• CompTIA A+

• EXAM CODES 220-1101 & 220-1102

• https://www.comptia.org/certifications/a

Title - Leelawadee UI - 40
Heading - Microsoft PhagsPa - 30
Sub-Heading - Microsoft PhagsPa - 22
 1. Computer Technician
2. IT Support Specialist
3. Help Desk Technician
4. Hardware Engineer
Entry-level 5. Network Technician
Positions To 6. System Administrator
More 7.
8.
Field Service Technician
Data Center Technician
Advanced 9. Hardware Sales Representative
Roles 10.
11.
Electronics Technician
Hardware Support Specialist
12. Computer Hardware Instructor
13. Technical Writer (Hardware Documentation)
14. IT Asset Manager
15. Hardware Development Engineer
 MODULE 1
HARDWARE FOUNDATION

Topics to be covered:
1. Exposure to Computer Hardware Industry
2. Components, Tools & Safety measures
3. Assembling a PC
4. Troubleshooting PC Hardware
5. Installation of OS
6. Troubleshooting OS
 1. What is your current level of understanding of PC hardware?
• Options could include - Beginner, Intermediate, Advanced.
2. Have you ever assembled or repaired a computer before? If so,
what did you do?
3. What specific aspects of PC hardware are you most interested
in learning about?
• Examples might include components, troubleshooting,
upgrades, etc.

Setting 4. Are you familiar with the basic components of a computer (e.g.
, CPU, motherboard, RAM, storage)?

a Stage 5. Do you have experience with operating systems and how they
interact with hardware?
6. What kind of hardware-related issues have you encountered
or heard about?
7. Do you use or plan to use your knowledge of PC hardware for
a specific purpose, such as gaming, programming, or
professional work?
8. What types of computers or devices do you currently use (e.g.,
desktops, laptops, servers)?
9. Are there any specific questions or topics you’re hoping will
be covered in this course?
10. How comfortable are you with using tools and software for
diagnosing and fixing hardware issues?
BASICS
ABOUT
COMPUTER

1. What is a Computer?

2. What are the Input and

Output Devices ?

3. What is Hardware and

Software ?

4. What is the basic

function ?
 LIST OF PC HARDWARE
COMPONENTS AND
PERIPHERALS
Input Devices
Keyboard
Mouse
Trackball
Touchpad
Joystick
Gamepad/Controller
Graphics Tablet
Stylus
Scanner
Barcode Reader
Digital Camera
Webcam
Microphone
Touch Screen
Biometric Devices (Fingerprint Scanner, Retina Scanner)
 LIST OF PC HARDWARE
COMPONENTS AND
PERIPHERALS

Output Devices
1. Monitor
2. Printer (Inkjet, Laser, Dot Matrix)
3. Projector
4. Speakers
5. Headphones
6. VR Headset
7. Plotter
 LIST OF PC HARDWARE
COMPONENTS AND
PERIPHERALS
Storage Devices
1. External Hard Drive
2. USB Flash Drive
3. Memory Card (SD Card, MicroSD Card)
4. Optical Disc Drive (CD/DVD/Blu-ray)
5. Network Attached Storage (NAS)

Connectivity and Expansion

1. USB Hub
2. Thunderbolt Dock
3. KVM Switch (Keyboard, Video, Mouse Switch)
4. Port Replicator
 LIST OF PC HARDWARE
COMPONENTS AND
PERIPHERALS

Network Devices
1. Modem
2. Router
3. Network Switch
4. Network Interface Card (NIC)
5. Wireless Adapter
6. Bluetooth Adapter
 LIST OF PC HARDWARE
COMPONENTS AND
PERIPHERALS
Multifunctional Devices
1. All-in-One Printer (Print, Scan, Copy, Fax)
2. Docking Station

Specialized Input/Output Devices

1. Card Reader
2. External Graphics Processing Unit (eGPU)
3. External Sound Card
4. External RAID Enclosure
 LIST OF PC HARDWARE
COMPONENTS AND
PERIPHERALS
Miscellaneous
1. Uninterruptible Power Supply (UPS)
2. Surge Protector
3. External Cooling Solutions (Laptop Cooling Pad)
4. Webcam Cover
5. Cable Management Solutions (Cable Clips, Sleeves)

Legacy Devices
1. Floppy Disk Drive
2. Serial and Parallel Ports
3. PS/2 Keyboard and Mouse
https://www.displaywars.com/
https://www.displayspecifications.com/en
 Display Technology Description Advantages Disadvantages
Uses electron beams to light up phosphorescent Good color reproduction, high refresh rates, multiple Bulky, heavy, high-power consumption,
Cathode Ray Tube (CRT) dots on the inside of a glass tube resolutions geometric distortion
Uses liquid crystals sandwiched between layers of Limited viewing angles, slower response
Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) glass or plastic illuminated by a backlight
Thin, lightweight, energy-efficient, less eye strain
times, potential for dead pixels
Better brightness, improved color accuracy, longer
Light Emitting Diode (LED) A type of LCD that uses LEDs for backlighting
lifespan, more energy-efficient
More expensive than traditional LCDs

Organic Light Emitting Diode Uses organic compounds that emit light when an Superior color accuracy, true blacks, wider viewing
Higher cost, potential for screen burn-in
(OLED) electric current is applied angles, faster response times, flexible screens
Utilizes quantum dots to improve the color and Enhanced color accuracy, higher brightness levels,
Quantum Dot Display brightness of LED-backlit LCDs more energy-efficient
Expensive, still relies on LED backlighting
Uses small cells containing electrically charged Excellent color reproduction, wide viewing angles, high High power consumption, heavy,
Plasma Display Panel (PDP) ionized gases (plasma) to produce images contrast ratios susceptible to screen burn-in
Uses a digital micromirror device (DMD) to project Good color accuracy, high contrast ratios, suitable for Rainbow effect in some models, moving
Digital Light Processing (DLP) images large displays parts can wear out over time
Superior brightness, energy efficiency, longer lifespan,
MicroLED Uses microscopic LEDs to form individual pixels
no burn-in issues
High production cost, limited availability
Uses tiny capsules of black and white particles that Low power consumption, easy on the eyes, readable in Limited color reproduction, slower refresh
E-Ink (Electronic Ink) move in response to electric fields direct sunlight rates, not suitable for video playback
Electroluminescent Display Uses a material that emits light in response to an Good visibility in various lighting conditions, thin and Limited color range, lower brightness
(ELD) electric current flexible design compared to OLED
Similar to CRT but uses a field emission process to High brightness, fast response times, good color High production cost, technical challenges
Field Emission Display (FED) excite phosphors on a screen reproduction in manufacturing
Laser Phosphor Display (LPD) Uses lasers to excite phosphor pixels on the screen High brightness, wide color gamut, energy-efficient Limited market presence, high initial cost
Low power consumption, good readability in direct Limited color reproduction, slower refresh
Reflective Displays Utilize ambient light to illuminate the display
sunlight rates
Allow light to pass through the display, creating a Novel applications in augmented reality and heads-up Lower brightness and contrast compared to
Transparent Displays see-through effect displays non-transparent displays
Complexity in design, potential discomfort
Virtual Retinal Display (VRD) Projects images directly onto the retina of the eye High resolution, wide field of view, immersive experience
for some users
Use flexible substrates like plastic or organic Higher production costs, potential durability
Flexible Displays materials to allow bending and folding
Durable, lightweight, adaptable to various form factors
issues over time
Cholesteric Liquid Crystal Uses cholesteric liquid crystals that can maintain
Ultra-low power consumption, bistability Limited color range, slower refresh rates
Display (ChLCD) an image without power
Uses micro-electromechanical systems (MEMS) High contrast, fast response times, potential for high Complex manufacturing process, relatively
MEMS Display
 Type Description Typical Applications

Mechanical Use individual mechanical switches for each Gaming, typing enthusiasts,
Keyboards key. professional use

Membrane Use pressure pads with electrical contacts General use, budget-friendly
Keyboards under a rubber dome. environments

Scissor-Switch Utilize a scissor-like mechanism to stabilize

Laptops, portable keyboards
Keyboards keys.

Capacitive High-reliability applications,

Detect key presses using capacitive circuits.
Keyboards specialized devices

Opto-
Gaming, fast-response
Mechanical Use light to detect key presses.
environments
Keyboards
 Layout Description Typical Applications
QWERTY Keyboards Standard keyboard layout. General use, worldwide standard

AZERTY Keyboards Common in French-speaking countries. French-speaking regions

Typing enthusiasts, ergonomic

DVORAK Keyboards Designed for increased typing efficiency.
needs

Typing enthusiasts, ergonomic

Colemak Keyboards Alternative layout for typing efficiency.
needs

JCUKEN Keyboards
Connectivity CommonlyDescription
used for the Cyrillic alphabet. Russian-speaking regions
Typical Applications
General use, gaming, professional
Wired Keyboards Connect via USB or PS/2 cable.
environments

Connect via Bluetooth or RF (radio Portable setups, living room PCs, clean desk
Wireless Keyboards
frequency). setups
 Size and Form Factor Description Typical Applications
Full-Sized Keyboards Include all standard keys plus a numeric keypad. General use, professional environments

Tenkeyless (TKL) Keyboards Lack a numeric keypad for a more compact design. Gaming, space-saving environments
Smaller than TKL, often missing function or arrow
Compact Keyboards Portability, minimalist setups
keys.

Ergonomic Keyboards Designed to reduce strain and increase comfort. Long typing sessions, ergonomic needs

Flexible Keyboards Made from flexible materials, can be rolled up. Portability, spill-prone environments
Special Features Description Typical Applications
Feature programmable keys, RGB lighting, and mechanical
Gaming Keyboards Gaming
switches.

