MODULE -1 INTRODUCTION

ALGORITHM

An algorithm is a sequence of unambiguous instructions for solving a problem, i.e., for

obtaining a required output for any legitimate input in a finite amount of time.

Problem to be solved

Algorithm

Input Computer Program Output

FIGURE 1.1 The notion of the algorithm.

It is a step by step procedure with the input to solve the problem in a finite amount of time
to obtain the required output.

The notion of the algorithm illustrates some important points:

• The non-ambiguity requirement for each step of an algorithm cannot be compromised.
• The range of inputs for which an algorithm works has to be specified carefully.
• The same algorithm can be represented in several different ways.
• There may exist several algorithms for solving the same problem.
• Algorithms for the same problem can be based on very different ideas and can solve the
problem with dramatically different speeds.

Characteristics of an algorithm:

Input : Zero / more quantities are externally supplied.

Output : At least one quantity is produced.
Definiteness: Each instruction is clear and unambiguous.
Finiteness : If the instructions of an algorithm is traced then for all cases the algorithm must
terminates after a finite number of steps.
Efficiency : Every instruction must be very basic and runs in short
 FUNDAMENTALS OF ALGORITHMIC PROBLEM SOLVING
A sequence of steps involved in designing and analyzing an algorithm is shown in the figure
below.

FIGURE 1.2 Algorithm design and analysis process.

(i) Understanding the Problem

• This is the first step in designing of algorithm.
• Read the problem’s description carefully to understand the problem statement completely.
• Ask questions for clarifying the doubts about the problem.
• Identify the problem types and use existing algorithm to find solution.
• Input (instance) to the problem and range of the input get fixed.

(ii) Decision making

The Decision making is done on the following:
(a) Ascertaining the Capabilities of the Computational Device
• In random-access machine (RAM), instructions are executed one after another (The
central assumption is that one operation at a time). Accordingly, algorithms designed
to be executed on such machines are called sequential algorithms.
• In some newer computers, operations are executed concurrently, i.e., in parallel.
Algorithms that take advantage of this capability are called parallel algorithms.
• Choice of computational devices like Processor and memory is mainly based on
space and time efficiency
(b) Choosing between Exact and Approximate Problem Solving
• The next principal decision is to choose between solving the problem exactly or
solving it approximately.
• An algorithm used to solve the problem exactly and produce correct result is called
an exact algorithm.
• If the problem is so complex and not able to get exact solution, then we have to
choose an algorithm called an approximation algorithm. i.e., produces an
 approximate answer. E.g., extracting square roots, solving nonlinear equations, and
evaluating definite integrals.
(c) Algorithm Design Techniques
• An algorithm design technique (or “strategy” or “paradigm”) is a general approach
to solving problems algorithmically that is applicable to a variety of problems from
different areas of computing.
• Algorithms+ Data Structures = Programs
• Though Algorithms and Data Structures are independent, but they are combined
together to develop program. Hence the choice of proper data structure is required
before designing the algorithm.
• Implementation of algorithm is possible only with the help of Algorithms and Data
Structures
• Algorithmic strategy / technique / paradigm are a general approach by which many
problems can be solved algorithmically. E.g., Brute Force, Divide and Conquer,
Dynamic Programming, Greedy Technique and so on.

(iii) Methods of Specifying an Algorithm

There are three ways to specify an algorithm. They are:

a. Natural language
b. Pseudocode
c. Flowchart

Algorithm Specification

Natural Language Pseudocode Flowchart

FIGURE 1.3 Algorithm Specifications

Pseudocode and flowchart are the two options that are most widely used nowadays for specifying
algorithms.

a. Natural Language
It is very simple and easy to specify an algorithm using natural language. But many times
specification of algorithm by using natural language is not clear and thereby we get brief
specification.
Example: An algorithm to perform addition of two numbers.
Step 1: Read the first number, say a.
Step 2: Read the first number, say b.
Step 3: Add the above two numbers and store the result in c.
Step 4: Display the result from c.
Such a specification creates difficulty while actually implementing it. Hence many programmers
prefer to have specification of algorithm by means of Pseudocode.
b. Pseudocode
• Pseudocode is a mixture of a natural language and programming language constructs.
Pseudocode is usually more precise than natural language.
• For Assignment operation left arrow “←”, for comments two slashes “//”,if condition, for,
while loops are used.

ALGORITHM Sum(a,b)
//Problem Description: This algorithm performs addition of two numbers
//Input: Two integers a and b
//Output: Addition of two integers
c←a+b
return c
This specification is more useful for implementation of any language.

c. Flowchart
In the earlier days of computing, the dominant method for specifying algorithms was a flowchart,
this representation technique has proved to be inconvenient.
Flowchart is a graphical representation of an algorithm. It is a a method of expressing an algorithm
by a collection of connected geometric shapes containing descriptions of the algorithm’s steps.
Symbols Example: Addition of a and b

Start Start state

Start

Transition / Assignment
Input the value of a

Processing / Input read

Input the value of b
Input and Output
c=a+b

Condition / Decision
Display the value of c

Flow connectivity
Stop

Stop Stop state

FIGURE 1.4 Flowchart symbols and Example for two integer addition.

