ROCKVIEW UNIVERSITY

SCHOOL OF EDUCATION

SCHOOL GUIDANCE AND COUNSELLING

MODULE ONE

EMAIL: apply@rockview.edu.zm

WEBSITE: www.rockview.edu.zm

Contact lines

+260 211 238 065

+260 955 151 517

+260 967 976 961

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

GUIDANCE
Concept of Guidance
Meaning and Principles of Guidance
Meaning of Guidance
Guidance and Education: Guidance and Counseling
Principles of Guidance
Need and Importance of Guidance
Scope of Guidance: Guidance Services
Areas of Guidance
Personal
Educational
Vocational
Avocational
Social
Moral
Health
Leisure-time
TYPES OF GUIDANCE
Types of Guidance: Individual and Group
Individual guidance
Group Guidance: Concept, Need and Significance
Organization of Group Guidance activities
Techniques of Group Guidance
Advantages of Group Guidance
Limitations of Group Guidance
VOCATIONAL GUIDANCE
Nature and scope of vocational guidance.
Concept of vocational guidance.
Need and Functions of vocational guidance.
Factors affecting vocational choice:
Approaches to career guidance:
Holland‘s theory of career development:
Burnout and career guidance:
Meaning of burnout:
Coping with burnout:
OCCUPATIONAL GUIDANCE
Need and Sources of Occupational Guidance
Concept
Need and importance
Collection, Filing and Classification of Occupational Information
Sources of Occupational Information
Types of Occupational Information Materials
Methods of Collection of Occupational Information
Classification of Occupational Information
Filing of Occupational Information
Dissemination of Occupational information
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Group Techniques
Individual Techniques
Job Satisfaction
Meaning of job satisfaction
Factors of Job satisfaction
Job Analysis, Job Specifications and Job Profile
PSYCHOMETRIC METHODS ANDTECHNIQUES FOR GUIDANCE AND
COUNSELLING – QUANTITATIVETECHNIQUES

Psychological Tests
Intelligence Tests
Interest Inventories
Aptitude Tests
Achievement Tests
Attitude Scale
Personality Tests

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UNIT 1
GUIDANCE: CONCEPT AND NEED OF GUIDANCE
Concept of Guidance
Unit Structure:
Introduction
Objectives
Meaning and Principles of Guidance
Meaning of Guidance
Guidance and Education: Guidance and Counseling
Principles of Guidance
Need and Importance of Guidance
Scope of Guidance: Guidance Services
Areas of Guidance
Personal
Educational
Vocational
A vocational
Social
Moral
Health
Leisure-time
Unit Summary
INTRODUCTION
We are social beings and, so in some way or other we need help and guidance of others. Mother,
father, grandparents, and teachers and other elders, home, school and society guide youngsters
for successful living. Due to explosion of knowledge, industrialization and changes in socio-
economic set up the need of professional guidance is felt in the present day society.
In this unit you will be familiarized with concept, principles, need of guidance and implications
of areas of guidance on global context.

OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit you will be able to:
 Define the meaning of guidance
 Describe the need for guidance
 State the principles of guidance
 Explain different areas of guidance

MEANING AND PRINCIPLES OF GUIDANCE

Meaning of Guidance:
Literally guidance means to direct to point out to show the path. It is the assistance or help
rendered by a more experienced person to a less experiences person to solve certain major
problems of the individual (less experienced) i.e. educational,
Vocational, personal etc.

Guidance is a concept as well as a process. As a concept guidance is concerned with the optimal
development of the individual. As a process guidance helps the individual in self-understanding
(understanding one‘s strengths, limitations, and other resources) and in self-direction (ability to
solve problems, make choices and decision on one‘s own).
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Guidance and Education; Guidance and Counselling, Guidance and Education:
The aim of education is to achieve the fullest possible realization of possibilities inherent in the
individual. Education fosters all aspects of an individual‘s personality. Guidance is an integral
part of education and helps in achieving the goals of education. Guidance is quite essential for
the development of individual which is the main objective of education. The Education
Commission (EC-1964-66) observes ―Guidance should be regarded as an integral part of
education and not as a special, psychological or social service which is peripheral to educational
purposes. It is meant for all students not just for those who deviate from the norm in one
direction or the other‖. Jone, A.J., pointing out the relationship between guidance and education
observes, All guidance is education but some aspects of education are not guidance. Their
objectives are the same the development of the individual but methods used in education are by
no means the same as those used in guidance‖.

Guidance and Counselling:

The terms guidance ‘and counseling have been loosely or interchangeably been used. Guidance
is a term which is broader than counseling and it includes counseling as one of its services.
Butter makes a logical separation of the counseling process i.e. (i) adjustive and (ii) distributive
phase. In the adjustive phase, the emphasis is on social, personal and emotional problems of the
individual, in the distributive phase the focus is upon educational, vocational and occupational
problems. The distributive phase ‘can
be most aptly described as guidance‘ while the adjustive‘ phase can be considered as description
of counseling‘.

Principles of Guidance:
Guidance is based upon the following principles.
(i) Holistic development of an individual: Guidance needs to be provided in the context of total
development of personality.
(ii) Recognition of individual differences and dignity: Each individual is unique and different
from every other individual. Each individual is the combination of characteristics which provides
uniqueness to each person. Similarly human beings have an immense potential. The dignity of
the individual is supreme.
(iii) Acceptance of individual needs: Guidance is based upon individual needs i.e. freedom,
respect and dignity.
(iv)The individual needs a continuous guidance process from early childhood throughout
adulthood.
(v) Guidance involves using skills to communicate love, regard and respect for others.

NEED AND IMPORTANCE OF GUIDANCE

Guidance is needed wherever there are problems. The need and importance of guidance are as
follows.
1. Self-understanding and self-direction: Guidance helps in understanding one‘s strength,
limitations and other resources.
2. Guidance helps an individual to develop ability to solve problems and take decisions.
3. Optimum development of an individual-Solving different problem of the individual
4. Academic growth and development, Vocational maturity, vocational choices and
vocational adjustments
5. Social personal adjustment
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 6. Better family life
7. Good citizenship
8. For conservation and proper utilization of human resources For national development
9. Guidance is helpful not only for students and teachers in an educational institution but
also to the parents, administrators, planners and community members.

Exercise
1 Define guidance
2 Explain the relation between guidance & counseling.
3 State the relation between guidance & Education.
4 Why do we need guidance?
5 What should be the principles of guidance?

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DIFFERENT SCHOOL GUIDANCE SERVICES
The school is expected to provide more than just teaching and instruction. A school guidance
programme includes all those activities other than instructional which are carried out to render
assistance to pupils in their educational, vocational, personal development and adjustment. The
fundamental aim of guidance programme being the maximum development of the child, all
guidance programme must be geared toward attainment of the goal. Guidance services can assist
the pupils in knowing themselves-their potentialities and limitations, making appropriate choices
in educational, vocational and other fields. Some of the important guidance services are;
1. The orientation services
2. Student inventory services
3. Career Information services
4. Counseling services
5. Group guidance services
6. Placement services
7. Research and evaluation services
8. Pre-admission service
9. Admission service

AREAS OF GUIDANCE
The students’ life is getting complex day by day. Students in the twenty-first century are facing
many perplex and difficult situations i.e. to make wise curricular and other curricular choices, to
acquire basic study skills for optimum achievement, adjustment with peers etc. In its beginning
guidance was concentrated on problems relating to vocations. It was largely concerned with
getting jobs for young people. Now guidance has gone far beyond this. It is now concerned with
the entire individual in all aspects.
The areas of guidance are very vast. The following are some of the important areas of guidance.
1 Personal:
Students face many personal problems related to themselves, their parents and family, friends
and teachers, etc. They often have memories related to home or family which creates feeling of
disappointment in them. If their parents are expecting too much of them it leaves them with a
feeling of incompetence and insecurity leading to poor self-concept and self-esteem. The
objectives of personal guidance are to help the individual in his/her physical, emotional, social,
moral and spiritual development.
The aims and objectives of personal guidance are:
1. To assist the individual in understanding himself/herself.
2. To assist the individual involving the personal problems.
3. To assist the individual in taking independent decisions and judgment.
4. To assist the individual to view the world and the social environment in right perspective.
5. To assist the individual in making sound adjustments to different problems confronted in
life.
Personal guidance is necessary at all stages of life. At the elementary school stage
opportunities should be given to students for their self-expression. Personal guidance at this stage
deals with the problems related to feeling of insecurity, social acceptance, discipline etc.
At the secondary stage, the students have more intricate personal problems. During the
secondary stage adolescent students due to peculiar physical, emotional and social developments
undergo noticeable changes in their attitude and behaviour. Personal guidance at this stage
should therefore focus on personal and social adjustment.

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 Personal guidance at the tertiary stage aims at helping them view life in relation to reality.
The scope of personal guidance at this stage is very wider.

2 Educational Guidance:
If one closely examines the problems of young pupils in schools and colleges, one would exactly
realize the need of educational guidance. Educational problems head the needs of students
‘problems. So education is an important guidance area.
Educational guidance is related to every aspect of education school/colleges, the curriculum, the
methods of instruction, other curricular activities, disciplines etc. Educational guidance is the
assistance given to the individual
(i) to understand his/her potentialities
(ii) to have a clear cut idea of the different between educational opportunities and their
requirements
(iii) to make wise choices as regards to school, colleges, the course : curricular and extra-
curricular.
Some of the aims and objectives of educational guidance are:
(i) To assist the pupil to understand him/herself i.e. to understand his/her potentialities,
strength and limitations.
(ii) To help the child make educational plans consist with his/her abilities, interests and
goals.
(iii) To enable the student to know details about the subject and courses offered.
(iv) To assist the student in making satisfactory progress in various school/ college
subjects.
(v) To help the child to adjust with the schools, its rules, regulations, social life
connected with it.
(vi) To help the child in developing good study habits.
(vii) To help the child to participate in out of class educational activities in which he can
develop leadership and other social qualities.
At the elementary stage guidance programme must help the children to make good
beginning, to plan intelligently, to get the best out of their education and prepare them for
secondary schools. Educational guidance needs to be used in diagnosing difficulties, in
identifying the special needs of children.
At the secondary stage educational guidance should help the pupils to understand themselves
better, to understand different aspects of the school, to select appropriate courses, to get
information about different educational opportunities, to develop good study habits. The students
should be helped to be acquainted with the vocational implications of various school subjects.
Educational guidance at the tertiary stages must orient students about purpose and scope of
higher studies and helps them to stimulate their studies. Each college/ university must have a
guidance unit with due provision of guidance services.

Components of Educational Guidance

(a) Study Skills
Teaching study skills to secondary school pupils can pose a significant challenge. Pupils often
feel that they have heard everything before, but here is a new twist. Pupils have also grown up
hearing that study techniques vary from person to person, so they should select techniques that
work best for them. Certainly, this is true to an extent. However, pupils often select study
methods that are not necessary meeting their needs. Plus, these needs change overtime.

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Designing a lesson around improving study habits is well worth the instructional time. The
objective is not to introduce pupils to new study habits but to have them analyse their current
habits. Then they can decide what is working and what needs to be improved. Naturally, pupils
can learn from the suggestions and best practices of other pupils, so this will be a collaborative
activity.
For this activity, arrange your pupils into four collaborative groups. Be sure to construct mixed
ability, mixed gender groups in advance and assign pupils at the very beginning of the class.
Before you begin, you may want to establish some ground rules for discussion. Then give each
group one section of this questionnaire. These sections are as follows:
(a) Location
(b) Time
(c) Company
(d) Priority
Then instruct each group to write down everyone’s and discuss among themselves which
methods they feel are most effective and why. Inform them that half way through class groups
will be reporting back to the class to discuss the results of the questionnaire.
Location: where do you study from?
 On your bed
 At a desk in your bedroom
 On the living room
 In the dining room
 At the library
 At a friend’s house
 In the car
 At a tuition centre
 At school in between classes or during prep

Time: when do you study?

 At what time do you study or complete homework?
 Immediately after school
 Right before dinner
 Right after dinner
 Just before bedtime
 Only on the weekends

Company: with whom do you study with?

 Alone
 Your best friend
 A motivated pupil who is just an acquaintance
 Your sibling
 Your parent
 A supportive teacher during extra-help sessions
 A private tutor

Priority: how do you prioritise your assignment?

 Big projects first
 Difficult assignments first
 Easy assignments first
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  A specific piece of a large assignment first
Priority: which assignments do you postpone?
 Studying for a test
 Short less important assignments
 Major assignments like an essay or research paper
 Projects with creative elements
 Projects with extensive research
 Collaborative projects with other pupils

Once you return to whole group discussion half way through the class, you may want to draw a
graphic organizer or chart on the board to represent the four categories. Ask one pupil to write
the best practices of each group on the board reports their findings.
You need to point out that different methods work for different pupils. You can also suggest
ways to improve time management. However, pupils should continue to explore and experiment
if they find one method is not effective as they would like. Encourage them to select at least two
new methods recommended by their classmates and try them out for a week or two. They may be
surprised at the positive results.

(b) SQ3R READING STRATEGY

The SQ3R strategy is a widely recognized study system that is easily adapted to reading
assignments. This method provides concrete steps for interacting with information that results in
high levels of comprehension.
SQ3R stands for:
Survey: the reader previews the material to develop a general outline for organizing information.

Question: the reader raises questions with the expectations of finding answers in the material to
be studied

Read: the reader next attempts to answer the questions formulated in the previous step.

Recite: the reader then deliberately attempts to answer out loud or in writing the questions
formulated in the second step.

Review: the reader finally reviews the material by regarding portions of the assignment in order
to verify the answers given during the previous step.