Multimedia Keyboards Include extra keys for media control. Home use, media centers

Virtual Keyboards On-screen keyboards for touchscreens. Tablets, touch devices

Projection Keyboards Project a keyboard layout onto a flat surface. Portable, futuristic setups

Programmable Keyboards Allow custom key functions and macros. Gaming, professional use

Gaming, typing in low-light

Backlit Keyboards Have illuminated keys for low-light visibility.
environments

Foldable Keyboards Can be folded for easy transport. Mobile devices, portable setups

Solar-Powered Keyboards Use solar cells to charge and operate. Eco-friendly setups

Industrial environments, spill-

Waterproof Keyboards Designed to resist water and spills.
prone areas

Chiclet Keyboards Have flat, square keys with rounded corners. Laptops, slim-profile keyboards
Speakers and
Headphones
Printer/Scanner
 External Components and Accessories
1. External Storage
2. Docking Stations
3. UPS (Uninterruptible Power Supply)
4. Surge Protectors
5. Anti-Static Equipment
6. Custom Sleeved Cables
7. Cable Management Solutions
External Storage - HDD
 External
Storage - SSD
 External
Storage - USB
Docking Station
UPS (Uninterruptible
Power Supply)
 Surge
Protectors or
Spike Busters
Anti-Static
Equipment
Custom Sleeved Cables
Cable
Manageme
nt Solutions
Networking and
Connectivity
1. Modem
2. Router
3. Wi-fi Adapter
Modem, Router &Wi-fi Adapter
MODEM
CORE COMPONENTS
1. Central Processing Unit (CPU)
2. Motherboard
3. Memory
4. Storage Devices
5. Power Supply Unit (PSU)
6. Graphical Processing Unit (GPU)
7. Cooling Systems
8. Case (Chassis)
 Supercompute
rs
• Definition: The most powerful
and fastest computers, capable of
performing trillions of calculations
per second.
• Uses: Scientific simulations,
weather forecasting, nuclear
research, large-scale data analysis.
• Examples: IBM Summit, Fugaku.
 Mainframe
Computers

• Definition: Large, powerful

computers designed to handle and
process large amounts of data.
Often used in industries where
large-scale transactions and data
management are required.
• Uses: Banking systems, airline
reservations, census data
processing.
• Examples: IBM Z series, Unisys
ClearPath.
 Minicomputers (Mid-range
Computers)

• Definition: Smaller than mainframes but

still capable of supporting multiple users
and processes simultaneously. Commonly
used in businesses for specific tasks.
• Uses: Manufacturing process control,
scientific research, business operations.
• Examples: DEC PDP, IBM AS/400.
 Workstations

• Definition: High-performance
personal computers designed for
technical or scientific applications.
• Uses: 3D rendering, video editing,
computer-aided design (CAD),
simulations.
• Examples: Dell Precision, HP Z
Workstations.
 Personal
Computers (PCs)
• Definition: General-purpose computers
designed for individual use.
• Types of PCs:
• Desktop Computers: Stationary
computers designed for use at a desk.
• Laptop Computers: Portable
computers with built-in screens and
keyboards.
• Tablet PCs: Handheld touchscreen
devices that may include detachable
keyboards.
• Netbooks: Small, lightweight, and
less powerful laptops primarily for web-
based tasks.
• Ultrabooks: Thin and light laptops
with high performance and long
battery life.
• Uses: Personal tasks, office work, gaming,
web browsing.
• Examples: Dell XPS, MacBook Pro, HP
Pavilion.
 Servers
• Definition: Computers
that provide services,
resources, or data to other
computers (clients) over a
network.
• Uses: Hosting websites,
managing databases, file
storage, application hosting.
• Examples: Dell
PowerEdge, HP ProLiant.
Embedded
Computers

• Definition: Computers
embedded within other
devices to perform specific
tasks. They are usually part of
a larger system.
• Uses: Consumer electronics
(smart TVs, washing
machines), medical devices,
automotive systems.
• Examples: Microcontrollers
in cars, Raspberry Pi.
Microcontrollers

• Definition: Small, low-

power computers
embedded in devices to
control specific functions.
• Uses: Controlling
appliances, robots,
sensors, etc.
• Examples: Arduino,
ARM-based controllers.
 Mobile
•
Devices
Definition: Handheld, portable devices with computing
capabilities.
• Types:
• Smartphones: Multi-functional devices that
combine communication, computing, and media
functionalities.
• Tablets: Larger versions of smartphones with
touchscreen interfaces.
• Uses: Communication, apps, web browsing, media
consumption.
• Examples: iPhone, Samsung Galaxy, iPad.
SERVER
HARDWAR
E
1U 2U
Server Server

3U
4U
Server
Server
CABLE
MANAGEMEN
T
What is the di erence ?

Server Size Height (in inches) Height (in mm) Description

Very slim; used where space
1U 1.75 inches 44.45 mm
is limited
Extra space for more drives,
2U 3.5 inches 88.9 mm
better airflow
Often used for more complex
3U 5.25 inches 133.35 mm
hardware
High storage/GPU capacity;
4U 7 inches 177.8 mm
excellent airflow
Rare but used for specialized
5U 8.75 inches 222.25 mm
or hybrid setups
Can hold full servers, NAS,
6U 10.5 inches 266.7 mm blade chassis, or modular
equipment
RACK MOUNT SERVER RAIL KIT
https://docs.oracle.com/cd/E23203_01/html/E23204/z40009f51018483.html
TOWER • Looks like a desktop PC tower.
SERVER •
•
Stands alone, not mounted in a rack.
Has more space for cooling, expansion (RAM, HDD).
• Ideal for small businesses or branch offices.
 BLADE SERVER
• Ultra-compact servers that slot into a blade enclosure.
• The enclosure provides power, cooling, and networking, not the blades themselves.
• Used in data centers needing high density and modular scaling.
BLADE SERVER ENCLOSURE
CPU
 CPU
I) INTRODUCTION
II) HISTORY AND EVOLUTION
IX) PROCESSOR SOCKET
III) WORKING
X) IDENTIFICATION
IV) MANUFACTURERS
XI) ARCHITECTURE
V) TYPES
XII) COMPARISON BETWEEN MAJOR PROCESSORS
VI) FEATURES OF A PROCESSOR
XIII) FUTURE TRENDS AND DEVELOPMENTS
VII) PROS OF A PROCESSOR
XIV) APPLICATIONS AND USE CASES
VIII) CONS OF PROCESSOR
XV) BENCHMARKING AND PERFORMANCE TESTING
XVI) OVERCLOCKING
 A PROCESSOR, ALSO KNOWN AS A CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT (CPU),
IS THE PRIMARY COMPONENT OF A COMPUTER THAT PERFORMS MOST

INTRODUCTION OF THE PROCESSING INSIDE THE COMPUTER. IT CARRIES OUT

INSTRUCTIONS FROM PROGRAMS BY PERFORMING BASIC ARITHMETIC,
LOGIC, CONTROL, AND INPUT/OUTPUT OPERATIONS SPECIFIED BY THE
INSTRUCTIONS.
 WORKIN
1. Fetch: G
- The CPU fetches instructions from the computer’s memory.
- Instructions are fetched from a location in memory addressed by the
program counter (PC).

2. Decode:
- The fetched instruction is decoded to determine what action is
required.
- The CPU interprets the instruction to understand what operations
need to be performed.

3. Execute:
- The CPU executes the instruction using its arithmetic logic unit (ALU).
- It performs arithmetic and logical operations based on the decoded
instruction.

4. Store:
- The CPU writes the results back to memory or to a register.
- This is necessary for the program to have access to the processed
 HISTORY AND EVOLUTION OF PROCESSORS
1. Early Development: Initial computers used vacuum tubes and transistors for processing.
2. First Microprocessor (1971): Intel introduced the first microprocessor, the 4-bit Intel 4004.
3. 8-bit Processors (1972-1974): Intel released the 8008 and 8080, advancing early personal computing.
4. 16-bit Processors (1978): The Intel 8086 introduced the x86 architecture.
5. 32-bit Processors (1985): Intel's 80386 enabled more powerful and complex computing.
6. Multi-Core Processors (2001-2006): IBM's POWER4 and Intel's Core 2 Duo popularized multi-core
processing.
7. Semiconductor Advancements: Continuous reduction in transistor size improved performance and
efficiency.
8. 64-bit Processors (2003-2004): AMD and Intel introduced 64-bit processors, expanding computing power.
9. Integrated Graphics (2010): Intel's Sandy Bridge architecture combined CPU and GPU on a single chip.
10. Mobile and Low-Power Processors: ARM-based processors became dominant in mobile devices,
focusing on power efficiency.
MANUFACTURERS
 TYPES
2. Mobile
1. Desktop Processors
Processors

3. Server
Processors
 How do you
think CPU is
getting
manufactured
?
What is a Core ?
A core is a processing unit of the CPU. It is responsible
for executing programs and multiple other actions on a
computer.
ARCHITECTUR
E OF MULTI
CORE
PROCESSOR
 vi) Features of a Processor
1. Clock Speed:
- Base Speed: The standard operating speed of the CPU under normal conditions, measured in GHz.
- Turbo Boost: A technology that allows the CPU to automatically increase its clock speed beyond the
base speed when demanding tasks are being processed.
2. Cores:
- A multi-core processor has multiple processing units (cores), allowing for parallel processing and better
multitasking.
3. Threads:
- Logical processing units that allow multiple tasks to be executed simultaneously by each core.
Technologies like Hyper-Threading or Simultaneous Multithreading (SMT) allow each core to handle
multiple threads concurrently.
4. Cache Memory:
- Small, high-speed memory located inside the CPU to store frequently accessed data and instructions.
 vi) Features of a Processor

5. Instruction Set Architecture (ISA):

- Defines the set of instructions the CPU can execute.
6. Integrated Graphics:
- Some CPUs come with integrated graphics processing units (GPUs) for handling graphics-
related tasks.
7. Power Consumption and Thermal Design Power (TDP):
- Indicates the amount of heat a CPU generates and how much cooling it needs.
8. Manufacturing Process:
- The size of the transistors used in the CPU, measured in nanometers (nm). Smaller sizes
typically mean more efficient and powerful processors.
vii) Pros viii) Cons
• Speed and Efficiency
• Multitasking • Cost
• Performance • Heat Generation
• Energy Efficiency • Complexity
• Integrated Functions • Compatibility Issues
• Turbo Boost
• Power Consumption
 https://www.cpu-monkey.com/
ix) Processor Socket
A processor socket is a mechanical component that provides mechanical and electrical connections
between a microprocessor and a printed circuit board (PCB).

LGA (Land Grid PGA (Pin Grid BGA (Ball Grid

Array) Array) Array)
x) Identification

1. Model Number:
- Each processor has a specific model number that
indicates its family, generation, and performance
characteristics.

2. Specifications:
- Detailed specifications including clock speed,
number of cores, threads, cache size, and TDP.

3. Tools:
- Utilities like CPU-Z can provide detailed information
about the processor installed in a system.
 Understanding Processor Model Su xes: What
Do the Letters Mean?
Intel
Processors

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

K: Unlocked F : Lacks KF: T : Power- U: Ultra-low Y : Extremely H: High- HK: High- G: Integrated
for integrated Unlocked for optimized power, low power, performance performance graphics with
overclocking. graphics; overclocking variant with typically designed for mobile mobile a dedicated
requires a and lacks lower TDP used in fanless processor, processor memory
dedicated integrated (Thermal laptops. laptops or often found with module
GPU. graphics. Design tablets. in gaming unlocked (used in
Power). laptops. multiplier for specific Intel
overclocking. processors).
 Understanding Processor Model Su xes: What
Do the Letters Mean?
AMD Processors

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

X : Higher G: Includes GE: Lower power H: High- HX: High- U: Ultra-low HS: High-
performance integrated Vega version of performance performance power, designed performance
variant, typically graphics. processors with mobile processor, mobile processor for thin and light mobile processor
with higher clock integrated used in gaming with the potential laptops. with lower TDP
speeds. graphics. laptops. for overclocking. for efficient
designs.
xi) Architecture

1. x86/x64 Architecture: (32 bit / 64 bit)

- Commonly used in desktop and laptop processors by Intel and AMD.

2. ARM Architecture:
- Widely used in mobile devices, tablets, and some laptops due to its power efficiency.

3. RISC (Reduced Instruction Set Computer):

- Simplifies instructions to increase performance, used in various specialized applications.