(iv) Proving an Algorithm’s Correctness

• Once an algorithm has been specified then its correctness must be proved.
• An algorithm must yields a required result for every legitimate input in a finite amount of
time.
 • For example, the correctness of Euclid’s algorithm for computing the greatest common
divisor stems from the correctness of the equality gcd(m, n) = gcd(n, m mod n).
• A common technique for proving correctness is to use mathematical induction because an
algorithm’s iterations provide a natural sequence of steps needed for such proofs.
• The notion of correctness for approximation algorithms is less straightforward than it is for
exact algorithms. The error produced by the algorithm should not exceed a predefined
limit.

(v) Analyzing an Algorithm

• For an algorithm the most important is efficiency. In fact, there are two kinds of algorithm
efficiency. They are:
• Time efficiency, indicating how fast the algorithm runs, and
• Space efficiency, indicating how much extra memory it uses.
• The efficiency of an algorithm is determined by measuring both time efficiency and space
efficiency.
• So factors to analyze an algorithm are:
▪ Time efficiency of an algorithm
▪ Space efficiency of an algorithm
▪ Simplicity of an algorithm
▪ Generality of an algorithm

(vi) Coding an Algorithm

• The coding / implementation of an algorithm is done by a suitable programming language
like C, C++, JAVA.
• The transition from an algorithm to a program can be done either incorrectly or very
inefficiently. Implementing an algorithm correctly is necessary. The Algorithm power should
not reduced by inefficient implementation.
• Standard tricks like computing a loop’s invariant (an expression that does not change its
value) outside the loop, collecting common subexpressions, replacing expensive operations
by cheap ones, selection of programming language and so on should be known to the
programmer.
• Typically, such improvements can speed up a program only by a constant factor, whereas a
better algorithm can make a difference in running time by orders of magnitude. But once an
algorithm is selected, a 10–50% speedup may be worth an effort.
• It is very essential to write an optimized code (efficient code) to reduce the burden of
compiler.
 Algorithm can be described in three ways.
1.Natural language like English: When this way is choosed care should be taken, weshould
ensure that each & every statement is definite.
2.Graphic representation called flowchart: This method will work well when the
algorithm is small& simple.
3.Pseudo-code Method: In this method, we should typically describe algorithms asprogram,
which resembles programming language constructs
Pseudo-Code Conventions:
1. Comments begin with // and continue until the end of line.
2. Blocks are indicated with matching braces {and}.
3. An identifier begins with a letter. The data types of variables are not explicitly
Declared.
4. Assignment of values to variables is done using the assignment statement.
<Variable>:= <expression>;
5.There are two Boolean values TRUE and FALSE.

Logical Operators AND, OR, NOT

Relational Operators <, <=,>,>=, =, !=

6 .The following looping statements are employed. For, while and repeat-until

While Loop:
While < condition > do
{ <statement-1> . . . <statement-n> }

For Loop:
For variable: = value-1 to value-2 step step do
{ <statement-1> . . . <statement-n> }
repeat-until:
repeat <statement-1> . . . <statement-n> until<condition>

7. A conditional statement has the following forms.

If <condition> then <statement>

If <condition> then <statement-1>
Else <statement-1>

Case
statement:
 Case
{
: <condition-1> : <statement-1>

...
: <condition-n> : <statement-n>
: else : <statement-n+1>
}
8.Input and output are done using the instructions read & write.

9.There is only one type of procedure:

Algorithm, the heading takes the form, Algorithm Name (Parameter lists)
As an example, the following algorithm fields & returns the maximum of „n‟ given numbers:

Algorithm Max(A,n)
//A is an array of size n
{
Result := A[1];
for i:= 2 to n do
if A[i] > Result then
Result :=A[i];
return Result;
}

In this algorithm (named Max), A & n are procedure parameters. Result & i are Localvariables.
FUNDAMENTALS OF THE ANALYSIS OF ALGORITHM EFFICIENCY
The efficiency of an algorithm can be in terms of time and space. The algorithm efficiency
can be analyzed by the following ways.
a. Analysis Framework.
b. Asymptotic Notations and its properties.
c. Mathematical analysis for Recursive algorithms.
d. Mathematical analysis for Non-recursive algorithms.

Analysis Framework
There are two kinds of efficiencies to analyze the efficiency of any algorithm. They are:
• Time efficiency, indicating how fast the algorithm runs, and
• Space efficiency, indicating how much extra memory it uses.

The algorithm analysis framework consists of the following:

• Measuring an Input’s Size
• Units for Measuring Running Time
• Orders of Growth
• Worst-Case, Best-Case, and Average-Case Efficiencies

(i) Measuring an Input’s Size

• An algorithm’s efficiency is defined as a function of some parameter n indicating the
algorithm’s input size. In most cases, selecting such a parameter is quite straightforward. For
example, it will be the size of the list for problems of sorting, searching.
• For the problem of evaluating a polynomial p(x) = anxn + . . . + a0 of degree n, the size of
the parameter will be the polynomial’s degree or the number of its coefficients, which is larger
by 1 than its degree.
• In computing the product of two n × n matrices, the choice of a parameter indicating an input
size does matter.
• Consider a spell-checking algorithm. If the algorithm examines individual characters of its
input, then the size is measured by the number of characters.
• In measuring input size for algorithms solving problems such as checking primality of a
positive integer n. the input is just one number.
• The input size by the number b of bits in the n’s binary representation is b=(log2 n)+1.