Steps to the SQ3R Method:

Lead pupils in a survey of a reading selection. Pay special attention to the headings, subheadings,
topic sentences and highlighted words.
Build a question for each heading and subheading in the text selection. These questions will be
answered during the close reading of the text
Ask pupils the read the selection carefully, keeping the question in mind as they read.
Have pupils Recite the answers to the questions by verbalizing them in a group discussion or
writing them down. This act of restarting thought in spoken or written form reinforces learning
Repeat this process for all the questions.
Finally, have pupils review all of their spoken or written answers.
Once SQ3R has been modeled several times to pupils, the teacher can provide the pupils with the
SQ3R guide sheet. This worksheet contains the cues to be used at each step.
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SQ3R Guide Sheet
Name …………………………………… Date ………………………………..
Book …………………………………… Chapter/Pages ………………….
1. Survey the chapter
i. What is the tittle of the chapter
ii. Is there a chapter summary at the beginning or end of the chapter
iii. On what page(s) is the summary located? … read any summary information.
iv. List the main subheadings in this chapter
v. Are there any graphs, charts or pictures?
vi. If so, describe one or two of the following:
Graphs:
Charts
Pictures
vii. Are there study questions listed at the end of the chapter? Read any study
questions listed.
viii. Are their key vocabulary words at the end of the chapter? Read any key
vocabulary words listed
ix. Describe in one or two brief sentences what this chapter will all be about

Question yourself about the chapter

1. Turn the major headings that you listed into questions. Use who, what, where, when, why
and how when writing the questions.
Read each chapter subheading one at a time and then recite the answers to each
question you asked. Answer all questions using one or two sentences.
Review the entire chapter by going back to the questions and answers. Combine the
information by writing the heading, questions and answers in outline form.

(c) Preparing for Sitting Examinations

Despite the all-important nature of exam success in our society, few people actually seem
to fully know what is expected of them when they are sitting for exams, or how to best
prepare themselves to achieve exam success. Often the ‘how to’ part is largely left to
chance, as if the pupil suddenly know by magic just what to do on the day of sitting
exams! In fact there is a lot to know about revision and examinations: when and how to
start revision, how to organize notes, how to optimize revision so that they remember as
much as possible, how to practice exam techniques, what to do on the day of sitting
exams and even what to do afterwards.
Exam preparation tips
For many people, exam time is the most stressful part of the school year. Many pupils are
so concerned with the outcome. This does generate a high degree of pressure to perform
well. Here are some exam preparation tips to help your pupils excel in exams.
Getting started
 The earlier they start their revision, the more time will have to prepare for the
exam. Encourage not to wait until exam time approaches.
 They should try to set the stage from the beginning of the year by reviewing the
material after each class. By starting early and studying on a regular basis, they
shall have a better opportunity to absorb the contents of their subjects.
 They should make sure to organize material. If they missed any classes, get nots
from friends right away instead of scrambling at the last minute.
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  Proper organization helps the pupil to get a better picture of the material that has
to be covered and improve the flow of the study process.

Create a study plan

As the exam nears, the pupil will need to create a plan to help him/her to study effectively
and minimize stress. The first step is to determine out how much time and effort one must
dedicate to studying for the exam by asking the following questions:
o How much material do I need to cover?
o How difficult is the material?
o How much time is available?
o Do I have any other priorities during the study period?
o What is the format of the exam?
o How important is the exam?
o What is my performance target for the exam?

Creating a study plan/timetable

 Budget time realistically
 Allocate the study time into several manageable study sessions
 Divide the course material into small segments and assign them to the study
sessions
 Set clear and specific goals for the study sessions
 Priorities to ensure that material weighed more heavily in the exam gets sufficient
study time
 Look at familiar material and the difficulty level
 Don’t make the study session too long
 Study sessions should have enough variety in terms of topics and activities to
prevent boredom and loss of effectiveness
 Avoid cramming before the exam and
 Don’t forget to include regular breaks

Studying for the exam

After developing the plan the pupil is now ready to start studying for the exam. They
should try to study in a location where they can concentrate and won’t be interrupted.
They can work with others or join a study group if they find it helpful, but must be
careful to keep it from turning into an inefficient use of time.

Study tools and techniques

Revising with summary notes
Condensed version of readings and class notes by creating summary notes
Pinpoint the key terms and concepts and make sure they are easy to follow
Identify key terms and concepts by paying attention to what has been emphasized in
classes, textbooks and syllabus. For example, if a particular topic has taken up a lot of
time in the classroom, it is more likely to be on the exam and a pupil should have a good
understanding of it.
The process of making summary notes can help pupils to retain more information.

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 Memorizing with flashcards
Flashcards (or index cards) are a good memorization tool. A pupil can reduce summary
notes into bullet points, keywords, lists, formulas and diagrams and place them onto a
card for each topic. Some people like to use flashcards to prepare their summary notes in
the first place, while others find that it leads to information overload. The items on the
flashcards act as memory triggers. By memorizing the flashcards a pupil can enhance his
or her ability to recall larger bits of information referenced by the triggers. They can carry
the cards with them and review them even when they have only short bursts of time
available.

Practicing under exam conditions

Knowing the subject material is necessary but not sufficient to guarantee success on the
exam – the pupil also needs to be able to communicate the answers effectively under
exam conditions. Practicing using sample questions in the same format as the exam and
answer them in a simulated test environment is very helpful to a pupil. The sample
questions can be sourced from old exams and exercise, which are often similar from year
to year with small changes. Even though the pupil may only be practicing, it is better to
write full answers to the questions so that they may work through the entire thought
process.
The practice session should serve as a feedback loop. The pupil should check the answers
to the practice questions to diagnose their strengths and weaknesses. If they are weak in
an area, they should go back and study it further to address any gaps.

Taking care of oneself

 They should keep themselves in good mental and physical condition for the exam. A
small amount of stress can get a pupil psyched. Too much mental or physical strain can
also be detrimental to a pupil’s performance.
 After each study session, advise the pupil to take some time to relax. They should not
stay up too late if they can help it and try to get a good night’s sleep.
 Encourage them to eat before the exam so that they can build up energy but should avoid
heavy foods that may make them drowsy.
 Encourage them to keep a positive attitude about the exam. Think of it as a way to
demonstrate their knowledge and not as some imposing challenge
 Encourage them to go to the exam focused and relaxed

3 Vocational Guidance:
You know that vocational guidance is one of the main aims of education. Due to advancement in
science and technology and consequent changes in industry and occupations have been emerged.
There are thousands of specialized jobs/ occupations. In this context, there is a great need for
vocational guidance. Vocational guidance is a process of assisting the individual to choose an
occupation, prepare for it and enter upon it and progress in it. It is concerned primarily with
helping individuals make decisions and choices involved in planning a future and building a
career. The purpose behind assisting the youth to choose, prepare, enter and progress in a
vocation is the optimum growth of the individual.
Some of the aims and objectives of vocational guidance are:
 Assisting pupil to discover his/her own abilities and skills to fit them into general
requirements of the occupation under consideration.

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  Helping the individual to develop an attitude towards work that will dignify whatever
type of occupation s/he may wish to enter.
 Assisting the individual to think critically about various types of occupations and to learn
a technique for analyzing information about vocations.
 Assisting pupils to secure relevant information about the facilities offered by various
educational institutions engaging in vocational training.
At the elementary stage, although no formal guidance programmes are needed, the orientation to
vocation can be initiated. At this stage some qualities and skills which have greater vocational
significance is
(i) love and respect for manual work
(ii) training in use of hands
(iii) spirit of cooperative work
(iv) sharing
(v) appreciation for all works
(vi) Good interpersonal relationship are to be developed.
At the secondary stage vocational guidance should help the students to know themselves, to
know the world of work, to develop employment readiness to develop decision making rules.
At the higher education stages it should be more formal one. The objectives of guidance at
this stage are to help the students to get information about different career, training facilities,
apprenticeship etc.

4 Avocational Guidance:
The individual student spends only a small portion of his time i.e. 4 to 6 hours per day in school.
The rest of the time needs to be effectively managed and utilized by the child for his/her progress
and development. Avocational guidance helps the child to judiciously utilize the leisure time.
The other co-curricular activities play an important role in all-round development of the
child .But many parents, teachers and children put secondary importance to these activities. The
students need to be properly guided for effective participation in varied types of avocational
pursuits so that they are able to shape their interpersonal behavior in desirable direction and
widen their outlook.

5 Social Guidance:
We are social animals. But social relationships constitute a problem area for most of the students.
School/educational institution is a miniature society and pupils from different socioeconomic
status, linguistic and socio-cultural background read there. Students sometimes may face
problems in adjustment and social relationship. It is very important that the students be helped in
acquiring a feeling of security and being accepted by the group; in developing social relationship
and in becoming tolerant towards others. This is the task of social guidance. Formally social
guidance can be given by educational institutions whereas informal social guidance may be
provided by Family, religious institutions, Media etc.

6 Moral Guidance:
Moral values occupy an important place in our life. Sometimes due to influence of diverse
factors students tell lies and indulge in undesirable practices. Moral guidance helps in bringing
these students into proper track and help in their all-round development.

7 Health Guidance:
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Health is regarded as the wealth. Total health i.e. preventive and curative is the goal of health
guidance. The health guidance may be a cooperative effort of Principal, Doctors,
Counselor/psychologist, Teachers, Students and parents. For promoting preventive care the
conditions of school hostel, canteen needs to be checked. Similarly health education through
formal classes and information is essential in school education stages. In the present day the
concern of health guidance also pertains to guidance in HIV/AIDs.

8 Leisure – time guidance:

Guidance for leisure is basically a part of personal guidance. The individual should know how to
utilize his/her leisure time fruitfully. Leisure generally refers to free time of a person at his
disposal. Leisure in modern time is available to those who are technically trained and efficient.
But, unfortunately most of us do not know how to utilize the leisure time. That is why guidance
for leisure is necessary. Leisure can be fruitfully utilized for two purposes. First of all Leisure
provides us time for personal development. One can increase his efficiency by utilizing his
leisure time. The second use of leisure is that it helps the individual to be more productive by
getting the necessary rest and recreation.
Jones divides leisure time activities into four groups.
1. Escape activities
2. General culture or appreciation activities.
3. Creative activities and
4. Service activities
It has also been suggested that individuals should spend their leisure time in social welfare
activities. For professional growth must take active interest in the professional society of his
profession.
Thus it is quite evident that guidance for leisure is extremely important in modern society
because it helps the individual to attain efficiency and become a useful member of the society.
Therefore, it has been suggested that in the school curriculum there should be provision for
teaching about various leisure time activities so that children will be able to know about them.

Check Your Progress

1 What are the different guidance services?
2 Differentiate between vocational & avocational guidance.
3 Explain the use of leisure time guidance.
4 Write short notes on:
a) Objectives of educational guidance.
b) Need of vocational guidance.
c) Orientation services.
d) Personal guidance
Unit Summary
Guidance is a concept as well as a process. Guidance is different from education and counseling.
Guidance is based upon the principles of holistic development of individual, recognition of
individual differences and dignity and acceptance of individual needs. Guidance is needed
wherever there are problems. Guidance helps in optimum development of individual, Solving
different problem of the individual, Academic growth and development, Vocational maturity,
vocational choices and vocational adjustments, Social personal adjustment, Better family life, for
conservation and proper utilization of human resources, and national development. Guidance is
helpful not only for student and teacher in an educational institution but also to the parents,
administrators, planners and community members. A school guidance programme includes all
[15]
those activities other than instructional which are carried out to render assistance to pupils in
their educational, vocational, personal development and adjustment. The areas of guidance are
very vast. Some of the important areas of guidance are personal, educational, vocational,
avocational, health, social etc.

UNIT ACTIVITY
1. What is guidance? Discuss the need and importance of guidance.
2. Discuss the principles upon which guidance is based.
3. State the importance of educational guidance and vocational guidance.
4. Write short notes on:
a) Personal guidance
b) Guidance and education
c) Guidance and Counselling
SUGGESTED READINGS
Agrawal (2006) Educational, Vocational Guidance and Counselling, New Delhi, Sipra
Publication
Bhatnagar,A, A AND Gupta,N(1999).Guidance and Counseling’s theoretical Approach(Ed),New
Delhi,Vikash Publishing House
Jones, A.J.(1951).Principles of Guidance and Pupil Personnel work, New York ,McGraw Hill
Kochhar, S.K., (1985): Educational and Vocational Guidance in Secondary Schools, New Delhi,
Sterling Publisher
NCERT (2008).Introduction to Guidance, Module -1, DEPFE, New Delhi

UNIT 2
TYPES OF GUIDANCE
Introduction
Objectives
Types of Guidance: Individual and Group
Individual guidance
Group Guidance: Concept, Need and Significance
Organization of Group Guidance activities
Techniques of Group Guidance
Advantages of Group Guidance
Limitations of Group Guidance
Unit Summary
I. INTRODUCTION
In the previous unit you have learnt about meaning, importance and areas of guidance. You have
also learnt about different school guidance services. One of the services is group guidance
service .From the organization point of view guidance can be of two types’ i.e. individual and
group. Many institutions/organizations work in the area of guidance and counseling. In this unit
you will learn about importance of group guidance and international, national and state level
agencies of guidance.
II. OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit, you should be able to:
 define group guidance
 aware of the need and importance of group guidance
 know the practical consideration of organization of group guidance activities;
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  understand the limitations of group guidance activities; and
 deal effectively with the problems of organization of such group guidance activities
 state the role and functions of different agencies at international, national and state levels.

III. TYPES OF GUIDANCE: INDIVIDUAL AND GROUP

1 Individual guidance:
Individual guidance is tailored to an individual. It is advice, strategy or planning designed
for a singular person or thing and their unique situation. This is in contrast to general guidance
which is frequently based on demographic information such as age or income or meant for the
general population. The most common reference to individual guidance is in reference to
children or students. This is ideally the role of guidance, educational or career counselors.
Individual guidance can be used to refer to any advice, usually professional advice, given
to a person based on their unique circumstances. This could include legal services, career
counseling, financial planning, medical or psychological advice or a number of other areas where
a trained professional is looked to for direction in a given area.

