📘 CHAPTER 1: Introduction to Java & Object-Oriented Programming (OOP)

🔹 What is Java?

 Java is a high-level, object-oriented programming language developed by Sun Microsystems (now owned

by Oracle).

 It is platform-independent — meaning “write once, run anywhere”.

 Java is widely used for web apps, mobile apps (especially Android), enterprise software, and games.

🔹 Key Features of Java

Feature Explanation

Platform-Independent Runs on any OS using JVM (Java Virtual Machine)

Object-Oriented Uses objects to structure programs

Secure Strong type-checking and memory management

Robust Handles errors and memory leaks well

Multithreaded Can perform many tasks at once

Portable Runs on any machine with JVM

🔹 Java Editions

Edition Use

Java SE (Standard Edition) General desktop applications

Java EE (Enterprise Edition) Web and enterprise applications

Java ME (Micro Edition) Mobile devices (older platforms)

🔹 Basic Java Program Structure

public class HelloWorld {

public static void main(String[] args) {

System.out.println("Hello, World!");

}
}

Explanation:

 public class HelloWorld → Defines the class

 main () → Entry point of any Java program

 System.out.println() → Prints output to console

🔹 What is Object-Oriented Programming (OOP)?

OOP is a way to organize programs using objects (real-world entities).

Four Pillars of OOP:

Concept Meaning Example

Encapsulation Hides internal data using classes and access Bank account balance is private
methods

Inheritance A class can get features from another class Dog inherits from Animal

Polymorphism Same method acts differently in different classes draw() can draw shapes or lines

Abstraction Show only essential details Car interface shows steering, not engine
code

🔹 Java Program Execution Process

1. Write code in .java file.

2. Compile using javac HelloWorld.java → creates .class file (bytecode).

3. Run using java HelloWorld.

Bytecode runs on JVM, which makes Java platform-independent.

🔹 Advantages of Java

 Easy to learn.
 Free and open source.
 Huge community and library support.
 Used in many industries.

🔹 Disadvantages of Java

 Slower than low-level languages (like C++).

  Consumes more memory.

 GUI development can be verbose.

📌 Summary

 Java is platform-independent, object-oriented, and widely used.

 Programs are structured using classes, objects, and methods.
 Java follows the OOP paradigm to build reusable and organized code.

🧠 Flashcards

Q: What does JVM stand for?

A: Java Virtual Machine.

Q: What is the main method in Java?

A: public static void main(String[] args).

Q: Name the four pillars of OOP.

A: Encapsulation, Inheritance, Polymorphism, Abstraction.

Q: What makes Java platform-independent?

A: Its bytecode runs on the JVM.

Q: What is the file extension for a compiled Java file?

A: .class
 📘 CHAPTER 2: Data Types, Variables, and Constants in Java

🔹 What is a Variable?

A variable is a named memory location that stores a value. The value can change during program execution.

int age = 25;

 int → data type

 age → variable name

 25 → value stored

🔹 Java Data Types

Java has two categories of data types:

1. Primitive Data Types (8 types):

Type Size Example Use For

Int 4 bytes int x = 10; Whole numbers

double 8 bytes double pi = 3.14; Decimals

char 2 bytes char ch = 'A'; Single characters

boolean 1 bit boolean isJava = true; True/False

byte 1 byte byte b = 100; Small integers

short 2 bytes short s = 2000; Small integers

long 8 bytes long l = 100000L; Big integers

float 4 bytes float f = 1.23f; Small decimal

2. Non-Primitive (Reference) Types

 Examples: String, Arrays, Classes, Objects

String name = "Alice";

🔹 Declaring Variables

int score; // Declaration

score = 85; // Assignment

int age = 20; // Declaration + Assignment

Multiple declarations:

int x = 5, y = 10, z = 15;

🔹 Constants in Java

Use final keyword to declare a constant (value cannot change).

final double PI = 3.14159;

 Convention: Constant names are written in ALL CAPS.