(ii) Units for Measuring Running Time

Some standard unit of time measurement such as a second, or millisecond, and so on can be
used to measure the running time of a program after implementing the algorithm.
Drawbacks
• Dependence on the speed of a particular computer.
• Dependence on the quality of a program implementing the algorithm.
• The compiler used in generating the machine code.
• The difficulty of clocking the actual running time of the program.
So, we need metric to measure an algorithm’s efficiency that does not depend on these
extraneous factors.
One possible approach is to count the number of times each of the algorithm’s operations
is executed. This approach is excessively difficult.
The most important operation (+, -, *, /) of the algorithm, called the basic operation.
Computing the number of times the basic operation is executed is easy. The total running time is
determined by basic operations count.
(iii) Orders of Growth
• A difference in running times on small inputs is not what really distinguishes efficient
algorithms from inefficient ones.
• For example, the greatest common divisor of two small numbers, it is not immediately clear
how much more efficient Euclid’s algorithm is compared to the other algorithms, the
difference in algorithm efficiencies becomes clear for larger numbers only.
• For large values of n, it is the function’s order of growth that counts just like the Table 1.1,
which contains values of a few functions particularly important for analysis of algorithms.

TABLE 1.1 Values (approximate) of several functions important for analysis of algorithms

n √𝑛 log2n n n log2n n2 n3 2n n!
1 1 0 1 0 1 1 2 1
2 1.4 1 2 2 4 4 4 2
4 2 2 4 8 16 64 16 24
8 2.8 3 8 2.4•101 64 5.1•102 2.6•102 4.0•104
10 3.2 3.3 10 3.3•101 102 103 103 3.6•106
16 4 4 16 6.4•101 2.6•102 4.1•103 6.5•104 2.1•1013
102 10 6.6 102 6.6•102 104 106 1.3•1030 9.3•10157
103 31 10 103 1.0•104 106 109
104 102 13 104 1.3•105 108 1012 Very big
105 3.2•102 17 105 1.7•106 1010 1015 computation
106 103 20 106 2.0•107 1012 1018

(iv) Worst-Case, Best-Case, and Average-Case Efficiencies

Consider Sequential Search algorithm some search key K
ALGORITHM SequentialSearch(A[0..n - 1], K)
//Searches for a given value in a given array by sequential search
//Input: An array A[0..n - 1] and a search key K
//Output: The index of the first element in A that matches K or -1 if there are no
// matching elements
i ←0
while i < n and A[i] ≠ K do
i ←i + 1
if i < n return i
else return -1
Clearly, the running time of this algorithm can be quite different for the same list size n.

In the worst case, there is no matching of elements or the first matching element can found
at last on the list. In the best case, there is matching of elements at first on the list.

Worst-case efficiency
• The worst-case efficiency of an algorithm is its efficiency for the worst case input of size n.
• The algorithm runs the longest among all possible inputs of that size.
• For the input of size n, the running time is Cworst(n) = n.
Best case efficiency
• The best-case efficiency of an algorithm is its efficiency for the best case input of size n.
• The algorithm runs the fastest among all possible inputs of that size n.
• In sequential search, If we search a first element in list of size n. (i.e. first element equal to
a search key), then the running time is Cbest(n) = 1

Average case efficiency

• The Average case efficiency lies between best case and worst case.
• To analyze the algorithm’s average case efficiency, we must make some assumptions about
possible inputs of size n.
• The standard assumptions are that
o The probability of a successful search is equal to p (0 ≤ p ≤ 1) and
o The probability of the first match occurring in the ith position of the list is the same
for every i.
 ASYMPTOTIC NOTATIONS AND ITS PROPERTIES

Asymptotic notation is a notation, which is used to take meaningful statement about the
efficiency of a program.
The efficiency analysis framework concentrates on the order of growth of an algorithm’s
basic operation count as the principal indicator of the algorithm’s efficiency.
To compare and rank such orders of growth, computer scientists use three notations, they
are:
• O - Big oh notation
• Ω - Big omega notation
• Θ - Big theta notation

O - Big oh notation
A function t(n) is said to be in O(g(n)), denoted 𝑡 (𝑛) ∈ 𝑂(𝑔(𝑛)), if t (n) is bounded above by
some constant multiple of g(n) for all large n, i.e., if there exist some positive constant c and some
nonnegative integer n0 such that
𝑡 (𝑛) ≤ 𝑐𝑔(𝑛) fo𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑛 ≥ 𝑛0.

Where t(n) and g(n) are nonnegative functions defined on the set of natural numbers.
O = Asymptotic upper bound = Useful for worst case analysis = Loose bound

FIGURE 1.5 Big-oh notation: 𝑡 (𝑛) ∈ 𝑂(𝑔(𝑛)).

Ω - Big omega notation

A function t(n) is said to be in Ω(g(n)), denoted t(n) ∈ Ω(g(n)), if t(n) is bounded below by
some positive constant multiple of g(n) for all large n, i.e., if there exist some positive constant c and
some nonnegative integer n0 such that
t (n) ≥ cg(n) for all n ≥ n0.
Where t(n) and g(n) are nonnegative functions defined on the set of natural numbers.
Ω = Asymptotic lower bound = Useful for best case analysis = Loose bound
 FIGURE 1.6 Big-omega notation: t (n) ∈ Ω (g(n)).

