however, your early contractions will be mild enough for you to talk through them
and putter around the house, or even doze off between them.
 You may see a mucousy vaginal discharge. This may be tinged with blood – the so-called
bloody show. This is perfectly normal, but if you see more than a tinge of blood, be sure to
call your caregiver.
 Your water may break. Even if you're not having contractions yet, call your provider if this
happens.
Coping tips

 Time contractions periodically. Don't become a slave to your stopwatch just yet – it's
stressful and exhausting to record every contraction over the many long hours of labor, and it
isn't necessary. Instead, you may want to time them periodically to get a sense of what's
going on. In most cases, your contractions will let you know in no uncertain terms when it's
time to take them more seriously. You can also ask your labor partner to note when you are
no longer able to relax completely between contractions, or unable to complete a sentence or
express a thought without having to stop and deal with a contraction.
 Rest. It's important to do your best to stay rested, since you may have a long day (or night)
ahead of you. If you're tired, try to doze off between contractions.
 Relax. If you're feeling anxious, you may want to try some relaxation exercises, take a warm
bath, or do something to distract yourself a bit – like watching a movie or reading a book.
 Drink plenty of fluids to keep you well hydrated. And don't forget to urinate often, even if
you don't feel the urge. A full bladder may make it more difficult for your uterus to contract
efficiently, and an empty bladder leaves more room for your baby to descend.

Phase 2: Active labor

What to expect

 Contractions become intense. Active labor is when things really get rolling. Your
contractions become increasingly intense more regular, longer, and stronger and you'll no
longer be able to talk through them.
 Contractions get more frequent. In most cases, the contractions eventually happen every 2
1/2 to 3 minutes, although some women never have them more often than every 5 minutes,
even during transition.
 Cervix opens wider. Your cervix dilates more quickly. (The last part of active labor, when
the cervix dilates fully from 8 to 10 cm, is called transition, which is described in the next
section.)
 Your baby may begin to descend toward the end of active labor, although he might have
started to descend earlier, or might not start until the next stage.
 Nausea and vomiting. This is fairly common at this stage, sometimes from epidural
anesthesia causing the blood pressure to drop, and sometimes from stimulation of nerves that
cause vomiting.
How long active labor lasts

 If this is your first baby. Active labor will last between five and seven hours on average,
although every woman is different. It can be even longer, than than or as short as an hour.
 If you've had a baby before, expect the active phase to go more quickly, between two to
four hours on average.
 If you have an epidural or a big baby, labor may last longer.

Coping tips

 Get pain relief if you need it. Most women opt for pain medication, such as an epidural, at
some point during the active phase.
 Try relaxation techniques. Many pain-management and relaxation techniques used in
natural childbirth – such as breathing exercises and visualization – can help you during labor,
whether or not you're planning to receive medication.
 Enlist a birth partner or hire a labor coach (doula). Your partner, a friend or family
member, or a hired doula can be a huge help now. You'll probably appreciate lots of gentle
encouragement.
 Move. It may feel good to walk, but you'll probably want to stop and lean against something
(or someone) during each contraction. You should be able to move around the room freely
after your caregiver evaluates you, as long as there are no complications.
 Sit or lie down on your side. If you're tired, try sitting in a rocking chair or lying in bed on
your left side.
 Get a massage. This might be a good time to ask your birth partner or doula for a massage to
help ease labor pain.
 Take a warm shower or bath if you have access to a tub and your water hasn't broken.
Even if your water has broken, a shower is probably okay, as the risk of infection is low.
However, don't take a bath if your water has broken.

Phase 3: Transition

The last part of active labor is called the transition period because it marks the shift to the second
stage of labor.
What to expect

 Fully dilated cervix. Your cervix dilates from 8 to a full 10 cm.

 Very strong contractions. This is the most intense part of labor. Contractions are usually
very strong, coming every two and a half to three minutes or so and lasting a minute or more.
You may start shaking and shivering.
 Pressure on your rectum. By the time your cervix is fully dilated and transition is over,
your baby has usually descended somewhat into your pelvis. This is when you might begin to
feel rectal pressure, as if you have to move your bowels.
 An urge to push. Some women begin to bear down spontaneously – to "push" – and may
even start making deep grunting sounds. Some babies descend earlier and the mom feels the
urge to push before she's fully dilated
 Discharge. There's often a lot of bloody discharge.
 Nausea. You may feel nauseated or even vomit.

How long transition lasts

Transition can take anywhere from a few minutes to a few hours. It's much more likely to be fast
if you've already had a vaginal delivery.
 The postnatal
The postnatal or postpartum period is the period that occurs immediately after childbirth. The
postnatal period is a critical, yet often neglected period in a new parent's life.
Postpartum period
The postpartum period begins within 6 weeks after childbirth as the mother's body, including
hormone levels and uterus size, returns to a non-pregnant state. The terms puerperium, puerperal
period, or immediate postpartum period are commonly used to refer to the first six weeks
following childbirth

Conflict during Each Stage

Each stage in Erikson's theory builds on the preceding stages and paves the way for following
periods of development. In each stage, Erikson believed people experience a conflict that serves
as a turning point in development.2

Erikson also believed that a sense of competence motivates behaviors and actions. Each stage in
Erikson's theory is concerned with becoming competent in an area of life.

Psychosocial Stages: A Summary Chart

Age Conflict Important Events Outcome
Infancy (birth to 18 months) Trust vs. Mistrust Feeding Hope
Autonomy vs. Shame and
Early Childhood (2 to 3 years) Toilet Training Will
Doubt
Preschool (3 to 5 years) Initiative vs. Guilt Exploration Purpose
School Age (6 to 11 years) Industry vs. Inferiority School Confidence
Adolescence (12 to 18 years) Identity vs. Role Confusion Social Relationships Fidelity
Young Adulthood (19 to 40 years) Intimacy vs. Isolation Relationships Love
Work and
Middle Adulthood (40 to 65 years) Generativity vs. Stagnation Care
Parenthood
Maturity (65 to death) Ego Integrity vs. Despair Reflection on Life Wisdom
A brief summary of the eight stages
Stage 1: Trust vs. Mistrust

The first stage of Erikson's theory of psychosocial development occurs between birth and 1 year
of age and is the most fundamental stage in life. Because an infant is utterly dependent,
developing trust is based on the dependability and quality of the child's caregivers.

Stage 2: Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt

The second stage of Erikson's theory of psychosocial development takes place during early
childhood and is focused on children developing a greater sense of personal control.

The Role of Independence

At this point in development, children are just starting to gain a little independence. They are
starting to perform basic actions on their own and making simple decisions about what they
prefer. By allowing children to make choices and gain control, parents and caregivers can help
children develop a sense of autonomy.2

Outcomes

Children who struggle and who are shamed for their accidents may be left without a sense of
personal control. Success during this stage of psychosocial development leads to feelings of
autonomy; failure results in feelings of shame and doubt.

Finding Balance

Children who successfully complete this stage feel secure and confident, while those who do not
are left with a sense of inadequacy and self-doubt.

Stage 3: Initiative vs. Guilt

The third stage of psychosocial development takes place during the preschool years. At this point
in psychosocial development, children begin to assert their power and control over the world
through directing play and other social interactions.
Outcomes

The major theme of the third stage of psychosocial development is that children need to begin
asserting control and power over the environment. Success in this stage leads to a sense of
purpose. Children who try to exert too much power experience disapproval, resulting in a sense
of guilt.

Stage 4: Industry vs. Inferiority

The fourth psychosocial stage takes place during the early school years from approximately ages
5 to 11. Through social interactions, children begin to develop a sense of pride in their
accomplishments and abilities.

Children need to cope with new social and academic demands. Success leads to a sense of
competence, while failure results in feelings of inferiority.

Stage 5: Identity vs. Confusion

The fifth psychosocial stage takes place during the often turbulent teenage years. This stage
plays an essential role in developing a sense of personal identity which will continue to influence
behavior and development for the rest of a person's life. Teens need to develop a sense of self
and personal identity. Success leads to an ability to stay true to yourself, while failure leads to
role confusion and a weak sense of self.

