UNIT –I

BASIC CONCEPTS: Database Management System - Characteristics of the

Database Approach - Different people behind DBMS- Advantages of DBMS
over file-based system - Three level architecture of DBMS or logical DBMS
architecture - Physical DBMS Architecture - Database Administrator (DBA)
Functions & Role - Types of Databases. The database system Environment,
Classification of DBMS.

Database
Database is a collection of inter-related data which helps in efficient retrieval,
insertion, and deletion of data from database and organizes the data in the form
of tables, views, schemas, reports etc. For Example, university database
organizes the data about students, faculty, and admin staff etc. which helps in
efficient retrieval, insertion, and deletion of data from it.
DBMS

A Data Base Management System is a system software for easy, efficient, and
reliable data processing and management. It can be used for:
 Creation of a database.
 Retrieval of information from the database.
 Updating the database.
 Managing a database.

Types of DBMS
The different types of DBMS are as follows −

 My SQL
 Oracle
 MYSQL Server
 Microsoft Access
 SQL
 DB2
Application of DBMS

There are different fields where a database management system is utilized.

Following are a few applications which utilize the information base
administration framework –
1. Railway Reservation System –
In the rail route reservation framework, the information base is needed to
store the record or information of ticket appointments, status about train’s
appearance, and flight. Additionally, if trains get late, individuals become
acquainted with it through the information base update.

2. Library Management System –

There are loads of books in the library so; it is difficult to store the record of
the relative multitude of books in a register or duplicate. Along these lines,
the data set administration framework (DBMS) is utilized to keep up all the
data identified with the name of the book, issue date, accessibility of the
book, and itswriter.

3. Banking –
Database the executive’s framework is utilized to store the exchange data of
the client in the information base.

4. Education Sector –
Presently, assessments are led online by numerous schools and colleges.
They deal with all assessment information through the data set
administration framework (DBMS). Despite that understudy’s enlistments
subtleties, grades, courses, expense, participation, results, and so forth all the
data is put away in the information base.

5. Credit card exchanges –

 The database Management framework is utilized for buying on charge cards
and age of month-to-month proclamations.

6. Social Media Sites –

We all utilization of online media sites to associate with companions and to
impart our perspectives to the world. Every day, many people group pursue
these online media accounts like Pinterest, Facebook, Twitter, and Google in
addition to. By the utilization of the data set administration framework, all
the data of clients are put away in the information base and, we become
ready to interface with others.

7. Broadcast communications –
Without DBMS any media transmission organization can’t think. The
Database the executive’s framework is fundamental for these organizations
to store the call subtleties and month to month post-paid bills in the
information base.

8. Account –
The information base administration framework is utilized for putting away
data about deals, holding and acquisition of monetary instruments, for
example, stocks and bonds in a data set.

9. Online Shopping –
These days, web-based shopping has become a major pattern. Nobody needs
to visit the shop and burn through their time. Everybody needs to shop
through web-based shopping sites, (for example, Amazon, Flipkart, Snap
deal) from home. So, all the items are sold and added uniquely with the
assistance of the information base administration framework (DBMS).
Receipt charges, instalments, buy data these are finished with the assistance
of DBMS.

10.Human Resource Management –

Big firms or organizations have numerous specialists or representatives
working under them. They store data about worker’s compensation,
assessment, and work with the assistance of an information base
administration framework (DBMS).

11.Manufacturing –
Manufacturing organizations make various kinds of items and deal them
consistently. To keep the data about their items like bills, acquisition of the
item, amount, inventory network the executives, information base
administration framework (DBMS) is utilized.
12.Airline Reservation System –
This framework is equivalent to the railroad reservation framework. This
framework additionally utilizes an information base administration
framework to store the records of flight take-off, appearance, and defer
status.

Characteristics of database approach:

Some of the most important characteristics of the database approach to the file
processing approach are the following as follows.