Θ - Big theta notation

A function t(n) is said to be in Θ(g(n)), denoted t(n) ∈ Θ(g(n)), if t(n) is bounded both above
and below by some positive constant multiples of g(n) for all large n, i.e., if there exist some positive
constants c1 and c2 and some nonnegative integer n0 such that
c2g(n) ≤ t (n) ≤ c1g(n) for all n ≥ n0.
Where t(n) and g(n) are nonnegative functions defined on the set of natural numbers.
Θ = Asymptotic tight bound = Useful for average case analysis

FIGURE 1.7 Big-theta notation: t (n) ∈ Θ(g(n)).

THEOREM: If t1(n) ∈ O(g1(n)) and t2(n) ∈ O(g2(n)), then t1(n) + t2(n) ∈ O(max{g1(n), g2(n)}).
(The analogous assertions are true for the Ω and Θ notations as well.)

PROOF: The proof extends to orders of growth the following simple fact about four arbitrary real
numbers a1, b1, a2, b2: if a1 ≤ b1 and a2 ≤ b2, then a1 + a2 ≤ 2 max{b1, b2}.
Since t1(n) ∈ O(g1(n)), there exist some positive constant c1 and some nonnegative integer
n1 such that
t1(n) ≤ c1g1(n) for all n ≥ n1.
Similarly, since t2(n) ∈ O(g2(n)),
t2(n) ≤ c2g2(n) for all n ≥ n2.
Let us denote c3 = max{c1, c2} and consider n ≥ max{n1, n2} so that we can use
both inequalities. Adding them yields the following:
t1(n) + t2(n) ≤ c1g1(n) + c2g2(n)
≤ c3g1(n) + c3g2(n)
= c3[g1(n) + g2(n)]
≤ c32 max{g1(n), g2(n)}.

Hence, t1(n) + t2(n) ∈ O(max{g1(n), g2(n)}), with the constants c and n0 required by the
definition O being 2c3 = 2 max{c1, c2} and max{n1, n2}, respectively.
The property implies that the algorithm’s overall efficiency will be determined by the part
with a higher order of growth, i.e., its least efficient part.
t1(n) ∈ O(g1(n)) and t2(n) ∈ O(g2(n)), then t1(n) + t2(n) ∈ O(max{g1(n), g2(n)}).

Basic rules of sum manipulation

Summation formulas
MATHEMATICAL ANALYSIS FOR RECURSIVE ALGORITHMS
General Plan for Analyzing the Time Efficiency of Recursive Algorithms
1. Decide on a parameter (or parameters) indicating an input’s size.
2. Identify the algorithm’s basic operation.
3. Check whether the number of times the basic operation is executed can vary on different
inputs of the same size; if it can, the worst-case, average-case, and best-case efficiencies must
be investigated separately.
4. Set up a recurrence relation, with an appropriate initial condition, for the number of times
the basic operation is executed.
5. Solve the recurrence or, at least, ascertain the order of growth of its solution.

EXAMPLE 1: Compute the factorial function F(n) = n! for an arbitrary nonnegative integer n.
Since n!= 1•. . . . • (n − 1) • n = (n − 1)! • n, for n ≥ 1 and 0!= 1 by definition, we can compute
F(n) = F(n − 1) • n with the following recursive algorithm. (ND 2015)
ALGORITHM F(n)
//Computes n! recursively
//Input: A nonnegative integer n
//Output: The value of n!
if n = 0 return 1
else return F(n − 1) * n

Algorithm analysis
• For simplicity, we consider n itself as an indicator of this algorithm’s input size. i.e. 1.
• The basic operation of the algorithm is multiplication, whose number of executions we denote
M(n). Since the function F(n) is computed according to the formula F(n) = F(n −1)•nfor n >
0.
• The number of multiplications M(n) needed to compute it must satisfy the equality
M(n) = M(n-1) + 1 for n > 0

To compute To multiply
F(n-1) F(n-1) by n

M(n − 1) multiplications are spent to compute F(n − 1), and one more multiplication is
needed to multiply the result by n.

Recurrence relations
The last equation defines the sequence M(n) that we need to find. This equation defines M(n)
not explicitly, i.e., as a function of n, but implicitly as a function of its value at another point, namely
n − 1. Such equations are called recurrence relations or recurrences.
Solve the recurrence relation 𝑀(𝑛) = 𝑀(𝑛 − 1) + 1, i.e., to find an explicit formula for
M(n) in terms of n only.
To determine a solution uniquely, we need an initial condition that tells us the value with
which the sequence starts. We can obtain this value by inspecting the condition that makes the
algorithm stop its recursive calls:
if n = 0 return 1.
This tells us two things. First, since the calls stop when n = 0, the smallest value of n for
which this algorithm is executed and hence M(n) defined is 0. Second, by inspecting the
pseudocode’s exiting line, we can see that when n = 0, the algorithm performs no multiplications.
Thus, the recurrence relation and initial condition for the algorithm’s number of multiplications
M(n):
M(n) = M(n − 1) + 1 for n > 0,
M(0) = 0 for n = 0.

Method of backward substitutions

M(n) = M(n − 1) + 1 substitute M(n − 1) = M(n − 2) + 1
= [M(n − 2) + 1]+ 1
= M(n − 2) + 2 substitute M(n − 2) = M(n − 3) + 1
= [M(n − 3) + 1]+ 2
= M(n − 3) + 3
…
= M(n − i) + i
…
= M(n − n) + n
= n.
Therefore M(n)=n

EXAMPLE 2: consider educational workhorse of recursive algorithms: the Tower of Hanoipuzzle.

