History

Modern calculus was developed in 17th-century Europe by Isaac Newton and Gottfried Wilhelm
Leibniz (independently of each other, first publishing around the same time) but elements of it first
appeared in ancient Egypt and later Greece, then in China and the Middle East, and still later again in
medieval Europe and India.

Ancient precursors

Egypt

Calculations of volume and area, one goal of integral calculus, can be found in the Egyptian Moscow
papyrus (c. 1820 BC), but the formulae are simple instructions, with no indication as to how they
were obtained.[9][10]

Greece

Archimedes used the method of

exhaustion to calculate the area
under a parabola in his work
Quadrature of the Parabola.

Laying the foundations for integral calculus and foreshadowing the concept of the limit, ancient
Greek mathematician Eudoxus of Cnidus (c. 390–337 BC) developed the method of exhaustion to
prove the formulas for cone and pyramid volumes.
During the Hellenistic period, this method was further developed by Archimedes (c. 287 –
c. 212 BC), who combined it with a concept of the indivisibles—a precursor to infinitesimals—
allowing him to solve several problems now treated by integral calculus. In The Method of
Mechanical Theorems he describes, for example, calculating the center of gravity of a solid
hemisphere, the center of gravity of a frustum of a circular paraboloid, and the area of a region
bounded by a parabola and one of its secant lines.[11]

China

The method of exhaustion was later discovered independently in China by Liu Hui in the 3rd century
AD to find the area of a circle.[12][13] In the 5th century AD, Zu Gengzhi, son of Zu Chongzhi,
established a method[14][15] that would later be called Cavalieri's principle to find the volume of a
sphere.

Medieval

Ibn al-Haytham, Indian mathematician and

11th-century Arab astronomer Bhāskara II
mathematician
and physicist

Middle East

In the Middle East, Hasan Ibn al-Haytham, Latinized as Alhazen (c. 965 – c. 1040 AD) derived a
formula for the sum of fourth powers. He determined the equations to calculate the area enclosed

by the curve represented by (which translates to the integral in contemporary

notation), for any given non-negative integer value of .[16]He used the results to carry out what
would now be called an integration of this function, where the formulae for the sums of integral
squares and fourth powers allowed him to calculate the volume of a paraboloid.[17]
India

Bhāskara II (c. 1114–1185) was acquainted with some ideas of differential calculus and suggested
that the "differential coefficient" vanishes at an extremum value of the function.[18] In his
astronomical work, he gave a procedure that looked like a precursor to infinitesimal methods.
Namely, if then This can be interpreted as the
discovery that cosine is the derivative of sine.[19] In the 14th century, Indian mathematicians gave a
non-rigorous method, resembling differentiation, applicable to some trigonometric functions.
Madhava of Sangamagrama and the Kerala School of Astronomy and Mathematics stated
components of calculus. They studied series equivalent to the Maclaurin expansions of ⁠ ⁠,
⁠, and ⁠ ⁠more than two hundred years before their introduction in Europe.[20]
According to Victor J. Katz they were not able to "combine many differing ideas under the two
unifying themes of the derivative and the integral, show the connection between the two, and turn
calculus into the great problem-solving tool we have today".[17]

Modern

Johannes Kepler's work Stereometria Doliorum (1615) formed the basis of integral calculus.[21]
Kepler developed a method to calculate the area of an ellipse by adding up the lengths of many radii
drawn from a focus of the ellipse.[22]

Significant work was a treatise, the origin being Kepler's methods,[22] written by Bonaventura
Cavalieri, who argued that volumes and areas should be computed as the sums of the volumes and
areas of infinitesimally thin cross-sections. The ideas were similar to Archimedes' in The Method,
but this treatise is believed to have been lost in the 13th century and was only rediscovered in the
early 20th century, and so would have been unknown to Cavalieri. Cavalieri's work was not well
respected since his methods could lead to erroneous results, and the infinitesimal quantities he
introduced were disreputable at first.