🔹 Type Conversion

1. Implicit (Widening) Conversion:

Small → Big type (safe)

int x = 10;

double y = x; // OK

2. Explicit (Narrowing) Conversion:

Big → Small type (may lose data)

double d = 9.8;

int i = (int) d; // Must cast

🔹 Java Literals

 Integer literal: int x = 100;

 Floating-point literal: double pi = 3.14;

 Character literal: char ch = 'A';

 Boolean literal: boolean isOn = true;

 String literal: String name = "Joyce";

🔹 Variable Naming Rules

 Must start with a letter, _, or $

 Cannot start with a digit

 Case-sensitive (age ≠ Age)

 No Java keywords (like int, class)

✅ Good: studentAge, totalMarks

❌ Bad: 2score, class

🔹 Advantages of Using Constants

 Improves code readability

 Prevents accidental changes

 Easy to update values in one place

🔹 Common Mistakes

Mistake What Happens

Using wrong type Compilation error

Forgetting to initialize Runtime error

Wrong cast Data loss or error

📌 Summary

 Java has 8 primitive types and supports reference types like String.
 Variables hold values; constants use final.
 Java automatically converts smaller types to larger; explicit casting is needed otherwise.

🧠 Flashcards

Q: What are the 4 integer types in Java?

A: byte, short, int, long

Q: Which keyword is used for constants?

A: final

Q: What is the size of char in Java?

A: 2 bytes

Q: What’s the difference between float and double?

A: float is smaller (4 bytes), double is larger (8 bytes)

Q: Give an example of implicit type conversion.

A: int x = 5; double y = x;
 📘 CHAPTER 3: Methods, Parameters, and Return Values in Java

🔹 What is a Method?

A method is a block of code that performs a specific task. It’s also called a function in other languages.

public static void greet() {

System.out.println("Hello!");

You can call a method like this:

greet ();

🔹 Why Use Methods?

 Avoid repeating code (DRY principle — Don't Repeat Yourself)

 Organize code into logical parts

 Reuse code across multiple programs

🔹 Method Structure

public static int add (int a, int b) {

return a + b;

Part Meaning

public static Access and scope (for now, always use this in main)

int Return type

add Method name

int a, int b Parameters

return Gives result back to caller

🔹 Method Calling

int result = add (5, 3); // result = 8

🔹 Return Values

 A method can return a value or void (no return).

Example: Method with return

public static double square (double x) {

return x * x;

Example: Void method

public static void sayHello () {

System.out.println("Hi!");
}

🔹 Parameters and Arguments

Term Meaning

Parameter Variable in method definition

Argument Actual value passed to method

// Parameter: int num

public static void show (int num) {

System.out.println(num);

// Argument: 25

show (25);

🔹 Method Overloading

Method overloading means creating multiple methods with the same name but different parameters.

public static int multiply (int a, int b) {

return a * b;

public static double multiply (double a, double b) {

return a * b;
}

✅ Java automatically picks the correct version based on the arguments.

🔹 Examples of Methods

1. Method to calculate area:

public static double areaOfCircle (double r) {

return 3.14 * r * r;
}
2. Method to check even or odd:

public static boolean isEven (int n) {

return n % 2 == 0;

🔹 Advantages of Using Methods

Advantage Explanation

Code Reuse Use one method in many places

Modularity Easier to test and manage

Clarity Break large programs into parts

🔹 Common Errors with Methods

Error Reason

No return statement For non-void methods

Wrong return type Method says int, but returns String

Mismatched parameters Argument types don't match method definition

📌 Summary

 Methods make code reusable and organized.

 They can accept parameters and return values.

 Overloading lets you use the same method name with different inputs.

🧠 Flashcards

Q: What is a method in Java?

A: A block of code that performs a task.

Q: What does void mean in a method?

A: The method does not return a value.

Q: What is method overloading?

A: Multiple methods with the same name but different parameters.

Q: Give an example of a return statement.

A: return a + b;

Q: What’s the difference between a parameter and an argument?

A: A parameter is in the method definition; an argument is passed during the call.

 📘 CHAPTER 4: Classes, Objects, and Constructors in Java

🔹 What is a Class?

 A class is a blueprint or template for creating objects.

 It defines fields (data/variables) and methods (actions).

public class Student {

String name;

int age;

void displayInfo() {

System.out.println(name + " is " + age + " years old.");

🔹 What is an Object?