We have n disks of different sizes that can slide onto any of three pegs. Consider A (source), B
(auxiliary), and C (Destination). Initially, all the disks are on the first peg in order of size, the largest
on the bottom and the smallest on top. The goal is to move all the disks to the third peg, using the
second one as an auxiliary.

FIGURE 1.8 Recursive solution to the Tower of Hanoi puzzle.

ALGORITHM TOH(n, A, C, B)
//Move disks from source to destination recursively
//Input: n disks and 3 pegs A, B, and C
//Output: Disks moved to destination as in the source order.
if n=1
Move disk from A to C
else
Move top n-1 disks from A to B using C
TOH(n - 1, A, B, C)
Move top n-1 disks from B to C using A
TOH(n - 1, B, C, A)

Algorithm analysis
The number of moves M(n) depends on n only, and we get the following recurrence
equation for it: M(n) = M(n − 1) + 1+ M(n − 1) for n > 1.
With the obvious initial condition M(1) = 1, we have the following recurrence relation for the
number of moves M(n):
M(n) = 2M(n − 1) + 1 for n > 1,
M(1) = 1.
We solve this recurrence by the same method of backward substitutions:
M(n) = 2M(n − 1) + 1 sub. M(n − 1) = 2M(n − 2) + 1
= 2[2M(n − 2) + 1]+ 1
= 22M(n − 2) + 2 + 1 sub. M(n − 2) = 2M(n − 3) + 1
= 2 [2M(n − 3) + 1]+ 2 + 1
2

= 23M(n − 3) + 22 + 2 + 1 sub. M(n − 3) = 2M(n − 4) + 1

= 2 M(n − 4) + 2 + 2 + 2 + 1
4 3 2

…
= 2iM(n − i) + 2i−1 + 2i−2 + . . . + 2 + 1= 2iM(n − i) + 2i − 1.
…
Since the initial condition is specified for n = 1, which is achieved for i = n − 1,
M(n) = 2n−1M(n − (n − 1)) + 2n−1 – 1 = 2n−1M(1) + 2n−1 − 1= 2n−1 + 2n−1 − 1= 2n − 1.
Thus, we have an exponential time algorithm

EXAMPLE 3: An investigation of a recursive version of the algorithm which finds the number of
binary digits in the binary representation of a positive decimal integer.

ALGORITHM BinRec(n)
//Input: A positive decimal integer n
//Output: The number of binary digits in n’s binary representation
if n = 1 return 1
else return BinRec(‫ہ‬n/2])+ 1

Algorithm analysis
The number of additions made in computing BinRec(‫ہ‬n/2]) is A(‫ہ‬n/2]), plus one more
addition is made by the algorithm to increase the returned value by 1. This leads to the recurrence
A(n) = A(‫ہ‬n/2]) + 1 for n > 1.
Since the recursive calls end when n is equal to 1 and there are no additions made
then, the initial condition is A(1) = 0.
The standard approach to solving such a recurrence is to solve it only for n = 2k
A(2k) = A(2k−1) + 1 for k > 0,
A(20) = 0.

backward substitutions
A(2k) = A(2k−1) + 1 substitute A(2k−1) = A(2k−2) + 1
= [A(2k−2) + 1]+ 1= A(2k−2) + 2 substitute A(2k−2) = A(2k−3) + 1
= [A(2k−3) + 1]+ 2 = A(2k−3) + 3 ...
...
= A(2k−i) + i
...
= A(2k−k) + k.
Thus, we end up with A(2k) = A(1) + k = k, or, after returning to the original variable n = 2k and
hence k = log2 n,
A(n) = log2 n ϵ Θ (log2 n).

1.2 MATHEMATICAL ANALYSIS FOR NON-RECURSIVE ALGORITHMS

General Plan for Analyzing the Time Efficiency of Nonrecursive Algorithms
1. Decide on a parameter (or parameters) indicating an input’s size.
2. Identify the algorithm’s basic operation (in the innermost loop).
3. Check whether the number of times the basic operation is executed depends only on the size
of an input. If it also depends on some additional property, the worst-case, average-case, and,
if necessary, best-case efficiencies have to be investigated separately.
4. Set up a sum expressing the number of times the algorithm’s basic operation is executed.
5. Using standard formulas and rules of sum manipulation either find a closed form formula
for the count or at the least, establish its order of growth.

EXAMPLE 1: Consider the problem of finding the value of the largest element in a list of n
numbers. Assume that the list is implemented as an array for simplicity.
ALGORITHM MaxElement(A[0..n − 1])
//Determines the value of the largest element in a given array
//Input: An array A[0..n − 1] of real numbers
//Output: The value of the largest element in A
maxval ←A[0]
for i ←1 to n − 1 do
if A[i]>maxval
maxval←A[i]
return maxval

Algorithm analysis
• The measure of an input’s size here is the number of elements in the array, i.e., n.
• There are two operations in the for loop’s body:
o The comparison A[i]> maxval and
o The assignment maxval←A[i].
 • The comparison operation is considered as the algorithm’s basic operation, because the
comparison is executed on each repetition of the loop and not the assignment.
• The number of comparisons will be the same for all arrays of size n; therefore, there is no
need to distinguish among the worst, average, and best cases here.
• Let C(n) denotes the number of times this comparison is executed. The algorithm makes
one comparison on each execution of the loop, which is repeated for each value of the loop’s
variable i within the bounds 1 and n − 1, inclusive. Therefore, the sum for C(n) is calculated
as follows:
𝑛−1