The formal study of calculus brought together Cavalieri's infinitesimals with the calculus of finite
differences developed in Europe at around the same time. Pierre de Fermat, claiming that he
borrowed from Diophantus, introduced the concept of adequality, which represented equality up to
an infinitesimal error term.[23] The combination was achieved by John Wallis, Isaac Barrow, and
James Gregory, the latter two proving predecessors to the second fundamental theorem of calculus
around 1670.[24][25]

The product rule and chain rule,[26] the notions of higher derivatives and Taylor series,[27] and of
analytic functions[28] were used by Isaac Newton in an idiosyncratic notation which he applied to
solve problems of mathematical physics. In his works, Newton rephrased his ideas to suit the
mathematical idiom of the time, replacing calculations with infinitesimals by equivalent geometrical
arguments which were considered beyond reproach. He used the methods of calculus to solve the
problem of planetary motion, the shape of the surface of a rotating fluid, the oblateness of the earth,
the motion of a weight sliding on a cycloid, and many other problems discussed in his Principia
Mathematica (1687). In other work, he developed series expansions for functions, including
fractional and irrational powers, and it was clear that he understood the principles of the Taylor
series. He did not publish all these discoveries, and at this time infinitesimal methods were still
considered disreputable.[29]

Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz Isaac Newton developed

was the first to state clearly the use of calculus in his
the rules of calculus. laws of motion and
universal gravitation.

These ideas were arranged into a true calculus of infinitesimals by Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, who
was originally accused of plagiarism by Newton.[30] He is now regarded as an independent inventor
of and contributor to calculus. His contribution was to provide a clear set of rules for working with
infinitesimal quantities, allowing the computation of second and higher derivatives, and providing
the product rule and chain rule, in their differential and integral forms. Unlike Newton, Leibniz put
painstaking effort into his choices of notation.[31]

Today, Leibniz and Newton are usually both given credit for independently inventing and developing
calculus. Newton was the first to apply calculus to general physics. Leibniz developed much of the
notation used in calculus today.[32]: 51–52 The basic insights that both Newton and Leibniz provided
were the laws of differentiation and integration, emphasizing that differentiation and integration are
inverse processes, second and higher derivatives, and the notion of an approximating polynomial
series.

When Newton and Leibniz first published their results, there was great controversy over which
mathematician (and therefore which country) deserved credit. Newton derived his results first (later
to be published in his Method of Fluxions), but Leibniz published his "Nova Methodus pro Maximis et
Minimis" first. Newton claimed Leibniz stole ideas from his unpublished notes, which Newton had
shared with a few members of the Royal Society. This controversy divided English-speaking
mathematicians from continental European mathematicians for many years, to the detriment of
English mathematics.[33] A careful examination of the papers of Leibniz and Newton shows that
they arrived at their results independently, with Leibniz starting first with integration and Newton
with differentiation. It is Leibniz, however, who gave the new discipline its name. Newton called his
calculus "the science of fluxions", a term that endured in English schools into the 19th
century.[34]: 100 The first complete treatise on calculus to be written in English and use the Leibniz
notation was not published until 1815.[35]

Maria Gaetana Agnesi

Since the time of Leibniz and Newton, many mathematicians have contributed to the continuing
development of calculus. One of the first and most complete works on both infinitesimal and
integral calculus was written in 1748 by Maria Gaetana Agnesi.[36][37]

Foundations

In calculus, foundations refers to the rigorous development of the subject from axioms and
definitions. In early calculus, the use of infinitesimal quantities was thought unrigorous and was
fiercely criticized by several authors, most notably Michel Rolle and Bishop Berkeley. Berkeley
famously described infinitesimals as the ghosts of departed quantities in his book The Analyst in
1734. Working out a rigorous foundation for calculus occupied mathematicians for much of the
century following Newton and Leibniz, and is still to some extent an active area of research
today.[38]

Several mathematicians, including Maclaurin, tried to prove the soundness of using infinitesimals,
but it would not be until 150 years later when, due to the work of Cauchy and Weierstrass, a way was
finally found to avoid mere "notions" of infinitely small quantities.[39] The foundations of differential
and integral calculus had been laid. In Cauchy's Cours d'Analyse, we find a broad range of
foundational approaches, including a definition of continuity in terms of infinitesimals, and a
(somewhat imprecise) prototype of an (ε, δ)-definition of limit in the definition of differentiation.[40]
In his work, Weierstrass formalized the concept of limit and eliminated infinitesimals (although his
definition can validate nilsquare infinitesimals). Following the work of Weierstrass, it eventually
became common to base calculus on limits instead of infinitesimal quantities, though the subject is
still occasionally called "infinitesimal calculus". Bernhard Riemann used these ideas to give a
precise definition of the integral.[41] It was also during this period that the ideas of calculus were
generalized to the complex plane with the development of complex analysis.[42]

