Space

Space is a three-dimensional continuum containing positions and directions.[1] In classical physics,

physical space is often conceived in three linear dimensions. Modern physicists usually consider it,
with time, to be part of a boundless four-dimensional continuum known as spacetime.[2] The
concept of space is considered to be of fundamental importance to an understanding of the
physical universe. However, disagreement continues between philosophers over whether it is itself
an entity, a relationship between entities, or part of a conceptual framework.

A right-handed three-dimensional
Cartesian coordinate system used to
indicate positions in space

In the 19th and 20th centuries mathematicians began to examine geometries that are non-
Euclidean, in which space is conceived as curved, rather than flat, as in the Euclidean space.
According to Albert Einstein's theory of general relativity, space around gravitational fields deviates
from Euclidean space.[3] Experimental tests of general relativity have confirmed that non-Euclidean
geometries provide a better model for the shape of space.

Philosophy of space

Debates concerning the nature, essence and the mode of existence of space date back to antiquity;
namely, to treatises like the Timaeus of Plato, or Socrates in his reflections on what the Greeks
called khôra (i.e. "space"), or in the Physics of Aristotle (Book IV, Delta) in the definition of topos (i.e.
place), or in the later "geometrical conception of place" as "space qua extension" in the Discourse on
Place (Qawl fi al-Makan) of the 11th-century Arab polymath Alhazen.[4] Many of these classical
philosophical questions were discussed in the Renaissance and then reformulated in the 17th
century, particularly during the early development of classical mechanics.

Isaac Newton viewed space as absolute, existing permanently and independently of whether there
was any matter in it.[5] In contrast, other natural philosophers, notably Gottfried Leibniz, thought that
space was in fact a collection of relations between objects, given by their distance and direction
from one another. In the 18th century, the philosopher and theologian George Berkeley attempted to
refute the "visibility of spatial depth" in his Essay Towards a New Theory of Vision. Later, the
metaphysician Immanuel Kant said that the concepts of space and time are not empirical ones
derived from experiences of the outside world—they are elements of an already given systematic
framework that humans possess and use to structure all experiences. Kant referred to the
experience of "space" in his Critique of Pure Reason as being a subjective "pure a priori form of
intuition".

Galileo

Galilean and Cartesian theories about space, matter, and motion are at the foundation of the
Scientific Revolution, which is understood to have culminated with the publication of Newton's
Principia Mathematica in 1687.[6] Newton's theories about space and time helped him explain the
movement of objects. While his theory of space is considered the most influential in physics, it
emerged from his predecessors' ideas about the same.[7]

As one of the pioneers of modern science, Galileo revised the established Aristotelian and
Ptolemaic ideas about a geocentric cosmos. He backed the Copernican theory that the universe
was heliocentric, with a stationary Sun at the center and the planets—including the Earth—revolving
around the Sun. If the Earth moved, the Aristotelian belief that its natural tendency was to remain at
rest was in question. Galileo wanted to prove instead that the Sun moved around its axis, that
motion was as natural to an object as the state of rest. In other words, for Galileo, celestial bodies,
including the Earth, were naturally inclined to move in circles. This view displaced another
Aristotelian idea—that all objects gravitated towards their designated natural place-of-belonging.[8]

René Descartes

Descartes set out to replace the Aristotelian worldview with a theory about space and motion as
determined by natural laws. In other words, he sought a metaphysical foundation or a mechanical
explanation for his theories about matter and motion. Cartesian space was Euclidean in structure—
infinite, uniform and flat.[9] It was defined as that which contained matter; conversely, matter by
definition had a spatial extension so that there was no such thing as empty space.[6]

The Cartesian notion of space is closely linked to his theories about the nature of the body, mind
and matter. He is famously known for his "cogito ergo sum" (I think therefore I am), or the idea that
we can only be certain of the fact that we can doubt, and therefore think and therefore exist. His
theories belong to the rationalist tradition, which attributes knowledge about the world to our ability
to think rather than to our experiences, as the empiricists believe.[10] He posited a clear distinction
between the body and mind, which is referred to as the Cartesian dualism.

