1

Structural Geology

▪ Structural geology is the study of how rocks deform

and the processes of deformation. Deformation is
the change in shape, position and/or volume of an
object in response to applied forces.

2
Deformation is caused by forces acting on the rock
body. These forces maybe due to gravity (vertical
force) or the movement of the tectonic plates
(horizontal forces).

The effect of these forces on a rock depends on the

area over which they are applied: force/area=stress.
Therefore, at its simplest, stress causes strain.

Depending on lithospheric conditions at the time of

deformation, rocks may respond to stress in a brittle or
ductile manner.

3
• What is Structural Geology about?

1. Geometry (shape, orientation, position,

size, etc.)
2. Motion (beginning and ending positions
and paths of particles and bodies—
deformation or change in geometry)
3. Mechanics (explanations of why the
geometry and motion are how they
are)

4
▪ Deformation, Stress and Strain
▪ Folding
▪ Faulting
▪ Unconformities
▪ Sedimentary Structure
▪ Plate Tectonic
▪ Who Needs Structural Geology

5
 The Earth’s Interior

❖ Crust
❖ Mantle
❖ Core

6
Crust:
Oceanic crust
➢ Oceanic is about 7 km
thick, is basaltic (pyroxene
+ plagioclase), and has a
density around 3.0 g/cc
fresh, increasing as it cools.
➢ Oceanic crust is elastic-
brittle all the way through.
Continental Crust
❑ Continental is about 35 km thick, is granodioritic and has
a density around 2.7 g/cc.
❑ Continental crust below 15km is plastic. Under
mountains, crust can be much thicker 7
 The Earth’s Interior
Mantle:
• The mantle is a thick section that
has a peridotite (olivine + pyroxene)
composition.
• Part of it is squishy and flows
plastically (the asthenosphere) and
the outer 100 km is rather rigid and
bound to the crust.
• The mantle is 2900 km thick and
makes up most of the earth's volume,
and has density ranging from 3.3 to
5.5 at the bottom due to
compression and phase changes.
8
 The Earth’s Interior
Core:
Fe-Ni metallic alloy

➢The core is made largely of iron with

nickel, sulfur, and possibly other
elements.
➢The outer part is liquid, the inner part is
solid.
➢The density is around 10 to 13 g/cc. It
is 2250 km thick, but accounts for much
mass. 9
10
11
 Stress and Strain
Rocks below the earth's surface are hot and tend to flow, whereas rocks at the
surface are relatively cool and tend to be more brittle. Thus, rocks at the
surface (or near-surface) fracture while rocks deep inside the earth flow.

Deformation: when rocks are subjected to stresses (forces) greater than their
own internal strength. Caused by stress and resulting in strain

Stress -- force acting upon an object to create deformation

Strain -- resultant of the stress applied; end product

There are several types of stresses that can be applied to a rock unit:

1. Extension or tension (pulling apart)

2. Compression (pushing together)
3. Shearing or twisting (one portion in one direction, the other portion in another
direction)

12
Compression stress

Extension stress

Shear stress
13
 temperature

 pressure

 strain rate

 rock type

The variation of these factors determines

whether a rock will fault or fold.
14
Some rocks are
stronger than others.
Competent: rocks
that deform only
under great stresses
Incompetent: rocks
that deform under
moderate to low
stresses
15
There can be two (2) resulting responses to stress:

1. Ductile deformation -- usually occurring deeper and with higher temperatures;

flow
2. Brittle deformation -- usually occurring shallower and with cooler
temperatures

Ductile deformation produces folds:

1. Anticline -- upwarping of rocks to produce an "A-like" structure
2. Syncline -- downwarping of rocks to produce "spoon-like" structure
3. Dome -- three-dimensional anticline resembling inverted cereal bowl
4. Basin -- three-dimensional syncline resembling upright cereal bowl

*When brittle deformation occurs and rocks fracture, they can simply crack
producing a fracture with no offset, called a joint.

When brittle deformation occurs and rocks fracture, they

can also crack producing a fracture with offset,
called a fault.

16
• Elastic (recovery to original shape)
– Elastic limit
• Beyond this stress, permanent
strain
• Plastic (ductile)
– Permanent strain by flow, or folding
– Typical at higher P, T within crust
• Brittle
– Permanent strain by fracture, failure
– Typical at lower P, T near surface
– Rocks fracture when strain rates are
high
17
 FUNDAMENTAL STRUCTURES
•Primary structures (Nontectonic structures) = formed during the
original deposition of the rock.
• Secondary structures = occurs after lithification; main study of
structural geology.