In modern mathematics, the foundations of calculus are included in the field of real analysis, which
contains full definitions and proofs of the theorems of calculus. The reach of calculus has also been
greatly extended. Henri Lebesgue invented measure theory, based on earlier developments by Émile
Borel, and used it to define integrals of all but the most pathological functions.[43] Laurent Schwartz
introduced distributions, which can be used to take the derivative of any function whatsoever.[44]

Limits are not the only rigorous approach to the foundation of calculus. Another way is to use
Abraham Robinson's non-standard analysis. Robinson's approach, developed in the 1960s, uses
technical machinery from mathematical logic to augment the real number system with infinitesimal
and infinite numbers, as in the original Newton-Leibniz conception. The resulting numbers are called
hyperreal numbers, and they can be used to give a Leibniz-like development of the usual rules of
calculus.[45] There is also smooth infinitesimal analysis, which differs from non-standard analysis in
that it mandates neglecting higher-power infinitesimals during derivations.[38] Based on the ideas of
F. W. Lawvere and employing the methods of category theory, smooth infinitesimal analysis views
all functions as being continuous and incapable of being expressed in terms of discrete entities.
One aspect of this formulation is that the law of excluded middle does not hold.[38] The law of
excluded middle is also rejected in constructive mathematics, a branch of mathematics that insists
that proofs of the existence of a number, function, or other mathematical object should give a
construction of the object. Reformulations of calculus in a constructive framework are generally
part of the subject of constructive analysis.[38]

Significance

While many of the ideas of calculus had been developed earlier in Greece, China, India, Iraq, Persia,
and Japan, the use of calculus began in Europe, during the 17th century, when Newton and Leibniz
built on the work of earlier mathematicians to introduce its basic principles.[13][29][46] The Hungarian
polymath John von Neumann wrote of this work,

The calculus was the first achievement of modern mathematics and it is difficult to
overestimate its importance. I think it defines more unequivocally than anything
else the inception of modern mathematics, and the system of mathematical
analysis, which is its logical development, still constitutes the greatest technical
advance in exact thinking.[47]

Applications of differential calculus include computations involving velocity and acceleration, the
slope of a curve, and optimization.[48]: 341–453 Applications of integral calculus include computations
involving area, volume, arc length, center of mass, work, and pressure.[48]: 685–700 More advanced
applications include power series and Fourier series.

Calculus is also used to gain a more precise understanding of the nature of space, time, and motion.
For centuries, mathematicians and philosophers wrestled with paradoxes involving division by zero
or sums of infinitely many numbers. These questions arise in the study of motion and area. The
ancient Greek philosopher Zeno of Elea gave several famous examples of such paradoxes. Calculus
provides tools, especially the limit and the infinite series, that resolve the paradoxes.[49]

Principles

Limits and infinitesimals

Calculus is usually developed by working with very small quantities. Historically, the first method of
doing so was by infinitesimals. These are objects which can be treated like real numbers but which
are, in some sense, "infinitely small". For example, an infinitesimal number could be greater than 0,
but less than any number in the sequence 1, 1/2, 1/3, ... and thus less than any positive real number.
From this point of view, calculus is a collection of techniques for manipulating infinitesimals. The
symbols and were taken to be infinitesimal, and the derivative was their ratio.[38]

The infinitesimal approach fell out of favor in the 19th century because it was difficult to make the
notion of an infinitesimal precise. In the late 19th century, infinitesimals were replaced within
academia by the epsilon, delta approach to limits. Limits describe the behavior of a function at a
certain input in terms of its values at nearby inputs. They capture small-scale behavior using the
intrinsic structure of the real number system (as a metric space with the least-upper-bound
property). In this treatment, calculus is a collection of techniques for manipulating certain limits.
Infinitesimals get replaced by sequences of smaller and smaller numbers, and the infinitely small
behavior of a function is found by taking the limiting behavior for these sequences. Limits were
thought to provide a more rigorous foundation for calculus, and for this reason, they became the
standard approach during the 20th century. However, the infinitesimal concept was revived in the
20th century with the introduction of non-standard analysis and smooth infinitesimal analysis, which
provided solid foundations for the manipulation of infinitesimals.[38]

Differential calculus

Tangent line at (x0, f(x0)). The derivative f′(x) of a curve at

a point is the slope (rise over run) of the line tangent to
that curve at that point.