Approach-1:

Self-Describing Nature of a Database System :

 One of the most fundamental characteristics of the database approach
is that the database system contains not only the database itself but
also an entire definition or description of the database structure and
constraints also known as metadata of the database.
 This definition is stored within the DBMS catalog, which contains
information like the structure of every file, the sort and storage
format of every data item, and various constraints/rules on the
information.
  The knowledge stored within the catalog is named meta-data, and it
describes the structure of the first database The catalog is employed
by the DBMS software and by database users such as database
administrators who required to know the information about the
database structure.

 A general-purpose DBMS software package is not written for a

selected database application. Therefore, it must ask the catalog to
understand the structure of the files during a specific database, like
the sort and format of knowledge it will access.
 The DBMS software must work equally well with any number of
database applications, for example, a university database, a banking
database, or a corporation database as long as because the database
definition is stored within the catalog In traditional file processing,
data definition is usually a part of the files. File processing software
can access only specific databases, Database Management software
can access various databases by extracting the database definitions or
schemas from the catalog and using these definitions.

Approach-2:

Isolation between Programs and Data, and Data Abstraction :

 In a traditional file processing system, the structure of database
knowledge files is embedded within the application programs, so any
changes to the structure of a file may require changing all programs
that access that file.
 Against this, DBMS access programs don’t require such changes in
most cases, so independence is achieved between them.
 The structure of knowledge files is stored within the DBMS catalog
separately from the programs that access them. We call this property
program-data independence.
 The characteristic that allows program-data independence and
program-operation independence is known as data abstraction.

Approach-3:

Support for Multiple Views of the Data:

 A database sometimes has many users, each of whom may require a
special perspective or view of the database.
 A view could also be a subset of the database, or it’s going to contain
virtual data that is derived from the database files but isn’t explicitly
stored.
  Some users might not get to remember whether the information they
ask for is stored or derived.

 A multi-user DBMS whose users have a spread of distinct

applications must provide facilities for outlining multiple views. This
provides many benefits for large databases such as the Aadhaar
database.

Approach-4:

Sharing of knowledge and Multi-user Transaction Processing :

 A multi-user DBMS, as its name implies, must allow multiple users
to access the database at an equivalent time or concurrently.
 This is often essential if data for multiple applications is to be
integrated and maintained during a single database such as the latest
feature of WhatsApp integration with Facebook.
 The DBMS must implement concurrency control in the software to
make sure that several users trying to update equivalent data do so in
a controlled manner in order that the results of the updates are
correct.
 For instance, when several reservation agents attempt to assign a seat
on an airline flight, the DBMS should make sure that each seat is
often accessed by just one user agent at a single time for an
assignment to a passenger.
 These sorts of applications are generally called online transaction
processing (OLTP) applications. A fundamental role of multi-user
DBMS software is to make sure that concurrent transactions operate
correctly and efficiently with no inconsistency.
 The concept of a transaction has become central to several database
applications. A transaction is an executing program or process that
has one or more database accesses, like reading or updating of
database records or inserting new records.
 The isolation property ensures that every transaction appears to
execute in isolation from other transactions, many transactions could
also be executed concurrently without affecting each other.
Different people behind DBMS /Database Users:
1. Actors on the scene
2. Workers behind the scenes

1. Actors on the scene

 Database Administrators:
 Administrating the primary (database) and secondary
(DBMS and related software) is the responsibility of
the database administrator (DBA). The DBA is responsible
for authorizing access to the database, for coordinating and
monitoring its use, and for acquiring software and hardware
resources as needed.

 Database Designers:
Database Designers are responsible for identifying the data
to be stored in the database and for choosing appropriate
structures to represent and store this data. Database
designer typically interact with each potential group and
users and develop a view of the database that meets the data
and processing requirements of this groups.

 End Users:
End users are the people whose jobs require access to the
database for querying, updating, and generating reports; the
database primarily exists for their use.

There are several categories of end users:

 Casual end user:
Occasionally access the database, but they may need different
information each time. They are typically middle-or high-level
managers or other occasional browsers.

