CHAPTER

6
DRILLING MACHINE

Contents

6.0 Introduction
6.1 Types of Holes that can be Generated
6.2 Twist DrillGeometry
6.3 Types of dilling tools
6.4 Types of motion in drilling
6.5 Classification of Drilling machines
6.6 Size of Driling Machine
6.7 Parts of Driling Machine
6.8 Tool Holding Devices
6.9 Types of Work Holding Devices
6.10Types of Driling Operations
6.11 Spindle Drive Mechani_m
6.12 Drilling Cutting Parameters
6.13 Machining Time in Driling
6.14 Forces in Drilling
6.15 Reaming
6.16 Reamer and its geometry
6.17 Boring
6.18 Tapping
Questions
126
Manutacluring Process
6.0Introduction
Drilling is anoperation involving making circular holes in the materíal by using a
tool called as drill or twist dill,. The drill moves axially as it rotates and a hole is
forced on to the work.
createdrotatwhen
ing
Amachine tool which is used for this purpose is referred to as drilling machine.
However, alathe or a boring machine can also be used to make holes in the work

6.1Types of holes that can be generated

AVariety of holes as shown in the figure 6.1 can be produced by drilling operaion.
Through hole: Ahole extending from one end of the work to the other. Hole can be seen
from the other end.
. Blind hole Hole will extend from one end to some distance within the material Tha
other end of the hole will not be seen.
" Counter bore : Itis athrough hole but the top portion of the hole is enlarged to accommodate
the head of a bolt etc.,
" Step hole It is similar tothe above but with one more enlarged portion, looking like a
step in the hole. It is a special type.

(a) Through hole (b) Blind hole (c) Counter bore hole (d) Step hole
Fig. 6.1:

6.2 Twist DrillGeometry

In general adrillconsists of ashank portion and body
tool holder. The shank may be tapered or straight. The portion. The shank portionis fixed
along the axis which resembles a twist, body portion consist of continuous go
hence the name twist drill.
The twisted body has
several features Flute, Heel, Land, cutting edge,
chisel edge. point, helix angle,
Fig. 6.2 Shows the details oof
atapered shank twist drill. Twist drills are
grooves running length wise having spiral flutes or
The chisel edge is the first
and is pushed on the work, the to make contact with the work surface. As the drill starts rotating
forming. The chips starts movingcutting edge (Lip) starts cutting the
up along the flute. The land work piece and chips
starts
anda
hole is created during the portion clears the rough edges
abOve process.
p r i l i n gM a c h i n e

127
The helixXangle provides the
The point Portion provides thenecessary direction for the easy flow of the chips to the top
The dianeter of the hole that is necessary angle (point angle)
crented, wil be slightly for Smooth cutting operation.
In general lapered shank drill bit is more than the
spindle and due to the taper used.
Fig. 6.3 shows the ciameter of the drill.
morse drill
machine

taper (MTI - MT bit shank

the drilinserted
The Tang portion enters in the
tirmly. into the corresponding 7/1.5°4°) bit is secured
tansverse
tapered rectangular hole is provided. hole in the spindle.
Just
throughthis hole and by impact push of
A drift (tapered above the tang a
the drift the rectangular
shank can be made to bar) can be pushed
dhe drill bitcan bereleased. slide downwards and

Body clearance
diameter
Land Point
Point
Chisel Flank - angle
edge
Heel
Depth of body/ Diameter
clearance
Web or core
thickness
Lip length Face
Chisel edge Outer Corner
angle

Chisel edge
Corner

Lip clearance
angle

Rake angle
periphery)
(Helix angle at
nomenclature
6.2(a): Twist
drill
Fig.
128

Taper shank
Helix
Flute length NanmiaciuTImgrotay
angle
Cutting elge
Lead of helix

Flute Heel Land

Point length
Tang
Drill
Axis Point ange
Body clearance
Shank Body
Neck
Overall length

Fig. 6.2(b) :Twist drill nomenclature

Drift
Machine spindle

Tool shank

Fig. 6.3 : Releasing a taper a taper-shank tool

6.3 Types of drillingtools

Avariety of tools are used for different purposes. Few of them is shown in fig. 64
1. Tapered shank tool
2. Straight shank tool
3. Centre drill
4. Oil tube drill
 129
s drill -has straight
grOOves or (lutes rumning parallel Ito the drill axis, It can be
onsidered as acutting tool with zero rake angle.
brss, Aluminum,
Used for drilling only softer material like,
6 Stepdrill

7.Spadedril
8.Gundrill

spadedrill
9, Flator
1a Drill
with brazed carbide tip
IL. Drillwithiindexable carbide inserts

(a) Chisel-point drill

CTaper shank
|Drill diameter
Tang
Tang drive Point angle
Chisel Body diameter
clearance
Lip relief angle edge Clearance
Flutes angle
Neck- Helix angle Chisel Web/
diameter

Shank Straight
shank edge
diameter
Shank length -Flute length Margin Lan a n d

Body
Lip
Overall length

(b) Crankshaft-point drill

Centre drill

Oil tube drill

Fig. 6.4: a) Types of Drills

 131
p r i l i n g
M a c h i n e

Types
of motion in drilling
6.4
operation there will be two main motions nanely rotary motion utnd feed notion.
In drilling
details are shown in fig. 6.5. Rotary motion tothe drillis obtained by the totation of the spindle.
The
spindle in turns due to coupling with a motor. Arange of' spceds cun be realised.
The

Helix angle

Flute /Bótary motion

Drill
Land Feed motion
Heel
Lip angle
IPoint

Lip
Length Diameter

Fig. 6.5 : Types of Motions

realised by manual
Feed motion is the movement of the tool against the work surface. It is
of the drilI.
operation or by automation. It is the distance traversed by the drill per revolution

6.5 Classification of drilling machines

handling specific
Drilling machine are made in different sizes and types. Each is capable of
jobs.
Following list gives the classification.
6.5.1 Portable drilling nachine
OD.2 Sensitive drilling machine -Bench or Floor
6.5.3 Upright: drilling
machine-Round or Box column
Kadial drilling machine-plain, semi universal and universal
0.3.5 Gang drilling machine
6.5.6
Multiple: spindle drilling machine
6,57 Automatic
drilling
machine
6.5.8 DDeep hole drilling machine- vertical, horizontal
 132

6.5.1 Portable drilling machine

ManutacturIngPro a
Suitable for drilling small
Itis asmall size machine. It can be easily handled.
placed any where in the workshop and occupies less space. There are hand feed size holes.Can
be
judges the feed control and carries out drilling. Can be operated at high speeds and uses
drills upto 10 mm dia. Fig 6.6 shows this vertical movement of table, spindle &rotation of type.Oqeraky
be done,

6.5.2 Sensitive drilling machine

These drilling machine operate at high speeds and drill small holes. Feed is
hand. Skill of the operator is very much necessary. The operator should be sensitive to by controled
sense how fast the drill is cutting sothat he can controlthe feed according to instantaneous feel or
Hence, the name drills of 1.5-15.5mm dia are used. Sstuation.
Fig 6.7 shows this. In addition to the above vertical movement of spindle &rotation of toolis
present.