Leibniz and Newton

Gottfried Leibniz

Following Galileo and Descartes, during the seventeenth century the philosophy of space and time
revolved around the ideas of Gottfried Leibniz, a German philosopher–mathematician, and Isaac
Newton, who set out two opposing theories of what space is. Rather than being an entity that
independently exists over and above other matter, Leibniz held that space is no more than the
collection of spatial relations between objects in the world: "space is that which results from places
taken together".[11] Unoccupied regions are those that could have objects in them, and thus spatial
relations with other places. For Leibniz, then, space was an idealised abstraction from the relations
between individual entities or their possible locations and therefore could not be continuous but
must be discrete.[12] Space could be thought of in a similar way to the relations between family
members. Although people in the family are related to one another, the relations do not exist
independently of the people.[13] Leibniz argued that space could not exist independently of objects
in the world because that implies a difference between two universes exactly alike except for the
location of the material world in each universe. But since there would be no observational way of
telling these universes apart then, according to the identity of indiscernibles, there would be no real
difference between them. According to the principle of sufficient reason, any theory of space that
implied that there could be these two possible universes must therefore be wrong.[14]

Isaac Newton

Newton took space to be more than relations between material objects and based his position on
observation and experimentation. For a relationist there can be no real difference between inertial
motion, in which the object travels with constant velocity, and non-inertial motion, in which the
velocity changes with time, since all spatial measurements are relative to other objects and their
motions. But Newton argued that since non-inertial motion generates forces, it must be absolute.[15]
He used the example of water in a spinning bucket to demonstrate his argument. Water in a bucket
is hung from a rope and set to spin, starts with a flat surface. After a while, as the bucket continues
to spin, the surface of the water becomes concave. If the bucket's spinning is stopped then the
surface of the water remains concave as it continues to spin. The concave surface is therefore
apparently not the result of relative motion between the bucket and the water.[16] Instead, Newton
argued, it must be a result of non-inertial motion relative to space itself. For several centuries the
bucket argument was considered decisive in showing that space must exist independently of
matter.
Kant

Immanuel Kant

In the eighteenth century the German philosopher Immanuel Kant published his theory of space as
"a property of our mind" by which "we represent to ourselves objects as outside us, and all as in
space" in the Critique of Pure Reason[17] On his view the nature of spatial predicates are "relations
that only attach to the form of intuition alone, and thus to the subjective constitution of our mind,
without which these predicates could not be attached to anything at all."[18] This develops his theory
of knowledge in which knowledge about space itself can be both a priori and synthetic.[19] According
to Kant, knowledge about space is synthetic because any proposition about space cannot be true
merely in virtue of the meaning of the terms contained in the proposition. In the counter-example,
the proposition "all unmarried men are bachelors" is true by virtue of each term's meaning. Further,
space is a priori because it is the form of our receptive abilities to receive information about the
external world. For example, someone without sight can still perceive spatial attributes via touch,
hearing, and smell. Knowledge of space itself is a priori because it belongs to the subjective
constitution of our mind as the form or manner of our intuition of external objects.
Non-Euclidean geometry

Spherical geometry is
similar to elliptical
geometry. On a sphere
(the surface of a ball)
there are no parallel lines.

Euclid's Elements contained five postulates that form the basis for Euclidean geometry. One of
these, the parallel postulate, has been the subject of debate among mathematicians for many
centuries. It states that on any plane on which there is a straight line L1 and a point P not on L1, there
is exactly one straight line L2 on the plane that passes through the point P and is parallel to the
straight line L1. Until the 19th century, few doubted the truth of the postulate; instead debate
centered over whether it was necessary as an axiom, or whether it was a theory that could be
derived from the other axioms.[20] Around 1830 though, the Hungarian János Bolyai and the Russian
Nikolai Ivanovich Lobachevsky separately published treatises on a type of geometry that does not
include the parallel postulate, called hyperbolic geometry. In this geometry, an infinite number of
parallel lines pass through the point P. Consequently, the sum of angles in a triangle is less than
180° and the ratio of a circle's circumference to its diameter is greater than pi. In the 1850s,
Bernhard Riemann developed an equivalent theory of elliptical geometry, in which no parallel lines
pass through P. In this geometry, triangles have more than 180° and circles have a ratio of
circumference-to-diameter that is less than pi.

Ratio of
Type of Number of Sum of angles Measure of
circumference to
geometry parallels in a triangle curvature
diameter of circle

Hyperbolic Infinite < 180° >π <0

Euclidean 1 180° π 0

Elliptical 0 > 180° <π >0

Gauss and Poincaré

Carl Friedrich Gauss

Henri Poincaré

Although there was a prevailing Kantian consensus at the time, once non-Euclidean geometries had
been formalised, some began to wonder whether or not physical space is curved. Carl Friedrich
Gauss, a German mathematician, was the first to consider an empirical investigation of the
geometrical structure of space. He thought of making a test of the sum of the angles of an
enormous stellar triangle, and there are reports that he actually carried out a test, on a small scale,
by triangulating mountain tops in Germany.[21]