2 Group Guidance: Concept, Need and Significance:

Group refers to collection of people, interaction between individuals, development of shared
perceptions, the development of affective ties and the development of interdependence of roles.
For example many students and teacher/teachers at one school may gather together to form a
group. Group guidance encompasses those activities of guidance which are carried on in a group
situation to assist its members to have experiences desirable or even necessary for making
appropriate decisions in the prevailing contexts. In a more specific term, it is guiding the
individual in a group situation. Group could be of any type, but for guidance purposes a group
should have a common goal. Just collection of individuals may not be called a group for
organizing guidance activities. Selection of group members will have to depend on sharing a
common problem, volunteering to be members and willingness to group activities.

Jones (1951) defines group guidance as any group enterprise or activity in which the primary
purpose is to assist each individual in the group to solve his problems and to make his
adjustment. Group guidance is used to address the developmental needs of a functional group
consisting of a number of students to implement programme that would benefit them at all time.
Students in group with common problems and concerns are helped in groups i.e. small or large.
In other words, if guidance is to be available to all, it should be planned in groups.

Some of the objectives of group guidance are:

1. To help people in identifying common problems, analyze them and find relevant
solutions
2. To place a wide range of information before people with common problems which could
be useful for them for finding solutions?
3. To provide a platform where people with common problems could interact with each
other and could be benefited by each other‘s perspectives, ideas and experiences
4. To help in creating an atmosphere where people could get an opportunity to express
themselves and in the process analyze themselves.

Organization of Group Guidance Activities:

Planning of group guidance activity may focus on the following points.

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 1. Needs Assessment: The need assessment must be done to find out the common problems
of individuals in the group. This can be done by administering questionnaire, checklists
and interview.
2. Determining size of the group and time, venue for group activities: Depending upon
the group activity the size of the group should be fixed. The size should be approachable
and manageable. The venue should be selected taking in to account the group selected for
activity.
3. Selection of members and role specifications: The participants’ selection for group
guidance activity is also very important. The students for example should be
communicated about their roles in group activities.
4. Orientation of Members: The group goals should be clarified. It should be stated in
clear, objective and measurable terms.
5. Monitoring of activities and evaluation of outcomes: If we want to conduct the
activities purposefully, it should be properly monitored taking into account the goal/s.
Feedback about activity needs to be collected from participants.
Some of the common group guidance activities are: Class talk, career talk, displays and
exhibitions.

Techniques of Group Guidance:

A number of techniques are used in organizing group guidance.
1. Group Discussion: For example at senior secondary stage students should have
knowledge about different careers. A group discussion may be organized in the school.
For organization of the group discussion proper room/hall, group and relevant topic and
expert/resource person should be selected. The group discussion will be useful only if the
members participate effectively without the fear and all the members have the
opportunity to participate. But the effectiveness of the group discussion depends upon the
facilitator and the group selected.
2. Problem solving: For solving individual as well as common problems, problem solving
can be applied as a technique. It comprises of the following steps;
 Existence of common problem
 Focused description of the problem
 Initiation of action for solving problem based on relevant facts
 Analysis of problem in the light of data collected
 Listing of possible solutions and Evaluation of them
 Acceptance of degree of acceptance of solution in the group
3. Role play: In small group role playing can be adopted as a technique of guidance. Role
playing is a method where real life situations are simulated by group
members/participants. This provides new insight, intuitions, skills and understanding of
opposing viewpoints. The role playing may comprise of the following steps;
a) Existence of common problem
b) Orientation of group to role playing and the problem
c) Assigning of roles
d) Preparation of other members/audience to observe intelligently
e) Assessing the role play
f) Concluding session and feedback
Other methods like case study and sociometric technique can be used as group guidance
technique.

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Advantages of Group guidance:
We have discussed about different activities and approaches of group guidance. Some of the
advantages of group guidance are as follows:
 Inspires learning and understanding: Interaction in group setting inspires learning and
understanding of students. The student learns from other members of the group.
 Saves time and effort: Group guidance technique can save time and effort of both the
counselor and students. The time saved can be used for the more difficult and complex
problems of students.
 Improvement of student’s attitude and behavior
 Development of wholesome and helpful awareness of unrecognized needs and
problems of student/s

Limitations of Group Guidance:

Group guidance though serves a useful purpose, but they cannot be taken as a substitute for
individual counseling. Group activities serve many of the objectives of the school guidance
programme, but not all of these. Further students may feel hesitant to come out with their
personal problems in the group. So, in these cases group guidance cannot be of help. Group
guidance activities serve useful purposes specially saving in time and effort. While organizing
these activities, some problems that a counsellor may face are mentioned below:
 A rigid type of administration is often a major cause of trouble. Generally, when the
counselor asks for time in the time table for conducting these guidance activities, he/she
may get a discouraging reply, the time table is already full. No periods are free. So the
counsellor is left with no other choice than to take the substitute management period.
 Lack of cooperation on part of the administration as well as the staff members may also
create problems in organizing such activities. Teacher may feel this as an addition
burden.
 Lack of adequate funds is another problem.

Check Your Progress

1 What is individual guidance?
2 What is group guidance?
3 What are the objectives of group guidance?
4 How can you organize group guidance activities?
5 State the techniques of group guidance. Explain Role play technique of group guidance.
UNIT EXERCISE
1. Explain the term group guidance.
2. Discuss any two group guidance activities which are carried out in school.
3. Discuss various techniques of group guidance with suitable examples.
4. Prepare a list of national and international agencies of guidance listing their works.
SUGGESTED READINGS
Agrawal (2006) Educational, Vocational Guidance and Counselling, New Delhi, Sipra
Publication
Bhatnagar,A, A AND Gupta,N(1999).Guidance and Counselling: A theoretical
Approach(Ed),New Delhi,Vikash Publishing House
Jones, A.J.(19510.Principles of Guidance and Pupil Personnelwork,NewYork,MiGraw Hill
Kochhar, S.K., (1985): Educational and Vocational Guidance in Secondary Schools, New Delhi,
Sterling Publisher

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UNIT 3
VOCATIONAL GUIDANCE
Objectives.
Introduction.
Nature and scope of vocational guidance.
Concept of vocational guidance.
Need and Functions of vocational guidance.
Factors affecting vocational choice:
Approaches to career guidance:
Holland‘s theory of career development:
Burnout and career guidance:
Meaning of burnout:
Coping with burnout:
Unit summary.
OBJECTIVES.
 After going through this unit you will be able to:
 Describe the concept, need and functions of vocational guidance.
 State the factors affecting the vocational choices.
 Explain the Holland‘s theory of career guidance and its importance.
 Define burnout and the guidance strategies used for coping from career burnout.
INTRODUCTION
We all will agree that in recent time there are a variety of educational streams as new
occupational opportunities are coming every other day. As there is variety of occupational
opportunities available to the students, it is not always possible for students to meet the
requirements of the available opportunities as all individual differ in the abilities, interest,
attitude and skill from each other. Thus it is very necessary to know about one’s own abilities,
skills etc. To help in this process the role of vocational guidance becomes very important. In this
unit we will discuss about vocational guidance, and other phenomenon related to the vocational
guidance.

NATURE AND SCOPE OF VOCATIONALGUIDANCE:

Concept of vocational guidance.
Vocational guidance according to DAW is that which have to be made well before the school
leaving stage. Indeed with comprehensive education potentially offering a greater educational
opportunity a good case for an increasingly important role for vocational guidance can be made.
It is worthwhile to look at some of the concepts or frames of references that are fundamental to a
consideration of occupational choice. Crites suggest that there are five sets of concepts that need
to be considered. Firstly, how far is occupational choice the result of systematic behavior as
opposed to chance? Clearly the practice of vocational guidance is concerned with systematizing
choice. Thus, vocational guidance is not only adjustment but also achievement and development
of the individuals to the maximum extent to be successful in their chosen occupations to be
satisfied and useful to the society.
Let us discuss the objectives of vocational guidance:
 To assist the student to know about the characteristics, functions, duties of the
occupations of his choice.
 To enable him to find out what are the specific criteria as skills, abilities, age etc. are
required for the occupations of his choice.
 To assist the student to know about his skills, abilities, interests for making wise choices.
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  To assist the student to acquire the technique of analysis before making any final choice.
 To provide opportunity for experiences in school and out of school this may provide an
idea of the work environment to the student.
 To help the student realize that all honest labour is worthwhile.

The recommendations of Education Commission set up by Government of India in 1964

indicated the aims and scope of vocational guidance. These recommendations suggest the
following:
 The aim of guidance is not just to help student in making vocational choices but also be
focused on the development of the child as good citizen.
 Guidance should be provided in solving learning difficulties, academic excellence,
developing study habits and must be started at the primary stage itself.
 Guidance role is very crucial at the college level as at this stage student faces many
problems related to educational, vocational and personal. They should be made aware
about the job market and how to make adjustment in it.
 Information may be provided about the training, competitive examinations and
scholarships available.

NEED AND FUNCTIONS OF VOCATIONAL GUIDANCE:

1. Bringing individuals at par with the demands of the jobs:
As we all know that individual differences exist among all and no two individuals can
have the same abilities, skills and personalities. We can understand it with an example as
a person can be skilled in doing a desk job while the other can be skilled in the field job
so the skill differs and thus the demand for the job also different from different
individuals. Thus here vocational guidance is needed for matching the right job with right
individual.
2. Assessing the right skill of an individual:
The capabilities and the limitations of an individual should be known to him e.g. a person
may have interest in painting but may not have the skill to take it as a career. So here the
work of vocational guidance comes to assist the individual in assessing himself and then
accordingly choosing the right kind of job.
3. Expansion of the world of work:
Now today’s jobs are available at national as well as international levels. And it gives rise
to many queries as how one can choose the best from several alternatives? How to know
about the details of the occupation? How to apply? And many more all these are dealt
with the help of vocational guidance.

FUNCTIONS OF VOCATIONAL GUIDANCE:

 Assessment of the individual in terms of his academic achievement, skills, attitude,
interest, limitations etc.
 Assessment of individual‘s present environment such as financial resources, family
background and family expectations etc.
 Assessing the suitability of the individual with that of the job demands.
 Helping the individual to come at par with the job requirements.
 Counseling for the adjustment in the job.
 Follow-up services in the form of feedback from the individuals for further modification
in the guidance programme if needed.
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Check your progress
Q2. What is the importance of knowing one’s skill for vocational guidance?

FACTORS A FFECTING VOCATIONAL CHOICE:

1) Personal Factors Affecting Career Selection
 Aptitudes - What natural abilities do you possess?
 Interests inventories - what gives you satisfaction?
 Your personality - Do you perform best in low-pressure or high-pressure working
environments?
2) Social Influences on Career Opportunities
- Demographic trends
• Increase in working parents means more demand for food service and child care.
• More leisure time means more interest in health, and recreation products and services.
• Increased demand for further employment training creates opportunities for teachers and
trainers.
- Geographic trends
• Where jobs are, salaries, and living costs. Economic Conditions affect career opportunities
3) Trends in Industry and Technology affect career opportunities
• Automated production methods have decreased the need for many entry-level employees in
factories.

Check your progress: III

Q3- Name the factors responsible for career choice.

APPROACHES TO CAREER GUIDANCE:

Career guidance refers to services and activities which assist individuals, of any age and at any
point throughout their lives, to make educational, training and occupational choices and to
manage their careers. Such services may be found in schools, universities and colleges, in the
workplace. It may take place individually or in group, and may be face-to-face or at a distance. It
includes career information provision (in print, ICT-based and other forms), assessment and self-
assessment tools, counseling interviews, career education programmes. Guidance workers often
encounter individuals having very little idea about the skills which they have and the career
related to the skill. Sometimes, sufficient time devoted to the early stages of an interview, finding
out about the individual.
There are many approaches to career guidance as Computer-aided guidance. Others are facial
expression, especially glints in the eyes, can be used to know levels of interest in particular types
of work. Often, the client will be interested in more than one. Individual judgment is required to
look at likely interactions between traits, and selecting the appropriate one.

HOLLAND’S THEORY OF CAREER

DEVELOPMENT:
The Holland Codes represents a set of personality types described in a theory of careers and
vocational choice formulated by psychologist JOHN L. HOLLAND. Holland's theory argued
that "the choice of a vocation is an expression of personality" and that the six factor typology he
articulated could be used to describe both persons and work environments. His model has been
adopted by the U.S. Department of Labor for categorizing jobs relative to interests. The Holland

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Codes are usually referred to by their first letters: RIASEC. He presented his theory graphically
as hexagon.
The shorter the distance between their corners on the hexagon, the more closely they are related.
Holland's (1992) theory of career guidance is based on four basic assumptions. The first
assumption is that most people can be characterized as one or a combination of six personality
types. Second, the theory assumes that the work environment can be classified into the same six
categories of personality. Third the theory assumes that people seek out environments
compatible with their personality types. And, fourth, the theory holds that particular behavioral
patterns emitted in any environment are determined by personality and environmental types.
The six personality and work environment types described by Holland are as follows:
Realistic- Working with your hands, tools, machines, and things; practical, mechanically
inclined, and physical.viz.agriculture, computer engineer, basketball player, chef, Gardner,
martial arts, pilot etc.
Investigative- Working with theory and information, analytical, intellectual, scientific.viz.
lawyer, statistician, surgeon.
Artistic- Non-conforming, original, independent, chaotic, creative.Viz. Actor, writer, dancer.
Social- Cooperative environments, supporting, helping, healing/nurturing.Viz. Psychologist,
professor, social worker, physician.
Enterprising- Competitive environments, leadership, persuading.Viz public relation,
administration, journalism, marketing, management.
Conventional- Detail-oriented, organizing, clerical. Viz. proof reader, copy editing, clerk, and
librarian.

Check your progress

Q4- What does RIASEC stands for?