 Naive or Parametric end user:

Their main job function revolves around constantly querying and
updating the database, using standard types of queries and updates
that have been carefully programmed and tested. Bank tellers,
Reservation Clerks for airlines, hotels, etc are the example of Naive
end users.

 Sophisticated end users:

Sophisticated end users include engineers, scientist, business
analyst and others who thoroughly familiarize themselves with the
facilities of the DBMS to implement their applications to meet their
complex requirements.

 Stand-alone users:
 They maintain personal database by using ready-made program
packages that provide easy-to-use menu or graphics-based
interfaces.

 Software Engineers:
System analysts determines the requirements of end users,
especially naive and parametric end users, and develop
specifications for canned transactions that meet these
requirements.
Application programmers implement these specifications as
programs; then they test, debug, document, and maintain these
canned transactions. Such analyst and programmers are
called Software Engineers.

2. Workers behind the scenes

 DBMS system designers and implementers design and implement

the DBMS modules and interfaces as a software package. A DBMS is a
very complex software system that consists of many components, or
modules, including modules for implementing the catalogue, query
language processing, interface processing, accessing, and buffering data,
controlling concurrency, and handling data recovery and security. The
DBMS must interface with other system software such as the operating
system and compilers for various programming languages.
 Tool developers design and implement tools—the software packages
that facilitate database modelling and design, database system design, and
improved performance. Tools are optional packages that are often
purchased separately. They include packages for database design,
performance monitoring, natural language or graphical interfaces,
prototyping, simulation, and test data generation. In many cases,
independent software vendors develop and market these tools.
 Operators and maintenance personnel (system administration
personnel) are responsible for the actual running and maintenance of the
hardware and software environment for the database system.

Advantages of DBMS over File System

DBMS

DBMS stands for Database Management System, which is a tool, or a software

used for the creation, deletion, and manipulation of the data in the database.
DBMS helps users to insert new data sets into the existing database or delete
some data from the database. DBMS allows users to share the database, which
means multiple users can access the database and use its data. DBMS also
makes sure that the data will be consistent and secure. In DBMS, we can define
our own data structure and data with specific constraints. DBMS uses various
algorithms for securing its data from cyber-attacks. So, we can define the
DBMS as an interface between the database and the user. DBMS is evolving
with time, and we can see artificial intelligence-based database management
systems after a few times.

File System

The file management system is also a database management system where data
is stored in the form of files. It is an old traditional way to store the data in the
files. Each file does not have any relation with other files. Tables are stored in
the files, and sometimes only a single table is stored in a file which is also
known as a flat file.

 Data Redundancy and Inconsistency:

Redundancy means repeating the data in a system. In a normal file
system, there is a high chance that there can be various files of the same
data used by different users for specific purposes. If any user changes the
data in its files, then the changes are not reflected in all files. This creates
inconsistency in the data, and it may lead to the failure of the system. But
in the DBMS, there is only one repository of data, and multiple users can
use it. If any user changes the data, then it is reflected to each user as they
are using the same repository.
 Data Sharing:
In the normal file system, data sharing is too difficult because file sharing
is a complex task. In DBMS, all the data is centralized, so data sharing is
a very easy task.
 Data Concurrency:
When more than one user accesses the database simultaneously, then it is
called concurrency. In a file system, when multiple users are using the
files at the same time, then there may be a chance of anomalies in the data
due to changes, and it does not provide any method to detect anomalies.
But in DBMS, we have a locking system to detect the anomalies so we
can protect the data.
 Data Searching:
To search the data in a file system, we have to write a specific program
and run it. In DBMS, we have query languages by which we can write
small queries to get the data we want from the database. We can use
various query languages, like MySQL, Oracle, etc., for a database to
search and retrieve the data.
  Data Integrity:
When we insert new data into the database, we require some specific
constraints on the data like integer or not null, etc. The file system does
not provide any system to check the constraints, whereas DBMS has the
functionality to check the constraints on the data, and it allows user
defined data types.
 System Crashing:
There are various reasons by which our system can crash. Once a system
crashes, the file system loses all its files and data, and we can not recover
it again. But DBMS has a recovery manager which can recover the data if
the system crashes.
 Data Security:
In the file system, we have only password protection to save the files and
data, but it is not reliable. In DBMS, we have special algorithms and
features to secure the data.
 Backup:
For the backup of data, DBMS creates a subsystem, whereas the file
system does not create any system for data backup.
 Interfaces:
DBMS provides various kinds of the interface to users like application
interfaces, graphical interfaces, etc.
 Maintenance:
The file system is not maintained easily because it is decentralized,
whereas DBMS is a centralized system, so it becomes easy to maintain it.