6.5.3 Upright drillingmachine

Are similar to the above. But they are more heavy than the first two types. Has prerieins
movement of table vertical hand feed and rotary motion of toolcan be done. Fig. 6.8 showe the
details

Main drive

Feed Drive
Ring nut
Drillspindle Sleeve
Lever
Gear Rack.
Work table Column Gear

Ballbearing
Base plate Spindle

Fig. 6.6: Portable drilling machine

 133
D m i i nW
g achine

Head
Cone pulley V-belt

Driving Motor

Sleeve
Verticaldrill Spindle
Chuck
Vertical column
Drill
Table

Fig 6.7: Sensitive drilling machine

Base

Spindle Overhead shaft

Bevel gear drive
to spindle

Back stay
Handwheel
for sensitive
hand feed
Handwheel for Column
quíck hand feed Table
Table
elevating handle
Counter shaft
Cone pulley

Table clamp Table elevating Fast and loose

clamp handle pulley
Rack on column
Foot pedalable elevating
handle

machine
Fig. 6.8 : Uprightpillar drilling
 134 Manuiacturing Procosg
V6.5.4 Radial drilling machine
This type of drilling machine is more versatile und comes in three variety l) Plain type
2) Semiuniversal and 3) universaltype. The following schematic representation showg ,the
of motion. details
Plain type
Has vertical movenment of radial arm, Horizontal novementtof drill hcad and rotation of drill

Vertical movement Horizontal

Radial arm movement
Rotary motion
drill head of drill

Semiuniversal type
This type of drilling machine has all the above motions and inaddition the drillhead can k
tilted about the radial arm

and
Radial Arm Drill he¡d Drill head tilting
Drill

Universal type
Inaddition to the above 4 motions, the radial arm can also be tilted totake angular cuts

Radial Arm Drill head Drill head Radial Arm

Drill

Fig. 6.10 & 6.11 shows the Radial drilling machine in 2D and 3D views.
 135
Dlio
Machine

elevatingthe arm Elevating serew

Motorfor
Motor or driving the drillspindle
Guide, Dill head
ways

Radial arm

Column

Drill spindle
Table

Base

Fig. 6.10: Radial drillingmachine

Radial arm

Column

Drill head

Workpiece
Table

machine
Fig. 6.11 :The radial drilling
144

In addition V-clanp, ngle plate, drilljig etc.,.are used to hold the work piece
ManutacurngProces.
T- bolts-ae used to hold the work rigidly. They can be inserted into the T
table and lby using a nut &washerthe workis clamped. The arrangement is shown slots of he
earlier. work
6.10Types of drilling operations(Refer Fig. 6.20)
The main cutting surfaces are the chisel edge and cutting lips. The
main
along the lipof the drill, which is similar to that of aconventional single point toolcutting action is
obliquely. that is
cuting

Lip
Fig. 6.19: Drill bit
Drilling:It is an operation used to create a hole. A
create a hole in the work piece. A punch drill bit of known
mark is made on the surface where diameter is usedto
drilled to assist easy locating. The drill bit a hole needs to be
located on the mark and fed. Pressure is while rotating is brought in contact with the mark and
circular hole. Slowly a hole starts forming applied on the tool and chips are removed resulting in a
drawn. and after reaching the end point, the drill bit is with
A cylindrical hole is produced
accurate hole in a work piece. The sizeby ofthe rotation of a drill bit. Drilling does not produce an
the hole will be slightly larger than
Core drilling:Holes are obtained the drill diameter.
be rough and hence needs clean up in the casting by using cores in the mould. The
of the side walls of the hole.By using a heavy holes wu
operation is done. drillthe drilg
Step drilling : Here a drill bit having
Contact the work surface and pass a step is used, The drill bit is
work piece is obtained. through it, A stepped hole with more rotated and allowed o
than one diametet it u
Counterboring
for washers and nuts. : Some times aflat surface is needed
aroundla hole to ensure good seating
will be concentric with The counter bore has a pilot that i precedes it into the hole that the surface
The tool consists of a the hole.The enlarged holes forms asquare shoulder so original hole.
straight or spiral cutting edges
the cutting edge. The pilot
with the
fits intothe small and a pilot at one end which extends beyond
interchangeable to suit the hole sizes diameter of the hole and aligns the tool. The pilots are
DrilingMachine

Dril ng
Cdoriulnterg Sdr1tlepng Couterbing HEountersikg Reaming
145

Drilling Counter boring Counter snking Reaming

Spot facing Boring Tapping

Fig. 6.20 : Diferent drilling operations
Countersinking : A drillwith a taper at the end is used. The pilot portion of the drillenters
ie hole already existing and as the drilldescends into the hole, a tapered hole at the top cone
Oliaped enlargement is created (hear the hole entrance). This countersunk hole is used to locate the
pered screw head and ensure the top surface of the screw and work surface come in the sanme
e, The standard included angle of the countersink 60° or 90°. The speed of the tool is less than
that of drilling
Keaming : A reamer having straight flutes is used for the purpose. The diameter of the
reamer is slightly more than the hole. The reamer enters the hole while rotating and the hole is
 149
n Machine

Fig. 6.22: Force system in drilling

Machining time for drilling
60H
t= H= depth of drilling, mm
Nf
f= feed mm/rey
N = spindle speed RPM
t = time sec
Cutting speed
TDN
m/min D =dia of the drill mm
1000
V =cuttingspeed
Values of "" of materials
m/min
MS 30 - 40
C
25- 40
MCS 20 - 30
AL 70 - 100
DrilingMachine 153