 An object is an instance of a class.

 It has state (variables) and behavior (methods).

Student s1 = new Student();

s1.name = "Jane";

s1.age = 20;

s1.displayInfo();

🔹 Creating and Using Objects

Step Code

Declare class class Car { int speed; }

Create object Car c1 = new Car();

Set data c1.speed = 50;

Access method c1.showSpeed();

🔹 Constructors in Java

A constructor is a special method that runs automatically when an object is created.

public class Dog {

Dog() {

System.out.println("Dog object created");

Dog d1 = new Dog(); // Output: Dog object created

🔹 Constructor Features

Feature Details

Name Same as class

No return type Not even void

Called automatically When object is created

🔹 Types of Constructors

1. Default Constructor:

 No parameters.

public Student() {

name = "Default";

age = 0;

2. Parameterized Constructor:

 Accepts values.

public Student(String n, int a) {

name = n;

age = a;

3. Constructor Overloading:

 Multiple constructors with different parameters.

public Student() { }

public Student(String n) { name = n; }

public Student(String n, int a) { name = n; age = a; }

🔹 The this Keyword

 this refers to the current object.

 Used to avoid confusion when variable names overlap.

public Student(String name) {

this.name = name; // refers to the object's field

🔹 Example: Class with Constructor

public class Book {

String title;

int pages;

Book(String t, int p) {

title = t;

pages = p;

void showBook() {

System.out.println(title + " has " + pages + " pages.");

Book b = new Book("Java 101", 300);

b.showBook();

🔹 Advantages of OOP (Using Classes and Objects)

Advantage Benefit

Modularity Divide program into small parts

Code Reusability Use same class many times

Security Use private fields, public methods

Easy Maintenance Code is easier to update and fix

🔹 Common Errors

Problem Why It Happens

No constructor Java provides default one

Wrong parameter types Constructor call must match

Calling method on null object You forgot to use new

📌 Summary

 Class = Blueprint

 Object = Instance

 Constructor = Initializes objects

 Use this to refer to current object’s fields.

🧠 Flashcards

Q: What is a class in Java?

A: A template for creating objects.

Q: What is a constructor?
A: A special method that initializes objects.

Q: How do you create an object?

A: ClassName obj = new ClassName();

Q: What does this refer to?

A: The current object.

Q: Can constructors be overloaded?

A: Yes, using different parameter lists.
 📘 CHAPTER 5: Decision Making in Java (if, else, switch)

🔹 Why Do We Use Decision Making?

Sometimes, programs need to make choices. For example:

"If age is over 18, allow voting. Otherwise, deny."

Java provides several decision-making structures to handle such cases.

🔹 if Statement

Executes a block of code only if a condition is true.

int age = 20;

if (age >= 18) {

System.out.println("You can vote.");
}

🔹 if...else Statement

Runs one block if condition is true, another if false.

if (age >= 18) {

System.out.println("Eligible to vote.");
} else {
System.out.println("Not eligible.");
}

🔹 if...else if...else

Used when you have multiple conditions.

int score = 75;

if (score >= 90) {

System.out.println("Grade A");
} else if (score >= 70) {
System.out.println("Grade B");
} else {
System.out.println("Grade C");
}

🔹 Comparison Operators

Operator Meaning Example

== Equal x == y

!= Not equal x != y

> Greater than x>y

< Less than x<y

 >= Greater or equal x >= y

<= Less or equal x <= y

🔹 Logical Operators

Operator Meaning Example

&& AND x > 10 && y < 20

` `

! NOT !(x == y)

🔹 The switch Statement

The switch is useful when checking a variable against many fixed values.

int day = 3;

switch (day) {
case 1: System.out.println("Monday"); break;
case 2: System.out.println("Tuesday"); break;
case 3: System.out.println("Wednesday"); break;
default: System.out.println("Invalid day");
}

Rules:

 break stops checking.

 default runs if no match is found.