4. CISC (Complex Instruction Set Computer):

- Uses complex instructions, typically seen in traditional desktop and server processors.
xii) Comparison Between Major Processors

1. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_AMD_processors
2. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Intel_processors
3. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ARM_processors
 xiii) Future Trends and Developments

1. Smaller and More Efficient Architectures 5. Energy Efficiency and Sustainability

- Low-Power Design
- Continued Shrinking of Transistors
- Green Computing Initiatives
- 3D Chip Stacking 6. Neuro-Inspired Computing
2. Increased Specialization - Neuromorphic Processors
- Heterogeneous Computing 7. Integration with Other Technologies
- Application-Specific Integrated Circuits - 5G and Beyond
(ASICs) - IoT Integration
8. Advanced Security Features
3. Advancements in AI and Machine Learning
- Hardware Security Modules
- AI Accelerators 9. Flexible and Wearable Electronics
- Edge AI Processing - Flexible Processors
4. Quantum Computing 10. Open Source and Collaborative Development
- RISC-V Architecture
- Quantum Processors
- Hybrid Computing Models
 xiv) Applications and Use Cases
1. Consumer Electronics 4. Internet of Things (IoT) 7. Telecommunications 11. Education and Research

- Smartphones and Tablets - Smart Home Devices - Network Infrastructure - Supercomputers

- Laptops and Desktops - Industrial IoT - 5G Technology - Educational Tools
- Wearables - Healthcare IoT
8. Healthcare 12. Entertainment and Media
2. Gaming and Graphics 5. Automotive - Medical Imaging - Streaming Devices
- Gaming Consoles - Autonomous Vehicles - Wearable Health Devices - Content Creation
- VR/AR - Infotainment Systems
- Graphics Processing Units (GPUs) 9. Security and Surveillance 13. Retail and E-commerce
6. Data Centers and Cloud Computing - Security Cameras - Point of Sale Systems
3. Artificial Intelligence and Machine - Server Processors - Access Control Systems - E-commerce Platforms
Learning
- Cloud Services
- AI Inference
10. Financial Services
- Training Models
- Trading Systems
- Cryptocurrency Mining
 xv)
Benchmarki
ng and
Performance
Testing
xvi)
Overclockin
g
 AMD Microarchitectures and Processors
• K5 (1996) • Zen (2017)
• Processors: AMD K5 • Processors: Ryzen 1000 series, EPYC 7001 series, Threadripper 1000 series

• K6 (1997-1999) • Zen+ (2018)

• Processors: K6, K6-2, K6-3 • Processors: Ryzen 2000 series, Ryzen Threadripper 2000 series, EPYC 7002
series
• K7 (1999)
• Processors: Athlon, Duron, Athlon XP, Athlon MP • Zen 2 (2019)
• Processors: Ryzen 3000 series, Ryzen Threadripper 3000 series, EPYC 7002
• K8 (2003)
series, Ryzen 4000 series (APUs)
• Processors: Athlon 64, Athlon 64 X2, Athlon 64 FX, Opteron, Turion 64, Sempron
• Zen 3 (2020)
• K9 (Never Released)
• Processors: Ryzen 5000 series, Ryzen Threadripper 5000 series, EPYC 7003
• Processors: None
series
• K10 (2007)
• Zen 4 (2022)
• Processors: Phenom, Phenom II, Athlon II, Opteron, Sempron, Turion II
• Processors: Ryzen 7000 series, EPYC 9004 series (Genoa)
• Bulldozer (2011)
• Zen 5 (Expected 2024)
• Processors: FX series (e.g., FX-4100, FX-8350), Opteron
• Processors: Details to be announced
• Piledriver (2012)
• Processors: FX series (e.g., FX-4300, FX-8350), Opteron, A-series APUs (e.g., • APUs and Integrated Graphics
A10-5800K)
• Raven Ridge (2018)
• Steamroller (2014) • Processors: Ryzen 2000G series (e.g., Ryzen 3 2200G, Ryzen 5 2400G)
• Processors: A-series APUs (e.g., A10-7850K), Athlon (e.g., Athlon 860K), Opteron
• Picasso (2019)
• Excavator (2015)
• Processors: Ryzen 3000G series (e.g., Ryzen 3 3200G, Ryzen 5 3400G)
• Processors: A-series APUs (e.g., A10-7870K), Athlon (e.g., Athlon X4 845),
Opteron • Renoir (2020)
• Processors: Ryzen 4000G series (e.g., Ryzen 3 4350G, Ryzen 5 4650G, Ryzen
7 4750G)
AMD Microarchitectures and Processors
Server and High-Performance Computing

Based on Zen: EPYC 7001 series

Based on Zen+: EPYC 7002 series

EPYC Processors Based on Zen 2: EPYC 7002 series

Based on Zen 3: EPYC 7003 series
Based on Zen 4: EPYC 9004 series (Genoa)

Based on Zen: Threadripper 1000 series

Based on Zen+: Threadripper 2000 series
Threadripper Based on Zen 2: Threadripper 3000 series
Based on Zen 3: Threadripper 5000 series
 Intel Microarchitectures and
Processors
1. P5 (1993) 9. Haswell (2013)
Processors: Pentium Processors: Core i7-4000, Core i5-4000, Core i3-4000,
Pentium, Celeron, Xeon E3 series
2. P6 (1995)
Processors: Pentium Pro, Pentium II, Pentium III, Celeron, 10. Broadwell (2014)
Xeon Processors: Core i7-5000, Core i5-5000, Core i3-5000,
3. NetBurst (2000) Pentium, Celeron, Xeon E3 series
Processors: Pentium 4, Pentium D, Celeron, Xeon 11. Skylake (2015)
4. Bonnell (2008) Processors: Core i7-6000, Core i5-6000, Core i3-6000,
Processors: Atom Pentium, Celeron, Xeon E3 series
5. Nehalem (2008) 12. Kaby Lake (2016)
Processors: Core i7-900, Core i5-700, Core i3-500, Xeon Processors: Core i7-7000, Core i5-7000, Core i3-7000,
5500 series Pentium, Celeron
6. Westmere (2010) 13. Coffee Lake (2017)
Processors: Core i7-900, Core i5-600, Core i3-500, Xeon Processors: Core i7-8000, Core i5-8000, Core i3-8000,
5600 series Pentium, Celeron, Xeon E series
7. Sandy Bridge (2011) 14. Coffee Lake Refresh (2018)
Processors: Core i7-2000, Core i5-2000, Core i3-2000, Processors: Core i9-9000, Core i7-9000, Core i5-9000,
Pentium, Celeron, Xeon E3 series
Core i3-9000, Pentium, Celeron
8. Ivy Bridge (2012)
15. Cannon Lake (2018)
Processors: Core i7-3000, Core i5-3000, Core i3-3000,
Pentium, Celeron, Xeon E3 series Processors: Core i3-8121U
 Intel Microarchitectures and
16.
Processors
Ice Lake (2019) Atom Microarchitectures and
Processors: Core i7-1000G, Core i5-1000G, Core
i3-1000G, Xeon Processors
17. Comet Lake (2020) 1. Bonnell (2008)
Processors: Core i9-10000, Core i7-10000, Core Processors: Atom Z500, Atom N200
i5-10000, Core i3-10000, Pentium, Celeron, Xeon W 2. Saltwell (2011)
18. Rocket Lake (2021) Processors: Atom Z2000, Atom N2600, Atom D2500
Processors: Core i9-11000, Core i7-11000, Core 3. Silvermont (2013)
i5-11000, Core i3-11000, Pentium, Celeron
Processors: Atom Z3000, Atom C2000, Atom E3800
19. Tiger Lake (2020)
4. Airmont (2015)
Processors: Core i7-1100G, Core i5-1100G, Core
i3-1100G, Xeon W Processors: Atom x3, Atom x5, Atom x7

20. Alder Lake (2021) 5. Goldmont (2016)

Processors: Core i9-12000, Core i7-12000, Core Processors: Atom C3000, Atom E3900
i5-12000, Core i3-12000, Pentium, Celeron 6. Goldmont Plus (2018)
21. Raptor Lake (2022) Processors: Atom C3000 Refresh
Processors: Core i9-13000, Core i7-13000, Core 7. Tremont (2019)
i5-13000, Core i3-13000, Pentium, Celeron
Processors: Atom P5900, Atom x6000
22. Meteor Lake (Expected 2023-2024)
Processors: Details to be announced
Intel Microarchitectures and Processors
- High-Performance Computing (Xeon and Xeon Phi)
Processor Family Series Examples Performance Tier

Intel Xeon Scalable Platinum 9200 9282, 9242 High Performance

Platinum 8200 8280, 8260 High Performance

Platinum 8300 8358, 8356 High Performance
Gold 6200 6258R, 6230R High Performance
Gold 5200 5222, 5218R Balanced Performance
Gold 6300 6348, 6338N High Performance
Silver 4200 4216, 4214R Moderate Performance
Silver 4300 4314, 4309Y Moderate Performance

Bronze 3200 3206R, 3204 Entry-Level Performance

Intel Xeon E E-2200 E-2278G, E-2246G Entry-Level Performance

E-2100 E-2186G, E-2124 Entry-Level Performance

Intel Xeon D D-2100 D-2183IT, D-2141I Moderate Performance

D-1500 D-1587, D-1577 Moderate Performance

Intel Xeon W W-3200 W-3275, W-3245 High Performance
W-2200 W-2295, W-2235 High Performance
 Intel Microarchitectures and
Processors
Mobile and Embedded Processors
1. Silverthorne (2008)
Processors: Atom Z500
2. Lincroft (2010)
Processors: Atom Z600
3. Cloverview (2012)
Processors: Atom Z2400
4. Bay Trail (2013)
Processors: Atom Z3000
5. Cherry Trail (2015)
Processors: Atom x5, Atom x7
6. Apollo Lake (2016)
Processors: Pentium N4200, Celeron N3350
7. Gemini Lake (2017)
Processors: Pentium Silver, Celeron
8. Elkhart Lake (2020)
Processors: Atom x6000, Pentium, Celeron
MOTHERBOARD
What is Motherboard ?

• A motherboard is the main printed circuit

board (PCB) in a computer.
• The motherboard is a computer's central
communications backbone connectivity point,
through which all components and external
peripherals connect.
• Motherboards can be found in virtually all
computers, especially desktop and laptop PCs.
Who manufacture
Motherboards ?
 1. Central Processing 2. Random Access
3. Power Supply Unit
Unit (CPU): The brain of Memory (RAM):
(PSU): Provides power to
the computer, it Temporary memory used
the motherboard and
processes instructions by the CPU to store data
other components.
from programs. that is being processed.

Component
s that 4. Graphics Processing
Unit (GPU): Handles
rendering of images and
5. Storage Devices:
Hard drives (HDDs) or
solid-state drives (SSDs)
6. BIOS/UEFI Chip:
Firmware interface that
initializes hardware during

connect to
video. for long-term data storage. the boot process.

the 7. Expansion Slots

(PCIe, PCI): Used for
adding extra components
8. I/O Ports: Connectors
for peripherals such as
9. Cooling Solutions:
Fans or liquid cooling

motherboar
systems to maintain
like additional GPUs, USB devices, audio jacks,
optimal operating
sound cards, network Ethernet, etc.
temperatures.
cards, etc.

d? 10. Chipset: Manages

data flow between the
CPU, RAM, and other
components.
Components
that connect
to the
motherboard ?
1. Central Processing Unit
(CPU): The brain of the
computer, it processes
instructions from programs.
Components
that connect to
the
motherboard ?