The size of the tap is the outside dianmeter of the threads. Hence, the size of the drilled hole
must besmaller than the tap by twice the depth of the thread. Fig. 6.26 gives the detail
Drill dia = Tap dia -2x Thread depth Drill
size
D = (d --)
Empirical relation
D = 0.8d

Drill Tap Thread

Dia dia depth
Fig. 6.26 :Size of Tap

PROBLEMS
Problem - 6.1: Calculate the time taken for drilling ahole in a 25mm thick steel plate.
0.2 mm/rev for 1Omm drilldiameter, cutting speed = 16 m/min Take f=
Data : H= 25 mm;f=0.2mm/rev ; d= 10mm; V= 16m/min
TDN
Cutting Speed =
1000

TX10xN
16 =
1000

1600
N=
T

N= 509.55 RPM
60H
Machining time
60x 25
= 14.72 sec
509.55 × 0.2
154
Manuíacturing
Problem - 6.2 : Calculate the time taken for turning a MS bar of 600mm x80mmn
entting speed is 40mm/min and feed =0.2 mmhrev for taking one cut.
length of cut 60 H
Longij the
Time for tuning H=TDx L=
feed x speed fxN x60 x
80
60× T60× 80
= T X 3600 sec
0.2 x 40

60H
time for facing

60
H=tool has to progress a distance of =
=30 mm
2

60x30
0.2 x 40
= 225sec
Problem - 6.3 : A through hole 38mm in
diameter is to be finished to 42 mm using a drilimo
machine. The total thickness ofthe workpiece is
time. Take cutting speed 0.32 m/s and feed 0.6 50mm. Calculate the depth of cut and machürin
mm/revolution.
Data : d=?;V= 0.32 m/s ;T = ?;f= 0.6mm/rev

42-38
depth of cut d = =2mm
2

L
Machining Time T=
fxN
L=l+X+ Y
= 50 + d cos 60 + dcos
60
= 50 + 2.d cos 60
= 50 +2(2). cos 60
= 52mm
 CHAPTER

9
MILLING PROCESS

Contents
9.0 Introduction

9.1 Classification of Miling Machines

9.2 Size of Milling Machine
9.3 Basic parts of a Milling Machine
9.4 Elements of Plain Milling Cutter
9.5 Types of Mifing Cutters
9.6 Work Holding Devices
9.7 Tol Holding Devices
9.8 Milling Operations
9.9 Miling Machine Attachment
9.10 Elements of Milling
Operations
9.11 Dividing Head- Methods of
Indexing
9.12 Machining Time in Miling
Problems
Questions
 201
Mling
Prooess

Introduction

Milling
involves removal of material by using a tool called as milling cutter. The milling
circular
shapedtool with anumber of teeths onthe periphery. The cutteris referred to as
is a which
cuter
multipoint
tool since each teeth is asingle point tool. This is similarto a grinding wheel
large
namnber of grains on the periphery, each one acting as asingle point tool.
has

multipointtool will have intermittent contact with the work piece and the
cutting action
The uniform
place. Fine chips are generated during the process. Only fine cuts can be given with
takes relative movement between the tool and the workpiece.
andgradual

C 91shows a typical machining operation using a multipoint tool.

and can carry out a variety
Amilling machine produces better surface finish, better accuracy
o foperations.

Wheel
Cutter Cutting motion

Cutting Abrasive
motion Chip
Chip grains

Work
Work
Feed motion
Feed motion

operation b) Scheme of grinding operation

a) Scheme of milling
Fig.9.1: Machining with multpoint tools

Machines
9.1Classification of Milling
classified
Broadly a milling machine can be
cutter. i) Vertical type ii) Horizontaltype
a) based on the axis of the milling production
i) Low production, ii) Medium production, ii) High
b) Based on production
Special purpose used to carry out specific machining operations
) type
design i) column and knee type, ii) Fixed bed type, ii) planer
d) Based on the
example of the above
The following figures show some
Fig.9.2 Horizontal milling
Fig. 9.3 Vertical milling
Fig. 9.4 Plan miller
Fig. 9.5 Column and knee type
 202
Manuiacturing Process- l
Horizontal and vertical millng machines Features
Horizontal Miling Machines
Here the arbor holding the tool has its axis horizontal s0 alsothe axis of the
milling nachine, plain milling machine column and knee type, universal milling cutter. Hand
someof the examples for this type. machine are
Features of plain nilling machine
The table can be moved longitudinally, cross or vertical. The feed is longitudinal
table is moved at right angles to the spindle when the table is moved parallel to the when the
feed is crOss, whenthe table is moved vertical, the feed is vertical. There are three spindle, the
In a universal milling machine wide range of milling operations can be carried
movements.
out. The
major difference w.r.t the above milling machine is that thetable is mounted on a circular
base with graduations and can be swivelled through 45° on either side. The fable can swivelling
about vertical axis and can be set at an angle. This gives the fourth movement. This be swivelled
be used for performing helical milling. movement Can
Fixed Bed type milling machine : It is a large, heavy, rigid milling
machine.
table is restricted to longitudinal at right angles to the spindle axis but there is The movement of
no cross or
movement to the table. The cutter mounted on the spindle head may be moved verticallyvertical on the
column. The spindle may be adjusted horizontally to provide cross adjustment. There may
more than one spindle provided. Based on the number of spindles the machine he
may be refered to
as simplex,duplex and triplex. Fig. 9.2 Shows fixed bed type milling machine
Cutter

Vertical slide

-Spindle / arbor
Table

Motor
Column

Fig. 9.2 Bed type milling machine

Vertical milling machine J
Here the spindle is held vertical with its axis perpendicular to the work table. The spindle can
also be moved up and down. The spindle head is clamped to the vertical column and can be
swivelled at an angle to take cut on angular surfaces. This types of machine is used for machining
grooves, slots and flat surfaces. End milling and face milling cutters are mounted on the spindle.
Fig.9.3 shows a typical vertical milling machine
M l i n g
P r o c e s s
203

Spindle Colunn,

Table

Saddle
Base

Fig. 9.3 Vertical milling machine

miller
Special type Aplano
Itis a massive machine used for heavy duty work, with spindles located in both horízontal
ondvertical directions. The vertical spindles / can be held with heads moved towards or away
om each other. The beam carrying it can be moved up and down. The horizontal spindles held
with heads can be moved up and down on the columns.
Each spindle have independent drives enabling it to carry out number of cutting operations
simultaneously.
The machine resembles a planer and hence the name plano miller. Fig. 9.4 shows this