What Is Identity?

When psychologists talk about identity, they are referring to all of the beliefs, ideals, and values
that help shape and guide a person's behavior. Completing this stage successfully leads
to fidelity, which Erikson described as an ability to live by society's standards and expectations.

While Erikson believed that each stage of psychosocial development was important, he placed a
particular emphasis on the development of ego identity. Ego identity is the conscious sense of
self that we develop through social interaction and becomes a central focus during the identity
versus confusion stage of psychosocial development.
According to Erikson, our ego identity constantly changes due to new experiences and
information we acquire in our daily interactions with others. As we have new experiences, we
also take on challenges that can help or hinder the development of identity.

Why Identity Is Important

Our personal identity gives each of us an integrated and cohesive sense of self that endures
through our lives. Our sense of personal identity is shaped by our experiences and interactions
with others, and it is this identity that helps guide our actions, beliefs, and behaviors as we age.

Stage 6: Intimacy vs. Isolation

Young adults need to form intimate, loving relationships with other people. Success leads to
strong relationships, while failure results in loneliness and isolation.

Erikson believed it was vital that people develop close, committed relationships with other
people. Those who are successful at this step will form relationships that are enduring and
secure.

Building On Earlier Stages

Remember that each step builds on skills learned in previous steps. Erikson believed that a
strong sense of personal identity was important for developing intimate relationships. Studies
have demonstrated that those with a poor sense of self tend to have less committed relationships
and are more likely to struggler with emotional isolation, loneliness, and depression.

Successful resolution of this stage results in the virtue known as love. It is marked by the ability
to form lasting, meaningful relationships with other people.

Stage 7: Generativity vs. Stagnation

Adults need to create or nurture things that will outlast them, often by having children or creating
a positive change that benefits other people. Success leads to feelings of usefulness and
accomplishment, while failure results in shallow involvement in the world.
Care is the virtue achieved when this stage is handled successfully. Being proud of your
accomplishments, watching your children grow into adults, and developing a sense of unity with
your life partner are important accomplishments of this stage.

Stage 8: Integrity vs. Despair

The final psychosocial stage occurs during old age and is focused on reflecting back on life.2 At
this point in development, people look back on the events of their lives and determine if they are
happy with the life that they lived or if they regret the things they did or didn't do.

At this stage, people reflect back on the events of their lives and take stock. Those who look back
on a life they feel was well-lived will feel satisfied and ready to face the end of their lives with a
sense of peace.

Outcomes

Those who are unsuccessful during this stage will feel that their life has been wasted and may
experience many regrets. The person will be left with feelings of bitterness and despair.

Criticism

One major weakness of psychosocial theory is that the exact mechanisms for resolving conflicts
and moving from one stage to the next are not well described or developed. The theory fails to
detail exactly what type of experiences are necessary at each stage in order to successfully
resolve the conflicts and move to the next stage.
Nb
Revision question

What are Implications of growth and development to a social worker?

UNIT 5. PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT

(Sigmund Freud all port alcatel theories).

Psycho-analytical theory
Basic human instincts
Structure of personality

Sigmund Freud Theory: this article provides a practical explanation of the Sigmund Freud
Theory. After reading this article, you’ll understand the basics of this comprehensive personality
theory.

The psychoanalytic theory of Sigmund Freud, or Freudian theory, is a theory about personality
organisation, the dynamics between the various stages of personality development, and the
impact this has on the development of human beings’ libido: de dynamics of psychosexual
development.

The Unconscious Mind

Freud (1900, 1905) developed a topographical model of the mind, whereby he described the
features of the mind’s structure and function. Freud used the analogy of an iceberg to describe
the three levels of the mind.
On the surface is consciousness, which consists of those thoughts that are the focus of our
attention now, and this is seen as the tip of the iceberg. The preconscious consists of all which
can be retrieved from memory.

The third and most significant region is the unconscious. Here lie the processes that are the real
cause of most behavior. Like an iceberg, the most important part of the mind is the part you
cannot see.

The unconscious mind acts as a repository, a ‘cauldron’ of primitive wishes and impulse kept at
bay and mediated by the preconscious area.

.
Sigmund Freud Theory of Personality: ID, Ego, and Superego

According to the Sigmund Freud Theory of the psyche, human personality is highly complex and
consists of multiple components. In his theory, he subdivided personality into three elements: the
id, the ego and the super ego.

The id is the primitive and instinctive part of the mind that includes sexual and aggressive
motivators and hidden memories. The super ego functions as a moral conscience and the ego is
the realistic element that mediates between the desires of the id and the super ego.

ID

The id, the most primitive part of the three structures, refers to the irrational needs and demands
of a person. In no way does it take into account the current situation, but rather focuses on
immediate satisfaction and fulfilment of physical basic needs and drives.

A practical and beautiful side of the id is that a baby starts to cry when it’s hungry. When the
baby is fed, the id’s demand is fulfilled, and the baby stops crying.

Ego

Contrary to the instinctive id, the ego is the rational and pragmatic part of our personality. It’s
less primitive than the id and is both partly conscious and unconscious. The ego develops and
becomes active when individuals come into contact with other people. According to the Sigmund
Freud Theory, the ego helps to fulfil the id, taking into account the reality of the situation.

When the same person sees a beautiful car drive by, the ego mediates between the id and the
super ego and decides to save up to buy the car rather than take it.

Super Ego

The super ego, that begins to develop from the age of five, is often the third phase that
encompasses the moral limitations. These moral limitations are often imposed by parents or
caregivers and are known as the ‘conscience’ or ‘moral compass.
Afterwards, however, the super ego would make the person experience shame and cause them to
feel guilty about the action. The super ego functions to perfect and civilise human behaviour.

The two basic instincts

According to Freud, there are two classes of instincts:
Eros or the sexual instincts, which he later saw as compatible with the self-preservative
instincts; and 2) Thanatos or the death-instinct, a natural desire to "re-establish a state of things
that was disturbed by the emergence of life" ("Ego and the Id" 709).
Eros, or life instinct, helps the individual to survive; it directs life-sustaining activities such as
respiration, eating, and sex (Freud, 1925). The energy created by the life instincts is known as
libido.

In contrast, Thanatos or death instinct, is viewed as a set of destructive forces present in all
human beings (Freud, 1920). When this energy is directed outward onto others, it is expressed as
aggression and violence. Freud believed that Eros is stronger than Thanatos, thus enabling
people to survive rather than self-destruct.

UNIT 6. DEFENCE MECHANISMS

Defense mechanisms are unconscious psychological responses that protect people from feelings
of anxiety, threats to self-esteem, and things that they don't want to think about or deal with.1
first described by Sigmund Freud in his psychoanalytic theory, defense mechanisms function to
protect against anxiety.
Key Defense Mechanisms

Sigmund Freud's daughter, Anna Freud, described 10 different defense mechanisms used by the
ego. Other researchers have also described a wide variety of additional defense mechanisms.

Displacement

Have you ever had a really bad day at work and then gone home and taken out your frustration
with family and friends? Then you have experienced the ego defense mechanism
of displacement.
Displacement involves taking out our frustrations, feelings, and impulses on people or objects
that are less threatening.

Displaced aggression is a common example of this defense mechanism. Rather than express your
anger in ways that could lead to negative consequences (like arguing with your boss), you
instead express your anger towards a person or object that poses no threat (such as your spouse,
children, or pets).3

Denial. Denial is probably one of the best-known defense mechanisms, used often to describe
situations in which people seem unable to face reality or admit an obvious truth (e.g., "He's in
denial").

Denial is an outright refusal to admit or recognize that something has occurred or is currently
occurring. People living with drug or alcohol addiction often deny that they have a problem,
while victims of traumatic events may deny that the event ever occurred.4

Recap. Denial can involve a flat-out rejection of the existence of a fact or reality. In other cases,
it might involve admitting that something is true, but minimizing its importance.