2. Random Access
Memory (RAM):
Temporary memory used
by the CPU to store data
that is being processed.
Components that
connect to the
motherboard ?

3. Power Supply Unit (PSU):

Provides power to the motherboard
and other components.
Components that
connect to the
motherboard ?

4. Graphics Processing Unit

(GPU): Handles rendering of images
and video.
Components that
connect to the
motherboard ?
5. Storage Devices: Hard drives (HDDs) or solid-
state drives (SSDs) for long-term data storage.
Components
that connect
to the
motherboard ?
6. BIOS/UEFI Chip: Firmware
interface that initializes hardware
during the boot process.
7. Expansion Slots (PCIe, PCI): Used for adding extra components like additional GPUs,
sound cards, network cards, etc.
 📊
PCI vs PCIe Comparison Chart

PCIe (Peripheral
Feature
PCI (Peripheral Component
Interconnect) 💻 ⚡
Component Interconnect
Express)
Introduction Introduced in 1992 📅 Introduced in 2003 📅
Architecture Parallel architecture 🛠 Serial architecture 🛠

Limited to 133 MB/s 🚶

Speed
generation) 🚀
Can reach 32 GB/s or more (depending on

Bus Width Fixed 32-bit or 64-bit lanes 🔧 Scalable lanes : x1, x2, x4, x8, x16, x32 📈
Bandwidth per Lane Not applicable ❌ 📈
Starts at 250 MB/s per lane and scales up

Data Transfer 🔄
Single direction data flow
flow🔄
Full-duplex (simultaneous two-way) data

Compatibility Obsolete in modern systems 🕰 Widely used in modern PCs and servers 🖥
Higher power usage ⚡
Power Consumption
🔋
Lower power consumption (more
efficient)

Usage Legacy devices like sound cards, modems 🎧 💾

Modern GPUs, SSDs, network cards
high-speed storage
🎮,
 BANDWIDTH TOTAL

GENERATION
YEAR
INTRODUCED 📅 🔄
PER LANE (X1) BANDWIDTH
(X16) 🚀 KEY USE CASES

PCIe 1.0 2003 250 MB/s 4 GB/s

Early GPUs 🎨🎧,
PCIe
sound cards

GPUs, SSDs 💽
Mainstream
PCIe 2.0 2007 500 MB/s 8 GB/s

Generation Modern GPUs,

s PCIe 3.0 2010 1 GB/s 16 GB/s

🔥
high-speed
storage

⚙
Compariso High-
PCIe 4.0 2017 2 GB/s 32 GB/s
GPUs 🎮🧠
performance
, AI
n processing
Enterprise
SSDs,
PCIe 5.0 2019 4 GB/s 64 GB/s
🖥
advanced GPUs

Future AI, deep

PCIe 6.0
2021/2022 8 GB/s 128 GB/s learning, data
(Upcoming)
centers
8. I/O Ports: Connectors for
peripherals such as USB devices,
audio jacks, Ethernet, etc.
10. Chipset: Manages data flow
between the CPU, RAM, and other
components.
 Dimensions Dimensions
Form Factor Description
(mm) (inches)
Common desktop form factor with ample space for
ATX 305 x 244 12 x 9.6
components.
MicroATX (µATX) 244 x 244 9.6 x 9.6 Smaller than ATX, fewer expansion slots.
Compact form factor for SFF and HTPC, limited
Mini-ITX 170 x 170 6.7 x 6.7
expansion.
Extended ATX Larger than ATX, used in high-end systems and
305 x 330 12 x 13
(EATX) servers.
FlexATX 229 x 191 9 x 7.5 Smaller variant of MicroATX for compact desktops.
Very small form factor for embedded and IoT
Nano-ITX 120 x 120 4.7 x 4.7
devices.
Pico-ITX 100 x 72 3.9 x 2.8 Extremely compact for ultra-small applications.
Varies (typical 325 Varies (typical 12.8 x Designed for better thermal management, less
BTX
x 267) 10.5) common now.
Ultra-compact desktop systems, between Mini-ITX
Mini-STX 147 x 140 5.8 x 5.5
and Nano-ITX.
Used in workstations, supports extensive
WTX 356 x 425 14 x 16.75
expandability.
Quad CPU Socket in Servers
https://www.lanner-america.com/blog/types-motherboard-
form-factors/
Memory
What is Memory refers to computer
components and recording media that
Memory? retain digital data used in computing
for some interval of time. Computer
memory operates at a high speed, for
example random access memory
(RAM), unlike storage that provides
slow-to-access data storage but offers
higher capacities.
How Does Computer memory stores data
temporarily or permanently by using
Memory Work? electronic circuits consisting of
semiconductor devices. Data remains
in volatile memory as long as the
computer has power, while nonvolatile
memory retains data even when the
computer is turned off. When a
program needs to access stored data, it
sends a request to the memory
controller, which retrieves the data and
transfers it to the processor for use.
 RAM (Random Access Memory)

DRAM (Dynamic RAM)

SRAM (Static RAM) VRAM (Video RAM) RAMBUS DRAM
(RDRAM)
1. SDRAM (Synchronous DRAM) 1. GDDR (Graphics DDR)
2. DDR SDRAM (Double Data Rate • GDDR2
SDRAM) • GDDR3
• DDR (DDR1) • GDDR4
• DDR2 • GDDR5
• DDR3 • GDDR5X
• DDR4 • GDDR6
• DDR5 • GDDR6X
3. LPDDR (Low Power DDR) 2. HBM (High Bandwidth
Memory)
• LPDDR2
• LPDDR3
• LPDDR4
• LPDDR5
 Power
Type Full Name Speed Consumptio Volatility Cost Usage Characteristics
n
- Needs to be refreshed
Dynamic Random- Main system
DRAM Moderate High Volatile Low thousands of times per
Access Memory memory
second.
- Faster and more reliable
CPU cache, than DRAM.
Static Random-
SRAM High Low Volatile High small memory - Does not need to be
Access Memory
modules refreshed.
- Uses flip-flops to store data.
- Proprietary and was once
Rambus Dynamic Some older PCs
RAMBUS used for high-speed memory.
Random-Access High High Volatile High and game
DRAM - Requires a license from
Memory consoles
Rambus Inc.
- Specialized for high
bandwidth requirements.
Graphics Double Graphics cards,
GDDR Very High Moderate Volatile High - Variants include GDDR2,
Data Rate gaming consoles
GDDR3, GDDR4, GDDR5,
and GDDR6.
 Power
Speed Max
Type Full Name Voltage Consumptio Data Rate Latency Application Characteristics
(MT/s) Bandwidth
n
- Synchronous with system clock.
Synchronous Single Data Up to 1.1 Higher General computing (older - Single data rate (one operation per clock
SDRAM 66 - 133 3.3V Moderate
Dynamic RAM Rate GB/s latency systems) cycle).
- Standard in older computers.
- Double data rate (two operations per clock
DDR Double Data Rate 2.5V - Double Data Up to 3.2 Lower General computing, cycle).
200 - 400 Moderate
SDRAM SDRAM 2.6V Rate GB/s latency gaming - Improved bandwidth over SDRAM.
- Common in early 2000s systems.
- Higher speed and bandwidth than DDR.
Double Data Rate 2 400 - Lower than Double Data Up to 8.5 Moderate General computing, - Lower voltage for reduced power
DDR2 1.8V
SDRAM 1066 DDR Rate GB/s latency gaming consumption.
- Improved latency compared to DDR.
- Higher speed and bandwidth than DDR2.
Double Data Rate 3 800 - Lower than Double Data Up to 17 Improved General computing, - Further reduced voltage and power
DDR3 1.5V
SDRAM 2133 DDR2 Rate GB/s latency gaming, servers consumption.
- Common in systems from 2007-2014.
- Higher speed and bandwidth than DDR3.
- Further reduced voltage and power
Double Data Rate 4 1600 - Lower than Double Data Up to 25.6 Lower General computing,
DDR4 1.2V consumption.
SDRAM 3200 DDR3 Rate GB/s latency gaming, servers
- Improved efficiency and performance,
common in modern systems.
- Significant speed and bandwidth increase
over DDR4.
Double Data Rate 5 3200 - Lower than Double Data Up to 67.2 Lower High-performance - Further reduced voltage and power
DDR5 1.1V
SDRAM 8400 DDR4 Rate GB/s latency computing, gaming consumption.
- Optimized for next-generation computing and
gaming performance.
 Power
Speed Max
Type Full Name Voltage Consumptio Data Rate Latency Application Characteristics
(MT/s) Bandwidth
n
- Lower power consumption than standard
Low Power 200 - Double Up to 3.2 Moderate DDR.
LPDDR 1.8V Low Mobile devices, laptops
DDR 400 Data Rate GB/s latency
- Used in mobile and portable devices.
- Higher speed and lower power
Low Power 400 - Lower than Double Up to 6.4 Moderate
LPDDR2 1.2V Mobile devices, laptops consumption than LPDDR.
DDR2 800 LPDDR Data Rate GB/s latency
- Improved efficiency for mobile devices.
- Higher speed and lower power
Low Power 800 - Lower than Double Up to 17 Improved
LPDDR3 1.2V Mobile devices, laptops consumption than LPDDR2.
DDR3 2133 LPDDR2 Data Rate GB/s latency
- Common in smartphones and tablets.
- Higher speed and lower power
Low Power 1600 - Lower than Double Up to 34.1 Lower consumption than LPDDR3.
LPDDR4 1.1V Mobile devices, laptops
DDR4 4266 LPDDR3 Data Rate GB/s latency - Common in modern mobile devices.
- Improved performance and efficiency.
- Significant speed and bandwidth increase
over LPDDR4.
Low Power 3200 - Lower than Double Up to 51.2 Lower High-performance mobile - Further reduced voltage and power
LPDDR5 1.05V
DDR5 6400 LPDDR4 Data Rate GB/s latency devices, laptops consumption.
- Optimized for next-generation mobile and
portable computing performance.
 Key Differences