Vertical slide Column

*2
Dl 4 )

1,2, 3, 4 - Milling cutters 5 - Table

Fig. 9.4 Plano - imiller
Calssification of Milling Machine
Column andknee type milling machine (Fig. 9.5)
Itis the commonlyused milling machine. It consists of arigid base (l) with a vertical column
(13)(2). The column houses the driving mechanism and other controlling devices (3). Attached to
lhe column is aoverhang arm (4) which carries arbor support (5) front brace (6). The arbor support
ouses the arbor (7) which carries the milling cutter (8). The arbor is connected to the driving
Ihechanism, direct. The front brace has a slot to permitknee to move up and down.
204
Manufacturing Process-|
Asolid component knee (9) is supported on an elevating screw (10) one end of
held by the font brace (6) and the other end is housed in a guide wuy (I 1). The knee can the knee is
be moved
up and down by means of elevating handle (12). The knce carries a saddle (13) and atable
top of it. Atelescopic shaft (15) connects the knee and the controls on the column. (14) on
longitudinal feed handle (16) which can bc used to move the tableelongitudinally i.c., There is a
to the axis of the ardor. By operating the cross feed handle (17) thetable can be moved
the arbor axis to give cross feed. The speed of the arbor can be varied as required
perpendicular
parallel to
5
2

14

13

2 10
15
1

Fig. 9.5 Column and knee type milling machine

1. Base, 2. Elevating screw, 3. Knee, 4.
Knee elevating handle, 5. Crossfeed handle, 6. Saddle,
Table, 8. Front brace, 9. Arbor support, 10.
Conepulley, 15. Telescope feed shaft
9.2 Size of a Milling Machine
In general the milling machine is
table, maximum length of longitudinal,designated by the dimensions of the working space of the
cross and vertical travel of the table.
1200m 300mm -Table length
x
Dimensions of traverse = Longitudinal width
x cross x vertical
= 900 mm × 250
mm x 450 mm
Number of spindle speeds, feeds, power
are otherparameters that can be specified. available, weight of the machine floor area requ
9.3 Basic parts of a
milling machine
Consider column
Referring to Fig. 9.5. knee milling machine for identifying various parts of a milling machine.
 205
MilinP
g rocess

: It is a heavy hard, rigid part acting as foundation andis made of grey caS
Base Iron. All other parts of the machine are housed above it.
Column
: It is the mainvertical member on the base., It houses all driving mechanisns
for the spindle and table feed. The front vetical face of the column has a
dovetail guide way accurately machined. The guide way carries the knee.
The topof the columncarries an overhang arm which holds arbor support.
: It is asliding block made of cast iron. It slides on the guide way and is supported
on the elevating screw. With the help of this screw the knee can be moved up
Knee

and down. The knee houses the table feed mechanism and other controls on
top of the knee saddle and work table located.
Saddle
: It is placed on the knee. It has guideways on it and houses a table. The saddle
can be slid on the guide ways perpendicular to the column.
Table
: The table rests on the guideways of the saddle and can be traversed
longitudinally. The top surface of the table is machinal accurately and has T
slots for clamping the work and other fixtures. A lead screw beneath the table
is used to move the table horizontally. The table is mounted on aswivel base
in universal milling machine.
Overhang arm : It iS mounted on top of the knee and the over arm to provide further rigidity
to the arbor.
Front brace : It is amember fitted to the knee and the over arm to provide further rigidity to
the arbor. The front brace has aslot to permit adjustment of the knee height.
Spindle : It is located near the top portion of the column and receives power from the
motor through belts, gears, clutches and transmit to the arbor. The front end
of the spindle just projects and from the surface of the column. The spindle
has a tapered hole intowhich arbors could be inserted. Spindle forms a very.
important part of a milling machine.
Arbor : For all practical purpose, arbor may be considered as an extension of the
spindle. Millingcutters are mounted on it. The shank of the arbor is tapered
for facilitating with the machine spindle. The arbor is normally supported at
the farthest end with a support. A set of collars are inserted on the arbor for
spacing purpose to locate the milling cutter at the desired position.

9.4 Elements of Plain milling cutter

Ihe complete features of a milling cutter is shown in fig. 9.6. It has a number of teeths on the
periphery and each one of them act as a single point töol.
Outside diameter is the diameter from the tip of the teeth to the corresponding tip opposite to
.It represents the largest diameter of the cutter.
Root diameter is the diameter from the base of one teeth to the base of the opposite teeth.
Body of cutter is the portion between the root diameter and the hub portion.
206
MandtacturngProces -i
Fillet radius is the radius given to the botton inside position of the teeth for smooth
anddesign criteria chip space is the space between Iront face of one teeth to the rear of the profi
oth le
er
teethto facilitate holding of chip temporarily uring the rotationof the cutter.
Allother geometry is similar to a single point cutting tol.
Cutting edge
-Relief angle
Primary clearance angle

Secondary clearance angle

Lip angle
Land
-Back of Tooth
Radial rake Face of Tooth
angle -Gash or chip space
Body
of Fillet or root radius
cutter

Root
wlameter
rotation
Direction
of

Tooth depth Outside Diameter

Fig. 9,6: Elements of plain milling cutter

9.5 Typess of Milling cutters

Milling cutters are classified as
9.5.1 Straight teeth plain milling cutter 9.5.2 Helical plain milling cutter
9.5.3Side milling cutter 9.5.4 Metal slitting saw
9.5.5 Angle milling cutter 9.5.6 End milling cutter
9.5.7 Slot cutter AS.8 Formed cutter
9.5.9 Fly cutter 9.5.10 Tap / Reamer cutter

Straight teeth plain milling cutter

the circumference.
Fig. 9.5.1shows this. It is acylindricalshaped cutter. Teeths are present
These are used toproduce flat surfaces. The cutter teeth may be straight or helical. These ae a
20-160mm

called as slab milling cutters. The cutters are available from 16-160mm diameter with
width.
210

ManutacturingProces -1

Fig. 9.5.7: Slot cutter

Formed cutter
The cutters used here have profiles as requiredto be cut on the work surface.
be convex, concave to produce the corresponding groove or projection on the The profile
9.5.8 shows the details. work surface. may
Fig