Differential calculus is the study of the definition, properties, and applications of the derivative of a
function. The process of finding the derivative is called differentiation. Given a function and a point
in the domain, the derivative at that point is a way of encoding the small-scale behavior of the
function near that point. By finding the derivative of a function at every point in its domain, it is
possible to produce a new function, called the derivative function or just the derivative of the original
function. In formal terms, the derivative is a linear operator which takes a function as its input and
produces a second function as its output. This is more abstract than many of the processes studied
in elementary algebra, where functions usually input a number and output another number. For
example, if the doubling function is given the input three, then it outputs six, and if the squaring
function is given the input three, then it outputs nine. The derivative, however, can take the squaring
function as an input. This means that the derivative takes all the information of the squaring
function—such as that two is sent to four, three is sent to nine, four is sent to sixteen, and so on—
and uses this information to produce another function. The function produced by differentiating the
squaring function turns out to be the doubling function.[32]: 32

In more explicit terms the "doubling function" may be denoted by g(x) = 2x and the "squaring
function" by f(x) = x2. The "derivative" now takes the function f(x), defined by the expression "x2", as
an input, that is all the information—such as that two is sent to four, three is sent to nine, four is sent
to sixteen, and so on—and uses this information to output another function, the function g(x) = 2x,
as will turn out.

In Lagrange's notation, the symbol for a derivative is an apostrophe-like mark called a prime. Thus,
the derivative of a function called f is denoted by f′, pronounced "f prime" or "f dash". For instance, if
f(x) = x2 is the squaring function, then f′(x) = 2x is its derivative (the doubling function g from
above).

If the input of the function represents time, then the derivative represents change concerning time.
For example, if f is a function that takes time as input and gives the position of a ball at that time as
output, then the derivative of f is how the position is changing in time, that is, it is the velocity of the
ball.[32]: 18–20

If a function is linear (that is if the graph of the function is a straight line), then the function can be
written as y = mx + b, where x is the independent variable, y is the dependent variable, b is the y-
intercept, and:

This gives an exact value for the slope of a straight line.[50]: 6 If the graph of the function is not a
straight line, however, then the change in y divided by the change in x varies. Derivatives give an
exact meaning to the notion of change in output concerning change in input. To be concrete, let f be
a function, and fix a point a in the domain of f. (a, f(a)) is a point on the graph of the function. If h is
a number close to zero, then a + h is a number close to a. Therefore, (a + h, f(a + h)) is close to
(a, f(a)). The slope between these two points is

This expression is called a difference quotient. A line through two points on a curve is called a
secant line, so m is the slope of the secant line between (a, f(a)) and (a + h, f(a + h)). The second
line is only an approximation to the behavior of the function at the point a because it does not
account for what happens between a and a + h. It is not possible to discover the behavior at a by
setting h to zero because this would require dividing by zero, which is undefined. The derivative is
defined by taking the limit as h tends to zero, meaning that it considers the behavior of f for all small
values of h and extracts a consistent value for the case when h equals zero:
Geometrically, the derivative is the slope of the tangent line to the graph of f at a. The tangent line is
a limit of secant lines just as the derivative is a limit of difference quotients. For this reason, the
derivative is sometimes called the slope of the function f.[50]: 61–63

Here is a particular example, the derivative of the squaring function at the input 3. Let f(x) = x2 be
the squaring function.

The derivative f′(x) of a curve at a point is the slope of the

line tangent to that curve at that point. This slope is
determined by considering the limiting value of the slopes
of the second lines. Here the function involved (drawn in
red) is f(x) = x3 − x. The tangent line (in green) which
passes through the point (−3/2, −15/8) has a slope of
23/4. The vertical and horizontal scales in this image are
different.

The slope of the tangent line to the squaring function at the point (3, 9) is 6, that is to say, it is going
up six times as fast as it is going to the right. The limit process just described can be performed for
any point in the domain of the squaring function. This defines the derivative function of the squaring
function or just the derivative of the squaring function for short. A computation similar to the one
above shows that the derivative of the squaring function is the doubling function.[50]: 63

Leibniz notation

A common notation, introduced by Leibniz, for the derivative in the example above is

dy
In an approach based on limits, the symbol ⁠dx ⁠is to be interpreted not as the quotient of two

numbers but as a shorthand for the limit computed above.[50]: 74 Leibniz, however, did intend it to
represent the quotient of two infinitesimally small numbers, dy being the infinitesimally small
d
change in y caused by an infinitesimally small change dx applied to x. We can also think of ⁠dx ⁠as a

differentiation operator, which takes a function as an input and gives another function, the
derivative, as the output. For example:

In this usage, the dx in the denominator is read as "with respect to x".[50]: 79 Another example of
correct notation could be:

Even when calculus is developed using limits rather than infinitesimals, it is common to manipulate
symbols like dx and dy as if they were real numbers; although it is possible to avoid such
manipulations, they are sometimes notationally convenient in expressing operations such as the
total derivative.