Repression and Suppression. Repression acts to keep information out of conscious awareness.
However, these memories don't just disappear; they continue to influence our behavior.3 For
example, a person who has repressed memories of abuse suffered as a child may later have
difficulty forming relationships.

Sublimation. Sublimation is a defense mechanism that allows us to act out unacceptable

impulses by converting these behaviors into a more acceptable form. For example, a person
experiencing extreme anger might take up kick-boxing as a means of venting frustration. Freud
believed that sublimation was a sign of maturity that allows people to function normally in
socially acceptable ways.

Projection. Projection is a defense mechanism that involves taking your own unacceptable
qualities or feelings and ascribing them to other people.3 For example, if you have a strong
dislike for someone, you might instead believe that they do not like you.
Projection works by allowing the expression of the desire or impulse, but in a way that the ego
cannot recognize, therefore reducing anxiety.
Intellectualization
Intellectualization works to reduce anxiety by thinking about events in a cold, clinical way.
This defense mechanism allows us to avoid thinking about the stressful, emotional aspect of the
situation and instead focus only on the intellectual component.

Rationalization. Rationalization is a defense mechanism that involves explaining an

unacceptable behavior or feeling in a rational or logical manner, avoiding the true reasons for the
behavior. For example, a person who is turned down for a date might rationalize the situation by
saying they were not attracted to the other person anyway.

Regression. According to Freud, behaviors associated with regression can vary greatly
depending upon which stage at which the person is fixated. For example, an individual fixated at
the oral stage might begin eating or smoking excessively, or might become very verbally
aggressive.

Reaction Formation

Reaction formation reduces anxiety by taking up the opposite feeling, impulse, or behavior.3 An
example of reaction formation would be treating someone you strongly dislike in an excessively
friendly manner in order to hide your true feelings.

How Do Defense Mechanisms Work?

In Sigmund Freud's model of personality, the ego is the aspect of personality that deals with
reality. While doing this, the ego also has to cope with the conflicting demands of the id and
the superego.

 The id: The part of the personality that seeks to fulfill all wants, needs, and impulses.
The id is the most basic, primal part of our personalities and does not consider things
such as social appropriateness, morality, or even the reality of fulfilling our wants and
needs.
  The superego: The part of the personality that tries to get the ego to act in an idealistic
and moral manner. The superego is made up of all of the internalized morals and values
we acquire from our parents, other family members, religious influences, and society.

According to Freud, anxiety is an unpleasant inner state that people seek to avoid. Anxiety acts
as a signal to the ego that things are not going the way they should. As a result, the ego then
employs some sort of defense mechanism to help reduce these feelings of anxiety.2

Types of Anxiety

Not all types of anxiety are created equal. Nor do these anxieties stem from the same sources.
Freud identified three types of anxiety:

 Moral anxiety: A fear of violating our own moral principles3

 Neurotic anxiety: The unconscious worry that we will lose control of the id's urges, resulting
in punishment for inappropriate behavior
 Reality anxiety: Fear of real-world events. The cause of this anxiety is usually easily
identified. For example, a person might fear a dog bite when they are near a menacing dog.
The most common way of reducing this anxiety is to avoid the threatening object.

Personality development
Personality is a patterned body of habits, traits, attitudes, and ideas of an individual’s, as these
are organized externally into roles and statues and as they relate internally to motivation, goals,
and various aspects of selfhood.
Types of Personalities
The goal of personality development theories is to explain how we each develop our own unique
characteristics and traits. While the list of options could be almost endless, most of these
personality traits fall into five basic categories:

 Openness: Level of creativeness and responsiveness to change

 Conscientiousness: Level of organization and attention to detail
 Extraversion: Level of socialness and emotional expressiveness
 Agreeableness: Level of interest in others and cooperativeness
 Neuroticism: Level of emotional stability and moodiness

The "Big 5" is one of the most recognized models of personality and also the most widely used,
though some suggest that it isn't comprehensive enough to cover the huge variety of personality
traits that one can grow and develop.9

Factors affecting personality development

Education: Education can affect personality because this is the most powerful way to
develop the personality. So, we mention education is the first factor that affects
personality. Nowadays schools are giving burdens and stress to students by their heavy
syllabus or curriculum. Parents are also competing to get admission for their children in
reputed schools without understanding the abilities of their children. The school
atmosphere plays a vital role in the development of personality as the children spend
most of their time in schools. They make friendship from school and the friends influence
their behavior. Teachers also influence the student's personality as the teacher is the
person who can change or modify the behavior of his students. The school should provide
time for play and other group activities, thus the students will be able to act in a group.
The school atmosphere should help students to attain good characteristics.

Family Environment: First and the foremost important factor that influence personality
development of a person is family. A child spends more time with his family so, home
atmosphere influences personality development of a child. Parent’s behavior and attitude, their
expectations from the child, their education and attention to the child, all make an influence in
child’s personality development. The type of experiences received from family in early
childhood will play an important role in the development of personality.

Culture. Culture has a great impact on a person’s personality. As a result of this, we saw
personality differ in the various socio-cultural country.
Religion thoughts. Religion can play a vital role in developing a person’s personality because
from childhood a man grows up which his / her religious value.

Workplace environment. Men spend most of the time in their work environment so, the work
environment is a great important factor that affects personality. For example, the personality of
doctors and police has a great distance which happens for their work environment.

Social status. Social status can affect personality very effectively. We can see this impact of
social status in personality if we look at different people whose status is different in society.

Cultural Environment. The cultural setting refers to bound cultural traditions, ideals, and
values, etc., that area unit accepted in a very explicit society. These factors leave a permanent
impression on the child’s temperament.

School Environment. Schools play a crucial role in molding the personality of the children as a
result of a significant part of a child’s life is spent in class between the ages of vi and twenty
years. Within the faculty, the teacher substitutes the fogeys for the students.

Language. Human beings have a particular characteristic of communication through language.

Language is a crucial vehicle by the society is structured and culture of the race transmitted from
generation to generation. The method of interaction forms the child’s temperament through
language with different members of his setting.

Social Role. The child needs to play many roles like the younger son, elder brother student,
finance officer, husband, and father. The Social effective roles are also delineated as the method
by that the co-operative behavior and communications among the society members area unit
expedited.

Interpersonal Relations Interpersonal relationships among the members of a community area

unit vital mean that that facilitates the development of bound social temperament characteristics
like attraction towards others, the conception of friendly relationship, love, sympathy, hostility,
and additionally isolation that could be a negative orientation.
Psychological Factors. These embody our motives, no inheritable interests, our attitudes, our
can and character, our intellectual capacities like intelligence, i.e., the skills to understand, to
observe, to imagine, to suppose, and to reason. Psychological factors play a big role in the
functioning

Geography. These factors verify our reactions in numerous things, and so have an effect on our
temperament, growth, and direction. A person with a substantial quantity of can power is ready
to build choices a lot of quickly than others. Many studies show that geography plays an
important role in personality development of a person. Place of birth and living influences
people’s lifestyle and the way they live. Thus, determines their behavior and reactions to various
situation

Heredity. Heredity refers to those factors that were determined at conception. Physical structure,
facial attractiveness, gender, temperament, muscle composition, and reflexes, energy level, and
biological rhythms are characteristics that are generally considered to be either completely or
substantially influenced by the parents.

Conclusion
Personality can be influenced by many internal and external factors. The external factors are very
important in the development of personality, but bringing changes in these factors help us to get
a good or positive personality.

Revision question

Read about Implications to social workers

UNIT 7. STRESS
Sources of stress (Conflict, Frustrations, Life change event
Copying with stress.
Stress is how we react when we feel under pressure or threatened. It usually happens when we
are in a situation that we don't feel we can manage or control. When we experience stress, it can
be as: An individual, for example when you have lots of responsibilities that you are struggling
to manage

Sources of stress

Organizational Factors

There’s a plethora of organizational sources of stress.