𝑐(𝑛) = ∑ 1
i=1
i.e., Sum up 1 in repeated n-1 times
𝑛− 1

𝑐(𝑛) = ∑ 1 = 𝑛 − 1 ϵ Θ(n)
i=1

EXAMPLE 2: Consider the element uniqueness problem: check whether all the Elements in a
given array of n elements are distinct.
ALGORITHM UniqueElements(A[0..n − 1])
//Determines whether all the elements in a given array are distinct
//Input: An array A[0..n − 1]
//Output: Returns “true” if all the elements in A are distinct and “false” otherwise
for i ←0 to n − 2 do
for j ←i + 1 to n − 1 do
if A[i]= A[j ] return false
return true

Algorithm analysis
• The natural measure of the input’s size here is again n (the number of elements in the array).
• Since the innermost loop contains a single operation (the comparison of two elements), we
should consider it as the algorithm’s basic operation.
• The number of element comparisons depends not only on n but also on whether there are
equal elements in the array and, if there are, which array positions they occupy. We will limit
our investigation to the worst case only.
• One comparison is made for each repetition of the innermost loop, i.e., for each value of the
loop variable j between its limits i + 1 and n − 1; this is repeated for each value of the outer
loop, i.e., for each value of the loop variable i between its limits 0 and n − 2.

EXAMPLE 3: Consider matrix multiplication. Given two n × n matrices A and B, find the time
efficiency of the definition-based algorithm for computing their product C = AB. By definition, C
is an n × n matrix whose elements are computed as the scalar (dot) products of the rows of matrix A
and the columns of matrix B:

where C[i, j ]= A[i, 0]B[0, j]+ . . . + A[i, k]B[k, j]+ . . . + A[i, n − 1]B[n − 1, j] for every pair of
indices 0 ≤ i, j ≤ n − 1.

ALGORITHM MatrixMultiplication(A[0..n − 1, 0..n − 1], B[0..n − 1, 0..n − 1])

//Multiplies two square matrices of order n by the definition-based algorithm
//Input: Two n × n matrices A and B
//Output: Matrix C = AB
for i ←0 to n − 1 do
for j ←0 to n − 1 do
C[i, j ]←0.0
for k←0 to n − 1 do
C[i, j ]←C[i, j ]+ A[i, k] ∗ B[k, j]
return C
Algorithm analysis
• An input’s size is matrix order n.
• There are two arithmetical operations (multiplication and addition) in the innermost loop. But
we consider multiplication as the basic operation.
• Let us set up a sum for the total number of multiplications M(n) executed by the algorithm.
Since this count depends only on the size of the input matrices, we do not have to investigate
the worst-case, average-case, and best-case efficiencies separately.
• There is just one multiplication executed on each repetition of the algorithm’s innermost loop,
which is governed by the variable k ranging from the lower bound 0 to the upper bound n −
1.
• Therefore, the number of multiplications made for every pair of specific values of variables
i and j is

The total number of multiplications M(n) is expressed by the following triple sum:

Now, we can compute this sum by using formula (S1) and rule (R1)

.
EXAMPLE 4 The following algorithm finds the number of binary digits in the binary
representation of a positive decimal integer.
ALGORITHM Binary(n)
//Input: A positive decimal integer n
//Output: The number of binary digits in n’s binary
count←1
while n > 1 do
count←count + 1
n←[n/2]
return count

Algorithm
analysis
• An input’s size is n.
• The loop variable takes on only a few values between its lower and upper limits.
• Since the value of n is about halved on each repetition of the loop, the answer should
beabout log2 n.
• The exact formula for the number of times.
• The comparison 𝑛 > 1 will be executed is actually ‫ہ‬log2 n] + 1.

IMPORTANT PROBLEM TYPES

The most important problem types are:

(i) Sorting
(ii) Searching
(iii) String processing
(iv) Graph problems
(v) Combinatorial problems
(vi) Geometric problem
(vii) Numerical problem

(i) Sorting
• The sorting problem is to rearrange the items of a given list in nondecreasing
(ascending)order.
• Sorting can be done on numbers, characters, strings or records.
• To sort student records in alphabetical order of names or by student number or by
studentgrade-point average. Such a specially chosen piece of information is called a key.
• An algorithm is said to be in-place if it does not require extra memory, E.g., Quick sort.
• A sorting algorithm is called stable if it preserves the relative order of any two
equalelements in its input.
(ii) Searching
• The searching problem deals with finding a given value, called a search key, in a given
set.
• E.g., Ordinary Linear search and fast binary search.

(iii) String processing

• A string is a sequence of characters from an alphabet.
• Strings comprise letters, numbers, and special characters; bit strings, which comprise zeros
and ones; and gene sequences, which can be modeled by strings of characters from the four-
character alphabet {A, C, G, T}. It is very useful in bioinformatics.
• Searching for a given word in a text is called string matching

(iv) Graph problems

• A graph is a collection of points called vertices, some of which are connected by
linesegments called edges.
• Some of the graph problems are graph traversal, shortest path algorithm, topological
sort,traveling salesman problem and the graph-coloring problem and so on.