Three Schema Architecture:

 The three-schema architecture is also called ANSI/SPARC architecture or

three-level architecture.
 This framework is used to describe the structure of a specific database
system.
 The three-schema architecture is also used to separate the user
applications and physical database.
 The three-schema architecture contains three-levels. It breaks the
database down into three different categories.

1. Physical Level: At the physical level, the information about the location of
database objects in the data store is kept. Various users of DBMS are
unaware of the locations of these objects. In simple terms, physical level of
a database describes how the data is being stored in secondary storage
devices like disks and tapes and gives insights on additional storage details.
2. Conceptual Level: At conceptual level, data is represented in the form of
various database tables. For Example, STUDENT database may contain
 STUDENT and COURSE tables which will be visible to users, but users
are unaware of their storage. Also referred as logical schema, it describes
what kind of data is to be stored in the database.
3. External Level: An external level specifies a view of the data in terms of
conceptual level tables. Each external level view is used to cater to the
needs of a particular category of users. For Example, FACULTY of a
university is interested in looking course details of students, STUDENTS
are interested in looking at all details related to academics, accounts,
courses, and hostel details as well. So, different views can be generated for
different users. The focus of external level is data abstraction.

Database Administrator
Database administration involves the installing, configuring, monitoring,
maintaining, and improving the performance of databases and data stores. While
design of databases would be part of solution architecture, the implementation
and maintenance of development and production database environments would
be the work of the DBA.

What does a DBA do?

 Creating and maintaining database standards and policies

 Supporting database design, creation, and testing activities
 Managing the database availability and performance, including incident
and problem management
 Administering database objects to achieve optimum utilization.
 Defining and implementing event triggers that will alert on potential
database performance or integrity issues.
 Performing database housekeeping, such as tuning, indexing, etc.
 Monitoring usage, transaction volumes, response times, concurrency
levels, etc.
 Identifying reporting, and managing database security issues, audit trails,
and forensics
 Designing database backup, archiving, and storage strategy

Role, Duties and Responsibilities of database Administrator (DBA)

1. Deciding the hardware device

Depending upon the cost, performance, and efficiency of the hardware, it is
DBA who have the duty of deciding which hardware devise will suit the
company requirement. It is hardware that is an interface between end users and
database, so it needed to be of best quality.

2. Managing Data Integrity

Data integrity should be managed accurately because it protects the data from
unauthorized use. DBA manages relationship between the data to maintain data
consistency.

3. Decides Data Recovery and Back up method

If any company is having a big database, then it is likely to happen that database
may fail at any instance. It is required that a DBA takes backup of entire
database in regular time span. DBA must decide that how much data should be
backed up and how frequently the back should be taken. Also, the recovery of
data base is done by DBA if they have lost the database.

4. Tuning Database Performance

Database performance plays an important role for any business. If user is not
able to fetch data speedily then it may loss company business. So, by tuning an
modifying SQL commands a DBA can improves the performance of database.

5. Capacity Issues
All the databases have their limits of storing data in it and the physical memory
also has some limitations. DBA must decide the limit and capacity of database
and all the issues related to it.

6. Database design
The logical design of the database is designed by the DBA. Also, a DBA is
responsible for physical design, external model design, and integrity control.

7. Database accessibility
DBA writes subschema to decide the accessibility of database. He decides the
users of the database and which data is to be used by which user. No user must
power to access the entire database without the permission of DBA.