Henri Poincaré, a French mathematician and physicist of the late 19th century, introduced an
important insight in which he attempted to demonstrate the futility of any attempt to discover which
geometry applies to space by experiment.[22] He considered the predicament that would face
scientists if they were confined to the surface of an imaginary large sphere with particular
properties, known as a sphere-world. In this world, the temperature is taken to vary in such a way
that all objects expand and contract in similar proportions in different places on the sphere. With a
suitable falloff in temperature, if the scientists try to use measuring rods to determine the sum of
the angles in a triangle, they can be deceived into thinking that they inhabit a plane, rather than a
spherical surface.[23] In fact, the scientists cannot in principle determine whether they inhabit a
plane or sphere and, Poincaré argued, the same is true for the debate over whether real space is
Euclidean or not. For him, which geometry was used to describe space was a matter of
convention.[24] Since Euclidean geometry is simpler than non-Euclidean geometry, he assumed the
former would always be used to describe the 'true' geometry of the world.[25]

Einstein

Albert Einstein

In 1905, Albert Einstein published his special theory of relativity, which led to the concept that space
and time can be viewed as a single construct known as spacetime. In this theory, the speed of light
in vacuum is the same for all observers—which has the result that two events that appear
simultaneous to one particular observer will not be simultaneous to another observer if the
observers are moving with respect to one another. Moreover, an observer will measure a moving
clock to tick more slowly than one that is stationary with respect to them; and objects are measured
to be shortened in the direction that they are moving with respect to the observer.

Subsequently, Einstein worked on a general theory of relativity, which is a theory of how gravity
interacts with spacetime. Instead of viewing gravity as a force field acting in spacetime, Einstein
suggested that it modifies the geometric structure of spacetime itself.[26] According to the general
theory, time goes more slowly at places with lower gravitational potentials and rays of light bend in
the presence of a gravitational field. Scientists have studied the behaviour of binary pulsars,
confirming the predictions of Einstein's theories. Non-Euclidean geometry is usually used to
describe spacetime.
Mathematics

In modern mathematics spaces are defined as sets with some added structure. They are typically
topological spaces, in which a concept of neighbourhood is defined, frequently by means of a
distance (metric spaces). The elements of a space are often called points, but they can have other
names such as vectors in vector spaces and functions in function spaces.

Physics

Space is one of the few fundamental quantities in physics, meaning that it cannot be defined via
other quantities because nothing more fundamental is known at the present. On the other hand, it
can be related to other fundamental quantities. Thus, similar to other fundamental quantities (like
time and mass), space can be explored via measurement and experiment.

Today, our three-dimensional space is viewed as embedded in a four-dimensional spacetime, called

Minkowski space (see special relativity). The idea behind spacetime is that time is hyperbolic-
orthogonal to each of the three spatial dimensions.

Relativity

Before Albert Einstein's work on relativistic physics, time and space were viewed as independent
dimensions. Einstein's discoveries showed that due to relativity of motion our space and time can
be mathematically combined into one object–spacetime. It turns out that distances in space or in
time separately are not invariant with respect to Lorentz coordinate transformations, but distances
in Minkowski space along spacetime intervals are—which justifies the name.

In addition, time and space dimensions should not be viewed as exactly equivalent in Minkowski
space. One can freely move in space but not in time. Thus, time and space coordinates are treated
differently both in special relativity (where time is sometimes considered an imaginary coordinate)
and in general relativity (where different signs are assigned to time and space components of
spacetime metric).

Furthermore, in Einstein's general theory of relativity, it is postulated that spacetime is geometrically

distorted – curved – near to gravitationally significant masses.[27]

One consequence of this postulate, which follows from the equations of general relativity, is the
prediction of moving ripples of spacetime, called gravitational waves. While indirect evidence for
these waves has been found (in the motions of the Hulse–Taylor binary system, for example)
experiments attempting to directly measure these waves are ongoing at the LIGO and Virgo
collaborations. LIGO scientists reported the first such direct observation of gravitational waves on
14 September 2015.[28][29]

Cosmology

Relativity theory leads to the cosmological question of what shape the universe is, and where space
came from. It appears that space was created in the Big Bang, 13.8 billion years ago[30] and has
been expanding ever since. The overall shape of space is not known, but space is known to be
expanding very rapidly due to the cosmic inflation.

Spatial measurement

The measurement of physical space has long been important. Although earlier societies had
developed measuring systems, the International System of Units, (SI), is now the most common
system of units used in the measuring of space, and is almost universally used.

Currently, the standard space interval, called a standard meter or simply meter, is defined as the
distance traveled by light in vacuum during a time interval of exactly 1/299,792,458 of a second.
This definition coupled with present definition of the second is based on the special theory of
relativity in which the speed of light plays the role of a fundamental constant of nature.