🔹 Nested if Statements

You can place one if inside another:

if (x > 0) {
if (x < 100) {
System.out.println("x is between 1 and 99");
}
}

🔹 Ternary Operator

Short-hand for if...else:

String result = (age >= 18) ? "Adult" : "Minor";

System.out.println(result);

🔹 Common Mistakes

Mistake What Happens

Missing break All following cases execute

 Using == for Strings Doesn’t compare text properly

Forgetting braces {} Only one line is considered part of if

📌 Summary

 Use if, else if, and else to check multiple conditions.

 Use switch for fixed options (like menu choices).
 Use ternary operator for simple decisions.

🧠 Flashcards

Q: What does if do?

A: Executes code only if the condition is true.

Q: What is switch used for?

A: Checking one variable against many possible values.

Q: What does break do in switch?

A: Stops checking other cases.

Q: What is the syntax of the ternary operator?

A: condition ? true_result : false_result

Q: What is the difference between == and = in Java?

A: == compares values; = assigns values.
 📘 CHAPTER 6: Loops in Java (while, do-while, for)

🔹 Why Use Loops?

Loops let you repeat a block of code multiple times, which saves time and avoids repetition.

Example: Print numbers from 1 to 10.

🔹 Types of Loops in Java

Loop Type Use When...

while You don’t know how many times to repeat, but condition is known.

do-while You want the loop to run at least once.

for You know exactly how many times to repeat.

🔹 The while Loop

Repeats as long as the condition is true.

int i = 1;
while (i <= 5) {
System.out.println(i);
i++;
}

🔹 The do-while Loop

Runs the body at least once, then checks condition.

int i = 1;
do {
System.out.println(i);
i++;
} while (i <= 5);

Use do-while when the loop must run at least one time, even if the condition is false.

🔹 The for Loop

Used when you know the starting, ending, and step value.

for (int i = 1; i <= 5; i++) {

System.out.println(i);
}

Structure:

for (initialization; condition; update) {

// body
}
🔹 Loop Example: Print Even Numbers from 2 to 10

for (int i = 2; i <= 10; i += 2) {

System.out.println(i);
}

🔹 Nested Loops

You can put a loop inside another loop.

for (int i = 1; i <= 3; i++) {

for (int j = 1; j <= 2; j++) {
System.out.println("i=" + i + " j=" + j);
}
}

🔹 The break Statement

Used to exit a loop early.

for (int i = 1; i <= 10; i++) {

if (i == 5) break;
System.out.println(i);
}

Output: 1 2 3 4

🔹 The continue Statement

Skips the current iteration and continues with the next.

for (int i = 1; i <= 5; i++) {

if (i == 3) continue;
System.out.println(i);
}

Output: 1 2 4 5 (3 is skipped)

🔹 Infinite Loops

Loops that never end (accidental or intentional):

while (true) {
// endless loop
}

🔹 Common Mistakes

Mistake What Happens

Forgetting i++ Loop runs forever

Wrong condition Loop never runs

Using = instead of == Assignment instead of comparison

📌 Summary

 for → Best when you know the count

 while → Check condition first
 do-while → Runs at least once
 Use break to exit early, continue to skip current step

🧠 Flashcards

Q: Which loop always runs at least once?

A: do-while

Q: What is the syntax of a for loop?

A: for (init; condition; update) { }

Q: What does continue do?

A: Skips the current loop iteration.

Q: What does break do in a loop?

A: Exits the loop immediately.

Q: Can you nest loops in Java?

A: Yes, one loop can be inside another.
 📘 CHAPTER 7: Strings, Characters, and StringBuilder in Java

🔹 What is a String?

A String is a sequence of characters enclosed in double quotes.

String name = "Java";

Java treats strings as objects of the String class.

🔹 Creating Strings

String s1 = "Hello"; // String literal

String s2 = new String("Hi"); // Using constructor

🔹 Common String Methods

Method Purpose Example

length() Returns number of characters s.length()

charAt(index) Returns character at index s.charAt(0) = 'H'

toUpperCase() Converts to uppercase s.toUpperCase()

toLowerCase() Converts to lowercase s.toLowerCase()

equals() Compares contents s1.equals(s2)

equalsIgnoreCase() Compares ignoring case s1.equalsIgnoreCase(s2)

substring(start, end) Extract part of string "Java".substring(1,3) = "av"

indexOf(char) Finds position of char "Hello".indexOf'e') = 1

trim() Removes whitespace " Java ".trim() = "J(ava"

🔹 String Comparison

✅ Use. equals () to compare contents

String a = "hello";
String b = "hello";
System.out.println(a.equals(b)); // true

❌ Avoid using == for comparing string values

String x = new String("hi");

String y = new String("hi");
System.out.println(x == y); // false (compares memory)
🔹 Immutability of Strings

Strings in Java are immutable — once created, they cannot be changed.