 Task or role demands: these are factors related to a person’s role at work, including the
design of a person’s job or working conditions. A stressful task demand might be a detailed,
weekly presentation to the company’s senior team.
 Interpersonal demands: these are stressors created by co-workers. Perhaps an employee is
experiencing ongoing conflict with a co-worker he or she is expected to collaborate closely
with..
 Organizational structure: this refers to the level of differentiation within an organization,
the degree of rules and regulations, and where decisions are made.
 Organizational leadership: this refers to the organization’s style of leadership, particularly
the managerial style of its senior executives.
 Organizational life stage: an organization goes through a cycle of stages (birth, growth,
maturity, and decline). For employees, the birth and decline of an organization can be
particularly stressful, as those stages tend to be filled with heavy workloads and a level of
uncertainty about the future.

Individual Differences

Those are the sources of stress, but differences within an individual determine whether that
stress will be positive or negative. Those individual differences include

 Perception. This is what moderates the individual’s relationship to the stressor. For instance,
one person might see a potential layoff as a stressful situation, while another person might
see that same layoff as an opportunity for a nice severance package and the opportunity to
start a new business.
 Job Experience. Because stress is associated with turnover, it would stand to reason that
those employees with a long tenure are the most stress-resistant of the bunch.
 Social Support. Co-workers, especially those who are caring or considered to be friends, can
help protect a fellow employee against the effects of stress.
 Belief in locus of control. Those who have a high internal locus of control (those that
believe they are in control of their own fate) are, unsurprisingly, not as affected by stress as
those who feel they are not in control.
 Self-efficacy. Self-efficacy is an individual’s belief that he or she can complete a task.
Research shows that employees who have strong levels of self-efficacy are more resistant to
the effects of stress.
 Hostility. Some employees carry around a high level of hostility as a part of their
personalities, and they’re often suspicious and distrustful of their co-workers. These
personality traits make a person more susceptible to stress.

Environmental Factors. Finally, there are environmental sources of stress. The economy may
be in a downturn, creating uncertainty for job futures and bank accounts. There may be political
unrest or change creating stress. Finally, technology can cause stress, as new developments are
constantly making employee skills obsolete, and workers fear they’ll be replaced by a machine
that can do the same.

Copying mechanism of stress

Adaptive Mechanisms. Mechanisms in these groups are positive mechanisms that help people
effectively deal with their stress.

Attack Mechanisms. These mechanisms attempt to displace the stress or discomfort a person is
feeling onto another person or people.

Avoidance Mechanisms. As the name implies, these mechanisms involve avoiding the issues
that are causing stress.

Behavioral Mechanisms. Behavioral coping mechanisms are attempts to change what the
person does in order to more effectively deal with their stress.

Cognitive Mechanisms. Unlike behavioral mechanisms, cognitive mechanisms involve a person

trying to change the way he or she thinks in order to deal with stress.

Conversion Mechanisms. These coping mechanisms are attempts to change or transform the
problem into something else (e.g., focusing on the positive to make it a positive situation instead
of a stressful one).

Defense Mechanisms. These refer to the original set of defense mechanisms outlined by Freud.
Some of these mechanisms are generally agreed to be accurate descriptions of the mechanisms
people use, while others have little evidence to support them.
Self-Harm Mechanisms. These are the least effective of coping mechanisms, as they result in
harm to ourselves.

Other ways of managing stress

Listen to music. If you’re feeling overwhelmed by a stressful situation, try taking a break
and listening to relaxing music. Playing calm music has a positive effect on the brain and
body, can lower blood pressure, and reduce cortisol, a hormone linked to stress.

We recommend cello master Yo-Yo Ma playing Bach, but if classical really isn’t your thing, try
listening to ocean or nature sounds. It may sound cheesy, but they have similar relaxing effects to
music.

Talk it out with a friend. When you’re feeling stressed, take a break to call a friend and
talk about your problems. Good relationships with friends and loved ones are important
to any healthy lifestyle.

Explore new calming exercises with Calm

Manage your anxiety with the award-winning Calm app. Try a guided meditation, a sleep story,
or stretches designed by experts to help you focus and relax. Start your free trial today.

Talk yourself through it. Sometimes calling a friend is not an option. If this is the case,
talking calmly to yourself can be the next best thing.

Eat right. Stress levels and a proper diet are closely related. When we’re overwhelmed,
we often forget to eat well and resort to using sugary, fatty snack foods as a pick-me-up.
Try to avoid sugary snacks and plan ahead.

Laugh it off. Laughter releases endorphins that improve mood and decrease levels of the
stress-causing hormones cortisol and adrenaline. Laughing tricks your nervous system
into making you happy.

Drink tea. Large dose of caffeine causes a short-term spike in blood pressure. It may also cause
your hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis to go into overdrive.

Unit 8. Social Development:

What is Socialization
Socialization is the process of internalizing the norms and ideologies of society. Socialization
encompasses both learning and teaching and is thus "the means by which social and cultural
continuity are attained". Socialization is strongly connected to developmental psychology.
Socialization is a process that introduces people to social norms and customs. This process helps
individuals function well in society, and, in turn, helps society run smoothly. Family members,
teachers, religious leaders, and peers all play roles in a person's socialization.

Agents of socialization
Peer Groups
A is made up of people who are similar in age and social status and who share interests. Peer
group socialization begins in the earliest years, such as when children on a playground teach
younger children the norms about taking turns, the rules of a game, or how to shoot a basket. As
children grow into teenagers, this process continues.

The Workplace. Just as children spend much of their day at school, many U.S. adults at some
point invest a significant amount of time at a place of employment.

Religion. While some religions are informal institutions, here we focus on practices followed by
formal institutions. Religion is an important avenue of socialization for many people. The United
States is full of synagogues, temples, churches, mosques, and similar religious communities
where people gather to worship and learn.
Government
Although we do not think about it, many of the rites of passage people go through today are
based on age norms established by the government. Individual governments provide facets of
socialization for both individuals and groups.
Mass Media. Mass media distribute impersonal information to a wide audience, via television,
newspapers, radio, and the Internet.

Stages and forms of socialization

Sociologists recognize two stages of socialization: primary and secondary. Primary socialization
occurs from birth through adolescence. Caregivers, teachers, coaches, religious figures, and peers
guide this process.
Secondary socialization occurs throughout our lives as we encounter groups and situations that
were not part of our primary socialization experience. This might include a college experience,
where many people interact with members of different populations and learn new norms, values,
and behaviors. Secondary socialization also takes place in the workplace or while traveling
somewhere new. As we learn about unfamiliar places and adapt to them, we experience
secondary socialization.

Meanwhile, group socialization occurs throughout all stages of life. For example, peer groups
influence how one speaks and dresses. During childhood and adolescence, this tends to break
down along gender lines. It is common to see groups of children of either gender wearing the
same hair and clothing styles.

Organizational socialization occurs within an institution or organization to familiarize a person

with its norms, values, and practices. This process often unfolds in nonprofits and companies.
New employees in a workplace have to learn how to collaborate, meet management's goals, and
take breaks in a manner suitable for the company.

Finally, forced socialization takes place in institutions such as prisons, mental hospitals,
military units, and some boarding schools. .

Criticism of Socialization
While socialization is a necessary part of society, it also has drawbacks. Since dominant cultural
norms, values, assumptions, and beliefs guide the process, it is not a neutral endeavor. This
means that socialization may reproduce the prejudices that lead to forms of social injustice and
inequality.
Representations of racial minorities in film, television, and advertising tend to be rooted in
harmful stereotypes.
Joyful
Babies and young children are more likely to learn through experiences that are fun and joyful.
They are learning how to express their emotions, and positive feelings ensure playful learning
opportunities are motivating and exciting. When a baby smiles, smile back and mirror their joy
back to them!
In early childhood, this might look like:
A baby smiling and laughing when playing airplane.
A toddler celebrating when they build a really tall tower, and celebrating again when they knock
it down.
Iterative
Playing and exploring would be no fun or help if it always stayed the same! Trying out different
possibilities helps children learn and think of new ideas.

