CHAPTER 3: POLITICS AND THE STATE:

1. Briefly discuss the origins and development of the state:

The Origins and Development of the State
The state emerged in Europe during the 16th and 17th centuries, replacing the
fragmented and overlapping authority systems of Medieval Europe with a centralized
system of rule. The Peace of Westphalia (1648) is considered a landmark event in
the development of the state because it established the principle of territorial
sovereignty, formalizing the concept of statehood.
There are various theories about why the state emerged. Charles Tilly, for instance,
argued that the state developed due to its ability to wage war. He suggested that
advancements in military technology and the increasing scale of warfare led to rulers
wielding greater coercive power, requiring them to extend control over their
populations and develop systems of taxation and administration. Essentially, Tilly
argued that “War made the state, and the state made war”.
Marxists, in contrast, attribute the state's emergence to the transition from feudalism
to capitalism. They view the state as a tool wielded by the rising bourgeois class to
advance its interests. Michael Mann offers a different perspective, emphasizing the
state's capacity to combine ideological, economic, military, and political power.
Following its emergence in Europe, the modern state model spread globally,
primarily through the process of decolonization in the decades after World War II.
Independence movements sought to establish sovereign states, leading to a rapid
increase in UN membership and making the state the universal form of political
organization worldwide.
The state has continued to evolve. The 20th century witnessed the state's expansion
into economic and social spheres, particularly after 1945. However, this trend was
partially reversed from the 1980s onwards with efforts to "roll back" the state.

2. Briefly explain the idealist-, the functionalist-, the

organisational-, and the international approach to the state:

Four Approaches to the State

The state is defined in four different ways: the idealist, the functionalist, the
organizational, and the international approach.
• The idealist approach views the state as an ethical community that
prioritizes the common good. The most prominent proponent of this
perspective is G.W.F. Hegel, who argued that, while the family is defined by
"particular altruism" (placing family interests above one's own) and civil
society is defined by "universal egoism" (placing one's own interests above
others'), the state is defined by "universal altruism" (placing the interests of
 the political community above one's own). The idealist approach has been
criticized for promoting an uncritical reverence for the state, as well as for
failing to distinguish between institutions that belong to the state and those
that don't.
• The functionalist approach defines the state according to the role it plays in
society. The most important function of the state is the maintenance of social
order. Neo-Marxists have used a functionalist perspective to critique the
state, arguing that its role in mitigating class conflict helps ensure the
survival of the capitalist system. This approach has been criticized for its
broad definition, which could be seen to include any institution that
contributes to social order, including institutions like the family, the media,
and religious organizations.
• The organizational approach defines the state as the apparatus of
government. The state, in this view, is a set of public institutions that are
"responsible for the collective organization of social existence and are funded
at the public's expense." These institutions include the branches of
government, the military, the courts, the bureaucracy, and the social
security system. The organizational approach distinguishes between the state
and civil society, and views the government as part of the state, though
distinct from it. This approach is useful for conceptualizing expansions or
contractions of the responsibilities of the state.
• The international approach views the state as an actor on the world stage
and the fundamental unit of international politics. This perspective
emphasizes that the state has two faces: one that is inward-looking (focused
on domestic issues) and one that is outward-looking (focused on relations
with other states). This approach defines the state in terms very similar to the
concept of a country. The Montevideo Convention on the Rights and
Duties of the State (1933) is a classic example of the international approach
to the state. This document defines the state as having a defined territory, a
permanent population, an effective government, and the ability to enter
into relations with other states. While political philosophers and sociologists
tend to view civil society as separate from the state, the international
approach tends to view civil society as part of the state. Some even argue
that the international approach views the state as a legal person whose
statehood depends on recognition from other states and/or international
bodies.
 3. Briefly explain the following rival theories of the state:
pluralist, capitalist, leviathan, patriarchal:

Rival Theories of the State

• The pluralist state is a theory with roots in liberal political thought. It views
the state as a neutral entity that arbitrates between the competing individuals
and interest groups in society. Pluralists believe that power is widely and
evenly distributed within liberal democracies, and that the state acts as an
impartial "umpire" or "referee" to ensure fairness and prevent any one group
from gaining too much power. The state is seen as essential to maintaining
order and protecting individual liberty, originating from a social contract in
which individuals voluntarily surrender some freedom in exchange for security
and stability. The pluralist state is envisioned as a protector of individual
rights, arising from a social contract that establishes a balance between
individual freedom and state authority. Social contract theory is mentioned
in this context, which explores the origins of government and the nature of
political obligation. Pluralists such as John Locke argue that the state exists
to uphold natural rights like "life, liberty and property".
• The capitalist state, a concept rooted in Marxist thought, challenges the
pluralist view by asserting that the state is inherently linked to the economic
structure of society, specifically the capitalist mode of production. Marxists
view the state as an instrument of class rule, serving the interests of the
bourgeoisie, the owners of the means of production. In this view, the state
maintains and reproduces the capitalist system by protecting private property,
suppressing working-class dissent, and promoting policies that benefit the
bourgeoisie.
• The leviathan state is a perspective generally associated with the New
Right. New Right thinkers view the state as a "self-serving monster intent on
expansion and aggrandizement," constantly seeking to expand its power and
scope. They argue that the state pursues its own interests, distinct from and
often at odds with the interests of society as a whole. New Right proponents
advocate for a minimal state with limited intervention in the economy and
individual lives, believing that excessive state intervention undermines
individual freedom, economic efficiency, and social responsibility.
• The patriarchal state, influenced by feminist thought, views the state as
inherently reflecting and reinforcing patriarchal power structures that
subordinate women to men. Feminists argue that state institutions, policies,
and laws are often biased against women, perpetuating gender inequality and
limiting women's access to power and resources. They point to issues such as
domestic violence, reproductive rights, and the gender pay gap as evidence of
the state's complicity in maintaining patriarchal domination.
 4. Explain the following interpretations as to the role of the
state: minimal states, developmental states, social-
democratic states, collectivised states, totalitarian states,
religious states:

Interpretations of the Role of the State

• Minimal States:
o The minimal state represents the ideal of classical liberals, who seek
to maximize individual liberty by restricting the role of the state.
o This perspective views the state as a necessary evil that should only
intervene to protect individual rights and maintain a basic framework of
peace and order, allowing citizens to live their lives as they choose.
o John Locke, a prominent classical liberal thinker, described the state
as a "nightwatchman," intervening only when necessary to protect
citizens from threats to their security and property.
o The minimal state focuses on three core functions:
▪ Maintaining domestic order
▪ Enforcing contracts between individuals
▪ Providing protection against external attack
o The institutional apparatus of a minimal state is limited to a police
force, a court system, and a military. All other responsibilities—
economic, social, cultural, moral, etc.—are considered the domain of
individuals and civil society.
o The New Right, a modern political movement that draws on classical
liberal ideas, has revived advocacy for the minimal state.
o New Right thinkers such as Friedrich von Hayek and Milton
Friedman argue that state intervention hinders competition, efficiency,
and productivity, advocating instead for free market principles.
• Developmental States:
o A developmental state actively intervenes in the economy to promote
industrial growth and economic development.
o This intervention is not intended to replace the market with socialist
planning but to create a partnership between the state and major
economic interests.
 o Developmental states are often driven by conservative and nationalist
goals.
o Historical examples include Japan and Germany during the early 20th
century.
• Social-democratic states:
o While developmental states focus on economic growth, social-
democratic states aim for broader social restructuring based on
principles of fairness, equality, and social justice.
o This perspective marks a shift from a negative view of the state as a
necessary evil to a positive view that sees the state as a tool for
promoting liberty, equality, and social justice.
o The social-democratic state actively participates in shaping society,
particularly to address the imbalances and injustices of a market
economy.
o It focuses on the equitable distribution of wealth, aiming to reduce
poverty and social inequality.
o Examples of states that have pursued both developmental and social-
democratic models include Sweden and Austria.
• Collectivized States:
o Unlike developmental and social-democratic states, which intervene
in a primarily private economy, collectivized states bring the entire
economy under state control, establishing a command economy.
o Examples include communist countries like the USSR and former
Eastern European states.
o Command economies are centrally planned, typically by the
Communist Party.
o The rationale for collectivization stems from the socialist belief in
common ownership over private property.
o While this implies a positive view of the state, it deviates from classical
Marxism, which envisioned the eventual "withering away" of the
state.
o In the later years of the USSR, the state was portrayed as representing
the interests of the people as a whole.
• Totalitarian States:
o Totalitarian states represent the most extreme and comprehensive
form of state intervention.
 o They seek to control all aspects of human existence, including the
economy, education, culture, religion, and family life.
o Examples include Nazi Germany, Fascist Italy, the USSR under Stalin,
and Saddam Hussein's Iraq.
o Totalitarian states employ extensive surveillance, terroristic policing,
and ideological control to eliminate civil society and the private sphere.
o Fascists, for example, aim to subsume individual identity into a
collective, social identity.
• Religious States:
o Religious states derive their legitimacy and authority from religious
principles.
o They often seek to use state power to enforce religious laws and
morals.
o Examples include Pakistan under General Zia-ul-Haq and the Islamic
Republic of Iran.
o Some religious movements operate within secular states, such as the
AKP in Turkey and the Muslim Brotherhood in Egypt.