Fig. 9.5.8: Formed cutter

Fly cutter
Here a single tool point having the
arbor using screws. As and when the profile of the groove or teeth is mounted atone end of the
Since only one cutter is rotating, it willarbor rotates, the cutter also rotate and cuts the work piece.
it is freely rotating, it is referred cut the work piece intermittently.
may be formed to the desired to as fly cutter. They are mainlyused in As the cutter looks as it
contour. Fig.9.5.9 shows tool rom work. The cutter
this.
Tool

-Arbor

Work

Fly cutter
Fig. 9.5.9: Fly cutter
214

9.8 Milling operations

ManutaciuingProcas .,
Milling operations can be classified into
A) Horizontal milling B) Vertical Milling
vá) Slab milling i) Shaping
Vi) Slot milling i) Surfacing
e Fom milling ii) Drilling
d) End milling civ) Slotting
e) Saw milling v) Dove tail
VÓ Keyway milling vi) Angular milling
g) T-Slot milling vii) T-Slot milling
M Straddle milling vii) Face milling
) Angular milling ix) Profile milling
V) Gang milling x) Key way milling
Vk) Gear cutting
A) Horizontal Milling Operations :Here the axis of the cutter is horizontal in line with the
arbar axis.
a) Slab milling: is an operation carried out using aplain milling cutter to produce plain horizontal
surface on the work piece. Fig. 9.8 (a) shows this
b) Slot milling :Aslot milling cuter is used to cut slots or grooves on the surface of the work.
The slot may be a rectangular or T- shape. Fig 9.8(b) shows this
c) Form milling : A milling cutter with a special contour convex or curcave surface on the
work piece is used to generate contoured surface Fig 9.8(c) shows this
d) End milling :Here small cylindrical holes can be made on the side of the work using an end
mill cutter. Small holes of S-12mm can be made using this. Fig 9.8(d)shows this
e) Saw milling :A thin milling cutter (slitting saw cutter) is used to cut the material to creates
slots or part the surfaces. Fig 9.8(e) shows this.
) Key way milling : Key ways are milled using a cutter hearing necessary width fig 80)
shows this.
8) T slot milling: Here T-slots are generated on the vertical face of the work piece as shoWn
Fig 9.8(g)
h) Straddle milling: Two milling cutters with a separation is used to carry out cuttingto form
astep as shown in Fig 9.8(h). Aside milling cutter is used.
i) Angular milling : An angular milling cutter is used to cut angular grooves Fig. 9.o
this
j) Gang milling : Multiple cutters are used to carry out a number operations Fig. 9.8()
of
shows this.
 215

cutting : A milling cutter with a profile corresponding to the tooth profile is used to cul
Gear
cylindrical blank. Fig 9.8(k) showsthis
k)
(eeths,
onthe
Cutting
Cutting motion
motiol

Feed
Feed motion
motion
(b) Slot milling
(a) Slab milling

Cutting motion

End mill

Feed motion
(c) Form milling (d) End milling operation
Work
T-slot1
cutter
Saw

Work

) Keyway milling
(e) Saw milling operation operation
(g) T-slot milling
operation
216
ManutacungPtocasg.

(h) Straddle milling (i) Angular milling

(i) Angular milling

operation

) Gang miling (k) Gear cuting operation

Fig. 9.8 Types of horizontal milling operations
9.8. (B) Vertical MillingOperation :Here the axis of the cutter is vertical and perpendicular to
the work piece.
() Shaping : An end milling cutter is used to shape the slots in the work piece Fig. 9.8(1) Shows
this.
(i) Surfacing : Here the work piece is given a smooth surface with high degree of accuracy.
Horizontal surfaces are produced. Fig. 9.8(ii) show this.
(ii) Drilling : Holes can also be drilled in awork piece using a special milling
shows this. cutter. rig
(ív) Slotting : Vertical slots are cut here using a milling cutter Fig 9.8(iv)
shows this
(v) Dove tail : Dove tail can be cut on edges ofthe work
shows this.
piece using an angular cutter. Ti
(vi) Angular Milling : Fig 9.8(vi) shows the angular milling with the cutter held at an angle.
222
Manuiacluring Procasg N
Index head Worm wheel
spindle 40 teeth
Sector arn Index
pin

Index crank

Worm Shaft Worm Single

Sector arm
Index plate thread
Fig. 9.11 Indexing mechanism of adividing head

r -

-le

Fig.9.12 Index plate no. Iof Brown and Sharpe dividing head
3. Opticaldividing head
These are used for precise angular indexing during machining and also for checking the
accuracy of various angular surface.
Indexing Methods
Indexing is a very important operation in a milling machine. There are several meous
available for this and are listed below.
1. Direct or Rapid indexing
/2. Plain or Simple indexing
B. Compound indexing
 Miling
Process 223

Differential
| indexing
4
s Angular indexing.

1.
Direct or rapid indexing
This methodis used for rapid indexing of large number of indentical components for small
divisions. Either a plain dividing head or auniversal head is used for the purpose. While using a
universal head worn and worm wheel are disenguged. The required number of division on the
work piece is obtained by rapid index plate, the plate has 24 equally spaced holes and aspring
pushed to lock the spindle with
loadedpin is
the frame. As and when indexíng is to be made, the
taken out and the crank is rotated to rotatethe spindle tothe required position andthen
first
pinis
pushedlinto the hole and locked. When the plate is turned through the required number
the pinis
ofrevolutionthe Spindle and the work are alsoturnedthrough the same part of revolution. Indexing
off24 can be done Ex : 2,3,4,
of all
fractions
. etc., Fig. 9.9 gives the details.
ethe number of holes ontheindex plate (24) bythe number of divisions required
Example : Divide,
(N)
onthe work
24
No. of holes tobe turned =
N

if the number of division required on the work piece is 4 as in the case of asquare head bolt
then

24
No. of holes to be turned = 4
=6

" Hold the work piece in the initial position and carry out machining.
After wards the index plate is turned by 6holes for the next machining to get the 2"u side.
" Repeat another two timeas above to get the 3rd and 4th side.