BURNOUT AND CAREER GUIDANCE:

Meaning of burnout:
First let us discuss about the concept of burnout. What is the meaning of the term burnout?
Burnout is a psychological term for the experience of long-term exhaustion and diminished
interest. It should not be looked at as a disorder but as Problems related to life management
difficulty. The well-studied measurement of burnout in the literature is the Maslach Burnout
Inventory. Maslach and her colleague Jackson first identified the construct "burnout" in the
1970s, and developed a measure that weighs the effects of emotional exhaustion and reduced
sense of personal accomplishment. This indicator has become the standard tool for measuring
burnout in research on the syndrome. The Maslach Burnout Inventory uses a three dimensional
description of exhaustion, cynicism and inefficacy.
Many theories of burnout include negative outcomes related to burnout, including job function,
health related outcomes, and mental health problems. The term burnout in psychology was
coined by HERBERT FREUDENBERGER in 1974.
Psychologists Herbert Freudenberger and Gail North gave 12 phases of burnout, which are not
necessarily followed sequentially:
- A compulsion to prove oneself
- Working harder
- Neglecting one's own needs
- Displacement of conflicts (the person does not realize the root cause of the distress)
- Revision of values (friends or hobbies are completely dismissed)
- Denial of emerging problems (cynicism and aggression become apparent)
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 - Withdrawal (reducing social contacts to a minimum, becoming walled off; alcohol or
other substance abuse may occur)
- Behavioral changes become obvious to others
- Depersonalization (life becomes a series of mechanical functions)
- Inner emptiness
- Depression
- Burnout syndrome
The signs can vary from individual to individual, but the following are some universal indicators
that one can use to determine if career burnout is occurring:
Depression-Feelings of despair and sadness that last for weeks or months usually signal that
something in your life is not working like it should and is cause for an investigation into the
cause – potentially your job.
Lack of energy-If individual experience constant fatigue throughout the day.
Lack of desire-if an individual find that he just don‘t care if he is successful or not it‘s a warning
that the individual may have become burned out.
Decreased productivity- if the productivity of an individual is decreased and he is not coming
up to the desired expected result.
Increased absences and/or tardiness- if an individual finds every opportunity to skip out on
work.
Boredom-Occasional boredom in one‘s career is completely normal; however, pervasive
feelings of weariness and dreariness are not and are an indicator of potential burnout.
Anger/resentment in workplace-Frequently lashing out at coworkers and/or supervisors is
unacceptable under any circumstance. This behavior deserves immediate attention due to its
potentially abusive nature.
Sleep problems-Insomnia or occasional fatigue can happen to anyone but are a cause for
concern if they become constant and a part of your everyday life. Sleep disturbances are your
body‘s way of saying it is overworked.

Check your progress

Q5- Define the term burnout.

COPING WITH BURNOUT:

There are a variety of ways that both individuals and organizations can deal with burnout. In his
book, Managing stress: Emotion and power at work (1995), Newton argues that many of the
remedies related to burnout are motivated not from an employee's perspective, but from the
organization's perspective.
Let us now discuss some of the common strategies for dealing with burnout.

ORGANIZATIONAL ASPECTS:
Employee assistance programs (EAP)-Employee Assistance Programs were designed to assist
employees in dealing with the primary causes of stress. Some programs included counseling and
psychological services for employees. But nowadays it is less utilized as compared to stress
management training (SMT).
Stress management training (SMT).-Stress Management Training (SMT) is employed by
many organizations today as a way to get employees to either work through stress or to manage
their stress levels; to maintain stress levels below that which might lead to higher instances of
burnout.

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INDIVIDUAL ASPECTS:
Problem-based coping-Individual can cope with the problems related to burnout and stress by
focusing on the causes of the stress. This type of coping has successfully been linked to
reductions in individual stress.
Appraisal-based coping-Appraisal-based coping strategies deal with individual interpretations
of what is and is not a stress inducing activity.

Unit Summary
In this unit we have discussed the nature and scope of vocational guidance, why vocational
guidance is needed and how it helps an individual is discussed under the functions of vocational
guidance. The factors which affect vocational choice as social, demographic, geographical,
personal has also been talked about. An attempt has been made to acquaint you about the
Holland‘s theory of career development, usually referred as RIASEC as it contains six factor
typology, They are Realistic, Investigative, Artistic Social, Enterprising, Conventional. Meaning
and clear understanding has been made by discussing about burnout and career guidance and also
about the different strategies of coping with burnout.
SUGGESTED READING:
Agarwal, J.C, (1985), Educational Vocational Guidance and Counseling, Doaba House, New
Delhi.
Agarwal, R. (2007), Educational Vocational Guidance and Counseling, principles, techniques
and programmes. Shipra publication, Delhi.
Kochhar, S.K, (1980) Guidance and Counselling, Sterling Publishers, New Delhi.
Nanda, S.K and Sharma S, (1992) Fundamentals of Guidance, Chandigarh.
Unit activity
1. What are the objectives of vocational guidance?
2. Describe the organizational and individual coping strategies of burnout.
3. Explain the Holland‘s theory of career guidance.
4. Discuss in detail 12 phases of burnout given by Herbert Freudenberger and Gail North.
REFERENCES
Agarwal, R. (2007), Educational Vocational Guidance And Counselling, principles, techniques
and programmes. Delhi: Shipra publication.

UNIT 4

OCCUPATIONAL GUIDANCE
Objectives
Introduction
Need and Sources of Occupational Guidance
Concept
Need and importance
Collection, Filing and Classification of Occupational Information
Sources of Occupational Information
Types of Occupational Information Materials
Methods of Collection of Occupational Information
Classification of Occupational Information
Filing of Occupational Information
Dissemination of Occupational information
Group Techniques
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Individual Techniques
Job Satisfaction
Meaning of job satisfaction
Factors of Job satisfaction
Job Analysis, Job Specifications and Job Profile
Unit Summary
OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit you will be able to:
 Explain the need and importance of occupational information in the present day
 List different sources of occupational information i.e. primary secondary, international,
national and local
 List different methods of collection of occupational information
 Describe various techniques of dissemination of occupational information
 Identify various factors of job satisfaction
 Point out the relationship between job analysis, job specifications and job profile.
INTRODUCTION
Tremendous explosion of knowledge in science and technology in the modern days has enriched
the store house of information .The scientific and technological advancements have brought in
many changes in social and economic structure of our country. Among the many challenges
faced by our youths today is the choice of a right career. The occupational information, one of
the important components of guidance programme is basic to career planning and adjustment.
This unit provides you an overview of meaning, need and sources of occupational information,
methods of collection, classification and filing of occupational information, and techniques of
dissemination of occupational information. It also familiarizes you with factors affecting job
satisfaction, job analysis, job specifications and job profile.

CONCEPT AND NEEDS OF OCCUPATIONAL

INFORMATION

Concept:
Occupational information is information about the world of work‘. Occupational information
covers pertinent and reliable information relating to various occupations e.g. job contents,
training and preparation for the occupation, entry in to occupation, working conditions, salaries,
emoluments, employment outlooks and prospects etc.

Need and Importance:

Occupational information service is one of the important guidance services. The need and
importance of occupational information is as follows:
1. Career Planning: Due to vastness of educational and occupational opportunities
available today the student needs accurate reliable and useful information. Occupational
information is one of the essential aspects of career planning.
2. Career Development: Occupational information is also essential for career development
of students. The individual‘s appropriate skills, attitudes, interests, abilities, values and
self-concept depend upon accurate information about specific jobs.

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 3. Vocational thinking: In the early stage i.e elementary stage, occupational information
helps to widen the vocational thinking. This helps them to explore the vocational world.
4. Changing Perceptions: Occupational information helps to check the pre conceived
distorted notion of individual regarding some job. For example, changing the perceptions
of some individuals that nurses are bad hearted.
5. Placement: As the student gets reliable and accurate information about the job, through
occupational information it helps in placement. The student gets information about
personality traits required for a particular job, which helps in getting the job.
Apart from this, occupational information has important role in preparation of selection tests for
jobs, up gradation of skills of employed manpower and international comparison of occupational
data.

COLLECTION, FILING AND CLASSIFICATION OF

OCCUPATIONAL INFORMATION
Sources of Occupational Information:
There is array of sources for bringing occupational information materials in different forms for
use by teachers, counselors and students. These sources can be classified on the basis of nature
and scope of information. On the basis of nature of the source of occupational information it is
classified as Primary and Secondary source of information. On the basis of the scope of
information it is classified as International, National and Local
Primary and Secondary Sources: The primary source is the original or direct source from where
we get the relevant occupational information. The information collected from the employer,
employee/worker, and government bodies/agencies are example of primary sources.
The secondary sources of information are those which use information collected or published by
the original sources. These are also called indirect sources.
International, National, Local Sources: Many international, national and state/local level
organizations/agencies bring out publications related to occupations. Some of the International,
national and state/local level sources are given below.

Types of Occupational Information Materials:

The materials prepared by different agencies, institutions for occupational information broadly
classified into three types‘i.e print material, audiovisual materials and electronic materials
Print Materials Audio/Visual Electronic
Occupational Monographs Career films Radio
Employment News Career photographs Television
News Paper and Magazines Posters and charts Computers
Recruitment Literatures Audio Recording
Occupational reviews
Before using any material, you need to evaluate the accuracy, relevance, format and usefulness
of the information.

Methods of Collection of Occupational Information:

How can you collect occupational information? The occupational information can be collected
through various methods i.e. follow up surveys, community occupational survey, community
educational survey and want ad survey.

1. Follow up Survey:

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The follow up survey can be conducted to find out career adjustments of school leavers. These
provide information about educational and employment opportunities in the community. The
occupational facts provided by the survey help the school students to plan their career
realistically.
2. Community Occupational Survey:
The community occupational survey is an enumeration and description of jobs in a
geographically defined area. The survey provides an overview of occupational information about
community specific occupations, manpower trends and requirements. If you want to conduct a
community occupational survey, you have to visit with your colleagues to a nearby
office/agency/industry and obtain relevant information on name and address of the organization,
existing occupations, and manpower requirements i.e. job openings, eligibility, requirements and
salary.
3. Community Educational Survey:
A community educational survey is conducted to collect detailed information about educational
institutions in a particular geographical area. This survey covers all types of educational
institutions such as schools, colleges (medical, engineering, vocational), distance education
centers etc. Relevant information collected on courses offered, number of seats, procedure of
admission, fees, hostel, scholarship etc. will give insight. The prospectus, information bulletin of
different institutions can be studied and analyzed to compare educational facilities.
4. Want –Ad Survey:
This is the simplest and least expensive survey. It is a periodic (weekly, monthly, quarterly)
tabulation of the job openings as advertised in newspapers. Here two types of advertisements i.e.
help want ads and situation vacant ads appearing in local newspapers or neighboring
metropolitan newspapers are used. While the first type of advertisement provides information
regarding job openings the second type of ads provide data of supply of workers for possible job
openings. The tabulation of data in this survey may be done according to broad group of
classification (NCO), based on interest, curricular streams etc. Want ad surveys are of great
value to metropolitan and small cities.

Classification of Occupational Information:

Collection of a lot of occupational information necessitates storing it in a systematic manner so
that it can be used by others without difficulty whenever required. For a meaningful storage of
occupational information we have to know different ways of classifying information.
Occupational information can be classified in a number of ways such as by occupation, industry,
socioeconomic status, interests, and educational levels etc. All these classification schemes have
their own merits and limitations. Some of the Classification schemes are discussed below.
Classification by Occupation:
National Classification of Occupation (NCO-2004)
As per the NCO-2004 occupations have been classified into the following nine divisions and
skill levels.
Division Title Skill Level
1. Legislatures, Senior Officials and Managers
2. Professionals
3. Technicians and Associate professionals
4. Clerks
5. Service workers and shop, market sales workers
6. Skilled agricultural and fishery workers
7. Craft and related trade workers
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8. Plant and machine operators and assemblers
9. Elementary Occupations
Not defined

NCO-2004 groups together 2945 occupations, each occupations has been assigned a six digit
code, a distinct title and a definition. The occupations have been first assigned to ten
occupational divisions (identified by the initial digit in the code number) that are comprised of
30 sub-divisions (identified by first two digit of the code number).The subdivisions have 116
groups (identified by first three digit of the code number)

Classification by Industry:
National Industrial Classification-2004(NIC-2004)
The Central Statistical Organization (CSO) has developed the NIC-2004 in India. It has 17
sections, 62 Divisions, 161 groups, 310 classes and 1191 subclasses. The 17 sections are listed
by one letter alpha code from A to Q as below.
A. Agriculture, hunting and forestry
B. Fishing
C. Mining and quarrying
D. Manufacturing
E. Electricity, gas and water supply
F. Construction
G. Wholesale and retail trade; repair of motor vehicles, motor cycles and personal and household
goods
H. Hotels and restaurants
I. Transport, storage and communication
J. Financial intermediation
K. Real estate, renting and business activities
L. Public administration and defence; compulsory social security
M. Education
N. Health and social work
O. Other community, Social and personal service activities
P. Activities of private households as employers and undifferentiated production activities of
households
Q. Extraterritorial organizations and bodies
The NIC-2004 adopts a five digit classification where the first 2 digits indicate Division, the first
three digits represent Group, and four digits indicate Class. The subclasses (if exists) are
indicated by all the five numbers. The NIC-2004 has been used in the country for population
census, industrial survey etc.