• Speed: Each subsequent generation offers higher data rates and bandwidth.
• Voltage: Each generation reduces the operating voltage, resulting in lower power
consumption.
• Power Consumption: LPDDR variants are specifically designed for lower power
usage, making them ideal for mobile devices.
• Applications: Standard DDR variants are used in desktops and servers, while LPDDR
is used in mobile and portable devices.
• Latency: Generally, improves with each new generation, though improvements are
more significant in the LPDDR series due to optimizations for mobile performance.
SRAM (Static
RAM)
SRAM is commonly used for a
computer's cache memory, such as
a processor's L2 or L3 cache
 GDDR vs HBM
Feature GDDR (Graphics DDR) HBM (High Bandwidth Memory)
Graphics cards, gaming High-performance GPUs, AI, HPC
Usage
consoles applications
Speed Moderate to high Very high
Bandwidth Up to 768 GB/s (GDDR6X) Up to 2 TB/s (HBM2)
Latency Moderate Low
Power Efficiency Moderate High (lower power per bit transferred)
Up to 24 GB per chip
Memory Size Up to 16 GB per stack (HBM2E)
(GDDR6X)
3D stacked memory, integrated with the
Form Factor Conventional DIMM/SIMM
GPU
Cost Lower Higher
Complexity Simple Complex (requires interposer)
High (requires advanced cooling
Heat Dissipation Moderate
solutions)
Limited to high-end and specialized
Market Adoption Widely used
markets
 GDDR Generations
Speed (MT/ Bandwidth per Pin Total
Type Voltage Key Features Applications
s) (GB/s) Bandwidth
- Improved speed and power efficiency over
GDDR2 400 - 1000 2.5V 1 - 2.5 Up to 20 GB/s Early graphics cards
DDR.
- Lower voltage and power consumption.
Mainstream and high-end graphics
GDDR3 1000 - 2000 1.8V 2 - 4.0 Up to 64 GB/s - Enhanced signaling for better
cards
performance.
- Improved data rate and power efficiency.
Up to 115.2
GDDR4 2000 - 3600 1.5V 4 - 7.2 - Short-lived due to rapid adoption of High-end graphics cards
GB/s
GDDR5.
- Higher bandwidth and lower power
Up to 256 consumption. Gaming consoles, high-end
GDDR5 3600 - 8000 1.5V 7.2 - 16
GB/s - Widely adopted in gaming and graphics cards
professional GPUs.
- Enhanced GDDR5 with faster data rates.
10000 - Up to 448
GDDR5X 1.35V 20 - 28 - Uses QDR (Quad Data Rate) for improved High-performance graphics cards
14000 GB/s
performance.
- Further improvement in speed and
14000 - Up to 768 efficiency. Gaming, professional graphics, AI,
GDDR6 1.35V 28 - 32
16000 GB/s - Dual-channel mode for higher bandwidth and ML tasks
per pin.
- Utilizes PAM4 signaling for higher data
19000 - rates. High-end gaming, AI, and
GDDR6X 1.35V 38 - 42 Up to 1 TB/s
21000 - Significant increase in total bandwidth and professional graphics
efficiency.
 HBM Generations
Bandwidth
Speed Total
Type per Pin Voltage Key Features Applications
(Gbps) Bandwidth
(GB/s)
- 3D stacked memory.
- TSV (Through-Silicon Vias)
Up to 128
HBM 1.0 - 2.0 128 1.2V for high-density integration. High-performance GPUs, HPC
GB/s
- Wide interface and low clock
speed.
- Higher speed and bandwidth.
HBM2 2.0 - 4.0 256 Up to 1 TB/s 1.2V - Improved power efficiency. High-end GPUs, AI, HPC
- Larger capacities per stack.
- Enhanced version of HBM2
with higher speeds and
capacities. AI, deep learning,
HBM2E 3 - 4.2 307 Up to 2 TB/s 1.2V
supercomputing
- Used in cutting-edge GPUs
and accelerators.
- Future generation with
expected significant
Up to 3.2 improvements in speed and Future high-performance GPUs,
HBM3 5 - 6.4 409 1.1V bandwidth.
TB/s AI, and HPC
- Optimized for next-gen
applications.
RAMBUS DRAM
(RDRAM)
Now, What about the Server
RAM ?
 Feature General Computer RAM Server RAM

Type Non-ECC (e.g., DDR4, DDR5) ECC (Error-Correcting Code)

Error Correction ❌ No error checking ✅ Can detect and correct memory errors
Critical for 24/7 uptime, prevents crashes due to memory
Reliability Good for normal use
errors

Capacity Typically 4GB to 64GB Typically 32GB to 2TB or more

Cost Cheaper More expensive due to ECC and better build quality

UDIMM (Unbuffered DIMM), SO-DIMM RDIMM (Registered), LRDIMM (Load-Reduced), ECC

Form Factor
(Laptops) DIMMs

Buffered/Registered ❌ No ✅ Often registered or load-reduced for stability at high

capacities

Voltage & Power Standard Often optimized for power efficiency

Performance Impact Slightly faster due to no ECC overhead Slightly slower but more stable

Use Case Desktops, laptops, basic gaming Servers, data centers, virtualization, cloud computing
🔹RAMECC (Error-Correcting Code)
∙ ECC RAM can detect and correct
single-bit memory errors
automatically. Feature Description
∙ Prevents system crashes caused by Function Error detection and correction
memory errors — essential in Use Case Servers, workstations
servers, workstations, data
centers. Supported By Intel Xeon, AMD EPYC CPUs

Slightly slower and more expensive Prevents data corruption, system

∙ Benefits
than non-ECC RAM. crashes

∙ Not supported by most consumer

motherboards.
🔹LRDIMM
DIMM Types: UDIMM, RDIMM,

All are types of DIMM (Dual Inline Memory Module) — a standard form of RAM used in
desktops and servers.

✅ 1. UDIMM (Unbuffered DIMM) Feature Description

Use Case Desktops, basic workstations
∙

∙
Regular desktop/laptop RAM.
No buffer or register between
Buffering ❌ No
DRAM and memory controller. Performance Faster at low capacity
Lower (e.g., 64GB max on most
∙ Faster, but less stable at high Max Capacity
boards)
capacities.
🔹LRDIMM
DIMM Types: UDIMM, RDIMM,

All are types of DIMM (Dual Inline Memory Module) — a standard form of RAM used in

✅ desktops and servers.

2. RDIMM (Registered DIMM)
Feature Description
∙ Includes a register that buffers
commands between the CPU and Use Case Servers, enterprise systems
RAM. Buffering ✅ Registered
Performance Stable with high RAM capacity
∙ Adds stability and scalability for
large memory setups.
Max Capacity Higher than UDIMM (e.g., up to 2TB)

∙ Common in servers and

workstations.
🔹LRDIMM
DIMM Types: UDIMM, RDIMM,

All are types of DIMM (Dual Inline Memory Module) — a standard form of RAM used in
desktops and servers.
✅ 3. LRDIMM (Load-Reduced DIMM) Feature Description
∙ Like RDIMM, but uses an isolation Use Case High-end servers, virtualization
buffer to reduce electrical load. Buffering ✅ Load-reduced
∙ Allows even higher memory density Supports higher memory speeds and
Performance
capacity
and speed.
Max Capacity Very high (4TB+ in some systems)
Best for large-scale virtualization,
databases, HPC.
Feature UDIMM RDIMM LRDIMM
ECC Support Optional ✅ Yes ✅ Yes
Buffer/Register ❌ No ✅ Yes ✅ Advanced
Capacity Low Medium Very High
Speed Stability Moderate High Very High
Cost Lowest Higher Highest
Used In Desktops Servers High-end servers
 Types of ROM

1. Mask ROM (MROM)

2. Programmable ROM (PROM) (OTP)
3. Erasable Programmable ROM (EPROM)
a. UV-EPROM (Ultraviolet EPROM)
4. Electrically Erasable Programmable ROM (EEPROM)
a. Flash EEPROM (Flash Memory)
 Types of ROM
• PROM (Programmable Read-Only Memory): Can be written to once after manufacturing. Used for prototyping
or other special applications.

• EPROM (Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory): Can be erased by exposing it to ultraviolet light and
then reprogrammed. Useful for development and testing.

• EEPROM (Electrically Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory): Can be electrically erased and
reprogrammed multiple times. Commonly used in modern computers for BIOS and firmware updates.

• Flash Memory: A type of EEPROM that is used in USB drives, SSDs, and other storage devices. It can be
erased and written to in blocks.
Uses in Computers
• BIOS/UEFI: The Basic Input/Output System or Unified Extensible
Firmware Interface is stored in ROM. It initializes and tests the
hardware during the booting process before handing control over to
the operating system.
• Firmware: Many peripherals, such as graphics cards and network
cards, have firmware stored in ROM.
 It is a type of high-speed volatile
computer memory that provides high-
Cache speed data access to the CPU and
improves the performance and efficiency
Memory of the system. It is typically smaller in size
compared to the main memory (RAM) but
significantly faster.
 Cache Memory

1. Level 1 Cache (L1)

• Instruction Cache (L1i)
• Data Cache (L1d)
2. Level 2 Cache (L2)
3. Level 3 Cache (L3)
4. Level 4 Cache (L4) (Less common, used in some high-end systems)
5. Specialized Caches (Used for specific purposes in some
architectures)
• Translation Lookaside Buffer (TLB)
• Branch Target Buffer (BTB)
• Instruction Trace Cache
 Cache Level Description Typical Size Speed Location
Level 1 Cache (L1)
- Instruction Cache Stores instructions for the CPU to execute. Helps in On-chip
16KB - 64KB Fastest
(L1i) reducing instruction fetch time. (integrated)
Stores data that the CPU needs to access quickly. On-chip
- Data Cache (L1d) 16KB - 64KB Fastest
Reduces time for fetching data from main memory. (integrated)
Intermediate cache between L1 and L3/main memory. Slower than L1, faster On-chip or
Level 2 Cache (L2) 256KB - 8MB
Balances speed and size. than L3 off-chip
Shared cache among multiple CPU cores. Helps Slower than L2, faster On-chip
Level 3 Cache (L3) 2MB - 32MB
reduce latency by storing frequently accessed data. than main memory (shared)
Additional cache in some high-end systems for further Slower than L3, faster On-chip or
Level 4 Cache (L4) 64MB - 128MB
reducing memory latency. than main memory off-chip
Specialized Caches Used for specific purposes within CPU architectures.
- Translation Stores recent translations of virtual memory to physical Small (few dozen to
Very fast On-chip
Lookaside Buffer (TLB) memory addresses. hundreds of entries)
- Branch Target Buffer Predicts the target of branch instructions to improve
Small Very fast On-chip
(BTB) instruction pipeline efficiency.
- Instruction Trace Stores decoded instructions to speed up instruction
Small Very fast On-chip
Cache fetch and execution.
Secondary
Storage
Devices
Magneti
1. Hard Disk Drives 2. Magnetic Tape
(HDD) Drives
• Internal HDDs • Data backup tapes
c • External HDDs • Cassette tapes
(legacy)
Storage
Devices
Internal Storage – SAS HDD
(Serial Attached SCSI)
 1. LTO (Linear Tape-Open)
• LTO Ultrium tapes
Tape
Storage 2. DAT (Digital Audio Tape)
• DDS (Digital Data Storage)
 1. LTO (Linear Tape-Open)
• LTO Ultrium tapes

Tape
Storage

LTO Ultrium Tapes: Used in larger

enterprise environments due to their high
capacity, speed, and advanced features
like encryption and WORM.
 2. DAT (Digital Audio Tape)
• DDS (Digital Data Storage)

DDS Tapes: More suitable for smaller businesses with

Tape
less demanding storage needs.