Geographical space

Geography is the branch of science concerned with identifying and describing places on Earth,
utilizing spatial awareness to try to understand why things exist in specific locations. Cartography is
the mapping of spaces to allow better navigation, for visualization purposes and to act as a
locational device. Geostatistics apply statistical concepts to collected spatial data of Earth to create
an estimate for unobserved phenomena.

Geographical space is often considered as land, and can have a relation to ownership usage (in
which space is seen as property or territory). While some cultures assert the rights of the individual
in terms of ownership, other cultures will identify with a communal approach to land ownership,
while still other cultures such as Australian Aboriginals, rather than asserting ownership rights to
land, invert the relationship and consider that they are in fact owned by the land. Spatial planning is
a method of regulating the use of space at land-level, with decisions made at regional, national and
international levels. Space can also impact on human and cultural behavior, being an important
factor in architecture, where it will impact on the design of buildings and structures, and on farming.

Ownership of space is not restricted to land. Ownership of airspace and of waters is decided
internationally. Other forms of ownership have been recently asserted to other spaces—for example
to the radio bands of the electromagnetic spectrum or to cyberspace.

Public space is a term used to define areas of land as collectively owned by the community, and
managed in their name by delegated bodies; such spaces are open to all, while private property is
the land culturally owned by an individual or company, for their own use and pleasure.

Abstract space is a term used in geography to refer to a hypothetical space characterized by

complete homogeneity. When modeling activity or behavior, it is a conceptual tool used to limit
extraneous variables such as terrain.

In psychology

Psychologists first began to study the way space is perceived in the middle of the 19th century.
Those now concerned with such studies regard it as a distinct branch of psychology. Psychologists
analyzing the perception of space are concerned with how recognition of an object's physical
appearance or its interactions are perceived, see, for example, visual space.

Other, more specialized topics studied include amodal perception and object permanence. The
perception of surroundings is important due to its necessary relevance to survival, especially with
regards to hunting and self preservation as well as simply one's idea of personal space.

Several space-related phobias have been identified, including agoraphobia (the fear of open
spaces), astrophobia (the fear of celestial space) and claustrophobia (the fear of enclosed spaces).

The understanding of three-dimensional space in humans is thought to be learned during infancy

using unconscious inference, and is closely related to hand-eye coordination. The visual ability to
perceive the world in three dimensions is called depth perception.

In the social sciences

Space has been studied in the social sciences from the perspectives of Marxism, feminism,
postmodernism, postcolonialism, urban theory and critical geography. These theories account for
the effect of the history of colonialism, transatlantic slavery and globalization on our understanding
and experience of space and place. The topic has garnered attention since the 1980s, after the
publication of Henri Lefebvre's The Production of Space . In this book, Lefebvre applies Marxist ideas
about the production of commodities and accumulation of capital to discuss space as a social
product. His focus is on the multiple and overlapping social processes that produce space.[31]

In his book The Condition of Postmodernity, David Harvey describes what he terms the "time-space
compression." This is the effect of technological advances and capitalism on our perception of time,
space and distance.[32] Changes in the modes of production and consumption of capital affect and
are affected by developments in transportation and technology. These advances create
relationships across time and space, new markets and groups of wealthy elites in urban centers, all
of which annihilate distances and affect our perception of linearity and distance.[33]

In his book Thirdspace, Edward Soja describes space and spatiality as an integral and neglected
aspect of what he calls the "trialectics of being," the three modes that determine how we inhabit,
experience and understand the world. He argues that critical theories in the Humanities and Social
Sciences study the historical and social dimensions of our lived experience, neglecting the spatial
dimension.[34] He builds on Henri Lefebvre's work to address the dualistic way in which humans
understand space—as either material/physical or as represented/imagined. Lefebvre's "lived
space"[35] and Soja's "thirdspace" are terms that account for the complex ways in which humans
understand and navigate place, which "firstspace" and "Secondspace" (Soja's terms for material and
imagined spaces respectively) do not fully encompass.

Postcolonial theorist Homi Bhabha's concept of Third Space is different from Soja's Thirdspace,
even though both terms offer a way to think outside the terms of a binary logic. Bhabha's Third
Space is the space in which hybrid cultural forms and identities exist. In his theories, the term hybrid
describes new cultural forms that emerge through the interaction between colonizer and
colonized.[36]

See also

Quantum state space Shape of the universe

Absolute space and time Social space

Aether theories Space exploration

Cosmology Spacetime (mathematics)

General relativity Spatial analysis

Philosophy of space and time Spatial–temporal reasoning

Proxemics
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