Socially interactive
Babies are born ready for socializing with others and love to engage in back-and-forth
interactions with their caregivers. As they grow and develop, so do their play skills. Toddlers
start to engage more with other children in social play, and get better at forming relationships
and learning how to cooperate and collaborate with others.
In early childhood, this might look like:
A baby copying their caregiver’s sounds, facial expressions, and movements.
A toddler sharing toys and playing alongside siblings or friends.
Actively engaging
Babies and children learn best when they are immersed in hands-on and engaging activities.
Babies love playing with things that stimulate their senses (i.e. sensory play). Engaging play
means children are highly motivated, active learners, and can be completely focused on the task
at hand! Their minds are always working, exploring, rethinking, and testing out different ideas.

UNIT 9.TYPES OF PLAY

- Importance of play to a child development
- Eight stages of Erickson theory of social development.
- Implications of socialization to a social development worker. 3hrs
Types of Play Important for Babies, Toddlers and Preschoolers

Whether it is a simple act of rolling a ball aimlessly or engaging in role-play by putting on a

costume, play actively engages a child’s mind and develops creativity and imagination. Given
below is a list of 11 types of play for child development.

1. Unoccupied Play

Unoccupied play is best described as a child making random movements like waving his hands
and kicking his legs in the air. While these may seem like random movements, they are definitely
a form of play. This type of play is usually seen in newborns and infants.

Benefits:

 Explores movements and intuitively learns about excitement

 Sets the stage for play activities in the future

Examples:

 Random movement of hands and feet

 Being occupied with seemingly nothing

2. Parallel Play

Usually seen in children who are one or two years of age, parallel play is when they play side-
by-side, but have limited interaction and seem to be doing their own things without involving
others. During parallel play, children may occasionally observe each other and make changes to
their play based on that, but will not attempt to influence their peers.

Benefits:

 Learns to socialise with children of his own age

 Understands possession
 Learns role play
Examples:

 Sharing the same toys

 Dressing up and role-playing
 Building individual sand castles while working with the same box

Associative Play

Associative play is when children start showing more interest in other children and pay less
attention to toys. While children seem to be engaging with each other, there are no set rules of
play and there is no structure, organisation or common goal. This form of play is commonly
observed in children who are three or four years of age.

Benefits:

 Increase in socialising with other children

 Learns the rules of socialising
 Learns to share
 Language development
 Learns problem solving and cooperation

Examples:

 Children playing with the same toys

 Exchanging toys
 Actively talking or communicating with each other

Solitary (Independent) Play

Solitary play is usually observed in children who are two or three years of age. During solitary
play, children are engrossed in holding toys and lifting and observing objects. They do not take
any interest in other children around them. Solitary play is important for children who have not
yet learned physical and social skills and may be shy to interact.
Benefits:

 Learns to be self-reliant
 Makes his own decisions
 Develops the confidence to interact with others
 Improves imagination and creativity
 Learns new things by himself
 Learns to relax and reflect

Examples:

 Playing out an imaginary event

 Rattling toys
 Sketching, drawing or scribbling

Dramatic/Fantasy Play

During dramatic play, children often imagine situations and people or imagine themselves in a
particular role and then act out those imaginary scenarios. This type of play prompts children to
experiment with languages and act out their emotions.

 Increases curiosity in things beyond the self

 Cultivates imagination and creativity
 Improves problem-solving skills
 Improves language skills
 Encourages empathy for others

Examples:

 Role-playing
 Talking to dolls
 Taking care and showing affection to stuffed animals

Onlooker Play
Children are said to be engaging in onlooker play when they are not actively taking part but are
keenly observing other children play. Most often seen in toddlers, children who engage in
onlooker play learn by observing.

Benefits:

 Learns by observation
 Acquires language skills by listening and learning

Example:

 Taking a keen interest in watching other children play but not participating

Competitive Play

Competitive play is when children learn to play organised games with clear rules and clear
guidelines on winning and losing. Ludo, snake and ladders, and football are all forms of
competitive play.

Benefits:

 Learns to play with rules

 Learns to wait for his turn
 Learns to work as a team

Examples:

 Board games
 Outdoor games like table tennis, badminton and racing

Cooperative Play

As children grow, their social skills develop and they eventually learn to cooperate, interact and
play together. Cooperative play is when children engage in team-work towards a common goal.
Benefits:

 Learns to share and understand his peers

 Develops communication skills
 Learns the value of team-work
 Develops self-expression
 Improves confidence

Examples:

 Building sandcastles together

Symbolic Play

Symbolic play is when children use objects to perform actions. Playing music, drawing, coloring,
and singing are all forms of symbolic play.

Benefits:

 Self-expression
 Explores new ideas
 Experiments and learns emotions

Examples:

 Drawing
 Singing
 Playing with musical instruments

Physical Play

Physical play is a form of play that involves some degree of physical activity.
Benefits:

 Encourages physical activity

 Improves gross and fine motor skills

Examples:

 Riding a bicycle
 Throwing a ball
 Playing hide and seek

Constructive Play

Any form of play that involves constructing or putting something together is called constructive
play.

Benefits:

 Encourages focus to achieve an objective

 Helps to learn planning and cooperation
 Teaches persistence
 Encourages adaptability

Examples:

 Putting together building blocks to create something with aesthetic appeal

 Making a sandcastle

As play is crucial for the growth and development of children, it is recommended that parents not
stop their children from playing. In fact, parents should try and play with their children
whenever possible as it makes bonding easier. Always supervise young children when they play
with toys to avoid any accidents.

Erik Erikson's Stages of Psychosocial Development

Erikson maintained that personality develops in a predetermined order through eight stages of
psychosocial development, from infancy to adulthood. During each stage, the person experiences
a psychosocial crisis which could have a positive or negative outcome for personality
development.

For Erikson (1958, 1963), these crises are of a psychosocial nature because they involve
psychological needs of the individual (i.e., psycho) conflicting with the needs of society (i.e.,
social).

According to the theory, successful completion of each stage results in a healthy personality and
the acquisition of basic virtues. Basic virtues are characteristic strengths which the ego can use to
resolve subsequent crises.

Failure to successfully complete a stage can result in a reduced ability to complete further stages
and therefore a more unhealthy personality and sense of self. These stages, however, can be
resolved successfully at a later time.

Stage Psychosocial Crisis Basic Virtue Age

1. Trust vs. Mistrust Hope 0 - 1½
2. Autonomy vs. Shame Will 1½ - 3
3. Initiative vs. Guilt Purpose 3-5
4. Industry vs. Inferiority Competency 5 - 12
5. Identity vs. Role Confusion Fidelity 12 - 18
6. Intimacy vs. Isolation Love 18 - 40
7. Generativity vs. Stagnation Care 40 - 65
8. Ego Integrity vs. Despair Wisdom 65+

1. Trust vs. Mistrust

Trust vs. mistrust is the first stage in Erik Erikson's theory of psychosocial development. This
stage begins at birth continues to approximately 18 months of age. During this stage, the infant is
uncertain about the world in which they live, and looks towards their primary caregiver for
stability

Erik Erikson’s Stages of Psychosocial.

Remaining Time -17:20
Erik Erikson’s Stages of Psychosocial Development

If the care has been inconsistent, unpredictable and unreliable, then the infant may develop a
sense of mistrust, suspicion, and anxiety. In this situation the infant will not have confidence in
the world around them or in their abilities to influence events.

Success and Failure in Stage One

Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of hope. By developing a sense of trust, the infant can
have hope that as new crises arise, there is a real possibility that other people will be there as a
source of support.

2. Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt

Autonomy versus shame and doubt is the second stage of Erik Erikson's stages of psychosocial
development. This stage occurs between the ages of 18 months to approximately 3 years.
According to Erikson, children at this stage are focused on developing a sense of personal
control over physical skills and a sense of independence.