(v) Combinatorial problems

• These are problems that ask, explicitly or implicitly, to find a combinatorial object such as
apermutation, a combination, or a subset that satisfies certain constraints.
• A desired combinatorial object may also be required to have some additional property
such a maximum value or a minimum cost.
• In practical, the combinatorial problems are the most difficult problems in computing.
• The traveling salesman problem and the graph coloring problem are examples of
combinatorial problems.

(vi) Gometric problems

• Geometric algorithms deal with geometric objects such as points, lines, and polygons.
• Geometric algorithms are used in computer graphics, robotics, and tomography.
• The closest-pair problem and the convex-hull problem are comes under this category.

(vii) Numerical problems

• Numerical problems are problems that involve mathematical equations, systems of
equations, computing definite integrals, evaluating functions, and so on.
• The majority of such mathematical problems can be solved only approximately.
 FUNDAMENTAL DATA STRUCTURES

• Since the vast majority of algorithms of interest operate on data, particularways

of
organizing data play a critical role in the design and analysis of algorithms.

• A data structure can be defined as a particular scheme of organizing related dataitems.

7.1 Linear Data Structures

• The two most important elementary data structures are the array and the linked list.
• A (one-dimensional) array is a sequence of n items of the same data type that are stored
contiguously in computer memory and made accessible by specifying avalue of the
array‘s index.

Figure : Array ofnelements.

• A linked list is a sequence of zero or more elements called nodes, each containingtwo kinds
of information: some data and one or more links called pointers to other nodes of the linked
list.
• In a singly linked list, each node except the last one contains a single pointer tothe next
element.

Figure : Singly linked list ofnelements.

• Another extension is the structure called the doubly linked list, in which every node,except
the first and the last, contains pointers to both its successor and its predecessor.

Figure : Doubly linked list ofnelements.

• A list is a finite sequence of data items, i.e., a collection of data items arranged in acertain
linear order.
• Two special types of lists, stacks and queues, are particularly important.
A stack is a list in which insertions and deletions can be done only at the end. This end is
called the top because a stack is usually visualized not horizontally but
vertically—akin to a stack of plates whose ―operations‖ it mimics very closely.
• A queue, on the other hand, is a list from which elements are deleted from one endof
the structure, called the front (this operation is called dequeue), and new elements
are added to the other end, called the rear (this operation is called enqueue).
Consequently, a queue operates in a ―first-in–first-out‖ (FIFO)fashion—akin to a
queue of customers served by a single teller in a bank. Queues also have many important
applications, including several algorithms for graphproblems.

• Many important applications require selection of an item of the highest priority

among a dynamically changing set of candidates.
• A data structure that seeks to satisfy the needs of such applications is called a
priorityqueue. A priority queue is a collection of data items from a totally ordered
universe (mostoften, integer or real numbers). The principal operations on a
priority queue are finding its largest element, deleting its largest element, and
adding a new element.

7.2 Graphs
• A graph is informally thought of as a collection of points in the plane called
―vertices‖ or
nodes,‖ some of them connected by line segments called ―edges‖ or ―arcs.‖
• A graph G is called undirected if every edge in it is undirected. A graph whose every
edge
is directed is called directed. Directed graphs are also called digraphs.
• The graph depicted in Figure (a) has six vertices and seven undirected
edges: V = {a, b, c, d, e, f }, E = {(a, c), (a, d), (b, c), (b, f ), (c, e), (d, e),
(e,f )}. The digraph depicted in Figure 1.6b has six vertices and eight
directed edges:
V = {a, b, c, d, e, f }, E = {(a, c), (b, c), (b, f ), (c, e), (d, a), (d, e), (e, c), (e, f )}.

Figure : (a) Undirected graph. (b) Digraph.

Graph Representations - Graphs for computer algorithms are usually represented inone oftwo
ways: the adjacency matrix and adjacency lists.

The adjacency matrix of a graph with n vertices is an n X n Boolean matrix with one row and
one column for each of the graphs vertices, in which the element in the ith row and the jth
column is equal to 1 if there is an edge from the ith vertex to the jth vertex, and equal to 0 if
there is no such edge.

The adjacency lists of a graph or a digraph is a collection of linked lists, one

for each vertex, that contain all the vertices adjacent to the list‘s vertex (i.e., allthe
vertices connected to it by an edge).

Figure : (a) Adjacency matrix and (b) adjacency lists of the graph in Figure (a)

Figure : (a) Adjacency matrix and (b) adjacency lists of the graph in Figure (a)

Figure : (a) Adjacency matrix and (b) adjacency lists of the graph in Figure (a)

Weighted Graphs

A weighted graph (or weighted digraph) is a graph (or digraph) with numbers
assigned to its edges. These numbers are called weights or costs.

An interest in such graphs is motivated by numerous real-world applications,

such as finding the shortest path between two points in a transportation or
communication network or the traveling salesman problem mentioned earlier.

Both principal representations of a graph can be easily adopted to

accommodate weighted graphs.

If a weighted graph is represented by its adjacency matrix, then its element

A[i, j ] will simply contain the weight of the edge from the ith to the jth vertex
if there is such an edge and a special symbol, e.g.,∞, if there is no such
edge. Such a matrix is called the weight matrix or cost matrix.