String a = "Hello";
a = a + " World"; // Creates a new String object

🔹 char Data Type

 A char stores a single character using single quotes 'A'.

char letter = 'B';

🔹 Useful char Methods (with Character wrapper class)

Method Use

Character.isDigit('5') true

Character.isLetter('A') True

Character.toUpperCase('b') 'B'

Character.toLowerCase('X') 'x'

🔹 StringBuilder: Efficient String Modification

 Use StringBuilder when you need to change strings repeatedly (faster than String).

StringBuilder sb = new StringBuilder("Java");

sb.append(" Rocks");
System.out.println(sb); // Java Rocks

🔹 Common StringBuilder Methods

Method Use

append() Adds text at the end

insert(index, text) Inserts at position

delete(start, end) Removes characters

reverse() Reverses the text

toString() Converts back to String

🔹 Example: Reverse a String Using StringBuilder

StringBuilder sb = new StringBuilder("Hello");

sb.reverse();
System.out.println(sb); // "olleH"
🔹 Advantages of StringBuilder

Advantage Explanation

Mutable Can change value without creating new object

Efficient Faster when modifying strings multiple times

Easy to use Provides simple methods for editing text

📌 Summary

 String is immutable; StringBuilder is mutable.

 Use .equals() for comparing string values.
 Use char for single characters and Character for utilities.

🧠 Flashcards

Q: Are strings mutable in Java?

A: No, they are immutable.

Q: Which class allows mutable strings?

A: StringBuilder

Q: How do you compare strings in Java?

A: Using .equals() or .equalsIgnoreCase()

Q: How do you reverse a string with StringBuilder?

A: .reverse() method

Q: What is the difference between == and .equals() for strings?

A: == compares memory; .equals() compares actual text.
 📘 CHAPTER 8: Arrays and Advanced Array Concepts in Java

🔹 What is an Array?

An array is a collection of variables of the same type, stored in contiguous memory.

Think of an array as a list or container that holds multiple values under one name.

int[] numbers = {10, 20, 30, 40};

🔹 Array Declaration and Initialization

int[] marks = new int[5]; // declares array of size 5

marks[0] = 80;
marks[1] = 90;

Shortcut:

int[] marks = {80, 90, 70, 60, 85};

🔹 Accessing Array Elements

System.out.println(marks[0]); // prints first element

 Index starts from 0

 marks.length gives number of elements

🔹 Looping Through Arrays

for (int i = 0; i < marks.length; i++) {

System.out.println(marks[i]);
}

Or using for-each loop:

for (int score : marks) {

System.out.println(score);
}

🔹 Types of Arrays

1. One-Dimensional Array

 List of values

String[] cities = {"Lagos", "Abuja", "Kano"};

2. Two-Dimensional Array

 Like a table (rows × columns)

int[][] matrix = {
{1, 2, 3},
{4, 5, 6}
};
System.out.println(matrix[1][2]); // 6
🔹 Jagged Arrays (Arrays of Arrays)

 A 2D array where rows can have different lengths.

int[][] jagged = new int[3][];

jagged[0] = new int[2];
jagged[1] = new int[4];
jagged[2] = new int[1];

🔹 Arrays with Objects

You can create arrays of objects too:

Student[] students = new Student[3];

students[0] = new Student("Ali", 20);

🔹 Common Mistakes with Arrays

Mistake What Happens

Accessing out-of-range index ArrayIndexOutOfBoundsException

Using wrong loop limit Skips or crashes

Forgetting new for object arrays NullPointerException

🔹 Advantages of Arrays

Advantage Description

Easy access Use index to get any value

Memory-efficient Continuous memory block

Loop-friendly Works well with loops

🔹 Disadvantages of Arrays

Disadvantage Reason

Fixed size Cannot change size once created

Same data type Cannot mix types like in lists

📌 Summary

 Arrays store multiple values of the same type.