Storage
 Feature LTO Ultrium DDS (Digital Data Storage)
Capacity Up to 45 TB (compressed) Up to 320 GB (compressed)
Data Transfer Rate Up to 1,100 MB/s (compressed) Up to 86.4 MB/s (compressed)
Comparison Technology Magnetic tape Magnetic tape
chart Generation Support LTO-1 to LTO-9 DDS-1 to DDS-6 (DAT 72)
between LTO Backward Typically read/write 1 generation
Read/write up to 2 generations back
Ultrium Compatibility back

tapes and Use Case Enterprise and data center backup

Small to medium-sized business
backup
DDS (Digital
Good durability for medium-term
Data Durability High durability, archival storage
storage
Storage) Cost per GB Generally lower for large volumes Higher cost per GB
tapes Security Features
Encryption, WORM (Write Once, Read
Basic, limited security features
Many)
Speed Higher data transfer speeds Slower data transfer speeds
Lifespan 15-30 years 10-20 years
 1. Floppy Disks 2. Zip Drives
• 3.5-inch disks • Iomega Zip drives
• 5.25-inch disks

Legacy
Storage
Devices

3. Jaz Drives
• Iomega Jaz drives
 Comparison chart between Floppy Disks,
Iomega Zip Drives, and Iomega Jaz Drives
Feature Floppy Disk Iomega Zip Drive Iomega Jaz Drive

Storage Capacity 1.44 MB (standard 3.5-inch) 100 MB, 250 MB, 750 MB 1 GB, 2 GB

Form Factor 3.5-inch 3.5-inch 3.5-inch

Interface Floppy Drive Controller Parallel, SCSI, USB SCSI, IDE

Data Transfer
500 KB/s 1 MB/s (parallel), 2-4 MB/s (USB) Up to 12 MB/s
Rate
Durability Low Moderate Moderate

Portability High High Moderate

Cost (Historical) Low Moderate High

Popularity Very high (1980s-1990s) High (1990s-early 2000s) Moderate (mid-1990s-early 2000s)

Use Case Document transfer, small files Document transfer, small backups Larger backups, data transfer

Supported on older systems, some

Compatibility Universally supported in older systems Limited to systems with SCSI/IDE
modern support with adapters
Optical
1. CD (Compact Disc) 2. DVD (Digital
• CD-ROM (Read- Versatile Disc)
Only Memory) • DVD-ROM
Storage • CD-R (Recordable)
• CD-RW
• DVD-R/DVD+R

Devices
• DVD-RW/DVD+RW
(Rewritable)

3. Blu-ray Discs
• BD-ROM
• BD-R
• BD-RE (Rewritable)
Optical
Storage
Devices
 1. Hybrid Drives (SSHD)
• Combines HDD and SSD features

Hybrid
Storage
Devices
Solid-
1. Solid-State Drives (SSD) 2. Flash Drives
• SATA SSDs • USB Flash Drives
(thumb drives)
State
• M.2 SSDs
• M.2 NVMe (Non-Volatile • Memory Cards (SD,
Memory Express) SSDs
microSD,
Storage •
•
M.2 SATA SSDs
PCIe SSDs
CompactFlash)

Devices
Internal Storage – SATA HDD and SATA SSD
Comparison
SATA I
• 1st gen or SATA 1.5Gb/s
• Support up to 150 MB/s

between SATA II

di erent SATA
• 2nd gen or SATA 3Gb/s
• Support up to 300 MB/s
• Compatible on SATA I ports.
• The max speed of the drive will be lower due to the limitation of the port.

SATA III
• 3rd gen or SATA 6Gb/s
• Support up to 600 MB/s
• Compatible on SATA II and SATA I ports.
• The max speed of the drive will be lower due to the limitation of the port.
M.2 NVME
and SATA
SSD
PCIe SSD
Comparison chart between M.2 NVMe SSDs, M.2 SATA SSDs, SATA
SSDs, SAS SSDs, and PCIe SSDs

Feature M.2 NVMe SSD M.2 SATA SSD SATA SSD SAS SSD PCIe SSD
NVMe (Non-Volatile Memory PCIe (Peripheral Component
Interface Express)
SATA III SATA III SAS (Serial Attached SCSI)
Interconnect Express)
Form Factor M.2 M.2 2.5-inch, 3.5-inch 2.5-inch, 3.5-inch Add-in card (AIC), U.2, M.2
Data Transfer Up to 3500 MB/s and beyond Up to 600 MB/s Up to 600 MB/s Up to 1500 MB/s
Up to 7000 MB/s and beyond
Rate (depending on PCIe version)
Very low (much lower than
Latency SATA)
Higher (compared to NVMe) Higher (compared to NVMe) Lower (compared to SATA) Very low (similar to NVMe)

High-performance desktops, General consumer use, laptops, Enterprise servers, high-reliability High-performance desktops,
Use Case gaming, workstations
Ultra-thin laptops, desktops
desktops systems workstations, servers
Power Low to moderate Low to moderate Low to moderate Moderate to high Moderate to high
Consumption
Lower cost per GB compared Higher cost per GB compared to
Cost Higher cost per GB
to NVMe
Lower cost per GB
SATA
Higher cost per GB

Easy, requires M.2 slot with Easy, requires M.2 slot with Requires available PCIe slot, more
Installation NVMe support SATA support
Easy, uses standard SATA ports Requires SAS controller
complex installation
Excellent (significantly better Excellent (similar to or better than
Performance than SATA SSDs)
Good (better than HDDs) Good (much better than HDDs) Very good (better than SATA SSDs)
NVMe)
Requires NVMe support in Requires M.2 slot, SATA Universally compatible with Requires SAS controller, limited to Requires PCIe slot, may need
Compatibility BIOS and motherboard support SATA ports enterprise systems specific motherboard support
Heat Higher, may need cooling
Moderate Moderate Higher, may need cooling solutions Higher, may need cooling solutions
Dissipation solutions
USB Flash
Drives
(thumb
drives)
Memory Cards (SD, microSD,
CompactFlash)
 1. Network-Attached 2. Storage Area
Storage (NAS) Network (SAN)
• Home NAS systems • Fibre Channel SAN
• Enterprise NAS systems • iSCSI SAN

Network
Storage
Devices
Network
Storage
Devices
 Network Storage Devices
2. Storage Area Network (SAN)
• Fibre Channel SAN
• iSCSI SAN
Cloud
Storage
Cloud Storage
Feature OneDrive Google Drive Dropbox Amazon Web Services (AWS)
Free Storage 5 GB 15 GB 2 GB None (free tier with 5 GB for S3)

Paid Plans From $1.99/month for 100 GB From $1.99/month for 100 GB From $9.99/month for 2 TB Pay-as-you-go pricing

Max Storage
6 TB (with Microsoft 365 Family) 30 TB (with additional storage) Unlimited (with business plans) Virtually unlimited
Limit
File Size
250 GB 5 TB 50 GB (web), no limit (desktop) 5 TB (S3)
Limit
Excellent integration with Windows Seamless integration with Google Strong file syncing and sharing
File Syncing and Office apps Workspace apps features
Depends on service (S3, EFS, etc.)

Collaboratio Google Workspace (Docs, Sheets, Dropbox Paper, integrations with

Office Online, Teams integration Depends on service (EC2, RDS, etc.)
n Tools etc.) various apps

Comprehensive security features,

Security AES 256-bit encryption, 2FA AES 256-bit encryption, 2FA AES 256-bit encryption, 2FA
compliance certifications

Platform Windows, macOS, iOS, Android, Windows, macOS, iOS, Android, Windows, macOS, iOS, Android,
Windows, macOS, Linux, Web
Support Web Web Web

Business OneDrive for Business with Google Workspace (Google Drive

Dropbox Business AWS for businesses (various services)
Solutions Microsoft 365 for Business)

Unique Deep integration with Microsoft Smart Sync, extensive third-party Highly customizable and scalable cloud
Powerful search, AI features
Features ecosystem app integration solutions
 GPU (Graphical
Processing Unit)
What is a GPU, and what is its
primary function in a computer?

A GPU (Graphics Processing Unit) is a specialized processor designed

to handle rendering of graphics and visual data. Its primary function is
to process and render images, videos, and animations to be displayed
on a monitor.
How does a GPU di er from a CPU?

A GPU is optimized for parallel processing tasks, making it highly

efficient for graphics and computational tasks that can be divided into
many smaller tasks. A CPU, on the other hand, is optimized for general-
purpose tasks and sequential processing.
What are the
main
components of a
GPU?

The main components

include the core (or
cores), memory (VRAM),
cooling system, and
various interfaces for
connecting to other parts
of the computer.
 Feature Consumer GPU Server GPU
Purpose Gaming, graphics rendering AI, machine learning, HPC, data analysis

Form Factor PCIe card in desktops/laptops High-performance cards, sometimes passively cooled in servers

Cooling Active cooling (fans) Passive cooling (relies on server airflow)

Error Correction (ECC) Usually not supported ECC memory is standard (for data integrity)

Performance High for gaming & rendering Optimized for parallel computation, large-scale workloads

Memory Size 8GB–24GB typical 16GB–80GB+ (e.g., NVIDIA A100 has 80GB)

Driver Optimization Game and multimedia drivers Optimized for compute tasks (CUDA, OpenCL, TensorRT)

Cost Lower (₹30K–₹1.5L typically) Very high (₹2L–₹10L+)

Virtualization Support Limited or none Full support (vGPU, SR-IOV, etc.)

Common Examples NVIDIA RTX 4060, AMD RX 6700 NVIDIA A100, A40, Tesla V100, AMD Instinct MI250
Technical Details
What is VRAM, and why is it important
for a GPU?

VRAM (Video RAM) is a type of memory used by the GPU to store

textures, frame buffers, and other graphical data. It is important
because it directly affects the performance and capability of the GPU to
handle high-resolution textures and complex graphics.
What does GPU clock speed mean, and
how does it impact performance?

GPU clock speed, measured in MHz or GHz, indicates how fast the
GPU’s cores operate. Higher clock speeds generally mean better
performance, as the GPU can process more instructions per second.
What are CUDA cores, and what role do
they play in GPU performance?

CUDA cores are parallel processors in NVIDIA GPUs that handle computations. More
CUDA cores generally enhance the GPU’s ability to perform complex calculations and
accelerate tasks such as gaming and scientific simulations.
Performance
and Features
How does the number of GPU cores a ect its
performance?

More GPU cores can handle more parallel tasks simultaneously, which
improves performance in rendering and processing tasks, especially in
applications that support multi-threading.
What are shaders, and what types of shaders are
commonly found in GPUs?

Shaders are programs that process graphics data to create visual

effects. Common types include vertex shaders (process vertices),
fragment shaders (handle pixel colors), and compute shaders (perform
general computations).
What is DirectX/OpenGL, and how do
they relate to GPUs?

DirectX and OpenGL are APIs

(Application Programming Interfaces)
used to interact with the GPU for
rendering graphics. They provide a
set of functions and commands that
developers use to create and manage
graphical content.
Practical
Considerations
What factors should be considered when
choosing a GPU for a specific application (e.g.,
gaming, video editing)?

Factors include performance benchmarks, VRAM capacity,

compatibility with the system, support for specific
technologies (like Ray Tracing), and price.
How does GPU cooling work, and why is it
important?

GPU cooling typically involves fans, heatsinks, or liquid

cooling systems to dissipate heat generated by the GPU.
Proper cooling is crucial to prevent overheating, which can
lead to reduced performance or hardware damage.
What is GPU overclocking, and what are its
risks?

