Lab Report – EC39001: Analog

Communication Lab
Experiment No. 01: Basic Filter Design
Group Number: 7
Name: SAYAN GHOSH
Roll No. 23EC30045
Department of E&ECE, IIT Kharagpur
Experiment Date: 30/07/2025

1. Introduction
In this experiment, we explored the design and implementation of basic analog filters —
passive and active — as well as signal addition using operational amplifiers (Op-Amps).
Filters are essential components in analog communication systems for signal processing,
particularly for selecting or rejecting specific frequency components. This lab helped
us understand the behavior of first-order low-pass, high-pass, and band-pass filters and
apply Op-Amps in active filter and adder circuits.

2. Key Objectives
• Design 1st order passive LPF, HPF, and BPF using specified cut-off frequencies.

• Analyze the response and 3dB bandwidth of these filters.

• Implement an active low-pass filter using an Op-Amp with a gain of 2.

• Design and test an analog adder circuit using Op-Amps, with weights based on
group number (G = 7).

• Observe and analyze output waveforms using DSO.

3. Components Used
• Resistors (3.9K, 11.8K)

• Capacitors (2.2nF, 3.5nF)

• Breadboard and connecting wires

• Function generator

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 • Digital Storage Oscilloscope (DSO)

• Operational Amplifier (ua741cp)

• DC power supply

4. Brief Theory
In signal processing and communication systems, filters are essential for selecting desired
frequency components and rejecting others. This experiment deals with first-order
filters, which consist of one reactive component (capacitor) and one resistor, and exhibit
a roll-off rate of 20 dB/decade.

Low-Pass Filter (LPF)

Function: Allows frequencies below a certain cut-off frequency fc to pass and attenuates
higher frequencies.
Transfer Function:
1
HLPF (jω) =
1 + jωRC
Cut-off Frequency:
1
fc =
2πRC
Behavior: Flat gain below fc ; 20 dB/decade roll-off above fc .

High-Pass Filter (HPF)

Function: Allows frequencies above a certain cut-off frequency fc to pass and attenuates
lower frequencies.
Transfer Function:
jωRC
HHPF (jω) =
1 + jωRC
Cut-off Frequency:
1
fc =
2πRC
Behavior: 20 dB/decade increase up to fc ; flat gain beyond it.

Band-Pass Filter (BPF)

Function: Allows only a specific range of frequencies between fL and fH to pass.
Design: Cascading HPF and LPF.
Transfer Function:

HBPF (jω) = HHPF (jω) · HLPF (jω)

Bandwidth:
BW = fH − fL

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Active Low-Pass Filter
Function: Performs low-pass filtering with added gain using Op-Amps.
Gain:
Rf
Av = 1 +
R2
Transfer Function:
 
Rf 1
H(jω) = 1 + ·
R2 1 + jωRC
Behavior: Same as LPF with amplified output.

Adder Circuit Using Op-Amp

An adder or summing amplifier is used to combine multiple analog signals. It is based
on an inverting Op-Amp configuration.
General Output Equation:
 
Rf Rf
Vout = − x1 (t) + x2 (t)
R1 R2
For Group G = 7 (odd group), the required expression is:

Vout = − [x1 (t) + 3x2 (t)]

Resistor Ratio Selection:

Rf Rf
= 1, =3
R1 R2
The Op-Amp outputs a weighted and inverted sum of the input signals.

5. Circuit Design and Circuit Diagram

Design Parameters (G = 7):
• LPF cut-off frequency: fH = 18 kHz

Figure 1: LPF Circuit

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• HPF cut-off frequency: fL = 12 kHz

Figure 2: HPF Circuit

• BPF: Using the above fL and fH

Figure 3: BPF Circuit

• Active filter with a gain of 2

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 Figure 4: Active Filter Circuit

• Analog Signal Adder using Op-Amps

Figure 5: Adder Circuit

(Circuit diagrams are as per lab manual)

6. Calculations
6.1 Cut-off Frequency and RC Calculation
The standard formula for the cut-off frequency of a first-order filter is:
1
fc =
2πRC

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 • For Low-Pass Filter (LPF):
1 1
fH = 18 kHz ⇒ RC = = ≈ 8.84 × 10−6 s
2πfH 2π · 18 × 103

Closest values used in lab:

R = 3.9 kΩ, C = 2.2 nF ⇒ RC = 8.5 × 10−6 s
• For High-Pass Filter (HPF):
1 1
fL = 12 kHz ⇒ RC = = ≈ 13.26 × 10−6 s
2πfL 2π · 12 × 103