Stratification Cross Gradded Sole Ripple Mud

bedding Bedding marks marks cracks

18
 stratification (bedding) = layering parallel
to the surface of deposition. "Lamination"
= layering with thickness < 1 cm.

 cross-stratification (cross-bedding) = two

or more sets of stratification with different
attitudes.

19
 graded bedding = variation in grain size
from bottom to top of bed.
 "Normal" grading is that in which the
coarsest grains are at the base. It is due to
the more rapid settling of coarse grains as a
result of their relatively low surface-
area/volume ratio.
 "Reverse" grading is not a common feature,
but it may be produced in a number of
environments:

20
 BEDDING-PLANE STRUCTURES
 (a) Sole marks are structures observed in
the sole (base) of a bed due to the filling
of an irregularity in the bed beneath.
There are many different kinds, of which
the most common are:

› (i) Flute casts: fillings (casts) of the depressions

excavated in the surface of an
unconsolidated sediment by current eddies.
› (ii) Scour marks (casts): fillings of grooves due
to the dragging of a large fragment across
unconsolidated sediments.
21
(i) Flute casts: fillings (casts) of the depressions
excavated in the surface of an unconsolidated
sediment by current eddies.

22
• (ii) Scour marks (casts): fillings of grooves due
to the dragging of a large fragment across
unconsolidated sediments.

23
 (b) Ripples. Ripples may be symmetric or
asymmetric ripples, depending upon the current
scheme that generated them, but are difficult to
use as facing criteria.

24
• (c) Mudcracks. Mudcracks are cracks produced
by shrinkage during drying, when unconsolidated mud
is exposed to the air. They may be preserved when the
mud is then covered by a new depositional unit. They
are a useful facing criterion.

25
• Secondary structures = occurs after
lithification; main study of structural geology

Stratification Cross Mud Ripple

bedded cracks mark

26
Secondary Structures
• Divided into:
– Brittle: faults, joints, shear fractures, veins, dikes

– Ductile: folds, foliations, cleavages, lineations

27
Geologists must have a way of orienting the rock
formations such that they can be visualized in a
horizontal as well as a vertical frame of
reference.
The measurement of rock unit orientation is called
its attitude.

Strike- measurement of horizontal attitude in

relation to true north on a map.
Dip - measurement of vertical attitude as unit
trends into the earth.

28
Strike and Dip in a Rock Structure

29
30
Geologic
map

Cross
section
31
32
 • Bends or wave-like features in layered
rocks
 Plastic strain, compressive stress
 • Geometry of folds:
 –Anticline vs. syncline
 • Hinge line, limb, axial plane
 –Plunging fold (hinge lines dip)
 –Structural dome
 –Structural basin
33
34
 Joints – break in rock along which no
movement has taken place.

 Faults – break in rock along which

movement has taken place.

35
36
37
The lithosphere is divided into a small number of
plates, each of which moves as a rigid body, with
deformation concentrated along the boundaries
between plates.
Typical plate motions are on the order of 5
cm/year, or 50 km/Ma.

38
 PLATE TECTONICS

The Earth’s lithosphere is broken into seven large plates, separated by the red lines; they are called the
African, Eurasian, Indian–Australian, Antarctic, Pacific, North American, and South American
plates. A few of the smaller plates are also shown. White arrows indicate directions of plate
movement and show that the plates move in different directions. The red lines also distinguish the
three types of plate boundaries. 39
1. Divergent (plates move apart)

2. Convergent (plates move together)

3. Transform (plates slide past each other)

40
41
42
43
44
 Structural geology is at the core of hydrocarbon
and mineral exploration, as structures control the
migration, trapping and escape of hydrocarbon
fluids.
 Structural geology is at the core of geotechnical
site assessment for bridges, dams, tunnels, nuclear
reactors, waste disposals etc.
 Because of the obvious relationship between
faults and earthquake , structural geology is that
core of earthquake prevention and earthquake
seismology.
 Structural geology is central to any study of past
and present mountain belts and sedimentary
basins. No geological, geochemical or
geophysical study can be done without the input
of structural geology.
45
The geometry of layers and structures controls hydrocarbon reservoirs.
Structural geologists work for oil companies and their work has lead a lot of
conceptual development of structural geology.
46
Petroleum Exploration

47
 Natural resources such as minerals are
explored for using the tools of structural
geology. Note how these veins control the
ore formation

Quartz
veins

48
The India tectonic plate moving north at about 45mm a year is pushing under the Eurasian plate beneath the Himalayas. 49
50
Rocks can flow: salt ascends
through overlying sediments
because it is bouyant
51
52