3. Initiative vs. Guilt

Initiative versus guilt is the third stage of Erik Erikson's theory of psychosocial development.
During the initiative versus guilt stage, children assert themselves more frequently through
directing play and other social interaction.

These are particularly lively, rapid-developing years in a child’s life. According to Bee (1992), it
is a “time of vigor of action and of behaviors that the parents may see as aggressive."

4. Industry vs. Inferiority

Erikson's fourth psychosocial crisis, involving industry (competence) vs. Inferiority occurs
during childhood between the ages of five and twelve.
Children are at the stage where they will be learning to read and write, to do sums, to do things
on their own. Teachers begin to take an important role in the child’s life as they teach the child
specific skills.

5. Identity vs. Role Confusion

The fifth stage of Erik Erikson's theory of psychosocial development is identity vs. role
confusion, and it occurs during adolescence, from about 12-18 years. During this stage,
adolescents search for a sense of self and personal identity, through an intense exploration of
personal values, beliefs, and goals.

6. Intimacy vs. Isolation

Intimacy versus isolation is the sixth stage of Erik Erikson's theory of psychosocial development.
This stage takes place during young adulthood between the ages of approximately 18 to 40 yrs.
During this stage, the major conflict centers on forming intimate, loving relationships with other
people.

7. Generativist vs. Stagnation

Generativist versus stagnation is the seventh of eight stages of Erik Erikson's theory of
psychosocial development. This stage takes place during middle adulthood (ages 40 to 65 yrs).

Psychologically, generativist refers to "making your mark" on the world through creating or
nurturing things that will outlast an individual. During middle age individuals experience a need
to create or nurture things that will outlast them, often having mentees or creating positive
changes that will benefit other people.

Ego Integrity vs. Despair

Ego integrity versus despair is the eighth and final stage of Erik Erikson’s stage theory of
psychosocial development.
Individuals who reflect on their life and regret not achieving their goals will experience feelings
of bitterness and despair.

Critical Evaluation

By extending the notion of personality development across the lifespan, Erikson outlines a more
realistic perspective of personality development (McAdams, 2001).

Based on Erikson’s ideas, psychology has reconceptualized the way the later periods of life are
viewed. Middle and late adulthood are no longer viewed as irrelevant, because of Erikson, they
are now considered active and significant times of personal growth.

Revision Question

What are the implications of socialization to a social development worker?

UNIT 10. LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT
- Elements of language
- Factors that influences language development 3hrs

Language development
Language development is the process through which children acquire the ability to process
speech and communicate. During this process, a child may slowly understand basic linguistic
patterns and expand their vocabulary gradually before achieving fluency
Elements of language
Components of Language
Reading would not exist without the human capacity for language. Because the components of
language and their associated terminology align with our demarcations for many of the elements
of reading, they are described briefly in this section.

Phonology
The study of speech structure within a language, including both the patterns of basic speech units
and the accepted rules of pronunciation, is known as phonology. The smallest units of sound that
make up a language are called phonemes. For example, the word “that” contains three phonemes
the “th” represents one phoneme /th/, the “a” maps to the short a sound /ă/, and the “t” to its basic
sound /t/.
Morphology
Moving to the next level of language, we find the study of the smallest units of meaning,
morphemes. Morphemes include base words, such as “hat,” “dog,” or “love,” as well as affixes,
such as “un-,” “re-,” the plural “s” or “es,” and the past tense “ed.”
Syntax
The study of how individual words and their most basic meaningful units are combined to create
sentences is known as syntax.
Semantics
Not only does the grammatical structure of our language provide the needed clues for
understanding, we also have a wealth of figurative language and rich description that adds color
and nuance to our communication. Semantics refers to the ways in which a language conveys
meaning.
Pragmatics
Pragmatics’ refers to the ways the members of the speech community achieve their goals using
language. The way we speak to our parents is not the same as the way we interact with a sibling,
for example.
Developing an Integrated Reading Program
Effective and powerful instruction from knowledgeable teachers is the key to successful early
reading achievement. Balanced instruction providing all children with opportunities to master
concepts of print, learn the alphabetic principle, acquire word recognition skills, develop
phonemic
Cognitive Development
- Piaget four periods of cognitive development
- Session motor period 0-2
- The pre-operational stage 2-7
- The period of concrete operation 7-12
 - The period of formal operations 12 years.
- Importance of cognitive development to social development worker.

Piaget's stages of development are part of a theory about the phases of normal intellectual
development, from infancy through adulthood. This includes thought, judgment, and knowledge.
The stages were named after psychologist and developmental biologist Jean Piaget, who
recorded the intellectual development and abilities of infants, children, and teens.

Piaget's four stages of intellectual (or cognitive) development are:

 Sensorimotor. Birth through ages 18-24 months

 Preoperational. Toddlerhood (18-24 months) through early childhood (age 7)
 Concrete operational. Ages 7 to 11
 Formal operational. Adolescence through adulthood

Piaget acknowledged that some children may pass through the stages at different ages than the
averages noted above. He also said some children may show characteristics of more than one
stage at a given time.

But he insisted that:

 Cognitive development always follows this sequence.

 Stages cannot be skipped.
 Each stage is marked by new intellectual abilities and a more complex understanding of the
world.

Piaget's 1936 theory broke new ground because he found that children's brains work in very
different ways than adults'. Before his theory, many believed that children were not yet capable
of thinking as well as grown-ups.

Some experts disagree with his idea of stages. Instead, they see development as continuous.
Another criticism is that Piaget didn't consider how a child's culture and social environment
affect their development.
Sensorimotor Stage

During the early stages, according to Piaget, infants are only aware of what is right in front of
them. They focus on what they see, what they are doing, and physical interactions with their
immediate environment.

Because they don't yet know how things react, they're constantly experimenting. They shake or
throw things, put things in their mouth, and learn about the world through trial and error. The
later stages include goal-oriented behavior that leads to a desired result.

Preoperational Stage

During this stage (toddler through age 7), young children are able to think about things
symbolically. Their language use becomes more mature. They also develop memory and
imagination, which allows them to understand the difference between past and future, and
engage in make-believe.

Concrete Operational Stage

At this time, elementary-age and preadolescent children -- ages 7 to 11 -- show logical, concrete
reasoning.Children's thinking becomes less focused on themselves. They're increasingly aware of
external events. They begin to realize that their own thoughts and feelings are unique and may
not be shared by others or may not even be part of reality.

Formal Operational Stage. Adolescents who reach this fourth stage of intellectual development
-- usually at age 11-plus -- are able to use symbols related to abstract concepts, such as algebra
and science. They can think about things in systematic ways, come up with theories, and
consider possibilities. They also can ponder abstract relationships and concepts such as justice.

Children and development. Development is how your child grows physically and emotionally
and learns to communicate, think and socialise. Children's early experiences and relationships in
the first five years of life are critical for development. In the early years, your child's main way
of learning and developing is through play.
 UNIT 13: CHILDREN AND DEVELOPMENT
Analysis of children

What is the percentage of children in Uganda?

Uganda (also called the Republic of Uganda) is a country in East Africa that comprises 21
million children (46 percent of the total population)

- Children statute, rights and responsibilities

Rights of children
Non-discrimination

Every child deserves equal treatment regardless of their gender identity, sex, sexual orientation,
race, ethnicity, religion, physical appearance, ability, socio-economic status, nationality, creed,
ideology, or other personal identities.

Family

Every child has the right to live with their family. The family can be of any structure, but the
family should instil a sense of belonging, and provide a loving and nurturing environment.
Children and youth deserve to feel an attachment to their caregivers, whomever their caregivers
might be.

Health

Every child has the right to be alive. Young people deserve the best possible health
care, nutritious food, clothing, clean water, electricity, and safe housing. Children should learn
good health and hygiene habits in their schools and homes.