Closest values used in lab:

R = 3.9 kΩ, C = 3.5 nF ⇒ RC = 13.65 × 10−6 s

6.2 Active Low-Pass Filter

The gain of an active low-pass filter in non-inverting configuration is given by:
Rf
Av = 1 +
R2
We designed for a gain of 2, so:
Rf Rf
1+ =2⇒ =1
R2 R2
Component selection:

Rf = 11.8 kΩ, R2 = 11.8 kΩ

The cut-off frequency was maintained close to 18 kHz using:

R = 3.9 kΩ, C = 2.2 nF

6.3 Adder Circuit

For group number G = 7 (odd), the required output expression is:

Vout = − [x1 (t) + 3x2 (t)]

This was implemented using the inverting adder configuration:

 
Rf Rf
Vout = − x1 (t) + x2 (t)
R1 R2
Component selection to match the above weights:

Rf = 11.8 kΩ, R1 = 11.8 kΩ, R2 = 3.9 kΩ

This gives:
Rf Rf
= 1, =3
R1 R2
Which satisfies the desired summation behavior.

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7. Results
Bode Plots:

Figure 6: Bode Plot of Low-Pass Filter (Cut-off = 18 kHz)

Figure 7: Bode Plot of High-Pass Filter (Cut-off = 12 kHz)

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 Figure 8: Bode Plot of Band-Pass Filter (12–18 kHz)

Figure 9: Bode Plot of Active LPF with Gain = 2 (Cut-off = 18 kHz)

The 3dB frequency for the Low-Pass Filter is 18.21 kHz.

The 3dB frequency for the High-Pass Filter is 12.36 kHz.
Amplitude of the signal at 2fH (i.e., 36 kHz) is 480.0 mV.
Amplitude of the signal at fL /2 (i.e., 6 kHz) is 520.0 mV.

8. Discussions
1. Deviation from Theoretical RC Values:
In the lab, we were constrained by the availability of standard resistor and capacitor
values. As a result, we could not realize the exact theoretical RC product required

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 for our desired cut-off frequencies (12 kHz and 18 kHz). We selected the nearest
possible values, which introduced slight deviations from the expected filter behavior.

2. Observed vs. Calculated 3dB Frequencies:

Due to the approximated component values, the actual 3dB frequencies were slightly
offset. For instance, the Low-Pass Filter showed a 3dB frequency of approximately
18.21 kHz instead of exactly 18 kHz, and the High-Pass Filter exhibited 12.36 kHz
instead of 12 kHz.

3. Impact on Band-Pass Filter Performance:

The Band-Pass Filter, formed by cascading the LPF and HPF, inherited inaccu-
racies from both. Consequently, the effective passband shifted slightly from the
intended 12–18 kHz range, and the transition slopes were less sharp.

4. Amplitude Variation at Test Frequencies:

Amplitude measurements at fL /2 and 2fH did not match ideal expectations. This
variation is attributed to the shifted cut-off points and the natural roll-off of first-
order filters, which was more prominent due to component mismatch.

5. Active Filter Gain Verification:

The active Low-Pass Filter, configured for a gain of 2, successfully amplified low-
frequency signals. However, slight gain deviations and earlier-than-expected atten-
uation were noticed, likely due to Op-Amp bandwidth limitations and component
tolerances.

6. Suggestion for Improved Accuracy:

More accurate filter performance could be achieved by using a wider selection of
resistors and capacitors, including trimmable components. Alternatively, digitally
tunable components could be used to precisely achieve the target RC value.

7. Precision in Weighted Summation:

In the adder circuit, the goal was to implement Vout = −[x1 (t) + 3x2 (t)]. We
attempted to maintain the ratio Rf /R1 = 1 and Rf /R2 = 3, but slight deviations
due to standard resistor availability may have affected the exact weight of x2 (t).

8. Effect of Op-Amp Limitations:

We observed slight waveform clipping in the adder output at higher input ampli-
tudes. This is likely due to the Op-Amp’s limited output voltage swing and slew
rate, which can impact accuracy at higher frequencies or voltages.

9. Input Impedance and Signal Loading:

The inverting adder configuration presents finite input impedance equal to each
input resistor. Without proper buffering, this could cause signal loading and am-
plitude distortion, especially if the signal sources are not ideal.