Integral calculus
 Integration can be thought of as measuring the
area under a curve, defined by f(x), between two
points (here a and b).

A sequence of midpoint Riemann sums over a

regular partition of an interval: the total area of the
rectangles converges to the integral of the
function.

Integral calculus is the study of the definitions, properties, and applications of two related concepts,
the indefinite integral and the definite integral. The process of finding the value of an integral is called
integration.[48]: 508 The indefinite integral, also known as the antiderivative, is the inverse operation to
the derivative.[50]: 163–165 F is an indefinite integral of f when f is a derivative of F. (This use of lower-
and upper-case letters for a function and its indefinite integral is common in calculus.) The definite
integral inputs a function and outputs a number, which gives the algebraic sum of areas between
the graph of the input and the x-axis. The technical definition of the definite integral involves the
limit of a sum of areas of rectangles, called a Riemann sum.[51]: 282

A motivating example is the distance traveled in a given time.[50]: 153 If the speed is constant, only
multiplication is needed:

But if the speed changes, a more powerful method of finding the distance is necessary. One such
method is to approximate the distance traveled by breaking up the time into many short intervals of
time, then multiplying the time elapsed in each interval by one of the speeds in that interval, and
then taking the sum (a Riemann sum) of the approximate distance traveled in each interval. The
basic idea is that if only a short time elapses, then the speed will stay more or less the same.
However, a Riemann sum only gives an approximation of the distance traveled. We must take the
limit of all such Riemann sums to find the exact distance traveled.

When velocity is constant, the total distance traveled over the given time interval can be computed
by multiplying velocity and time. For example, traveling a steady 50 mph for 3 hours results in a total
distance of 150 miles. Plotting the velocity as a function of time yields a rectangle with a height
equal to the velocity and a width equal to the time elapsed. Therefore, the product of velocity and
time also calculates the rectangular area under the (constant) velocity curve.[48]: 535 This connection
between the area under a curve and the distance traveled can be extended to any irregularly shaped
region exhibiting a fluctuating velocity over a given period. If f(x) represents speed as it varies over
time, the distance traveled between the times represented by a and b is the area of the region
between f(x) and the x-axis, between x = a and x = b.

To approximate that area, an intuitive method would be to divide up the distance between a and b
into several equal segments, the length of each segment represented by the symbol Δx. For each
small segment, we can choose one value of the function f(x). Call that value h. Then the area of the
rectangle with base Δx and height h gives the distance (time Δx multiplied by speed h) traveled in
that segment. Associated with each segment is the average value of the function above it, f(x) = h.
The sum of all such rectangles gives an approximation of the area between the axis and the curve,
which is an approximation of the total distance traveled. A smaller value for Δx will give more
rectangles and in most cases a better approximation, but for an exact answer, we need to take a
limit as Δx approaches zero.[48]: 512–522

The symbol of integration is , an elongated S chosen to suggest summation.[48]: 529 The definite

integral is written as:

and is read "the integral from a to b of f-of-x with respect to x." The Leibniz notation dx is intended to
suggest dividing the area under the curve into an infinite number of rectangles so that their width Δx
becomes the infinitesimally small dx.[32]: 44

The indefinite integral, or antiderivative, is written:

Functions differing by only a constant have the same derivative, and it can be shown that the
antiderivative of a given function is a family of functions differing only by a constant.[51]: 326 Since
the derivative of the function y = x2 + C, where C is any constant, is y′ = 2x, the antiderivative of the
latter is given by:

The unspecified constant C present in the indefinite integral or antiderivative is known as the
constant of integration.[52]: 135

Fundamental theorem

The fundamental theorem of calculus states that differentiation and integration are inverse
operations.[51]: 290 More precisely, it relates the values of antiderivatives to definite integrals.
Because it is usually easier to compute an antiderivative than to apply the definition of a definite
integral, the fundamental theorem of calculus provides a practical way of computing definite
integrals. It can also be interpreted as a precise statement of the fact that differentiation is the
inverse of integration.