8. Decides validation checks on data

DBA must decide which data should be used and what kind of data is accurate
for the company. So, he always puts validation checks on data to make it more
accurate and consistence.

9. Monitoring performance
If database is working properly then it doesn’t mean that there is no task for the
DBA. Yes, of course, he must monitor the performance of the database. A DBA
monitors the CPU and memory usage.

10. Decides content of the database

A database system has many kinds of content information in it. DBA decides
fields, types of fields, and range of values of the content in the database system.
One can say that DBA decides the structure of database files.

Types of Databases

There are several types of databases, that are briefly explained below.

1. Hierarchical Databases
Just as in any hierarchy, this database follows the progression of data being
categorized in ranks or levels, wherein data is categorized based on a common
point of linkage. As a result, two entities of data will be lower in rank, and the
commonality would assume a higher rank. Refer to the diagram below:

Hierarchical Database Example

Do note how Departments and Administration are entirely unlike each other
and yet fall under the domain of a university. They are elements that form this
hierarchy.
Another perspective advises visualizing the data being organized in a parent-
child relationship, which upon addition of multiple data elements would
resemble a tree. The child records are linked to the parent record using a field,
and so the parent record is allowed multiple child records. However, vice versa
is not possible.
Notice that due to such a structure, hierarchical databases are not easily
salable; the addition of data elements requires a lengthy traversal through the
database.
2. Network Databases
In Layman’s terms, a network database is a hierarchical database, but with a
major tweak. The child records are given the freedom to associate with
multiple parent records. As a result, a network or net of database files linked
with multiple threads is observed. Notice how the Student, Faculty, and
Resources elements each have two-parent records, which are Departments and
Clubs.
 Network Database Example
Certainly, a complex framework, network databases are more capable of
representing two-directional relationships. Also, conceptual simplicity favors
the utilization of a simpler database management language.
The disadvantage lies in the inability to alter the structure due to its
complexity and in it being highly structurally dependent.
3. Object-Oriented Databases
Those familiar with the Object-Oriented Programming Paradigm would be
able to relate to this model of databases easily. Information stored in a
database is capable of being represented as an object which response as an
instance of the database model. Therefore, the object can be referenced and
called without any difficulty. As a result, the workload on the database is
substantially reduced.

Object-Oriented Example
In the chart above, we have different objects linked to one another using
methods; one can get the address of the Person (represented by the Person
Object) using the livesAt() method. Furthermore, these objects have attributes
which are in fact the data elements that need to be defined in the database.

4. Relational Databases
Considered the most mature of all databases, these databases lead in the
production line along with their management systems. In this database, every
piece of information has a relationship with every other piece of information.
This is on account of every data value in the database having a unique identity
in the form of a record.
Note that all data is tabulated in this model. Therefore, every row of data in the
database is linked with another row using a primary key. Similarly, every table
is linked with another table using a foreign key.
Refer to the diagram below and notice how the concept of ‘Keys’ is used to
link two tables.