Protection from Harm

Every child deserves freedom from abuse. Children should be free from harmful work, drugs,
sexual abuse, human trafficking, corporal punishment, emotional and psychological abuse,
harmful detention, war, and any other forms of exploitation.
Right to Identity

Children must be registered when they are born. The national government must recognize a
child’s name and national identity, and children must be informed of their identity.

Right to Education

Every child has the right to an education. Primary education should be free. Secondary education
should be accessible to every child – every child should receive the highest level of education
available to them.

Right to Freedom of Thought

Children have the right to speak, express and share what they learn, think and feel. They may use
any means of creative expression available to them unless their expression somehow harms
others.

Children can determine their thoughts, means of expression, opinions, sociopolitical ideologies,
and religious and spiritual beliefs, provided that their thoughts do not infringe upon the rights of
others. Parents should teach children to express themselves and respect the opinions of others.

Right to Access to Information

Children have the right to transmit and receive information through the internet, radio, phone,
television, books and other resources. Adults should ensure that the information children are
transmitting and receiving is not harmful. However, they should encourage and teach ways to
access and critically process information.

Governments should make access to information as free as possible. They should share
information from multiple sources and in multiple languages.

Right to Privacy

Every child deserves privacy. The law must protect children’s privacy in all areas, including
online. Personal documentation of children should not be published.

A child’s family, home, personal communications and reputation should be protected. Victims of
abuse should not have their names, faces or information published.

Right to the Arts

Every child has the right to engage in cultural and creative activities. Children from minority
populations have the right to participate in activities that the majority populations of their
country do not participate in.

Reparation

If a child is victimized, traumatized, displaced, separated from their parents, or otherwise subject
to harm, they should receive reparation and rehabilitation. Children have the right to receive help
after enduring any type of pain, trauma or neglect, so they can regain their health, dignity and
identity.

Every child has the right to receive legal help and fair treatment. Governments should provide
money and resources to assist children from poor and disenfranchised communities.

Government Responsibility

Governments must do everything possible to ensure that children enjoy all their inalienable
rights and develop in a safe and free society. Governments should prioritize child rights when
considering any major policy.
Child protection

The Child Protection Programme aims to free all children in Uganda from all forms of violence,
abuse, neglect and exploitation, including harmful practices, and realize their right to legal
identity, by:

Children’s needs

Security. Children must feel safe and sound, with their basic survival needs met: shelter, food,
clothing, medical care and protection from harm.

Stability. Stability comes from family and community. Ideally, a family remains together in a
stable household, but when that's not possible, it's important to disrupt the child's life as little as
possible. Children and families should be a part of larger units to give them a sense of belonging,
tradition and cultural continuity.

Consistency. No "good cop, bad cop." Parents should synchronize their parenting and make
sure important values stay consistent.

Emotional support. Parents' words and actions should encourage children ' trust, respect,
self-esteem and, ultimately, independence.

Love. Saying and showing you love your children can overcome almost any parenting
"mistakes" you might make. Even when your children have disobeyed, angered, frustrated and
rebelled against you, show them you love them and that you'll always love them.

Education. Make sure your children get the best possible education for their future. This
includes school, of course, but it also includes the invaluable life lessons you provide during the
time you spend together.
Positive role models. Parents are their children ' first and most important role models. Instill
your values and teach children empathy by being the kind of person you want them to become.

Structure. Rules, boundaries, and limits: Without them, children are forced to be adults before
they are ready, and they lose respect for you and other adults.

Early childhood and development

Early Childhood Development (ECD) is a period of rapid and critical development - from
conception to 8 years. Quality nurturing care during this period - adequate nutrition, good health
care, protection, play and early education - is vital for children's physical, cognitive, linguistic
and social-emotional development.

UNIT UNIT14: YOUTH AND DEVELOPMENT

- Analysis of youth-definition and characteristics
- Youth problems and needs in different settings
- Adolescence development
- Methods of working with youth
- Youth policy
- Roles of a youth worker

Youth development is a process that prepares a young person to meet the challenges of
adolescence and adulthood and achieve his or her full potential. Youth development is promoted
through activities and experiences that help youth develop social, ethical, emotional, physical,
and cognitive competencies.

Providing the conditions for positive youth development is a responsibility shared by families,
schools, and communities. The conditions for healthy youth development reside in families,
schools, and communities.

Families promote healthy youth development when they:

 provide support;
 have positive family communication;
 are involved in their adolescent’s school;
 have clear rules and consequences and monitor their adolescent’s whereabouts;
 provide positive, responsible role models for other adults, adolescents, and siblings;
 expect their adolescent to do well; and
 spend time together.

Schools promote healthy youth development when they:

 expect commitment from youth;

 have a caring school climate;
 have clear rules and consequences;

Communities promote healthy youth development when:

 adults advocate for youth;

 neighbors monitor youths’ behavior;
 adults model positive, responsible, and healthy behavior;
 youth model positive, responsible, and healthy behavior; and

Youth policy

The purpose of youth policy is to create conditions for learning, opportunity and experience,
which enable young people to develop knowledge, skills and competences.
The purpose of youth policy is to create conditions for learning, opportunity and experience,
which enable young people to develop knowledge, skills and competences.

This allows young people to be actors of democracy, integrate into society and, in particular,
play an active role in both civil society and the labour market.

The key measures of youth policies are to promote citizenship learning and the integrated
policy approach.

Youth policy is: Government’s commitment and practice towards ensuring good living
conditions and opportunities for the young population of a country” (Finn Denstad, Youth Policy
Manual, 2009)

in terms of specific objectives to be undertaken by various stakeholders. The objectives and

actions reflect the policy theme of ‘Unlocking youth potential for sustainable wealth creation and
development’.

The priority action areas identified are: -

Sustainable livelihoods, employment promotion and enterprise development;

Information, Communication and Technology (ICT);

Education, training and capacity building;

Youth and health

Youth involvement, participation and governance

Youth, culture and gender

Recreation, sports and leisure

Environmental management

Management, coordination and partnerships

MANAGEMENT, COORDINATION AND PARTNERSHIPS

The Ministry responsible for youth leads other line ministries, institutions and statutory bodies to
implement the Uganda National Youth Policy.

Objective 1: To strengthen coordination and networking between different stakeholders for

effective delivery of services to the youth.

For attainment of the above objective, the following strategies will be undertaken; research and
documentation, technical support supervision, mapping and regular meetings.

Major activities:

Research and documentation

Develop and disseminate information materials on important youth issues, policies and laws.

Technical support supervision

Conduct regular technical support supervisions and quarterly meetings at all levels to ensure
effective provision of services to the youth.

Mapping

The plan provides for mapping of youth – led and focused organisations to enhance effective
coordination, reduction of duplication and enhancement of quality service delivery to youth.

Regular meetings

Regular meetings for sharing progress on youth programme implementation and best practices
will be organised.

Establishment of coordination mechanism

National Youth Coordination Mechanism will be established to enhance planning,
implementation and meriting of youth interventions. Similar structure will be replicated at local
government levels.

Major activities:

Advocacy

The plan will advocate for increased allocation of resources to youth related activities in all
relevant Ministries, Departments and Agencies and among Development Partners.

Resource mobilization

The government will provide regular information on budgetary procedures and the basics of
resource mobilisation and management.

Capacity building

Youth leaders and workers will be trained in techniques for lobbying and advocating for
increased resource allocation.

UNIT 15. MORAL DEVELOPMENT

- Definition of morals
- Levels of moral behavior
- Piaget theory of moral development
- Kolheberg’s theory of moral development
Mechanisms for enforcing morality
Morals are what you believe to be right and wrong. People can have different morals: you
might say, "I like his morals" or "I wonder about his morals." Your morals are your ideas about
right and wrong, especially how you should act and treat other people.

Piaget's Theory of Moral Development

Moral development refers to the process through which children develop the standards of right
and wrong within their society, based on social and cultural norms, and laws.
Piaget found that children’s ideas regarding rules, moral judgements and punishment tended to
change as they got older. In other words just as there were stages to children’s cognitive
development so there were also universal stages to their moral development.