The fundamental theorem of calculus states: If a function f is continuous on the interval [a, b] and if
F is a function whose derivative is f on the interval (a, b), then

Furthermore, for every x in the interval (a, b),

This realization, made by both Newton and Leibniz, was key to the proliferation of analytic results
after their work became known. (The extent to which Newton and Leibniz were influenced by
immediate predecessors, and particularly what Leibniz may have learned from the work of Isaac
Barrow, is difficult to determine because of the priority dispute between them.[53]) The fundamental
theorem provides an algebraic method of computing many definite integrals—without performing
limit processes—by finding formulae for antiderivatives. It is also a prototype solution of a
differential equation. Differential equations relate an unknown function to its derivatives and are
ubiquitous in the sciences.[54]: 351–352

Applications

The logarithmic spiral of the nautilus shell

is a classical image used to depict the
growth and change related to calculus.

Calculus is used in every branch of the physical sciences,[55]: 1 actuarial science, computer science,
statistics, engineering, economics, business, medicine, demography, and in other fields wherever a
problem can be mathematically modeled and an optimal solution is desired.[56] It allows one to go
from (non-constant) rates of change to the total change or vice versa, and many times in studying a
problem we know one and are trying to find the other.[57] Calculus can be used in conjunction with
other mathematical disciplines. For example, it can be used with linear algebra to find the "best fit"
linear approximation for a set of points in a domain. Or, it can be used in probability theory to
determine the expectation value of a continuous random variable given a probability density
function.[58]: 37 In analytic geometry, the study of graphs of functions, calculus is used to find high
points and low points (maxima and minima), slope, concavity and inflection points. Calculus is also
used to find approximate solutions to equations; in practice, it is the standard way to solve
differential equations and do root finding in most applications. Examples are methods such as
Newton's method, fixed point iteration, and linear approximation. For instance, spacecraft use a
variation of the Euler method to approximate curved courses within zero-gravity environments.

Physics makes particular use of calculus; all concepts in classical mechanics and
electromagnetism are related through calculus. The mass of an object of known density, the
moment of inertia of objects, and the potential energies due to gravitational and electromagnetic
forces can all be found by the use of calculus. An example of the use of calculus in mechanics is
Newton's second law of motion, which states that the derivative of an object's momentum
concerning time equals the net force upon it. Alternatively, Newton's second law can be expressed
by saying that the net force equals the object's mass times its acceleration, which is the time
derivative of velocity and thus the second time derivative of spatial position. Starting from knowing
how an object is accelerating, we use calculus to derive its path.[59]

Maxwell's theory of electromagnetism and Einstein's theory of general relativity are also expressed
in the language of differential calculus.[60][61]: 52–55 Chemistry also uses calculus in determining
reaction rates[62]: 599 and in studying radioactive decay.[62]: 814 In biology, population dynamics starts
with reproduction and death rates to model population changes.[63][64]: 631

Green's theorem, which gives the relationship between a line integral around a simple closed curve C
and a double integral over the plane region D bounded by C, is applied in an instrument known as a
planimeter, which is used to calculate the area of a flat surface on a drawing.[65] For example, it can
be used to calculate the amount of area taken up by an irregularly shaped flower bed or swimming
pool when designing the layout of a piece of property.

In the realm of medicine, calculus can be used to find the optimal branching angle of a blood vessel
to maximize flow.[66] Calculus can be applied to understand how quickly a drug is eliminated from a
body or how quickly a cancerous tumor grows.[67]

In economics, calculus allows for the determination of maximal profit by providing a way to easily
calculate both marginal cost and marginal revenue.[68]: 387

See also

Glossary of calculus

List of calculus topics

List of derivatives and integrals in alternative calculi

List of differentiation identities

Publications in calculus

Table of integrals

References

1. DeBaggis, Henry F.; Miller, Kenneth S. (1966). Foundations of the Calculus. Philadelphia:
Saunders. OCLC 527896 (https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/527896) .
2. Fox, Huw; Bolton, Bill (2002), "Calculus" (https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/B9780750
655446500059) , Mathematics for Engineers and Technologists, Elsevier, pp. 99–158,
doi:10.1016/b978-075065544-6/50005-9 (https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fb978-075065544-6%2F5
0005-9) , ISBN 978-0-7506-5544-6, retrieved 24 November 2024

3. Boyer, Carl B. (1959). The History of the Calculus and its Conceptual Development (https://archiv
e.org/details/the-history-of-the-calculus-carl-b.-boyer) . New York: Dover. pp. 47, 187–188.
OCLC 643872 (https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/643872) .