5. Discuss the impact of globalisation on the state as well as the

more recent push-back of states against some of its features:

The Challenge of Globalisation to State Sovereignty

• Globalisation, characterized by growing interconnectedness and
interdependence between states, has significantly challenged traditional
notions of state sovereignty.
• The increasing porosity of state borders, driven by transnational flows of
people, goods, capital, information, and ideas, has eroded the state's ability to
maintain absolute control within its territory.
• Economic globalisation, in particular, with its emphasis on free trade, capital
mobility, and the rise of transnational corporations (TNCs), has limited the
capacity of states to manage their economies independently.
• There is importance in the rise of supraterritoriality, where economic
activities operate within a "borderless world," diminishing the relevance of
geographical boundaries.
• This has led some theorists to proclaim the emergence of "post-sovereign
governance," suggesting that the state is becoming less relevant in a
globalized world.
 • The 2007-2009 global financial crisis is seen as a stark example of how
interconnectedness can limit state autonomy, as the crisis demonstrated the
vulnerability of even powerful states to economic shocks originating
elsewhere.
The Rise of Non-State Actors and International Organizations
• There is a growing influence of non-state actors and international
organizations as another dimension of globalisation's impact on the state.
• TNCs, often exceeding states in economic size, wield significant power in the
global economy, potentially influencing state policies through their investment
decisions and lobbying efforts.
• Non-governmental organizations (NGOs), with their expertise and moral
authority, have become influential actors in international affairs, sometimes
challenging state power and advocating for alternative policy agendas.
• The rise of political globalisation, marked by the increasing prominence of
international organizations like the United Nations (UN), the European
Union (EU), and the World Trade Organization (WTO) is seen as important.
• These organizations, through their rules, norms, and decision-making
processes, create a framework for global governance that can constrain state
autonomy.
The Return of the State and the Push-Back Against Globalisation
• Despite the challenges posed by globalisation, there is a trend towards the
"return of the state."
• This resurgence is attributed to several factors:
o Security concerns: The rise of transnational terrorism, exemplified by
the 9/11 attacks, has re-emphasized the state's primary role in
providing security and protecting its citizens.
o Economic crises: The 2007-2009 global financial crisis revealed the
limitations of unregulated markets and highlighted the state's crucial
role in economic intervention and stabilization.
o National identity: The resurgence of nationalism as a response to
the perceived cultural homogenization and economic disruptions
brought about by globalisation.
o Populism: The rise of populist movements, often fuelled by economic
anxieties and cultural backlash against globalisation, has empowered
political leaders who champion state-centric policies and prioritize
national interests over global cooperation.
• An example would be Brexit, where the UK's decision to leave the EU was
partly motivated by a desire to reclaim sovereignty and control over national
borders and policymaking.
• The election of Donald Trump as US President is also mentioned, as a
development associated with a populist backlash against globalisation,
characterized by protectionist trade policies and a scepticism of international
institutions.