Classification Based on Interest:

In this classification scheme, occupations are categorized according to interest areas.
Comprehensive Interest Schedule by Vohra (1993) lists eight interest areas i.e. influential,
venturous, artistic, scientific, analytical, social, nature and clerical. The type of occupation
related to interests are administrative and enterprising (Influential), Defence and Sports
(venturous), Creative and performing (Artistic), Medical and technical (Scientific), Expressive
and computational (analytical), Humanitarian and education (social).
Filing of Occupational Information:

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In school situation educational/occupational information may be available in both bound and
unbound form. The unbound materials may include leaflets, folders, newspaper clippings, notice
etc. Similarly the bound materials include prospectus, hand book, information brochures etc.
Some popular filing plans for unbound information materials are alphabetic Plan, Classification
based upon educational level, based on academic subjects or curricular stream and geographical
files etc.
Alphabetic Plan:
In this system, occupational information is classified according to the first alphabet of each
occupation. Here occupational headings to be used are collected from occupational or industrial
classification.
Classification based upon Educational Level:
Various Levels of education i.e. elementary school, secondary school, higher secondary school,
post school diploma certificate, graduation, post-graduation and M.Phil./Doctorate.
Classification based on academic subjects or Curricular Stream
Specific requirement of subjects of study for particular occupation is the basis of this
classification.
Geographical Files
Occupational information can also be filed geographically by city or state
Characteristics of a good filing system:
In order to select a filing system for the school, the guidance worker should examine all the
classification system available. Then a filing plan needs to be selected suitable to the
requirements of the school. Following are the characteristics of a good filing system suggested
by Hoppock (1976, 1.63):
 It should provide a safe place for housing written and printed documents, clippings from
newspapers and magazines, posters, pictures, films tape recordings, pamphlets, books and
anything else that may contain useful occupational information.
 It should provide one and only one designated location for each item to be filed, so that
there may be no confusion where to file an item or where to find it.
 It should be easy to use, so that all who use it can find what they want with a minimum
time and effort.
 It should bring together as many as possible of the materials on any one occupation or
industry or employer.
 It should bring together related occupations or industries or employers.
 It should provide some means of quickly finding material in omnibus books and other
publications which describe several different occupations.
 It should be expandable, so that it can grow as the collection grows.
 It should provide for filing and finding related materials, such as the results of follow up
studies and community occupational surveys.

Check your Progress-I

1 What is occupational information? State the various sources of occupational information.
2 What are the different types of occupational information? How can you collect & classify it?
3 What is filling of occupation? Explain the characteristics of a good felling system.

DISSEMINATION OF OCCUPATIONALINFORMATION
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Dissemination of occupational information about various educational and occupational
opportunities and their requirements is necessary to give exposure to students. The dissemination
of occupational information helps student to be informed about different careers, to make an
appropriate career choice and to apply the information to solve various career related problems.
Occupational information can be effectively disseminated to students through group as well as
individual techniques.

Group Techniques:
In school much of the information on career in general is disseminated through group activities.
Group techniques are used in guidance to help the normal individuals to understand themselves,
acquire information and learn to analyze problems in order to make realistic educational and
vocational choices. Following are some of the group techniques of dissemination of occupational
information:
Career Talk: It is a popular technique of dissemination of career information. As per students’
needs professionals, school alumni can be invited to deliver career talk in regular classroom. The
topic of the career talk should be carefully decided keeping in view the age group, interest and
educational level. Generally a career talk contains the following-
1. Introduction about the occupation
2. General and specific nature of work
3. Work conditions
4. Earnings
5. Qualifications required [age, education, and skills/aptitude]
6. Methods of entering the job
7. Advancement/Promotions
8. Employment outlook
9. Sources of Further information
Group Discussion: In group discussion the group of members share information collected by
each one of them and gain insight about a particular occupation. The group discussion should
start with prior information to the group about the occupation to be discussed, initiative by group
leader, interaction among students groups and reflection of discussion.
Field Trips: Field trips provide a pragmatic, interesting, enjoyable and extremely useful method
of learning and imparting occupational information (Joneja, 1997). The students get relevant
information about different occupation by visiting industries and offices. While selecting the
industry/organization/place the objective/purpose must be taken into account. Such places may
be selected where ex-students are working, because they will be able to provide more
information and help in making the tour/trip effective. It requires a lot of planning and
preparation. After the trip group wise presentation needs to be organized.
Career Exhibition: It is one of the important techniques of disseminating occupational
information. A great variety of career information materials are available from various sources.
Exhibition of career information materials may be arranged by the teacher/counselor in the
school library, guidance room, hall, and corridor or in classroom or at any other place where all
students can see them.
School Assemblies: School assemblies being a regular feature of secondary and senior secondary
schools, can provide opportunities for effective dissemination of occupational information which
may be of interest to most of the school students.
Subject Teaching: There is also scope for dissemination of Occupational information in
secondary school through subject teaching. In Language, social science, mathematics, science
there is maximum scope for diffusion of occupational information. The dissemination of
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occupational/career information by subject teachers motivate the students to learn the subject
matter with interest and to explore further information (NCERT, 2008).
Publications: The educational institution may publish Guidance Newsletter periodically for
teachers and students of the institution.

Individual Techniques:
Individual methods of dissemination of occupational information are used to help different types
of student to develop an understanding of themselves, and make career related decisions and
adjustments. Individual counseling sessions are helpful for dissemination of occupational know
how. However, as this needs one to one interaction professional expertise is essential on the part
of teacher to disseminate career information. Group techniques are more useful and economic.

JOB SATISFACTION

Meaning of Job Satisfaction:

Job satisfaction is a person‘s attitude towards the job. Positive attitude towards job are equivalent
to job satisfaction whereas negative attitude are equivalent to job dissatisfaction. Job satisfaction
describes how content an individual is with his/her job.
The happier people are within their job, the more satisfied they are said to be. Job satisfaction is
not the same as motivation, although it is clearly linked.
For the first time in 1935, the concept of job satisfaction gained momentum through the
publication by Hoppock on job satisfaction‘‘. Hoppock in his monograph has defined job
satisfaction as any combination of psychological, physiological and environmental circumstances
that causes a person truthfully to say I am satisfied with my job‘.
Job satisfaction has been defined as a pleasurable emotional state resulting from the appraisal of
one‘s job (Locke, 1976) an affective reaction to one‘s job (Cranny, Smith & Stone, 1992) and an
attitude towards one‘s job (Brief, 1998). Weiss (2002) argued that job satisfaction is an attitude
but points out that researchers should clearly distinguish the objects of cognitive evaluation
which are affect (emotion), beliefs and behaviours. This definition suggests that we form
attitudes towards our jobs by taking into account our feelings, our beliefs, and our behaviors. Job
satisfaction may also be defined as summation of employee‘s feelings in four important areas.

Factors of Job satisfaction:

Job satisfaction can be influenced by a variety of factors, e.g. the quality of one's relationship
with their supervisor, the quality of the physical environment in which they work, degree of
fulfillment in their work, etc. Numerous research results show that there are many factors
affecting the job satisfaction.
There are particular demographic traits (age, education level, tenure, position, marital status,
years in service, and hours worked per week) of employees that significantly affect their job
satisfaction.
Motivating factors are achievement, recognition, the job conducted, responsibility, promotion
and the factors related to the job itself for personal development. Motivating factors in the
working environment result in the job satisfaction of the person while protective ones dissatisfy
him/her.
Maslow connects the creation of the existence of people's sense of satisfaction with the
maintenance of the classified needs. These are: physiological needs (eating, drinking, resting,
etc.), security needs (pension, health insurance, etc.), the need to love (good relations with the
environment, friendship, fellowship, to love and to be loved), need to self-esteem (self-
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confidence, recognition, adoration, to be given importance, status, etc.) need of self-actualization
(maximization of the latent [potential] power and capacity, development of abilities, etc.).
Insufficient education, inability to select qualified workers for the job, lack of communications,
lack of job definitions, all affect job satisfaction negatively. It has been asserted that participating
in the management, having the decision making power, independence on the job and the unit
where the individual works, have positive impact upon the job satisfaction.
The job itself (the work conducted), and achievement and recognition at work result in
satisfaction while the management policy, relations with the managers and colleagues result in
dissatisfaction. Factors related to the job itself such as using talents, creativity, responsibility,
recognition have influence on the job satisfaction.
Age is one of the factors affecting job satisfaction. Studies conducted in five different countries
prove that the elder workers are more satisfied. The role people play and the status they enjoy are
all too often determined by age. Besides other things, age is also an important consideration in
determining a person‘s promotion or his/her failure to receive it. Length of service is also a
factor affecting job satisfaction.
Similarly, by some researchers, sex is also found to have an influence on job satisfaction.
Besides, Job satisfaction and devotion to the job, affected each other reciprocally, and they have
great impact upon performance. The most significant of the factors affecting performance are
economical, technical, socio-political, cultural and demographical ones. However, most efforts to
improve performance seem to center on improving the conditions surrounding the work. These
are worthwhile efforts, but they usually result only in short-term improvements in attitudes and
productivity, and the situation often returns quickly to normal.

UNIT 5
PSYCHOMETRIC METHODS ANDTECHNIQUES FOR GUIDANCE AND
COUNSELLING – QUANTITATIVETECHNIQUES

Introduction
Objectives
Psychological Tests
Intelligence Test
Interest Inventories
Aptitude Test
Achievement Test
Attitude Scale
Personality Test
Unit Summary
OBJECTIVES:
After completion of this unit, you would be able to:
Describe the meaning and uses of different psychological tests in guidance and counseling
Intelligence Test
Interest Inventories
Aptitude Test
Achievement Test
Attitude Scale
Personality Test
INTRODUCTION:

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The goal of assessment is to help counselors to develop an understanding of the client or an
individual. By using assessment and appraisal procedures, you will be able to gain understanding
of the individual and in turn foster individual‘s understanding himself or herself. In this sense,
you will appreciate that assessment and appraisal processes and procedures are the means of
obtaining comprehensive understanding of students thereby fulfilling the goal of counseling.
It is essential that, you need to be familiar with the major tools and techniques of assessment, the
purpose for which they are used and how the information provided by these can be used in
understanding the individual. Psychological testing is one of the ways of assessment.
The selection of any tool whether quantitative or qualitative depends on the type of information
the counselor is interested in gathering. In most cases both are required to be used for holistic
assessment and appraisal. In this unit, you will read about psychological tests, which are the tools
for quantitative assessment.

PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTS:
Psychological tests are designed to assess the characteristics of people such as their abilities,
attitudes, motivations, interests, needs and values and so on. Psychological test can be defined as
a sample of an individual‘s behaviour obtaining under standard conditions and scored according
to a fixed set of rules that provide a numeric score (Anastasi, 2003). In a standardized test,
individual scores are compared with a norm or standard arrived at on the basis of performance of
sample of individuals of the same age or grade level from around the country who took the same
test when it was first developed. Good standardized tests are the result of years of research. Tests
may take many forms. Usually, they comprise of a series of items questions with well-defined
correct answers such as in case of tests of intelligence or achievement, while others such as
personality inventories, do not have right or wrong answers, but are designed to assess person‘s
pre-dispositions, tendencies and preferences. Tests can be used to compare the same individual
on two or more traits and also compare two or more individuals on the same trait. Such an
assessment is usually quantitative. Although most of the psychological tests provide relatively
objective and quantifiable scores such as tests of intelligence abilities / aptitudes. Some other
tests may also provide descriptive and qualitative interpretations.

A standard test has a manual which provides complete information of how the test was
developed, evidence of its consistency, accuracy and objectivity. It also consists of detailed
instructions for administering, scoring, interpreting the test, its uses and possible misuses. The
test manual thus, provides you the requisite information to allow you to make an informed
judgment as to whether the test is suitable for your use. Besides, the requirement to select the
appropriate psychological test, a counselor needs to develop various skills in test administration,
scoring, interpretation and communicating results to clients. The following section will describe
some type of tests and the purpose for which they are used.
Psychological tests are classified into different types depending on their content and the way they
are administered. Tests vary in their content depending on the aspect of behavior that is assessed,
for example, some tests are designed to assess abilities, others assess motivation, personality
characteristics etc. Psychological tests are also classified into individual and group tests, verbal
tests and non-verbal tests and performance tests. Let us discuss one by one quantitative methods
and techniques.

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Intelligence Tests:
Intelligence has been one of the most popular psychological terms used in identifying individual
differences. It has helped to explain that people differ from each other in their ability to
understand complex ideas or to learn from experience. Different theorists have tried to explain
intelligence in different ways following different approaches. Theories by Binet, Weschler
Spearman and Thustone are based on the psychometric approach where intelligence is
considered as an aggregate of abilities. It is expressed in terms of a single index of abilities.
Howard Gardener‘s theory of multiple intelligences puts forth that intelligence is not a single
entity and there exists multiple intelligences, each distinct from others. According to him, there
are nine distinct intelligences that are relatively independent of each other. These different types
of intelligences interact and work together to provide a solution of a problem. The nine types of
intelligences proposed by Gardener are briefly discussed below.
1. Linguistic Intelligence: The capacity to use language fluently and flexibly, to express one‘s
thinking and understanding others. Used in reading a book, writing a paper, a novel or a poem;
and understanding spoken words. Poets and writers exhibit this ability.
2. Logical Mathematical Intelligence: Thinking logically, critically, using abstract reasoning
to manipulate symbols and solve mathematical problems.
3. Spatial Intelligence: Abilities involved in forming, using and transforming mental images.
Used in getting from one place to another, in reading a map, and in packing suitcase in the trunk
of a car so that they all fit into a compact space. Pilots, sailors, interior decorators, surgeons,
fashion designers generally exhibit this ability.
4. Musical Intelligence: Capacity to produce, create and manipulate musical patterns. Used in
singing a song, composing a sonata, playing a trumpet or even appreciating the structure of a
piece of music.
5. Bodily-Kinesthetic Intelligence: Ability to use one‘s body and muscle structure in a
coordinated planned way. Used in dancing, playing basketball, running a mile or throwing a
javeline. Athletes, dancers, actors, gymnasts, sports person, surgeon exhibit this more than
others.
6. Interpersonal Intelligence: Used in relating to other people, such as when we try to
understand another person‘s behaviour, motives or emotions, counselors, psychologists,
politicians, social workers, religious leaders are known to be high on this ability.
7. Intrapersonal Intelligence: Knowledge of one‘s internal strengths and limitations and using
that knowledge to relate to others.
8. Naturalistic Intelligence : Complete awareness of our relationship with the natural world,
useful in recognizing the beauty of different species of flora and fauna and making a distinction
in the natural world.
9. Existential Intelligence : Can be defined as the ability to be sensitive to, or have the capacity
for, conceptualizing or tackling deeper or larger questions about human existence, such as the
meaning of life, why are we born, why do you die, what is consciousness or how did we get here.
The multiple intelligences approach focuses on ways in which people can be intelligent.
Theorists have also tried to explain intelligence in terms of information processing approach
wherein the focus is on how an intelligent person thinks, acts and solves problems. Sternberg‘s
information processing approach focuses on how solutions are arrived. According to Sternberg,
the critical aspect of what constitutes intelligence is not necessarily the speed with which one
arrives at a solution but the processes one uses. Processing information quickly does not mean it
was done accurately or correctly. A relative rather than an impulsive style of problem solving has
been associated with higher ability to solve problems.