Overclocking involves increasing the GPU’s clock speed

beyond its factory settings to boost performance. Risks
include overheating, system instability, and potential
hardware damage if not managed properly.
Troubleshooting and
Maintenance
What common issues might occur with GPUs, and
how can they be diagnosed?

Common issues include graphical artifacts, driver conflicts, overheating,

and crashes. Diagnosis often involves checking for driver updates,
monitoring temperatures, and running stress tests.
How can one GPU drivers can be updated through the GPU
update GPU manufacturer’s website (e.g., NVIDIA or AMD) or using
a driver update tool. Keeping drivers up-to-date ensures
drivers, and why compatibility with the latest software and can improve
performance and stability.
is it important?
What is GPU
benchmarking,
and why is it
useful?
Benchmarking involves testing the GPU’s
performance using standardized tests to
compare its capabilities against other
GPUs. It is useful for assessing
performance, making informed purchase
decisions, and identifying potential issues.
Power Supply Unit (PSU)
Connectors
Power Supply Unit (PSU)
Power Supply Unit (PSU)
SMPS
CERTIFICATIO
N
Form Factor Dimensions (WxHxD) Advantages Disadvantages
- Widely available and
- Larger size may not fit in smaller
150mm x 86mm x standardized<br>- Supports a wide
ATX cases<br>- May include unnecessary
140mm range of power outputs<br>- Suitable
power connectors for smaller builds
for most desktop builds
- Compact size, ideal for small form - Limited power output compared to
125mm x 63.5mm x
SFX factor cases<br>- Typically quieter due ATX<br>- Fewer connectors, which might
100mm
to smaller fans be limiting for some builds
- Slim profile fits in low-profile
- Limited power output<br>- Less common,
TFX 85mm x 65mm x 175mm cases<br>- Suitable for compact and
leading to fewer options and higher prices
slim desktops
- Small size suitable for compact
81.5mm x 40.5mm x - Limited power capacity<br>- Less
FlexATX builds<br>- Flexibility in mounting due
150mm availability compared to standard ATX
to its size
- Designed for server racks, optimizing
Varies (e.g., 1U = - Noisy due to high-speed fans<br>- Not
Rackmount space<br>- High power density, suitable
44.45mm height) suitable for standard desktop cases
for servers and enterprise environments
- Provides additional power connectors
- Larger size may not fit in all cases<br>-
Similar to ATX but may for high-end workstations and
EPS More expensive due to higher power
vary servers<br>- Supports higher power
capacity
output
- Limited power capacity compared to
Similar to FlexATX but - Smaller than ATX, suitable for compact
MicroATX ATX<br>- Less common, leading to fewer
may vary builds<br>- More versatile than FlexATX
options
Mini-ITX/
150mm x 86mm x - Compact size, ideal for very small - Limited power output<br>- May have
FlexATX
140mm (may vary) builds<br>- Often more energy-efficient fewer connectors
Computer Power Supply
Tester
 Server SMPS (Switched Mode Power
Supply)
The Server SMPS is a specialized power supply unit designed to convert AC (Alternating Current)
into low-voltage regulated DC (Direct Current) for the internal components of a server. Compared to
desktop SMPS, server SMPS are more reliable, redundant, and efficient due to the 24x7 nature
of server operations.

🔌 Types of Server SMPS

1. Single Power Supply
2. Redundant Power Supply (RPS)
3. Hot-Swappable SMPS
4. Modular SMPS
5. High-Efficiency SMPS (80 PLUS Certified)
 🔌SMPS
Types of Server

1. Single Power Supply

1. Only one power supply unit.
2. Used in: Entry-level or non-critical servers.
3. Risk: If the power supply fails, the server shuts down.
2. Redundant Power Supply (RPS)
1. Has two or more power units.
2. If one fails, the other takes over immediately.
3. Used in: Critical servers (datacenters, banks, etc.).
4. Hot-swappable in most cases.
3. Hot-Swappable SMPS
1. Can be replaced without shutting down the server.
2. Common in blade and rack servers.
4. Modular SMPS
1. Cables and connectors can be customized as needed.
2. Reduces clutter and improves airflow.
5. High-Efficiency SMPS (80 PLUS Certified)
1. Comes with efficiency ratings (80 PLUS Bronze, Silver, Gold, Platinum, Titanium).
2. More efficient = less heat, less power waste.
 ⚙ Important Things to
Note
1. Wattage Rating
Match the SMPS power output (e.g., 500W, 750W, 1200W) with the server's consumption needs.

2. Rails and Connectors

Must support multiple 12V rails.
Check for appropriate connectors: 24-pin ATX, EPS 8-pin, PCIe, SATA, Molex, etc.

3. Form Factor
Match with server chassis: ATX, SFX, 1U/2U/3U for rack servers.

4. Cooling
Redundant fans or thermal-controlled fans are essential to prevent overheating.

5. Efficiency
Look for 80 PLUS certification for reduced electricity costs and heat output.

6. Redundancy Support
In mission-critical setups, always choose a redundant SMPS setup.

7. MTBF (Mean Time Between Failures)

Higher MTBF = longer lifespan = better reliability.

8. Remote Monitoring
Some enterprise SMPS support monitoring via IPMI or I²C for status and failure alerts.
7. Cooling
Solutions
Passive coolers
Active Coolers
Liquid Coolers
Combinatio
n of Active
and
Passive
cooling
Combination
of Active,
Passive and
Liquid
cooling
 Feature Active Cooling Passive Cooling Liquid Cooling
Pumps circulate coolant through
Cooling Mechanism Fans attached to heat sinks Large heat sinks with no fans
blocks and radiators
Moderate to high, depending on Low to moderate, depending on
Noise Level Silent
fan speed pump and fan quality
Cooling Efficiency Good to excellent Moderate Excellent
General use, gaming,
Suitability Low-power, silent operations High-performance, overclocking
overclocking
Moderate to high, checking
Maintenance Low, periodic cleaning of dust Very low, no moving parts coolant levels and replacing
parts if necessary
Cost Low to moderate Low to moderate High
Installation Complexity Easy to moderate Easy Moderate to difficult
Relies on airflow, can be limited Relies on natural convection, less Efficient, but requires good
Heat Dissipation
by case design effective in tight spaces airflow around radiators
Good, but pumps and tubes can
Durability Good, but fans can fail over time Excellent, no moving parts to fail
wear out or leak over time
Standard appearance, can be Can be visually impressive with
Aesthetics Simple and clean
enhanced with RGB fans customizable options
Cabinet
Size and • What size is the cabinet? (e.g., ATX, Micro-
ATX, Mini-ITX)

Form Factor
• Is it compatible with my motherboard size?
• What are the dimensions of the case?
 • How many fan mounts does it have?

Cooling and •
•
What sizes of fans are supported?
Does it come with pre-installed fans? If so, how many and what
size?

Airflow •

•
Is there support for liquid cooling (e.g., radiator mounts, pump
mounts)?
Are there options for cable management to improve airflow?
Expansion and
Compatibility
1. How many expansion slots are
available?
2. Is there enough clearance for my
graphics card?
3. Is there sufficient space for
additional storage drives?
4. What types of drive bays are
included? (e.g., 2.5”, 3.5”)
5. Does it support vertical GPU
mounting?
 Build Quality and Material

What materials is the cabinet made from? (e.g., steel,

aluminum, plastic, tempered glass)

How sturdy is the construction?

Is there noise dampening or soundproofing material included?

 Are there
What is the
customizable
overall design
or
and color
interchangeabl
scheme?
e panels?
Design and
Aesthetics Does it have
any RGB Is the case
lighting or available in
support for different colors
custom lighting or finishes?
setups?
 Are there easy-to-remove panels or
filters for cleaning?

Is there good cable management

Accessibility support?

and Usability Does it have easy access to ports and

connectors?
Are the front panel connectors easily
accessible? (e.g., USB ports, audio
jacks)
 What is the maximum
radiator size supported?

Cooling Are there specific cooling

solutions that the case

Options supports?

How effective is the airflow

design?
Power Supply

Is there adequate space for a power supply

unit (PSU)?

Does it have PSU shrouds or covers?

What is the maximum PSU size

supported?
 Aspect Without PC Cabinet With PC Cabinet
Dust and Debris High exposure; increased risk of dust buildup Reduced exposure; dust filters often included
Higher risk of physical damage and component Protected from accidental bumps and
Physical Damage dislodging physical damage
Controlled airflow with designated intake and
Airflow Potentially better if environment is controlled
exhaust areas
Cable Organized; cases often have cable
Poor; cables are exposed and can be tangled
Management management features
Lower noise levels; cases may have sound-
Noise Higher noise levels due to lack of sound insulation
dampening features
Safer; reduces risk of accidental contact and
Safety Risks Increased risk of electric shock and short circuits
static damage
Optimized; designed with cooling solutions in
Cooling Efficiency Variable; dependent on external conditions mind
Convenience and Limited expandability; no mounting options for Easier expansion; includes mounting points
Expandability additional components for drives, fans, etc.
DOUBLE
CLICK ON
THIS FILE
BIOS (Basic • It is software stored on a small memory chip in your
system's motherboard. BIOS is alternately called
ROM BIOS, PC BIOS, and System BIOS.
Input Output • BIOS is the first software that runs when you power
on your system, performing an initial pack of
System) diagnostic tests (POST, or Power On Self-Test) to
see if there are any issues with the hardware. POST
is the first step in your hardware’s boot sequence.
The machine won't continue with the boot sequence
if the POST fails.
• BIOS is firmware (in other words, software
embedded in a piece of hardware) stored on a ROM
chip that lets you access and set up your system at
its most basic level.
What is a BIOS and What’s Included?

A BIOS contains the instructions your computer needs to load its basic hardware,
including the POST mentioned above. If your system fails the POST, you will
hear a series of beeps; different beep sequences indicate various issues.

BIOS firmware is non-volatile, meaning that the settings are saved and can be
recovered even if the machine no longer has power.
 The Functions of a BIOS

POST: The POST function tests Bootstrap loader: This function

the hardware before loading locates a capable operating
the operating system; we system. If the loader finds that
already discussed this function system, the BIOS passes
earlier. control over to it.

BIOS setup: This function is a

configuration program that lets
BIOS drivers: These are low-
you configure your system’s
level drivers that give your
hardware settings. This
system basic control over its
configuration includes system
hardware.
settings like time, date, and
passwords.
 How BIOS/UEFI relates to MBR/
GPT

UEFI requires GPT for

booting, although it can
BIOS (Legacy) typically
support MBR in
uses MBR for booting, as it
compatibility mode (often
is limited to the older
called CSM, or
partitioning scheme.
Compatibility Support
Module).
 Types of BIOS
1. Legacy BIOS:
• The original BIOS firmware used in early PCs.
• Supports 16-bit operation.
• Limited to booting from drives up to 2.2 TB due to the use of MBR (Master Boot Record).
• Does not support modern hardware features like GPT (GUID Partition Table) and UEFI (Unified Extensible Firmware Interface).