VSimple Indexing :
Here three index plates of different holes is used to facilitate indexing to fraction of a turn.
These plates are patented by Brown and sharpe Co.
15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20
Index plate No 1
Index plate No 2 21, 23, 27, 29, 31,, 33
37, 39, 41, 43, 47, 49
Index plate No 3
These plates are used in the dividing head to get the indexing in the work piece.
Example : Index crank movement is caleulated by the formula
40
Index crank movement =
N
N =no. of div required
224

For lrevolution ot' spindle or work 40 revolution of crank Manutacuing Procesg-N

40
revolutionof crank
2 revoution of' spindle or work = 2

40
- revolutionof crank
n revolution of spidle or work =
40
crank will make
So for ' ' dìvisions on the work the
turns
n

Let N= 18,
40 4
Index crank movement = = 2
18 18
with 18 hole circle.
1. Now, use an index plate no 1,
Then
2. In the initial position, machine the work piece.
3. Turn the crank, two rotations in a 18 hole circle and then 4holes and clamps the pin.
the step (3)
4. Automatically the work piece is indexed to next position. Repeat till all the 18
positions are machined.

Similarly For N = 11 say

40
Index crank movement =
11 11

7 3
3
3 33

1. Use an index plate No. 2., with 33 hole circle.

2. Machine the work piece in its initial position, then
3. Turn the crank 3 rotations and 21 holes in 33 hole circle and clamp the pin.
4. The work piece is indexed to next position. Repeat step (3) till all the Il positions are
machined.

N3.Compound Indexing :
This type of indexing is used when the number of divisions required is outside the range tnal
can be obtained in asimple indexing. Here two separate simple indexing movements are pertomu
in two stages.
(i) By turning the crank through adefinite amount in one direction as in simple indexing:
(ii) By turning the index plate and the crank both. either inthe same direction or reverse direollo
thus adding further movement to or subtracting from that obtained as in above.
 225

indexing ovement is the summation of the above two motions.

1he mOvement of the index crank and the index plate can be deterrnined by
40
N, N,
number of divisions required
number of moved by the crank pin in the N, hole circle
,
=
umber of moved by the crank pin in the N, hole circle
M, =: number of holes in the circle used by the crank pin

N=number of holes in the circle used by the crank used by the lock pin.

-9.1:Consider N= 87
Problem.

Split.this into two parts 87 =29 x3

Step1:
2:N,=29 and N, =3 x11 =33 (same plate 2).
Step
29 = 29 x1
33 = 11 x3

of(N, -N) and 87 inthe numerator and factors 40, 29, and 33in the denominator.
Step3:Put factors
(N,-N) =(33 - 29)
=87 =25 x3
40 =2%2x2x5
29 =29x 1
33 = 11 xZ
All numerator quantities are cancelled hence ok.

40
Step 4: Now 87 29 33

40 11
Simplifying x29 x33 = 33n,+ 29n,
440 = 33n, +29n,
Step 5: By trial and error
n, = 23 n,=1l with -ve Sign
Step 6: Hence indexing equation is given by
23 11 40
29 33 87
226
Manuiacturng Proces -1
circle forward and move crank
Step 7: Move crank by 23 holes in a 29 hole and index plate
backward.
together by |lholes in a 33 hole circle,
Indexing
Problem 9,2: Consider n= 77
Step 1:77 =1lx7
40 =2x 2x 2x5
Step 2: N, = ll x3 =33 N, =7x 3= 21 (same plate 2)
Step 3: (N,-N) (33 21) = 12 =8 x2x2
= 77= HA
40 =Z x2x2 x5
33 =1x3
21 -1 x3
Allterms in the numerator gets cancelled

Step4: 4."2 40
33 21 77
40
21n, + 33n, = xN2Í=360
2ln, + 33n, = 360
By trial and error
n,=3n, =9
21 x333 x 9 = 360
63 297
3 40
33 21 77
Move crank by 3 holes in a 33 hole circle forward and move crank and index plate together
forward by 9 holes in a 21 hole circle.
Problem -9.3: Let n=57
Step 1:n =19 x 340=2 x 2x 2 x5
Step 2: N, =19 x 1 N, =30 x 5 =5(same plate 1)
Step 3: (N,-N)(19 - 15) = 4 =2 x2Y
57 = 19x3
40 =2 xZ×2x 5
19 = 19x 1
15 =8 x5
Miling
ProceSs 227

AI terms
in the numerator is canhcelled
40
Now,
15 19 57

19n, ±15n, = x19 x 15 =200

57
19n,± 15n, = 200
By trial and error
5 7 40
+
15 19 57
Move crank by 5 holes in 15 hole circle forward and move crank and index plate together
forward by 7holes in9 19 hole circle
4.Differential Indexing
The index plate is connected to the main spindle using a number of change gears. The lock
nin for the index plate is removed making the index plate to rotate freely. The index plate and the
wotk carrying spindle are connected through change gears and aset of bevel gears. Now as the
index crank is rotated the index plate itself rotates slowly in one direction. The direction of index
plate rotation depends on the gearing. Indexing is performed as in simple indexing. The required
movement of theindex plate is taken care of by the gear train 01

A-N
i) Gear ratio R = A |40
A=a number selected such that it can be indexed by plain indexing.
N= number of division to be indexed

Numerator indicates driving gear on index head

Denominator indicates driven gear on index plate.
40
ii) Index crank movement n= A-selected number
A
I) Direction of crank movement:The index crank and index plate should move in the same or
opposite direction depending on gear ratio and the selected number A.hysl
If (A-M) =Positive the index plate must rotate in the same direction as the crank.
(A- M) = Negative the index plate must rotate in the direction opposite to that of the
crank.
Let N=93
it cannot be simple indexed
40 4
Let A=90 which can be simple indexed each indexing = 909 18
 wIwwwwwwLW

WIwwww

CHAPTER

11
GRINDING PROCESS

Contents
11.0 Introduction
11.1 Types of abrasives
11.2 Grain size
11.3 Bonding Material
11.4 Grade
11.5 Structure
11.6 Standard Specification of Grinding wheel
11.7 Selection of Grinding wheel
11.8 Dressing and Truing of Grinding whel
11.9 Grinding Machines
11.10 Types of Grinding Machine
-Cylindrical grinding machine
-Internal grinding machine
-Surface grinding machine
-Centreless grinding machine
11.11 Grinding Machines
11.12 Special Grinding Machines
11.13Grinding wheels
11.14 Grinding Parameters
11.15 Standard marking of the grinding wheel
11.16 Selection of grinding wheel
Questions
240 Manutacturing Proces
11.0 Introduction
operation carried out on the work piece by using arotary
Grinding isa machining muli point
"Grinding wheel", These wheels are made offabrasive
a grains held together bonding
by
tool called
irregular in shape and have sharp edges. Abrasive
a
material. These abrasive grains are grains are
synthetic ex :quartz, corundum SiC, Al,0,,
hard particles which may be natural or And
number of grains are used to fabricate the each grain
act as a single point tool. Since Larger be rotating and when moved againstwheel., it is
refered to as multipoint tool. The grinding wheel the work
from it. Excess material can be
piece in contact very fine chips are removed removed and the
operation can be rough or smooth
surface can be made smooth and even.Grinding and it depends
on the grain size of the abrasive.
Grinding is used to renmove excess material from castings, Torgings, weldments. to o
fins, burns.
Grinding machines are used which may be portable or fixed.