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Jumping to conclusions without adequate reflection can lead to erroneous thinking. The notion of
emotional intelligence broadens the concept of intelligence and involves;
i) Perceiving or sensing emotions,
ii) Using emotion to assist thoughts,
iii) Understanding emotions, and
iv) Managing emotions.
The concept of IQ dominated intelligence testing for a long time. With the emerging view of
intelligence as multifaceted, the concept of intelligence as a single unitary ability or a composite
of scores on different abilities is not considered valid. The concept of IQ has been found to be
misleading. As counselors, the focus should be on a holistic assessment focusing on strengths
and weaknesses of the client. This would help to plan remedial measures for intervention. The
multiple intelligences approach is an alternative approach to assessment of intelligence. It
emphasizes a variety of abilities and skills (and not just an aggregate of mental abilities), which
are required for success in life situations. As the meaning of intelligence differs from one culture
to another there is a need to understand the cultural context for measuring intelligence. Even
though tests of intelligence assist counselors and other personnel in providing a view of the
clients’ abilities, the scores of these tests need to be used with caution.

Interest Inventories:
In order to help students make vocational and educational choices, the counselor needs to know
his/her interest for activities. The study of interest would help you as counselor to better
understand the students in terms of his/her likes and dislikes. In this section, you will learn about
the concept of interest and its assessment.
You might have observed in your class that some students show more inclination to
mathematics, while others in computers, some in literary activities, in painting etc. Interest is an
expression of our likes and dislikes or our attractions or aversions. An individual chooses the
most acceptable, suitable alternative out of many, go after preferred objectives, activities etc. and
consequently desires satisfaction, success and happiness out of the activities selected. It is
because of his or her natural liking for these activities over others. Interest refers to activities that
an individual likes to engage in and enjoys.

Types of Interest:
Interest can be classified in different ways. Supper (1990) classified interest as
(i) expressed (ii) manifest or observed and (iii) measure or tested.
Interest testing is done to achieve some purpose such as:
- To provide teachers and counselors with information regarding the students preference
and aversions which will help them acquire better understanding of students and their
problems.
- To enable teachers, counselors and parents to assist the tests to prepare his educational
and vocational terms consistent with his interest.
- To help in the selection of the right person for the right work, and thus same frustration,
unhappiness and disappointment in the lives of the individuals and increase productive
capacity of individual.

Methods of Assessing Interests

We can use (i) formal assessment techniques and (ii) informal assessment techniques to discover
a student’s interest.
i) Formal Assessment Techniques:
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Interest inventories are formal techniques for measuring interests. They are considered more
reliable at discovering an individual’s interest than interviews as the inventories address a large
number of questions representing a broad range of carriers. There are many inventories now in
use and majority of them deal with occupational interest.

Interest Inventories
The Strong Vocational Interest Bank (SVIS) and Kuder preference Record (KPR) are significant
milestones in the area of interest measurement and a number of revisions of the original forms
have been undertaken. Both the interest inventories however better in terms of approaches in
construction and purpose for which they are used.
The SVIB is based on the assumption that a person who has the interest typical of successful
people in a given occupation will enjoy and find satisfaction in that occupation.
The KPR constructed by G. Frederic Kuder, assets preferences for specific activities. Each item
contains three choices. The subject has to select one of the three choices as his first choice, and
another as his third choice.
An example of the choices given in an item are:
- Build bird houses
- Write articles about birds
- Drawn sketches of birds.
This particular item aims to test three types of interests, namely mechanical, literacy and an
artistic.
The main difference in the two types of inventories is that in Kuder preference record the subject
is forced to say which one of the three activities he likes best and which one he likes least, even
though he may not like any of that, hence it is called forced choice pattern type. In Strong
Vocational Interest blank, the subject has to differentiate between L (like), I (indifferent) or D
(dislike).
Hence it is called category-response type of assessment. As counselor if you want a description
of a person so that inferences could be done regarding suitability for one of the very large
number of jobs, Kuder Preference Record is your preferable tool of interest assessment. On the
other hand if the purpose is to appraise the individually interest for a limited number of specific
jobs, then strong Vocational Interest Blank is more useful. It is important to remember that the
SVIB and KPR tell nothing about the ability or aptitude of an individual. These to be assessed by
other methods. Results of interest inventories or tests are particularly useful to the counselor as :
- The items of interest inventories are non-threatening and so the student is more likely to
respond honestly.
- The student, with the assistance of the counselor, is helped to see the discrepancy, if any,
between his/her view of one’s interests and those assessed by the interest inventories.
- It also provides the counsellor a view into whether the clients expressed interests are
shifted to what s/he is pursuing.
You have read about two distinct types of interest inventories. Besides, these two, some tools are
available and used by the counselor and the individual her / himself.

Informal Assessment Techniques:

It includes client’s expression of interests and observation. The clients interviews regarding
his/her interests provide the counselor a good beginning for understanding the client. For
example, the books s/he reads, and the amount of time spent on reading provides an indication of
clients’ interests on the kind of reading s/he does. As counselors you can supplement this
information by using qualitative techniques of assessment such as observation of the activities a
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client participates in or information gathered from anecdotal records and written works as
sources informal information regarding client interests.

Cautions on the use of Interest inventories

As counselor, you should keep the following cautions in mind while using the results of interest
inventories.
Interest data of an individual provides a profile of the pattern of their interests (what they like
doing) and should not be taken as the strength of the individual).
Interest results tell us only about the likelihood of an individual finding enjoyment in a
particular type of activity or occupation and not what s/he is capable of.
A high score on an interest inventory should not be considered analogues to success in a
career.
You have read in the above section that assessment of interest indicates of a simple level of what
a person likes to do and enjoy. It is important to remember that interests indicate the clients and
not his or her strength. The emphasis of interest inventories is on self-exploration. One should
know about one self and be able to relate this information to what one is doing. Thus the results
of interest inventories should not be seen in an isolate manner but should be supplemented with
information from other techniques such as observation, interview, informal talk etc. interest
results are of little value themselves. They should be considered with achievement and aptitude
scores to help individuals make educational and career choices.

Aptitude Tests:
Aptitude is thought of as a natural tendency, special ability, or capacity or cluster of abilities.
Often these natural abilities are looked at in relationship to a person’s readiness to learn or their
suitability for a particular career. For example, in order to be successful architect, one must
possess the cluster of abilities such as a keen sense of observation, a sense of aesthetic visual
memory, abstract reasoning, and an ability to sketch free hand. So, aptitude may be defined as a
trait that characterizes an individual’s ability to perform in an area or to acquire the learning
necessary for performance in a given area. It presumes an inherent or native ability that can be
developed to its maximum through learning or other experiences. However, it cannot be
expanded beyond a certain point, even by learning. Although that may be a debatable concept, it
is stated here as a basis on which aptitude tests are developed. In theory, then, an aptitude test
measures the potential of one to achieve in a given activity or to learn to achieve in that activity.
Aptitude tests may potentially be used by counselors and others because:
They may identify potential abilities of which the individual is not aware;
They may encourage the development of special or potential abilities of a given individual.
They may provide information to assist an individual in making educational and career
decisions or other choices between competing alternatives;
They may serve as an aid in predicting the level of academic or vocational success an
individual might anticipate; and
They may be useful in grouping individuals with similar aptitudes for development and other
educational purposes.

Types of Aptitude Tests:

There are different types of aptitude tests. Some of them are single aptitude tests like tests of
mechanical aptitude, clerical aptitude, teaching aptitude, musical aptitude and so on. Such tests
covering a group of related abilities are necessary for performing in an occupation like becoming
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a mechanic, clerk, teacher, musician etc. Another type of aptitude test is work sample aptitude
test. It requires the individual to perform all or part of a given job under the conditions that exist
on the job. An example of a work sample test for the job of automobile mechanic is to repair a
faulty carburetor. Besides this, there are differential tests Batteries as well. A commonly known
Differential Aptitude Tests (DAT). Bennett, Seashore and Wesman (1984) battery consists of
eight subtests of verbal reasoning, numerical reasoning abstract reasoning, spatial reasoning,
clerical speed and accuracy, mechanical reasoning, language usage, spelling, grammar,
combination of such abilities is required for success in different occupations. Such test batteries
can give comprehensive information about the relative picture of the student’s specific abilities.
Administration of total battery can prove to be costly in terms of time but one can make selective
use of certain sub tests. For example, a student trying to explore whether s/he will have the
required aptitude to go to engineering, may not be required to take tests like clerical speed,
language usage, grammatical or verbal reasoning tests but may be required to take numerical
abstract and spatial reasoning tests. Most of the batteries of tests available for assessment of
aptitude at school stage are in the form of test batteries consisting of the underlying abilities
required for success in different occupations rather than direct assessment of job aptitudes.

Caution in the use of Aptitude Test Data:

It is important that counselors select and use aptitude tests carefully, keeping in view the
student’s/client’s needs.
If aptitude test data must be used, it should be used along with previous achievement data,
present interests, leisure time activities and work habits etc. in order to guide the students into
various occupational possibilities.
The aptitude test samples certain abilities of the individual and helps to find what he/she can do
now and how well it can be done further. On the basis of present performance, estimate of
his/her future achievement is inferred which is in terms of probability only.
It may also be kept in mind that aptitude tests score only provide leads or suggestions or to
help in career planning and do not automatically match individuals to suitable courses or studies,
and occupations. These are factors like willingness, hard work, that contribute to or one’s
success in a career which are not measured by aptitude tests.

Check your Progress

1 What is Psychological Tests? State the name of different types of Psychological.
2 What are interest inventories? What cautions you should take while using it?
3 Explain various types of Test.

Achievement Tests:
Achievement is what one successfully accomplishes in an area of study / activity / domain. In the
case of students, it may be conceptualized as successful learning of the assigned educational
material. Such learning is usually demonstrated to teachers and others either through a verbal
presentation or a written examination.
An achievement test measures knowledge and skills attained by the student in a particular area,
usually acquired after classroom teaching or training. In an educational system, achievement test
scores are often used to determine the level of instruction for which a student is prepared, to
indicate academic strengths and weakness, and to indicate the relative standing of the student in a
group/class. Achievement test data, in combination with other data, is used to help guidance
counselors plan students’ future educational programmes.
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Types of Achievement Test:
Achievement tests are of different kinds, each scoring a different purpose and providing different
information on students ‘academic proficiency. These have been classified in various ways, and
understanding of which helps the counselor to understand their functions.
Formative and Summative Tests: Formative tests are used to measure progress made in
knowledge and skills before and during instruction. Summative achievement tests are given at
the end of course instruction, so as to assess the outcome of the instruction.
Prognostic Tests: Readiness or prognostic tests are used to predict how well an individual is
expected to profit from training.
Diagnostic Test: Diagnostic achievement tests provide information on performance of the
students in different subjects and indicate their strengths and weakness in reading, arithmetic and
language usage.
Achievement test can be either criterion referenced (CRT) or norm referenced (NRT). The two
tests differ in their intended purposes, the way in which content is selected, and the scoring
process which defines how the test results must be interpreted.
Norm Referenced Tests (NRTs) are designed to highlight achievement differences between and
among students and provide a rank order of students across a continuum of achievement from
high achievers to low achievers. These types of tests are used to help counselors/ teachers to
clarify students for remedial or gifted
Programmes. Criterion-reference tests (CRTs) determine the strengths of the test taker i.e. what
they can do and what they know, not how they compare to others. They report how well students
are doing relative to a predetermined performance level on a specified set of educational goals or
outcomes included in the school curriculum.
An achievement test is designed to measure how much a person knows about a specific topic or
area such as math, geography or science. Achievement tests can be standardized test or teacher-
made tests.

Uses of Achievement Test Data

Data from standard achievement tests can be used for promoting, classifying, diagnosing or
evaluating students. Counselors can also use the achievement tests for:
Helping clients in decision making. A counselor can use the achievement test scores to initiate
decision on taking appropriate choices for a career.
Assisting in diagnosis: counselors can make use of achievement test data to diagnose problems
faced by the students in different subject areas. Accordingly corrective remediation can be
planned and carried out.
Encouraging self-study. The student through achievement data, is able to gain insight into
his/her strengths and weakness in different subjects which can motivate him/her to put in the
desired effort.
Achievement test are used as learning measures of (1) the amount of learning, (2) the rate of
learning (3) comparisons with others or with achievement of self in other areas, (4) level of
learning in sub-areas, and (5) strengths and weaknesses in a subject matter area because of their
extensive use and relatively easy task of identifying appropriate context measures.
Achievement tests of both kinds i.e. standardized and teacher –made tests are based on the
content taught and are considered valid. These are used to assess the level of overall proficiency
to meet the entry requirements to certain/ programmes or the proficiency in a particular subject.
The informal classroom achievement test is suited to a select performance of a group of students.
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It is flexible and accommodates testing students on a local curriculum. The two types of tests can
be used in a complementary manner.