2. UEFI BIOS:
• A modern replacement for legacy BIOS.
• Supports 32-bit or 64-bit operation.
• Can boot from drives larger than 2.2 TB using GPT.
• Provides a more user-friendly interface and supports graphical menus and mouse input.
• Offers faster boot times and more advanced security features.
• Supports modern hardware features like Secure Boot, which helps prevent unauthorized code from running during the boot process.

3. Coreboot:
• An open-source BIOS implementation.
• Designed to be lightweight and fast, focusing on minimalistic initialization of the hardware.
• Primarily used in embedded systems and some specialized hardware.
 Types of BIOS
4. OpenBIOS/Open Firmware:
• Open-source BIOS implementations that aim to provide a free and customizable alternative to proprietary BIOS.
• Often used in non-x86 architectures and embedded systems.
• Supports features like device tree and scripting for hardware initialization.

5. Phoenix BIOS:
• Developed by Phoenix Technologies.
• One of the most widely used BIOS in personal computers.
• Known for its reliability and compatibility with a wide range of hardware.

6. AMI BIOS:
• Developed by American Megatrends Inc. (AMI).
• Another widely used BIOS in personal computers.
• Known for its rich feature set and extensive customization options for OEMs.

7. Award BIOS:
• Developed by Award Software (now part of Phoenix Technologies).
• Popular in older PCs and known for its user-friendly interface and ease of use.

8. InsydeH2O :
• Developed by Insyde Software.
• A UEFI-based firmware that combines legacy BIOS support with modern UEFI features.
• Commonly used in laptops and tablets.
 List of functions you can do with most BIOS systems:

1. Change the boot order 13. Enable or disable the CPU internal 24. Enable/disable ACPI
2. Load BIOS setup defaults cache
25. Change the ACPI suspend type
3. Flash (Update) BIOS 14. Enable or disable the BIOS caching
26. Change the power button function
4. Create/Delete a BIOS password 15. Change the CPU settings
27. Change the power-on settings
5. Change the date and time 16. Change the memory settings
28. Change which display gets initialized
6. Change floppy drive settings* 17. Change system voltages first on the multi-display setups
7. Change hard drive settings
18. Enable/disable RAID 29. Reset the Extended System
8. Change CD/DVD/BD drive Configuration Data (ESCD)
settings 19. Enable/disable the onboard USB
30. Enable or disable the BIOS control of
9. View the amount of memory 20. Enable/disable the onboard IEEE1394 system resources
Installed
21. Enable/disable the onboard audio 31. Alter the fan’s speed settings
10. Change the boot up num lock
status 22. Enable/disable the onboard floppy 32. View CPU and system temperatures
controller*
11. Enable or disable the computer 33. View the fan speeds
logo 23. Enable/disable the onboard serial or
12. Enable or disable the quick parallel ports 34. View system voltages
Power On Self Test (POST)
🔓 Bypass BIOS Password Using Jumper Pin 🔓
󾠮 Power Off ⚡: Turn off the PC and unplug it.
󾠯󾠰 Find Jumper Pin 🔍: Look for the 3-pin CLR_CMOS or CLEAR BIOS near the CMOS battery.
Change Position 🔄:
• Move the jumper cap from Pin 1+2 (Normal) to Pin 2+3 (Reset).
• Wait 5–10 seconds.
󾠱 Restore Position 🔁: Put the cap back to Pin 1+2.
󾠲 Power On 🚀: Plug in and boot up. Password is reset!
🪙 No Jumper? Try This 🪙
Remove the CMOS battery 🔋 for 10–15 minutes, then reinsert.
🎉 Done! Your BIOS is unlocked. 🛡
 BIOS SIMULATION
• https://download.lenovo.com/bsco
• https://download.lenovo.com/bsco/legacy (Legacy version)
• https://grs-software.de/sims/bios/phoenix/pages/index.php
• https://pranx.com/bios/
• https://simulator.h3c.com/home/bios
 Computer
Hardware Issues
1. No Power: The computer doesn't turn on when the
power button is pressed.
2. No Display: The computer powers on, but there's no
display on the monitor.
3. Random Shutdowns: The computer shuts down
randomly without any warning.
4. Overheating: The computer gets excessively hot and
may shut down due to overheating.
5. Slow Performance: The computer is running slower than
usual.
6. No Sound: There is no audio output from the computer.
7. USB Ports Not Working: USB devices are not being
recognized.
8. Wi-Fi Not Connecting: The computer is unable to
connect to Wi-Fi networks.
9. Bluetooth Not Working: Bluetooth devices are not
connecting to the computer.
10. Keyboard/Mouse Not Responding: The keyboard or
mouse is unresponsive.
 Computer
Hardware Issues
11. Battery Not Charging: The laptop battery is not charging
when plugged in.
12. Hard Drive Not Detected: The computer doesn't detect
the hard drive.
13. Frequent Crashes: The computer crashes frequently
with blue screen errors.
14. Beep Codes: The computer emits a series of beeps on
startup indicating hardware issues.
15. Screen Flickering: The display screen flickers
intermittently.
16. Corrupted BIOS: The BIOS is corrupted, and the
computer won't boot.
17. Graphics Card Not Detected: The computer doesn't
recognize the installed graphics card.
18. RAM Not Detected: The computer doesn't recognize the
installed RAM.
19. Network Card Not Working: The computer can't
connect to wired networks.
20. DVD/CD Drive Not Working: The optical drive is not
reading discs.
 Computer
Hardware Issues
21. Peripheral Devices Not Working: External devices
(printers, scanners) are not recognized.
22. Fan Not Spinning: The cooling fan is not spinning,
causing overheating.
23. No POST: The computer fails to pass the Power-On Self-
Test.
24. Distorted Audio: The audio output is distorted or
crackling.
25. Battery Drains Quickly: The laptop battery drains faster
than usual.
26. Monitor Stuck in Power Save Mode: The monitor stays
in power save mode and doesn't display anything.
27. BIOS/UEFI Password Issues: Forgotten or incorrect
BIOS/UEFI password.
28. CMOS Battery Failure: The CMOS battery is dead,
causing BIOS settings to reset.
29. Loose Connections: Loose or disconnected internal
cables causing hardware issues.
30. Incompatible Hardware: Newly installed hardware is not
compatible with the system.
Computer Hardware Issues
31. Stuck Keys: Certain keys on the keyboard are stuck or 41. Multiple Monitor Setup Issues: Problems setting up or
not responding. detecting multiple monitors.
32. Mouse Cursor Jumps: The mouse cursor moves 42. Speakers Not Working: External speakers connected to the
erratically or jumps across the screen. computer don't produce sound.
33. SSD Not Detected: The solid-state drive is not 43. Wireless Mouse/Keyboard Connection Issues: Problems with
recognized by the computer. wireless peripherals connecting to the computer.
34. Printer Not Printing: The printer is connected but not 44. Loose RAM: RAM modules are not properly seated in their slots.
printing. 45. Loose Graphics Card: The graphics card is not properly seated
35. Monitor Resolution Issues: The display resolution is in its slot.
incorrect or can't be changed. 46. Driver Conflicts: Conflicts between hardware drivers causing
36. External Hard Drive Not Recognized: The computer issues.
doesn't recognize an external hard drive. 47. Microphone Not Working: The built-in or external microphone
37. BIOS Update Failure: The BIOS update fails, and the is not detected.
computer won't boot. 48. Webcam Not Working: The built-in or external webcam is not
38. Touchpad Not Working: The laptop touchpad is detected.
unresponsive. 49. Intermittent Connectivity: Network connection drops
39. Fingerprint Reader Not Working: The fingerprint intermittently.
reader on a laptop doesn't work. 50. BIOS Time/Date Reset: The computer's time and date reset
40. Docking Station Issues: Devices connected through a every time it's turned on.
docking station are not recognized.
 Computer Hardware Issues

51. Broken Hinges: The laptop screen hinges are damaged or 61. Faulty RAM Slots: One or more RAM slots on the
broken. motherboard are faulty.
52. Damaged Ports: Physical damage to USB, HDMI, or other 62. Corrupted Boot Sector: The boot sector of the hard
ports on the computer. drive or SSD is corrupted.
53. No Boot Device Found: The computer can't find a 63. Failed Firmware Update: Firmware update on hardware
bootable device during startup. components fails.
54. Unrecognized PCI Cards: PCI expansion cards are not 64. Loose Heat Sink: The CPU or GPU heat sink is not
recognized by the system. properly attached.
55. Static Electricity Issues: Static discharge affecting 65. Incorrect BIOS Settings: BIOS settings causing
computer components. hardware issues.
56. Burnt Smell: A burnt smell indicating possible component 66. Keyboard Backlight Not Working: The keyboard
failure. backlight is not functioning.
57. Power Supply Failure: The power supply unit (PSU) is 67. Headphone Jack Not Working: The headphone jack is
faulty or dead. not recognizing headphones.
58. Fan Noise: Loud or unusual noises coming from the 68. Erratic Touchscreen: The touchscreen on a laptop or
cooling fans. monitor is behaving erratically.
59. Motherboard Short Circuit: Short circuit issues on the 69. Display Artifacts: Strange lines, colors, or artifacts
motherboard. appearing on the screen.
60. Overclocking Issues: Problems arising from overclocking 70. Power Button Stuck: The computer's power button is
the CPU or GPU. stuck or not functioning properly.
Troubleshooting/ Diagnosing
Beep Codes
Beep codes are auditory signals emitted by the motherboard's BIOS (Basic
Input/Output System) during the POST (Power-On Self-Test) process. Each
pattern of beeps indicates a specific issue.
AMI (American Megatrends Inc.) BIOS
Beep Codes:

1 short beep: DRAM refresh failure

2 short beeps: Parity circuit failure
3 short beeps: Base 64K RAM failure
4 short beeps: System timer failure
5 short beeps: Processor failure
6 short beeps: Keyboard controller Gate A20 error
7 short beeps: Virtual mode exception error
8 short beeps: Display memory Read/Write test failure
9 short beeps: ROM BIOS checksum failure
10 short beeps: CMOS shutdown Read/Write error
11 short beeps: Cache Memory error
Phoenix BIOS Beep Codes:

1-1-2: CPU test failure

1-1-3: CMOS read/write failure
1-1-4: BIOS ROM checksum error
1-2-1: Programmable interval timer failure
1-2-2: DMA initialization failure
1-2-3: DMA page register read/write failure
1-3-1: RAM refresh verification failure
1-3-3: First 64K RAM test failure
1-4-1: Cache memory test failure
Award BIOS Beep Codes:

∙ 1 long, 2 short beeps: Video error

∙ 1 long, 3 short beeps: Keyboard controller error

∙ Continuous beeping: Power supply, motherboard, or system memory problem

Notification LEDs

Many modern motherboards come with onboard diagnostic LEDs

that can help identify hardware issues. These LEDs might be
located near specific components such as the CPU, RAM, GPU, or
on the motherboard itself. Here’s a general guide:
Common LED Indicators

CPU LED: Lights up if there’s a problem with the CPU.

DRAM LED: Indicates an issue with the system memory (RAM).
VGA LED: Signals a problem with the graphics card.
Boot Device LED: Lights up if there’s an issue with the boot
device (HDD/SSD).
LED indicator in motherboard
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