6. Concepts:

• The state: a political association that establishes sovereign jurisdiction within

defined territorial borders, and exercises authority through a set of permanent
institutions.
• Nation-state: a sovereign political association within which citizenship and
nationality overlap; one nation within a single state.
• Idealism: a view of politics that emphasizes the importance of morality and
ideals; philosophical idealism implies that ideas are more ‘real’ than the
material world.
• Civil society: a private sphere of autonomous groups and associations,
independent from state or public authority.
• Sovereignty: the principle of absolute and unlimited power.
• Pluralism: a belief in, or commitment to, diversity or multiplicity; or the belief
that power in modern societies is widely and evenly distributed
• Political Obligation: the duty of the citizen towards the state; the basis of the
state’s right to rule.
• State of Nature: a society devoid of political authority and of formal (legal)
checks on the individual; usually employed as a theoretical device.
• Divine Right: the doctrine that earthly rulers are chosen by God and thus wield
unchallengeable authority; a defence for monarchical absolutism.
• Anarchy: literally, ‘without rule’; anarchy is often used pejoratively to suggest
instability, or even chaos.
• Neo pluralism: a style of social theorizing that remains faithful to pluralist
values while recognizing the need to revise or update classical pluralism in
the light of, for example, elite, Marxist and New Right theories.
• Bourgeoise: a Marxist term, denoting the ruling class of a capitalist society,
the owners of productive wealth.
• Neo-Marxism: attempts to revise or recast the classical ideas of Marx while
remaining faithful to certain Marxist principles or aspects of Marxist
methodology.
• Proletariat: a Marxist term, denoting a class that subsists through the sale of
its labour power; strictly speaking, the proletariat is not equivalent to the
working class.
• Patriarchy: the domination of the husband–father within the family, and the
subordination of his wife and his children. However, the term is usually used in
the more general sense of ‘rule by men’, drawing attention to the totality of
oppression and exploitation to which women are subject.
• Rights: legal or moral entitlements to act or be treated in a particular way; civil
rights differ from human rights.
• Economic Globalization: the incorporation of national economies into a single
‘borderless’ global economy, through transnational production and capital
flows.
• Competition State: a state which pursues strategies to ensure long-term
competitiveness in a globalized economy.
• Tiger Economies: fast-growing and export-orientated economies modelled on
Japan: for example, South Korea, Taiwan and Singapore.
• Social Justice: a morally justifiable distribution of material rewards; social
justice is often seen to imply a bias in favour of equality.
• Welfare State: a state that takes primary responsibility for the social welfare of
its citizens, discharged through a range of social security, health, education
and other services (albeit different in different societies).
• Statism: the belief that state intervention is the most appropriate means of
resolving political problems or bringing about economic and social
development.
• Collectivisation: the abolition of private property in favour of a system of
common or public ownership.
• Totalitarianism: an all-encompassing system of political rule, involving
pervasive ideological manipulation and open brutality.
• Laicite: the principle of the absence of religious involvement in government
affairs, and of government involvement in religious affairs.
• State Religion: the principle of the absence of religious involvement in
government affairs, and of government involvement in religious affairs.
• Cultural Globalization: the process whereby information, commodities, and
images produced in one part of the world enter into a global flow that tends to
‘flatten out’ cultural differences between nations and regions.
• Supraterritoriality: the reconfiguration of geography that has occurred through
the declining importance of state borders, geographical distance and territorial
location.
• Economic Sovereignty: the absolute authority of the state over national
economic life, involving independent control of fiscal and monetary policies,
and control over trade and capital flows.
• Governance: the various ways through which social life is coordinated.
Government can therefore be seen as one of the institutions involved in
governance; it is possible to have ‘governance without government’.
• Political Globalization: the growing importance of international bodies and
organizations, and of transnational political forces generally.
• Failed States: a state that is unable to perform its key role of ensuring
domestic order by monopolizing the use of force within its territory.
• Warlordism: a condition in which locally based militarized bands vie for power
in the absence of a sovereign state.