Personality Test:
Often by persons use the term personality to indicate the physical make up of an individual. The
term ―Personality‖ however, signifies much more than simply the physical looks of a person
and has a very broad meaning. It includes the emotional, motivational, inter-personal, attitudinal
and even moral aspects of a person. Some researchers have included intelligence also as part of
personality. Personality refers to a unique combination of characteristics of an individual, which
pre-disposes the person to behave in a particular and consistent way. Personality testing is
necessary to achieve the following purposes.
It helps the students in proper educational and vocational choice. Personality plays an
important role in an individual’s personal, educational and vocational adjustment and success.
It is, therefore, important to diagnose the individual‘s personality pattern to see whether he
possess the traits which are likely to contribute significantly to his adjustment to the course or
career he is choosing.
It helps the individual in resolving emotional conflicts.
Personality diagnosis becomes essential when the difficulty the individual encounters in making
proper adjustment with the educational and occupational choices, lies in emotional conflict about
which the client has no knowledge. When the cause of the mental conflict is diagnosed, it may be
possible for him to solve his problem in his own way.
It helps the clinical psychologist. A clinical psychologist can use personality assessments to
help choose the best therapy for his clients. Thus, personality assessment is important for
educational, career, personal and social counseling.

Techniques of Testing Personality:

A number of techniques are used for testing personality. The techniques are :
Interview
Observation
Self-report Measures
Checklists
Rating Scales
Situational Tests or Behavioural Tests
Projective Techniques
Anecdotal Records
Autobiography
The Daily Diary
Here we can discuss some of the techniques of assessment of personality like self-report
measures, projective techniques and behavioral assessment.
Self-Report Measures: Self-report measures are personality scales that ask individuals to
answer a series of questions / statements about their characteristic behaviour. When you respond
to a self-report personality inventory, you endorse statements as true or false as applied to you.
You indicate how often you behave in a particular way or you rate yourself with respect to
certain qualities. The logic underlying this approach is simple. Who knows you better than you
do ? A variety of personal characteristics can be measured through self-report inventories.
Projective Technique: Projective techniques focus on a composite picture of the personality as
a whole. This method is called the projective techniques because the individual is stimulated to
project his personality into the test exercises.
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The stimuli used in projective techniques attempt to arouse responses that are a projection of the
inner self or motives and personality traits that are usually hidden and often even unsuspected by
the individual himself. The subject may be asked to respond to series of picture, inkblots or
similarly ambiguous stimuli. The interpretation of responses requires a long period of training
and should be done only by those who are specially qualified.
Behavioural Assessment : The manner in which a student / client behaves in different situations
can provide you with meaningful information about his / her personality. Observation of
behaviour, teacher reports, interviews, ratings and situations tests serve as the basis of
behavioural analysis.
The choice of a specific personality test is difficult but extremely relevant as different tests yield
somewhat different, yet overlapping types of information. Some provide limited information
while other provide a lot of information, some of which is very technical to understand. Of
course, the more the information available, you may be able to help in more domains. You
should choose a test that is relevant to clients. The test must have norms available. You should
also be aware of the limitations of the test, particularly the conditions in which it may mislead
the respondents or you. Even when a test is used the counselor may interpret and use the test
scores along with non-test information, keeping in mind the age, gender, social group, culture,
language of the client.

Check your Progress

1 Write short notes on the following :
a) Types of achievement tests.
b) Uses of achievement test data
c) Techniques of testing personality
d) Types of attitude scale.
Unit Summary
Psychological test is an objective and standardized measure of a sample of behaviour. Tests are
used for selection, classification, diagnosis and prediction. School counselors, teachers and
administrators use test data for different purposes. The essential characteristics of standardized
psychological test are: objectivity, reliability, validity and norms. Counselors need to develop
skills in test administration, scoring, interpretation of test results, and communicating results to
their clients. General considerations for counselors in the appraisal process relate to being in
good psychological health, developing sensitivity for the client, showing open mindedness,
respecting the client, having attentiveness and showing empathy towards the client.
Tests and testing have been criticized because of their misuse and issues like labeling,
inaccuracy, culture bias, invading privacy, encouraging competition. There is a need for
standardization of all procedures and scoring of psychological tests for accuracy in results.
Counselors need to take cautions in using psychological tests like interest inventories, aptitude
tests, achievement tests, intelligence tests, attitude scale, and personality tests.
SELF-EVALUATION TESTS
1. Explain the meaning of a psychological test
2. Name three types of aptitude test
3. How does the notion of intelligence changed over the years.
4. List five techniques for testing personality
5. State the four key abilities of Emotional Intelligence
SUGGESTED READINGS:
Benett, G.K., Seashore, H.G. andWesman, A.G., (1984) Differential Aptitude Tests: Technical
Supplement, Psychological Corporation, New York
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Educational Testing Services (ETS), New Jersey
Shertzer, B. and Linlen, J.D. (1979). Fundamentals of individual Appraisal: Assessment
techniques for counselors. Houghton Mifflin Co., Boston
Gardner, H. (1983). Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple Intelligence. Basic Book, New
York.
Sternberg R.J., (2007). Cognitive Psychology (4th ed.) Yale University, Indian Edition.
Cervone, D. and Shoda, Y. (1999).The Coherence of Personality. Gilford, New York.
Assessment and Appraisal in Guidance and Counselling – I, NCERT, New Delhi
Assessment and Appraisal in Guidance and Counselling – II, NCERT, New Delhi
Kochhar, S.K. (1985).Educational Guidance and Counselling.

QUALITATIVE ASSESSMENT TOOLS

AND TECHNIQUES FOR GUIDANCE AND
COUNSELLING

Objectives
Introduction
Qualitative Assessment Test and Tools
Socio-metric Technique
Case Study
Cumulative Record Card
Autobiography
Observation
Interviews
Home visits
Ethical basis in the use of Psychological Tests and Tools
Unit Summary
Self-Evaluation Exercises
Suggested Readings
OBJECTIVES
After completion of this unit, you will be able to:
Describe the important characteristics of seven qualitative methods
Stoichiometric Technique
Case Study
Cumulative Record Card
Autobiography
Observation
Interviews
Use qualitative methods to develop a holistic understanding of the client
Describe ethical basis in the use of psychological tests and tools
INTRODUCTION:
You have read in the previous unit about the uses of psychological tests which are the tools for
quantitative assessment of an individual / client. As you know, tests provide a score related to a
particular area of the individual. This score in itself does not tell everything about the individual.
To enhance your understanding about an individual / client, you will need to use other
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assessment techniques that provide explanations of both the why and how of a particular
situations or incident. This is the basis of the qualitative assessment. The focus of qualitative
enquiry is not on highlighting differences among the individuals but on the uniqueness of
individuals. Qualitative assessment helps to understand an individual‘s behaviour in relation to
the context and situation. In this unit, you will read about qualitative assessment tools. There are
a number of standard techniques used to form a qualitative assessment. Observation, interviews,
sociometry, case study, analysis of documents, informal talks, artifacts, rating scales, checklists,
self-descriptions etc. are all sources of data in qualitative. You will study in this unit how the
techniques of sociometry, case study, cumulative record card, autobiography, observation,
interviews and home visits are used for qualitative assessment to develop a holistic view of the
client. You will also read about ethical basis in the use of psychological tests and tools.

Case Study:
A case study is an in-depth, intensive and detailed study of an individual or the client. The focus
in case study is on factors contributing to the development of particular personality patterns
and /or problems. The case study employs all possible tools and techniques that seem appropriate
to understand an individual (e.g., observation, interview, self-reports, teacher‘s ratings, checklist,
sociometry, document analysis, anti-biographics etc.). It gives detailed information regarding
different perspectives that cannot be attained by any other methods. Case study is the most
comprehensive of all analytical techniques because it makes use of all other assessment
techniques.
Case study as an assessment technique is used by counselors to provide a means of integrating
and summarizing all available information about the client in order to determine what further
steps should be taken to enhance his or her development.
Remember that collection of case study data is not simple stockpiling of information. Rather, the
purpose of a case study is to present the client as a fully functioning totality‖ within his/her
environment. Therefore, a case may be selected to understand the mechanism by which problems
accrue or a case study may attempt to achieve a better understanding of the problems of a child.
For example, a case study may be conducted on student who has a problem in reading or in
arithmetic. We employ case study method to study the whole individual (in her dynamic
developmental process) so that we may better understand his concerns, the reasons for his
actions and behaviours and plan the course of action, which is appropriate for him.
Therefore we may say case study is a synthesis and interpretation of information about the client
and his/her relationships to his / her environment. As counselors it would help
you to understand the nature and cases of the client‘s behaviour, personality trends and
difficulties in adjustment. Then the question arises how to conduct a good case study? You will
now learn about the characteristics of a good case study, types of information used, how a case
study is organized and how to report a case study.

Characteristics of a Good Case Study:

A good case study is concerned with the individual’s past, present and future. The data
collected from different sources, at different times through various tools and techniques, should
be analyzed synthesized and presented in a manner to present a complete view of the individual/
clients life.
A good case study is dynamic and longitudinal and not static and cross sectional.

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The focus of the case study may be the whole individual or a small part. The focus of the study
varies widely and depends on the age of the client, the purpose of assessment, the working
situation and the experience of the counselor.

Types of information used in a Case Study:

You have learnt that the aim of gathering information about a person is to develop a holistic
perspective, to be able to understand him / her and provide proper guidance and counseling. The
various kinds of information used in a case study are gathered from all reliable sources.
Cumulative records, observations, interviews, self-reports, tests, peer appraisal data, teacher’s
perceptions, from parents, friends, and relatives.

Organization of a Case Study:

The organization of case study depends on two major factors:
The purpose for which the case study is being prepared. This depends upon the heads of the
client, counselor, parents, referral agency or purpose of study.
The competencies and skill of the counselor/researcher in collecting, organizing and using
information.
Organization involves providing an outline or format and developing and executing a logical
plan such as to present the information in an integrated manner.

An Outline for a Case Study Report:

An example of proforma for reporting a case study of a client is given below:
i) Identification of data: should consist of
Name of the Client:
Sex: Male / Female
Father‘s Name:
Mother‘s Name:
Father‘s occupation:
Date of Birth:
Class:
School:
Language used at home:
Present and permanent address:
ii) Referral Source
Personal history:
Date of assessment
Duration:
Nature of problem
Opinion of parents:
Onset and teachers:
Seriousness:
Frequency of occurrence of problem:
iii) Educational History and Record
Cumulative record card/anecdotal record:
Is there any change school with reason?
iv) Health background
v) Home and family background and neighbourhood
vi) Friends and acquaintance
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The steps in developing a case study are given below.
Recognition and determination of the status of the problem to be investigated.
Collection of data relating to the factors and circumstances associated with the given problem.
Diagnosis or identification of causal factors as a basis for remedial or developmental treatment.
Application of remedial or adjustment measures.
Subsequent follow-up to determine the effectiveness of the treatment.

Caution in using Case Study:

A counselor may guard against errors which creep in unknowingly.
The case study should penetrate into the problems under study. It should not be superficial.
Parents should be contacted. Medical opinion should be sought. All those who come into
contact with the individual should be approached. The study should not be one sided.
All possible details should be gathered and not even the slightest detail should be over looked.

3 Cumulative Record Card:

Cumulative record cards, personal data cards and permanent data cards are some of the
synonyms to denote a record system which gives us a picture of the student from many different
sources. It is progressively developed and maintained over a longer period of time, and gives a
summarized ―growth record‖ indicating the direction and rate of development. It shifts the
emphasis from one-time or once a year performance in a few academic subjects to the full
development regarding all the important aspects of education and general, physical, social and
mental development over a longer period of time. Essentially meaningful and functionally
adequate information is collected from various sources, techniques, tests, interviews,
observations, case study and the like, is assembled in a summary form on a cumulative record
card, so that it may be used when the student needs our advice for the solution of some
educational or vocational problem. The cumulative record has been defined as ―a method of
recording, filing and using information essential for the guidance of students. A cumulative
record and supplies information on points such as the following.
a) Personal : (i) name, (ii) date of birth, (iii) place and evidence of birth, (iv) sex, (v) colour (vi)
residence
b) Home: (i) Names of parents, (ii) occupation of the parents, (iii) parents live or dead (iv)
economic status, (vi) number of siblings, older or younger, (vi) language spoken in the house.
c) Test Scores (i) general intelligence, (ii) achievement, (ii) other test scores, (iv) personality
traits.
d) School Attendance :(i) days present or absent each year, (ii) schools attend with data.
e) Health: record physical disabilities, vaccination record, diseases suffered from.
f) Miscellaneous: (i) vocational plans (ii) extra-curricular activities, (iii) counselors note.
If we analyze the items recorded on a cumulative record card, we find that only such items are
included as are recorded in a case study. Data collected through non-standardized techniques like
check lists, questionnaires, autobiographies do not find a place in the record card file. It must be
remembered that recording and filing of information are not as important as using the
information.

Need and Importance of Cumulative Record:

The cumulative records about students provide useful information to teachers, counselors and
administrators. The need and importance of cumulative records in guidance are given below:

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Importance of Guidance:
The basic principle and assumptions of guidance take into consideration the individual
differences. Cumulative records reveal such individual differences and indicate the nature and
amount of professional assistance needed by individual students of various stages of their
development. It is useful in analyzing the future needs of the individual student and proper
educational and occupational guidance can be offered on the basis of his needs.

Importance in Teaching:
The cumulative records of different students help the teacher in classifying students in
accordance with scholastic attitudes and mental abilities.
They are diagnostic tools to analyze a behaviour problem or an educational one. For example,
why is a student backward in the class? What steps can be taken to remove his / her
backwardness?
Cumulative record indicate the students who had special help and adjust the teaching
accordingly.