Piaget (1932) suggested two main types of moral thinking:

1. Heteronomous morality (moral realism)

2. Autonomous morality (moral relativism)

Heteronomous Morality (5-9 yrs)

The stage of heteronomous morality is also known as moral realism – morality imposed from
the outside. Children regard morality as obeying other people's rules and laws, which cannot be
changed.

With regard to punishment Piaget also found that young children also had a characteristic view.
Firstly they saw the function of punishment as make the guilty suffer. Paint called this retributive
justice (or expiatory punishment) because punishment is seen as an act of retribution or revenge.

Autonomous Morality (9-10 yrs)

The stage of autonomous morality is also known as moral relativism morality based on your own
rules. Children recognize there is no absolute right or wrong and that morality depends on
intentions not consequences.

Critical Evaluation

Piaget’s theory of children’s moral development can be seen as an application of his ideas on
cognitive development generally. As such his theory here has both the strengths and weaknesses
of his overall theory.

Reliability

Piaget uses qualitative methods (observation and clinical interviews). His research is based on
very small samples. His methods are not standardised and therefore not replicable.

It is impossible to say from his research how generalizable the results are. His is exploratory
research, which is useful for generating new ideas rather than for the rigorous testing of
hypotheses.
Validity

Is Piaget testing what he thinks he is testing? This isn’t clear. For example in his story of the
broken cups Piaget claims to find a difference in children’s views of what is right or fair.

However it may be that the answer the children give is based on their view of what would
actually happen in such circumstances not what they think should happen.

Underestimating children’s rate of development

Piaget argues that the shift from “moral realism” to “moral relativism” occurs around the age of
9 to 10 and that children younger than this do not take motives into account when judging how
much someone is to blame.

Other research suggests that children develop an understanding of the significance of subjective
facts at a much earlier age. Nelson (1980) found that even 3-year olds could distinguish
intentions from consequences if the story was made simple enough. What do children’s replies
to a story actually mean?

This again isn’t necessarily clear. Do they understand the story? Are they able to remember it
correctly? Do they give the answer that they think will please the experimenter? Is their reply
governed by the substantive aspects of the story (what actually happens) or by the moral
principle embedded in it?

5. Does Piaget tell us what we want to know?

Piaget’s research is about children’s moral reasoning. Many psychologists argue that what is far
more important is not what children think about moral issues but how they actually behave.

And we should not forget that there is no one to one relationship between attitudes and behavior.
La Pierre (1934) proved that in his research with the Chinese couple driving round America.

What Are Piaget’s Stages of Moral Development?

Jean Piaget identified stages of moral development in which a child adheres to rules and makes
decisions. Piaget was mainly interested in three aspects of children’s understanding of moral
issues: rules, moral responsibility, and justice. The stages at which children understand rules
correlate with the stages of cognitive development.
What is Moral Development

Morality is a code of conduct that guides our actions and thoughts based on our background,
culture, philosophy, or religious beliefs. Moral development is a gradual change in the
understanding of morality.

Children’s ability to tell the difference between right and wrong is a part of their moral
development process. As their understanding and behavior toward others evolve over time, they
apply their knowledge to make the right decisions even when it’s inconvenient for them to do so.

Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development

Swiss psychologist Jean Piaget (1896-1980) was among the first to identify that the way children
think is inherently different from the way adults do. Unlike many of his predecessors, Piaget
didn’t consider children to be less intelligent versions of adults. They simply have a different
way of thinking.

Piaget’s Moral Development Stages

According to Piaget, the basis of children’s reasoning and judgment about rules and punishment
changes as they get older. Just as there are universal stages in children’s cognitive development,
there are stages in their moral development.Piaget devised experiments to study children’s
perceptions of right and wrong. Part of his research included the telling of a story about
something another child did, like breaking a jar of cookies. Then, he would ask children whether
they thought that action was right or wrong. He wanted to know the logic behind their moral
reasoning.

Heteronomous morality

The stage of heteronomous morality, also known as moral realism or other-directed morality, is
typical of children between the ages of 5 and 10.

Autonomous morality
The stage of autonomous morality, also known as moral relativism or morality of cooperation, is
typical of children from the age of 10 and continues through adolescence.

Children are now beginning to overcome the egocentrism of middle childhood. Their
appreciation of morality changes as a result of their newly acquired ability to view situations
from other people’s perspectives. They are, therefore, also capable of considering rules from
someone else’s point of view. Moral rules are not perceived as being absolute anymore. Instead,
older children realize that rules are socially agreed-upon guidelines. They are designed to benefit
all the group members and are adjustable.

Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Development

Kohlberg's theory proposes that there are three levels of moral development, with each level split
into two stages. Kohlberg suggested that people move through these stages in a fixed order, and
that moral understanding is linked to cognitive development. The three levels of moral reasoning
include preconventional, conventional, and postconventional.

Lawrence Kohlberg (1958) agreed with Piaget's (1932) theory of moral development in principle
but wanted to develop his ideas further.

He used Piaget’s storytelling technique to tell people stories involving moral dilemmas. In each
case, he presented a choice to be considered, for example, between the rights of some authority
and the needs of some deserving individual who is being unfairly treated.

One of the best known of Kohlberg’s (1958) stories concerns a man called Heinz who lived
somewhere in Europe.

Heinz’s wife was dying from a particular type of cancer. Doctors said a new drug might save her.
The drug had been discovered by a local chemist, and the Heinz tried desperately to buy some,
but the chemist was charging ten times the money it cost to make the drug, and this was much
more than the Heinz could afford.
Heinz could only raise half the money, even after help from family and friends. He explained to
the chemist that his wife was dying and asked if he could have the drug cheaper or pay the rest of
the money later.

The chemist refused, saying that he had discovered the drug and was going to make money from
it. The husband was desperate to save his wife, so later that night he broke into the chemist’s and
stole the drug.

Kohlberg asked a series of questions such as:

1. Should Heinz have stolen the drug?

2. Would it change anything if Heinz did not love his wife?

3. What if the person dying was a stranger, would it make any difference?

Stages of Moral Development

Level 1 - Preconvention morality

Preconvention morality is the first stage of moral development, and lasts until approximately age
9. At the preconventional level children don’t have a personal code of morality, and instead
moral decisions are shaped by the standards of adults and the consequences of following or
breaking their rules.

For example, if an action leads to punishment is must be bad, and if it leads to a reward is must
be good.

Authority is outside the individual and children often make moral decisions based on the
physical consequences of actions.

Stage 1. Obedience and Punishment Orientation. The child/individual is good in order to

avoid being punished. If a person is punished, they must have done wrong.
Stage 2. Individualism and Exchange. At this stage, children recognize that there is not just
one right view that is handed down by the authorities. Different individuals have different
viewpoints.

Level 2 - Conventional morality

Conventional morality is the second stage of moral development, and is characterized by an

acceptance of social rules concerning right and wrong. At the conventional level (most
adolescents and adults), we begin to internalize the moral standards of valued adult role models.

Stage 3. Good Interpersonal Relationships. The child/individual is good in order to be seen as

being a good person by others. Therefore, answers relate to the approval of others.

Stage 4. Maintaining the Social Order. The child/individual becomes aware of the wider rules
of society, so judgments concern obeying the rules in order to uphold the law and to avoid guilt.

Level 3 - Post conventional morality

Postconventional morality is the third stage of moral development, and is characterized by an

individuals’ understanding of universal ethical principles. These are abstract and ill-defined, but
might include: the preservation of life at all costs, and the importance of human dignity.

Stage 5. Social Contract and Individual Rights. The child/individual becomes aware that
while rules/laws might exist for the good of the greatest number, there are times when they will
work against the interest of particular individuals.

Stage 6. Universal Principles. People at this stage have developed their own set of moral
guidelines which may or may not fit the law. The principles apply to everyone.