Relational Database Example

Due to this introduction of tables to organize data, it has become exceedingly
popular. In consequence, they are widely integrated into Web-Ap interfaces to
serve as ideal repositories for user data. What makes it further interesting is
the ease in mastering it, since the language used to interact with the database is
simple (SQL in this case) and easy to comprehend.
It is also worth knowing in Relational databases, scaling and traversing
through data is quite a light-weighted task in comparison to Hierarchical
Databases.
The database system Environment
The top part of the diagram shows interfaces for the DBA staff, casual users
who work with interactive interfaces to formulate queries, application
programmers who create programs using some host programming languages,
and parametric users who do data entry work by supplying parameters to
predefined transactions. The DBA staff works on defining the database and
tuning it by making changes to its definition using the DDL and other privileged
commands.
The DDL compiler processes schema definitions, specified in the DDL, and
stores descriptions of the schemas (meta-data) in the DBMS catalog. The
catalog includes information such as the names and sizes of files, names and
data types of data items, storage details of each file, mapping information
among schemas, and constraints. In addition, the catalog stores many other
types of information that are needed by the DBMS modules, which can then
look up the catalog information as needed.
Casual users and persons with occasional need for information from the
database interact using some form of interface, which we call the interactive
query interface. We have not explicitly shown any menu-based or form-based
interaction that may be used to generate the interactive query automatically.
These queries are parsed and validated for correctness of the query syntax, the
names of files and
 data elements, and so on by a query compiler that compiles them
into an internal form. This internal query is subjected to query optimization.
Among other things, the query optimizer is concerned with the rearrangement
and possible reordering of operations, elimination of redundancies, and use of
correct algorithms and indexes during execution. It consults the system catalog
for statistical and other physical information about the stored data and generates
executable code that performs the necessary operations for the query and makes
calls on the runtime processor.
Application programmers write programs in host languages such
as Java, C, or C++ that are submitted to a pre-compiler. The pre-
compiler extracts DML commands from an application program written in a
host programming language. These commands are sent to the DML compiler for
compilation into object code for database access. The rest of the program is sent
to the host language compiler. The object codes for the DML commands and the
rest of the program are linked, forming a canned transaction whose executable
code includes calls to the runtime database processor. Canned transactions are
executed repeatedly by parametric users, who simply supply the parameters to
the transactions. Each execution is a separate transaction. An example is a bank
withdrawal transaction where the account number and the amount may be
supplied as parameters.
 In the lower part of diagram, the runtime database
processor executes (1) the privileged commands, (2) the executable query
plans, and (3) the canned transactions with runtime parameters. It works with
the system catalog and may update it with statistics. It also works with
the stored data manager, which in turn uses basic operating system services
for carrying out low-level input/output (read/write) operations between the disk
and main memory. The runtime database processor handles other aspects of data
transfer, such as management of buffers in the main memory. Some DBMSs
have their own buffer management module while others depend on the OS for
buffer management. We have shown concurrency control and backup and
recovery systems separately as a module in this figure. They are integrated into
the working of the runtime database processor for purposes of transaction
management.
It is now common to have the client
program that accesses the DBMS running on a separate computer from the
computer on which the database resides. The former is called the client
computer running a DBMS client software and the latter is called the database
server. In some cases, the client accesses a middle computer, called
the application server, which in turn accesses the database server. We
elaborate on this topic in Section 2.5.
DBMS diagram is not meant to describe a
specific DBMS; rather, it illustrates typical DBMS modules. The DBMS
interacts with the operating system when disk accesses—to the database or to
the catalog—are needed. If the computer system is shared by many users, the
OS will schedule DBMS disk access requests and DBMS processing along with
other processes. On the other hand, if the computer system is mainly dedicated
to running the database server, the DBMS will control main memory buffering
of disk pages. The DBMS also interfaces with compilers for general-purpose
host programming languages, and with application servers and client programs
running on separate machines through the system network interface.
Classification of Databases

There are various types of databases used for storing different varieties of data:

1) Centralized Database

It is the type of database that stores data at a centralized database system. It

comforts the users to access the stored data from different locations through
several applications. These applications contain the authentication process to let
users access data securely. An example of a Centralized database can be Central
Library that carries a central database of each library in a college/university.

Advantages of Centralized Database

o It has decreased the risk of data management, i.e., manipulation of data

will not affect the core data.

o Data consistency is maintained as it manages data in a central repository.

o It provides better data quality, which enables organizations to establish

data standards.

o It is less costly because fewer vendors are required to handle the data sets.

Disadvantages of Centralized Database

o The size of the centralized database is large, which increases the response
time for fetching the data.

o It is not easy to update such an extensive database system.

o If any server failure occurs, entire data will be lost, which could be a huge
loss.

2) Distributed Database

Unlike a centralized database system, in distributed systems, data is distributed

among different database systems of an organization. These database systems
are connected via communication links. Such links help the end-users to access
the data easily. Examples of the Distributed database are Apache Cassandra,
HBase, Ignite, etc.

We can further divide a distributed database system into:

 o Homogeneous DDB: Those database systems which execute on the same
operating system and use the same application process and carry the same
hardware devices.

o Heterogeneous DDB: Those database systems which execute on

different operating systems under different application procedures, and
carries different hardware devices.