This approach is illustrated in below figure (b) for the weighted graph in
figure (a).
(For some applications, it is more convenient to put 0‘s on the main
 diagonal of the adjacency matrix.)

Adjacency lists for a weighted graph have to include in their nodes not only
the name of an adjacent vertex but also the weight of the corresponding edge
(Figure c).

figure : (a) Weighted graph. (b) Its weight matrix. (c) Its adjacency lists.
7.3 Trees

A tree (more accurately, a free tree) is a connected acyclic graph as in figure (a)below.

A graph that has no cycles but is not necessarily connected is called a forest: eachof its
connected components is a tree as in figure (b) below

Trees have several important properties other graphs do not have. In particular, the
number
of edges in a tree is always one less than the number of its vertices: |E| = |V| − 1.

Rooted Trees

Another very important property of trees is the fact that for every two vertices in a
tree, there always exists exactly one simple path from one of these vertices to the
other.

This property makes it possible to select an arbitrary vertex in a free tree andconsider
it as the root of the so-called rooted tree.
 A rooted tree is usually depicted by placing its root on the top (level 0 of the tree), the
vertices adjacent to the root below it (level 1), the vertices two edges apart fromthe
root still
below (level 2), and so on. Figure below presents such a transformation from a free
tree to a \rooted tree.

Figure : (a) Free tree. (b) Its transformation into a rooted tree.

For any vertex v in a tree T , all the vertices on the simple path from the root to that
vertex are called ancestors of v.

The vertex itself is usually considered its own ancestor; the set of ancestors thatexcludes
the vertex itself is referred to as the set of proper ancestors.

If (u, v) is the last edge of the simple path from the root to vertex v (and u ≠ v), u is
said to be the parent of v and v is called a child of u; vertices that have the same
parent are said to be siblings.

A vertex with no children is called a leaf ; a vertex with at least one child is called
parental.

All the vertices for which a vertex v is an ancestor are said to be descendants of v;the
proper descendants exclude the vertexvitself.

All the descendants of a vertex v with all the edges connecting them form the
subtree of T rooted at that vertex.

Thus, for the tree in Figure (b) above, the root of the tree is a; vertices d, g, f, h, and I
are leaves, and vertices a, b, e, and c are parental; the parent of b is a; the children of
b are c and g; the siblings of b are d and e; and the vertices of the subtree rooted at
✓
b are {b, c, g, h, i}.
The depth of a vertex v is the length of the simple path from the root to v.

The height of a tree is the length of the longest simple path from the root to a leaf.
 For example, the depth of vertex c of the tree in Figure (b) above is 2, and the heightof
the tree is 3.
Thus, if we count tree levels top down starting with 0 for the root‘s level, the depth
of a vertex is simply its level in the tree, and the tree‘s height is the maximum level
of its vertices

Ordered Trees

An ordered tree is a rooted tree in which all the children of each vertex are ordered.
✓
It is convenient to assume that in a tree‘s diagram, all the children are ordered left to right.

A binary tree can be defined as an ordered tree in which every vertex has no more
than two children and each child is designated as either a left child or a right child ofits
parent; a binary tree may also be empty.

An example of a binary tree is given in Figure (a) below.

The binary tree with its root at the left (right) child of a vertex in a binary tree is
called the left (right)subtreeof that vertex. Since left and right subtrees are binary trees
as well, abinary tree can also be defined recursively. This makes it possible to solve
many problems involving binary trees by recursive algorithms.

In Figure (b), some numbers are assigned to vertices of the binary tree in Figure (a)
above.

Note that a number assigned to each parental vertex is larger than all the numbersin its
left subtree and smaller than all the numbers in its right subtree. Such treesare called
binarysearch trees.
 A binary tree is usually implemented for computing purposes by a collection of
nodes corresponding to vertices of the tree. Each node contains some information
associated with the vertex (its name or some value assigned to it) and two pointers to
the nodes representing the left child and right child of the vertex, respectively.

Figure below illustrates such an implementation for the binary search tree in Figure
(b) above.

Figure : Standard implementation of the binary search tree in Figure (b) above

A computer representation of an arbitrary ordered tree can be done by simply providing

a parental vertex with the number of pointers equal to the number of its

This representation may prove to be inconvenient if the number of children varies

widely among the nodes.

We can avoid this inconvenience by using nodes with just two pointers, as we did
for binary trees. Here, however, the left pointer will point to the first child of the
vertex, and the right pointer will point to its next sibling. Accordingly, this
representation is called the firstchild–next sibling representation.

Thus, all the siblings of a vertex are linked via the nodes‘ right pointers in a singly
Linked list, with the first element of the list pointed to by the left pointer of their
parent.
 Figure (a) below illustrates this representation for the tree in Figure (b) above It is
not difficult to see that this representation effectively transforms an ordered treeinto
a binary tree said to be associated with the ordered tree.

We get this representation by ―rotating‖ the pointers about 45 degrees clockwise(see

Figure b)

Figure : (a) First child–next sibling representation of the tree in Figure 1.11b. (b) Its binary
tree representation.

7.4 Sets and Dictionaries

The notation of a sets plays a central role in mathematics
Set : A set can be described as an unordered collection of distinct items called elements of
the set.
Dictionary: A data structure that implements three operations that is Searching for a given
item, Adding a new item and Deleting an item of a given set or multiset is called dictionary.