11.1 Types of Abrasive

Abrasive are obtained by crushing the material (natural or synthetic) Abrasive grains are
characterized by grain size and shape, hardness, toughness and resistance to wear.
Abrasive are classified as i) Natural and ii) synthetic
) Natural abrasive are sand stone or solid ---- emery
(containing upto 60°
corundum (Containing upto 90% Al,0,+Iron oxide) and natural diamond.Al, 0, + Iron oxide)
i) Artificial abrasives are Al,0,, Sic,diamond, BC.
and CBN The manufactured abrasives haye
well defined and controlled properties as compared to natural abrasives.
11.2 Grain Size
Grains or grits as the abrasive materials are
size may be classified as referred to influence the grinding operation -
grain
"Coarse grains - upto 24 -
For rough cuts to remove large
" Medium grains - 30-60 - For ordinary amounts of material.
" Finer grains - 70 - 180 -For grinding
" Very fine grains
finishing operation to remove verysmall
-220 - 600 - 1000 - For amount of material.
high surface finish
Standard grain size
i) Coarse:10, 12, 14,
iD) Medium:30,36, 16,20, 24
46, 54,60
iü) Fine:70, 80,90, 100, 120, 150,
iv) Very 180
Fine:220,240, 280,320, 400, 500,
" Agrain size of
30 means that the 600,700, 800,900, 1000
per lines inch. abrasive grain will pass
through a screen having 30 openings
Similarly800 means grains that
will pass through a
screen having 800 Dopenings per linear inch.
Ginding
Process 241

13 Bonding Material
boldthe abrasive grains a bonding agent is used. When bonded the grinding wheel has to
withstand large magnitude of stresses white the wheels are operated at very high speeds.
Stresses induced in the wheel, speed of rotation, heat generated etc. dictate the selection of a
bindingagent.

Bonding agents are classified as i) organic -Rubber, shellac resinoid, oxychloride i) Inorganic
.Metallic, vitrified, silicates.
Rubber bond : Consists of synthetic rubber, vulcanizing agent and a filler (sulphur)
mixed with abrasive grains.The wheels moulded from this yield
stronger bonds and can be operated at higher speeds. Can be operated
below 150°C and needs cooling.
Shellac bond : Consists of shellac mixed with abrasive grains. In heated condition
and baked, Wheels are moulded. These wheels produce good surface
finish
Resinoid bond : Itis asynthetic resin or plastic. Grinding wheels made out of this are
very strong, highly stable. Used at high speeds can be used upto 250°C
Oxychloride bond : Itis obtained by mixing abrasive grains with oxide and chloride of
magnesium. Wheels made using this bond can be used for grinding
work piece in dry condition.
Metallic bond Copper, tin, aluminium and other alloys are used as bonding agents to
hold the grains of diamond and cubic nitride.
" Vitrified bond : Is made of clay, feldspar and quartz. On heating it hardens to a glass
like structure. This type of bond is strong, highly porous, resistant to
heat, chemically stable. The wheels made of this bond are brittle, very
strong and hard.
The wheels are used upto 35m/s peripheralspeed.
" Silicate bond : It consists of sodium silicate (Na,Sio,) mixed with zinc oxide, lime
and filler. It hardens on heating at around 260°c. It is not as strong as
vitrified bond.

11.4Grade
resistance offered
Refers to the hardness of agrinding wheel. It indicates the magnitude of
y ne wheel (Combined strength of abrasive grain and the bond).
versa. Too hard a
The easier the grain is torn out of the bond, the softer the wheel and vice
shape.
Wneelleave burns on the work and a too soft a wheel will crumble and rapidly loose its
required to remove
Frequent dressing (exposing newer grains and removing worn out grains) is
grains in hard bonds.
for hard metal.
It is normal practice to use hard wheel for soft metal and soft wheels
Gaincling
Process 243

11.7
Selection of grinding wheel
Grinding wheels are selected based on
of wheel
)Size and shape
abrasive
i) type of
i) Grain size

iv) Bonding agent

v) S t r u c t u r e

vi) Application of grinding whel

others -speed of wheel and work, nature of material
Aluminium oxide abrasive is well suited for all types of steels, malleable Iron.
Silicon carbide is used for grinding cast iron, aluminium bronze.
Silicon carbide (green) is used for grinding carbide tipped tools. Use softer wheels for harder
workoiece and vice versa use coarser grain wheels for ductile and soft metals for avoiding clogging
dading) and finer grain wheels for brittle and hard metals.
Larger the area of work, select coarser grain wheel. Prefer large grit for the maximum metal
remove rate and smaller grit for a good finish. Choose dense structure wheel for finish and form
orinding, Medium - dense structure for grinding hardened steel parts. Select resinoid, rubber or
shellacbond for good finish and vitrified bond for maximum metal removalrate.

11.8 Dressing and Truing of grinding wheels

Dressing refers to restoring the ability of the grinding wheel to cut materials. During continuous
grinding operation, the gap/void between the abrasive grains are filled with waste material. The
waste material may be metal dust, abrasive grit, binding material etc. The grains become blunt due
toconstant wear. These are referred to as "Loading" and "Glazing".
wheel. Multi
Dressing involve removing the wornout abrasive grains from the surface of the
stone diamond tool bits, cemented carbide mounted on rollers are used for dressing. The grinding
wheel is contacted by these high strength rollers and pressure is applied. The worn out abrasive
grains are removed and fresh grains are exposed. This method of pressing rollers against the
grinding wheel is referred toas crush dressing.
face of the wheel is made
Iruing restores the correct geometry of the wheel. In other words
Concentric with the axis of rotation. By the above operation (as in Dressing) truing is done.