Advantages of Distributed Database

o Modular development is possible in a distributed database, i.e., the

system can be expanded by including new computers and connecting
them to the distributed system.

o One server failure will not affect the entire data set.

3) Relational Database

This database is based on the relational data model, which stores data in the
form of rows(tuple) and columns(attributes), and together forms a
table(relation). A relational database uses SQL for storing, manipulating, as
well as maintaining the data. E.F. Codd invented the database in 1970. Each
table in the database carries a key that makes the data unique from
others. Examples of Relational databases are MySQL, Microsoft SQL Server,
Oracle, etc.

Properties of Relational Database

There are following four commonly known properties of a relational model

known as ACID properties, where:

A means Atomicity: This ensures the data operation will complete either with
success or with failure. It follows the 'all or nothing' strategy. For example, a
transaction will either be committed or will abort.

C means Consistency: If we perform any operation over the data, its value
before and after the operation should be preserved. For example, the account
balance before and after the transaction should be correct, i.e., it should remain
conserved.

I mean Isolation: There can be concurrent users for accessing data at the same
time from the database. Thus, isolation between the data should remain isolated.
For example, when multiple transactions occur at the same time, one transaction
effects should not be visible to the other transactions in the database.
D means Durability: It ensures that once it completes the operation and
commits the data, data changes should remain permanent.

4) NoSQL Database

Non-SQL/Not Only SQL is a type of database that is used for storing a wide
range of data sets. It is not a relational database as it stores data not only in
tabular form but in several different ways. It came into existence when the
demand for building modern applications increased. Thus, NoSQL presented a
wide variety of database technologies in response to the demands. We can
further divide a NoSQL database into the following four types:

a. Key-value storage: It is the simplest type of database storage where it

stores every single item as a key (or attribute name) holding its value,
together.

b. Document-oriented Database: A type of database used to store data as

JSON-like document. It helps developers in storing data by using the
same document-model format as used in the application code.

c. Graph Databases: It is used for storing vast amounts of data in a graph-

like structure. Most commonly, social networking websites use the graph
database.

d. Wide-column stores: It is similar to the data represented in relational

databases. Here, data is stored in large columns together, instead of
storing in rows.

Advantages of NoSQL Database

o It enables good productivity in the application development as it is not

required to store data in a structured format.

o It is a better option for managing and handling large data sets.

 o It provides high scalability.

o Users can quickly access data from the database through key-value.

5) Cloud Database

A type of database where data is stored in a virtual environment and executes

over the cloud computing platform. It provides users with various cloud
computing services (SaaS, PaaS, IaaS, etc.) for accessing the database. There
are numerous cloud platforms, but the best options are:

o Amazon Web Services (AWS)

o Microsoft Azure

o Kamatera

o PhonixNAP

o ScienceSoft

o Google Cloud SQL, etc.

6) Object-oriented Databases

The type of database that uses the object-based data model approach for storing
data in the database system. The data is represented and stored as objects which
are like the objects used in the object-oriented programming language.

7) Hierarchical Databases

It is the type of database that stores data in the form of parent-children

relationship nodes. Here, it organizes data in a tree-like structure.
Data get stored in the form of records that are connected via links. Each child
record in the tree will contain only one parent. On the other hand, each parent
record can have multiple child records.

8) Network Databases

It is the database that typically follows the network data model. Here, the
representation of data is in the form of nodes connected via links between them.
Unlike the hierarchical database, it allows each record to have multiple children
and parent nodes to form a generalized graph structure.

9) Personal Database

Collecting and storing data on the user's system defines a Personal Database.
This database is basically designed for a single user.

Advantage of Personal Database

o It is simple and easy to handle.

o It occupies less storage space as it is small.

10) Operational Database

The type of database which creates and updates the database in real-time. It is
basically designed for executing and handling the daily data operations in
several businesses. For example, an organization uses operational databases for
managing per day transactions.