Characteristics of a Good Cumulative Record:

The following are the characteristics of a good cumulative record.
1. Information gathered should be complete, comprehensive and adequate so that valid
inferences may be drawn.
2. Information recorded should be true and valid. Like other tools of measurement, a cumulative
record can be valid only when it measures what it intends to measure.
3. Information to be reliable should be collected by a number of teachers and then pooled.
A cumulative record should be reevaluated from time-to time.
A cumulative record should be objective and free from personal opinions and prejudices.
It should be usable. A cumulative record may be card types, folder type or booklet type.

Check your progress

1 Uses of sociometric techniques
2 Cautions in using case-study.
3 Characteristics of a good cumulative Record card.

4 Autobiography:
You might have read a number of autobiographies of great personalities, some of the common
ones are ―My Experiments with Truth by Mahatma Gandhi, autobiography of an unknown
Indian by Niral C. Choudhury. An autobiography is a description of an individual in his own
words. As a guidance technique for studying the individual, it gives a valuable information about
the individual‘s interests, abilities, personal history, hopes, ambitions, likes, dislikes, etc. In
guidance, structured autobiographic items are given to the individual and he is asked to write
them out. The autobiographical material is verified by various other means. Since feelings,
values and attitude cannot be measured by any other technique, autobiography appears to be the
one technique for appraising these characteristics.

5 Observation:
Observation is the most direct method of learning about the development of children. Since it
requires focus on the child‘s behaviour, observation allows the counselor to know the child as a
unique individual, rather than as a member of a group. One of the most accurate ways to learn
about children is to observe them in their daily activities. It requires systematic and rigorous
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observation, which involves far more than just being present and looking around. To understand
fully the complexities of many situations, direct participation and observation of the
student/client is considered one of the best approaches.
What to observe:
Observation is often used by teachers to understand the cognitive, affective, and motor
development of children. What kind of individual actions are important for a counselor to
observe and record, what has to be observed would depend a lot on the problem faced by the
client, no exclusive list of indicators can be given.
How to observe:
Systematic and objective observation requires preparation and training. Training includes how to
write descriptively, recording field notes, using method for validating observations. Preparation
for observation has mental, physical, intellectual and psychological dimensions. The quality of
information gathered from observation can be increased with training in the observer‘s skills.
The observer must know what to look for, how to record desired information and how to explain
the behaviour. The accuracy, validity and reliability of observations can be improved through
rigorous training and careful preparation. It is important to remember that the purpose of
observational data is to describe.
the setting that was observed,
the activities/behaviour that took place in the given setting,
the people who performed the behaviour or participated in the activities, and
the meaning of what was observed from the perspective of those observed.
As counselors you can make use of different sources for collection of observational data. These
sources could be documents (such as personal diaries, registers, or memos, etc.) interviews,
informal talks, physical settings (how space is used, lighting etc.), social settings
(communication pattern, how decisions are taken etc.), non-verbal cues, or un obstructive
indicators (equipment in the laboratory, books used in the library, conditions of carpets etc.).
Variations in observation:
Counsellors can make observations in a number of settings such as homes, schools, classrooms,
communities and organizations depending on the needs of the student. Variations occur due to a
number of factors associated with nature of counselors participation, extent of involvement,
duration of observation, duration and focus of observation (Patton, 1990) these five factors can
cause variations in an observation.
Nature of Participation:
Observation can be made by being part of clients setting i.e. full participant or it can be made by
observing from distance i.e. as a spectator. The extent to which the counselor or observer
participates in the setting /case being studied can also cause variations in observation. A
counselor can start as a spectator and gradually become a full participant or vice versa.
Portrayed of Observer Role:
The observations made can be overt i.e. purpose of making observation is not revealed to the
client or it can be covert i.e., clients know that observations are being made.
Duration of Observation:
Observations can vary from one hour to one year. However, all the observations should last long
enough to get the answers to client‘s problem.
Focus of Observation:
The focus of observation could be to gain holistic view of the client, therefore, all the necessary
aspects of the client have to be considered, or on the other hand, one single aspect can be studied.
Methods of Recording Observation:

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After having learned about what and how to observe, you now read to learn about the technique
to record observations i.e. field note taking.

Field Note:
Field notes contain the description of what has been observed. They are descriptive, should be
dated, should contain basic information about when and where the observation took place, who
was present, what the physical setting was like, what activities took place, and what social
interactions occurred. It should permit the counselor, as observer, to experience the activity
observed while reading the observation and analyzing the data collected. There are a number of
ways for developing field notes.
Anecdotes records and critical event records are two examples of field notes.
Guidelines for Observation:
There are a few rules to follow when making observations as part of a qualitative enquiry.
Be descriptive in taking field notes (anecdotal records, critical incidents).
Gather information from different perspectives (client, peers, parents, and teachers etc.).
Cross-validate and triangulate by using data from different sources; observation, interview and
documents, etc. and using more than one investigator.
Present the views of the people, their experiences in their own words.
Separate description from interpretation and judgment.

6 Interviews:
The purpose of interviewing is to know what’s going on in a person‘s mind. You interview
people to find out from them those things you can‘t directly observe such as feelings, intentions
and thoughts. You cannot observe things that happened in the past, or the meanings attached to
things or incidents going on around. To obtain information about these you have to ask
questions. This helps you to know another‘s perspective.
In-depth, open-ended interviewing aims to capture the clients‘experiences and perspectives on
their problem in their own terms. Open-ended interviewing is based on the assumption that
other‘s perspective is meaningful. It is important to remember that skillful interviewing involves
much more than asking questions.
Now, you will learn about the types of interviews content of interview, and guidelines on how to
question to conduct an interview with the client.
Types of Interviews:
You will now read about the different types of interviews.
Informal Conversational Interview:
It relies on spontaneous questioning which may take place as part of the counsellor‘s participant-
observation. Over the course of an informal talk, the client may not even realize that she / he is
being interviewed. In such interviews, the data gathered would be on aspects that differ for each
client depending on the issues that emerge from the conversation. The major advantage is that
the interview is highly individualized to the client and produces information or insights that the
counselor/ interviewer may not have anticipated. This type of interview requires the counselor to
be experienced in the content area and strong in interpersonal skill.
Interview Guide Approach
It involves deciding before the interview, the issues that are to be explored with the client i.e.,
identifies topics, but not actual wording of questions, thereby offering flexibility. These
identified issues are used to guide the interview and keep it on track and ensure that they are

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covered. This kind of interview is focused and hence the data collected are more systematic and
comprehensive than informal conversational interview.
Standardized Open-ended Interview:
This interview consists of set of questions arranged in a sequence, which are asked to each client.
It minimizes the variation in the questions passed to the client at the same time provides scope to
the client to give responses that are open-ended. This reduces the possibility of biases that come
from having different types of interviews with different people. Data obtained from such
interviews are systematic and thorough for each client but it reduces flexibility and spontaneity
because the questions are predetermined thus leaving little scope for issues that may emerge
during the course of the interview. The advantage of these type of interview is that it is the most
structured and efficient of the qualitative interviewing techniques.
The Focus Group Interview:
In the interview the counselor becomes a facilitator among the interviewees in a group setting
where they hear and react to one another‘s responses. Focus groups can be used by counselors to
assess the needs of a student group, obtain general background information about a topic or
diagnose the potential problems of a group of students. In this type of interview the counsellor‘s
role is of a moderator, directing the interaction and inquiry in a manner that the purpose of
interview is served.
The common characteristic of all qualitative approaches to interviewing is that the people being
interviewed respond in their own words and provide own personal perspectives.
Content of Interviews:
Before an interview is conducted it is important to plan the type of interview whether it will be
the informal conversation, the interviewing guide approach, the standardized open-ended
interview or the focus group. Then it is important to know about the different kinds of questions
that could be asked while interview the client. The counselor must decide what questions are to
be asked, the sequence of questions, the details required, time of the interview and how to word
the actual questions. The different kinds of questions that could be asked by the counselor are
behaviour / experiential questions, opinion/ values questions, feeling questions, knowledge
questions, sensory questions, demographic questions.
How to Question:
The way the question is worded is important. There are no fixed rules of sequencing questions
for an interview. Informal conversational interviews are flexible and, therefore, fixed schedule is
not required. However, standardized open-ended interviews must have a sequence because of
their structural formed.
General Principle of Interview:
The following are the guidelines to make an interview successful.
The counsellor should feel the need of interview and counseling.
The counselor should have all relevant data about the client before he starts counseling.
A rapport should be established between the counselor and the counselee. It is a sort of
personal relationship of mental trust and respect based on the feelings of confidence and security.
Discussion should be restricted to issue at hand.
When the counselee expresses himself he should be accepted. The counselor will gain nothing
by antagonizing or embarrassing the counselee.
The counselee should be allowed to take the lead in making decisions.
The interview should end with a constructive note.
Interview is an art and a skill that is developed with practice.

ETHICAL BASIS IN THE USE OF

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PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTS AND TOOLS:
Guidance like other professions has its own ethics, the core of which is respect for the individual.
Every counselee is equal in the eyes of the counselor. Further the action of the counselor is
governed by the belief that every individual possesses certain strengths. A good counselor helps
to facilitate the strengths of the individual and overcome his / her weaknesses. Another important
aspect of guidance ethics is that the counselor regards all information or data about the individual
as strictly confidential and never tries to misuse the data. The counselee confides everything to
the counselor, and it is the moral duty of the counselor to maintain confidentiality. Besides, the
counselor should never use the counseling session for the purpose of indoctrination or for the
satisfaction of his own needs. He must always respect the freedom and dignity of the counselee.
It is also important for the counselors to adhere to the ethical norms in the use of psychological
test scores.

Check your progress-II

Unit Summary
Qualitative assessment provides an in-depth understanding and a holistic perspective about a
client. The qualitative approach differs from a quantitative approach in its methodology of
studying people. In fact, they provide answer to different questions.
Qualitative approach is known to be descriptive, flexible, subjective, in-depth, interpretive and
holistic in nature. The focus is on the uniqueness of an individual. One way to strengthen
qualitative analysis is to use triangulation i.e. use of several methods to study the same behaviour
/ phenomena. Observation and open-ended interview are two important tools of qualitative
inquiry. Systematic and objective observation requires preparation and training. The observer
must know what to look for, how to record the obtain information and how to explain.
Interviews help to obtain the client perspective. Those are different approaches to collect
qualitative data through open-ended interviewing. Before conducting interview, it is important to
decide the kind of questions to be asked, their sequence, thinking and wording them. Sociometry
is a technique for evaluating the social acceptance of individual students and the social structure
of a group i.e. how each individual in a group is perceived. Case study is an in-depth, intensive
and detailed study of each and every pertinent aspect of an individual or phenomenon. Case
study method is used for summarizing and integrating assessment information. The information
used in a case study gathered from all reliable sources, cumulative records, observations,
interview, task, peer appraisals, home visit and teacher‘s perception etc. Ethical codes and
standards have been developed for proper use of psychological test. It is important for the
counselors to adhere to the ethical norms while using the tools.
UNIT EXERCISE
1. How can be inaccuracies in observations be reduced?
2. What are the characteristics of a good case study?
3. Discuss in brief the importance of cumulative records in teaching.
4. List any five qualitative assessment techniques you would like to use in your school.
5. Fill in the blanks with appropriate answer given below.
a) Sociometry is a method for evaluating the ____________ of an individual and the
______________ of a group.
b) Peer appraisal technique life sociometric procedures are especially useful in
evaluating___________ development.
c) Sociometry is based on students’ ___________ of comparisons for some activity.
d) In order to organize and classroom groups, teachers can make use of _____________
technique to know this group structure.
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(a) Sociometric (b) Personal – Social (c) Social acceptance, social structure (d) Choices
2. Elaborate on the following points
A good case study is always concerned with the individual‘s past, present and future i.e. it
should provide complete view of an clients life.
A case study should be dynamic and longitudinal and not static or cross-sectional. It should
provide all the necessary information to plan remediation and it should provide scope to review
the effects of remediation programme.
The focus of case study should vary widely i.e. it may focus on whole individual or small
selected segment of an individual or client such as aggressive behaviour of the individual or
client.
3. Indicate the relationship scholastic attainment and the mental abilities
In classifying pupils in accordance with scholastic aptitudes and mental abilities.
Help in identification of students who need individual attention, remedial teaching, enrichment
teaching etc.
Helps the teachers in writing reports about individual students.

SUGGESTED READINGS:
Stake, R.E., 1995.The Art of Case Study Research. Sage, London Wragg, E.C., 1994.An
Introduction to Classroom Observations. Routledge, London
Manual for Guidance Counsellor, NCERT, New Delhi
Anastasi, A. 2003. Psychological Testing (5th ed.), Mc. Millan, New York
Hood A.B. and Johnson, R.W., 1997. Assessment in Counselling (2nd ed.). American
Counselling Association, Alexandria, VA Assessment and Appraisal in Guidance and
Counselling –I, NCERT, New Delhi
Assessment and Appraisal in Guidance and Counselling – II, NCERT, New Delhi
Kochhar, S.K. (1985). Educational Guidance and Counselling

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REFERENCES

Agrawal (2006) Educational, Vocational Guidance and Counselling, New Delhi: Sipra
Publication

Benett, G.K., Seashore, H.G. and Wesman, A.G., (1984) Differential Aptitude Tests:
Technical Supplement, Psychological Corporation, New York: Educational Testing Services
(ETS).

Bhatnagar,A and Gupta,N(1999).Guidance and Counselling :A theoretical Approach, New

Delhi,Vikash Publishing House

Cervone, D. and Shoda, Y. (1999).The Coherence of Personality. New York: Gilford.

Gardner, H. (1983). Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple Intelligence. New York:

Basic Book.

Jones, A.J. (1951).Principles of Guidance and Pupil Personnel work, New York: McGraw
Hill

Kochhar, S.K., (1985): Educational and Vocational Guidance in Secondary Schools, New
Delhi: Sterling Publisher

NCERT (2008).Introduction to Guidance, New Delhi: DEPFE

Shertzer, B. and Linlen, J.D. (1979).Fundamentals of individual Appraisal: Assessment

techniques for counselors. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co.

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