11.9 Grinding Machines

These are machines with abrasive wheel as the cuting tool. Material removal takes place by
iaking the rotating wheel to come in contact with the work piece. And cutting action is effected.
tool
s n other machine tools, a grinding machine will also have the same basic features like base,
nolder, driving mechanism, work holding device.
wwww.www

CHAPTER

12
SUPER FINISHING MACHINING PRÌCESS

Contents
12.0 Introduction

12.1 Lapping Process

12.2 Honing Process
12.3 Super finishing
12.4 Polishing
12.5 Buffing
Questions
260
Manufacuing Process-|
12.0 Introduction

There is ever increasing demand for designing a machine which can run faster,
duration and perform better than before. This calls for various componets like for longer
other rotating and load bearing members having relative motion, which are havingshafts, bearings and
higher r
accuracy and very good surface finish. dimensional
Pursuit to identify the ways and means of achieving higher dimensional
good surface finish has led the engineer to evolve newer precision machiningaccuracy
processes are referred to as finishing and super finishing process or micro
and very
processes. These
process. These process are basically designed to produce
finishing
very good surface finish to machining
given specified geometry. These requirements are maintain the
i) to maintain dimensional tolerance to 4th or 5h decimal place.
i) to maintain a surface finish in the range 1 - 20 micro inch
i) to maintain accurate geometric shape.
Different finishing processes are Lapping, Honing, Super finishing, Polishing, Bufering.
12.1 Lapping Process
It is an abrading process to produce geometrically true surface, eliminate minor en
imperfection, to maintain close tolerances. It makes use of loose or bonded abrasivegrains (uh
or discs). Very thin layers of metal 0.005 to 0.01 mm are removed. Only small errore
rectified.
Motions given
to work holders

Work pieces -work holder

Loosely held in
holder

Upper lap, Free to float

and rest on work pieces

Lower lap

Fig. 12.l: Machine Lapping process

 Machining Process 261
Finishing
Syper.

tathe loose grain lapping, afine grained grit of SiC,Fe203, A1203, Cr03 or diamond is mixed
placed in a Lap or Master (shoe or Guides) which is asoft porous metal like Cast
oiland
withan Brass, Lead. The Laps holds the
Iron,
Copper, abrasive temporarily as abrasion of the surface
place, due to rubbing action on the surface to be machined. Fig, 12.1 shows one type of
takes
arTangements.

Shes/Soft materials are lapped (embedded) with A1203 and hard materials are lappeduniform
with
damond or-SiC grit., This process is referred to as charged. In case of diamond ít willIhave
grade
andl does not break during lapping and hence produce consistent good surface finish.
AI203 or SiC the particles tend to break andthe larger ones take the load and they
Incase of
will cause
scratches on the surface of the work.
Laps may be operated by hand or machine, the
reciprocating.
motion being rotary or
Bonded abrasive grains are used for cylindrical parts.
Advantages

. Flatness of + 0.0000762 mm can be easily obtained.

Very little heat is generated during the process.
Limitations
Residue on the finished parts need to be cleaned.
. Needs skillof the operator to achieve the necessary close tolerance.

12.2 Honing Process

bores or
It is a controlled low velocity abrasive machining, mainly used for inside surfaces or
holes.
and one or more
Here the tool contain one or more abrasive blocks or stones called as hones
on a mandrel.
non abrasive shoes (for equalizing force through out the work piece) are mounted
adjusted to touch the
This mandrel can expand or contract. The tool is inserted into the bore and
walls of the work surface.As a result the forces acting on the stones keeps continually changing
Honing
their direction equalizing wear. It is used to correct out of roundness, tool marks, taper.
sulphur,
Stones are made from common abrasive and bonding materials often impregnated with
operation.
reSin, wax to improve cutting action and enhance tool life.Coolant are necessary for honing
the honing
Lathe, Drilling machine or a special honing machine can be used Fig. 12.2 shows
arrangement.
262

NManuacuingProces
T

2.
tro nt

Fig. 12.2 : Honing tool-head for holes 1. Stones, 2. Guides

Advantages
Very little force is developed hence no micro damage to the work piece
C Close tolerance within 0.003 mm can be maintained.
Surface finish of (32-44 micro inch) can be produced.
Materials like silver, brass, ceramics, carbides and very hard stels can be honed
12.3Superfinishing
It is an operation to produce extremely high quality surface finish free from all surface defects.
Very thin layer 0.005-0.02 mm is removed in the process. Both external and internal surfaces can
be super finished. Ferrous and Non ferrous alloys can be machined to get super finish.
The process involves use of very fine grits (grain size 400-600) abrasive bar held in asuitable
holder and applied on to the work piece with light pressure. The bar is given longitudinal and
oscillating motion along rotary motion /reciprocating to the work. The speed of work is as low as
20m/min and the longitudinal speed may be around 0.15mm/work piece revolution. The abrasive
bar oscillate in short strokes with high stroke frequency. Amixture of kerosene and other oil is used
to obtain ahigh quality surface finish. Fig. 12.3 shows the super
finishing set up arrangement.

Fig. 12.3 (a) : Schematic diagram of shaft

superfinishing
 Machining Process 263
Finishing

Super

RECIPROCATION
TRAVERSE IF NECESSARY

e pressure
i holderh on

s i , WOrK

stone

rotation

WORK

Fig. 12.3 (b) : Superfinishing

12.4 Polishing
Itis asurface finishing operation performed by apolishing wheel for removing scratches, tool
marks, pits and other defects from the rough surface. Usually accuracy and size are not very
faces are
important. Polishing wheels are made of leather, canvas, felt, wool etc., The wheel
rotated
bounded with abrasive grains using thermosetting resins and the work is held against it and
toget the desired finish.

12.5 Buffing
It is used to impart lustrous, reflecting surface finish. It consists of applying ver fine abrasive
materials such as iron
with arotating wheel. Buffing wheels are made of felt, leather etc.,Abrasive
kerosene,
Oxide, emery, SiC etc., are bounded with a binder (wax mixed with grease, paraffin,
terpentine etc.,) and is applied on to the work piece.
Other methods of super finishing are Pickling, Electroplating, Metal spraying, Galvanising
etc.,