 Use [ ] to declare, access, and loop through them.
 Java supports 1D, 2D, and jagged arrays.
 for-each is useful for clean loops.
🧠 Flashcards

Q: What is the index of the first array element?

A: 0

Q: What exception occurs if you access index out of bounds?

A: ArrayIndexOutOfBoundsException

Q: What loop is best for arrays?

A: for or for-each

Q: How do you declare a 2D array?

A: int[][] matrix = new int[2][3];

Q: Can arrays store objects?

A: Yes
 📘 CHAPTER 9: Inheritance and Polymorphism in Java

🔹 What is Inheritance?

Inheritance is an object-oriented principle where a class (child/subclass) can inherit properties and behaviors
from another class (parent/superclass).

It promotes code reuse and logical hierarchy.

class Animal {
void eat() {
System.out.println("This animal eats food.");
}
}

class Dog extends Animal {

void bark() {
System.out.println("Dog barks.");
}
}
Dog d = new Dog();
d.eat(); // Inherited method
d.bark(); // Child class method

🔹 Types of Inheritance (in Java)

Type Supported? Description

Single ✅ Yes One subclass inherits from one superclass

Multilevel ✅ Yes Subclass inherits from another subclass

Hierarchical ✅ Yes Multiple subclasses inherit from one superclass

Multiple ❌ No Not supported directly (Java uses interfaces instead)

🔹 super Keyword

Used to access members of the superclass (parent class).

super.methodName(); // calls method from parent class

super.variableName; // accesses parent's variable

🔹 Constructor Chaining with super()

class Animal {
Animal() {
System.out.println("Animal created");
}
}

class Dog extends Animal {

Dog() {
super(); // calls parent constructor
System.out.println("Dog created");
}
}

🔹 Method Overriding

 A child class redefines a method from the parent class.

  Use @Override annotation to show it's intentional.

class Animal {
void sound() {
System.out.println("Animal sound");
}
}

class Cat extends Animal {

@Override
void sound() {
System.out.println("Meow");
}
}

🔹 What is Polymorphism?

Polymorphism means "many forms."

A single method behaves differently depending on the object that calls it.

Animal a = new Cat(); // Parent reference

a.sound(); // Calls overridden method in Cat

Polymorphism allows runtime decision-making.

🔹 Types of Polymorphism

Type Description Example

Compile-time (Method Same method name, different add(int, int) and add(double,
Overloading) parameters double)

Runtime (Method Overriding) Method in child overrides parent sound() method in Cat class

🔹 Final Keyword

Use Example

Final variable (cannot change) final int x = 10;

Final method (cannot override) final void show() {}

Final class (cannot be extended) final class MathUtils {}

🔹 Abstract Classes

 Cannot be instantiated
 Can contain abstract methods (no body)

abstract class Shape {

abstract void draw();
}
class Circle extends Shape {
void draw() {
System.out.println("Drawing Circle");
}
}

🔹 Interfaces

An interface defines methods without bodies (all abstract). A class must implement the interface.

interface Animal {
void sound();
}

class Dog implements Animal {

public void sound() {
System.out.println("Bark");
}
}

Interfaces support multiple inheritance in Java.

🔹 Differences: Inheritance vs Polymorphism

Inheritance Polymorphism

"Is-a" relationship "Many forms" behavior

One class inherits another One method, many behaviors

Promotes code reuse Promotes flexibility

📌 Summary

 Inheritance lets a class use features from another.

 Polymorphism allows the same method to behave differently.
 Java supports overriding, interfaces, and abstract classes for flexibility.

🧠 Flashcards

Q: What is inheritance in Java?

A: One class gaining features from another.

Q: What does super do?

A: Refers to the parent class.

Q: What is method overriding?

A: Redefining a method from the parent in the child class.

Q: What is polymorphism?
A: Same method behaves differently for different objects.

Q: What is the keyword for preventing inheritance?

A: final