4. Bardi, Jason Socrates (2006). The Calculus Wars : Newton, Leibniz, and the Greatest
Mathematical Clash of All Time. New York: Thunder's Mouth Press. ISBN 1-56025-706-7.

5. Hoffmann, Laurence D.; Bradley, Gerald L. (2004). Calculus for Business, Economics, and the
Social and Life Sciences (8th ed.). Boston: McGraw Hill. ISBN 0-07-242432-X.

6. "How Isaac Newton Changed the World with the Invention of Calculus" (https://www.mathtutor
dvd.com/public/How-Isaac-Newton-Changed-the-World-with-the-Invention-of-Calculus.cfm) .
www.mathtutordvd.com. 18 March 2017. Retrieved 26 November 2024.

7. See, for example:

"History – Were metered taxis busy roaming Imperial Rome?" (https://skeptics.stackexcha
nge.com/questions/8841/were-metered-taxis-busy-roaming-imperial-rome) . Skeptics
Stack Exchange. 17 June 2020. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20120525035132/
https://skeptics.stackexchange.com/questions/8841/were-metered-taxis-busy-roaming-i
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Further reading

Adams, Robert A. (1999). Calculus: A complete course. Addison-Wesley. ISBN 978-0-201-39607-2.

Albers, Donald J.; Anderson, Richard D.; Loftsgaarden, Don O., eds. (1986). Undergraduate
Programs in the Mathematics and Computer Sciences: The 1985–1986 Survey. Mathematical
Association of America.

Anton, Howard; Bivens, Irl; Davis, Stephen (2002). Calculus. John Wiley and Sons Pte. Ltd.
ISBN 978-81-265-1259-1.

Apostol, Tom M. (1967). Calculus, Volume 1, One-Variable Calculus with an Introduction to Linear
Algebra. Wiley. ISBN 978-0-471-00005-1.

Apostol, Tom M. (1969). Calculus, Volume 2, Multi-Variable Calculus and Linear Algebra with
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External links

"Calculus" (https://www.encyclopediaofmath.org/index.php?title=Calculus) , Encyclopedia of

Mathematics, EMS Press, 2001 [1994]

Weisstein, Eric W. "Calculus" (https://mathworld.wolfram.com/Calculus.html) . MathWorld.

Topics on Calculus (https://planetmath.org/TopicsOnCalculus) at PlanetMath.

Calculus Made Easy (1914) by Silvanus P. Thompson (http://djm.cc/library/Calculus_Made_Easy_

Thompson.pdf) Full text in PDF

Calculus (https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b00mrfwq) on In Our Time at the BBC

Calculus.org: The Calculus page (http://www.calculus.org) at University of California, Davis –

contains resources and links to other sites

Earliest Known Uses of Some of the Words of Mathematics: Calculus & Analysis (http://www.eco
nomics.soton.ac.uk/staff/aldrich/Calculus%20and%20Analysis%20Earliest%20Uses.htm)

The Role of Calculus in College Mathematics (http://www.ericdigests.org/pre-9217/calculus.ht

m) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20210726234750/http://www.ericdigests.org/pre-92
17/calculus.htm) 26 July 2021 at the Wayback Machine from ERICDigests.org

OpenCourseWare Calculus (https://ocw.mit.edu/courses/mathematics/18-01sc-single-variable-ca

lculus-fall-2010/) from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology

Infinitesimal Calculus (http://www.encyclopediaofmath.org/index.php?title=Infinitesimal_calculus

&oldid=18648) – an article on its historical development, in Encyclopedia of Mathematics, ed.
Michiel Hazewinkel.

Daniel Kleitman, MIT. "Calculus for Beginners and Artists" (http://math.mit.edu/~djk/calculus_beg

inners/) .
Calculus training materials at imomath.com (http://www.imomath.com/index.php?options=27
7)

(in English and Arabic) The Excursion of Calculus (http://www.wdl.org/en/item/4327/) , 1772