1.

INTRODUCTION TO ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE

INTRODUCTION
Artificial Intelligence is one of the booming technologies of computer science, which is ready to create a
new revolution in the world by making intelligent machines. AI is now all around us. It is currently working
with a variety of subfields, ranging from general to specific, such as self-driving cars, playing chess, proving
theorems, playing music, painting etc. AI holds a tendency to cause a machine to work as a human.

What is Artificial Intelligence?

Artificial Intelligence is composed of two words Artificial and Intelligence, where Artificial defines
"man-made," and intelligence defines "thinking power", hence AI means "a man-made thinking power."
So, we can define AI as, "It is a branch of computer science by which we can create intelligent machines
which can behave like a human, think like humans, and able to make decisions."

Why Artificial Intelligence?

 With the help of AI, we can create such software or devices which can solve real-world problems very
easily and with accuracy such as health issues, marketing, traffic issues, etc.
 With the help of AI, we can create your personal virtual Assistant, such as Cortana, Google Assistant
etc.
 With the help of AI, we can build such Robots which can work in an environment where survival of
humans can be at risk.
 AI opens a path for other new technologies, new devices, and new Opportunities.

Goals of Artificial Intelligence: Following are the main goals of Artificial Intelligence:
1. Replicate human intelligence
2. Solve Knowledge-intensive tasks
3. An intelligent connection of perception and action
4. Building a machine which can perform tasks that requires human intelligence such as:
 Proving a theorem
 Playing chess
 Plan some surgical operation
5. Driving a car in trafficCreating some system which can exhibit intelligent behavior, learn new things by
itself, demonstrate, explain, and can advise to its user.

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Definition: “AI is the study of how to make computers do things at which, at the moment, people are better”.

Advantages of Artificial Intelligence:

1. High Accuracy with fewer errors: AI machines or systems are prone to less errors and high accuracy as it
takes decisions as per pre-experience or information.
2. High-Speed: AI systems can be of very high-speed and fast-decision making; because of that AI systems
can beat a chess champion in the Chess game.
3. High reliability: AI machines are highly reliable and can perform the same action multiple times with high
accuracy.
4. Useful for risky areas: AI machines can be helpful in situations such as defusing a bomb, exploring the
ocean floor, where to employ a human can be risky.
5. Digital Assistant: AI can be very useful to provide digital assistant to the users such as AI technology is
currently used by various E-commerce websites to show the products as per customer requirement.
6. Useful as a public utility: AI can be very useful for public utilities such as a self-driving car which can make
our journey safer and hassle-free, facial recognition for security purpose, Natural language processing to
communicate with the human in human-language, etc.

Disadvantages of Artificial Intelligence:

1. High Cost: The hardware and software requirement of AI is very costly as it requires lots of maintenance to
meet current world requirements.
2. Can't think out of the box: Even we are making smarter machines with AI, but still they cannot work out of
the box, as the robot will only do that work for which they are trained, or programmed.
3. No feelings and emotions: AI machines can be an outstanding performer, but still it does not have the
feeling so it cannot make any kind of emotional attachment with human, and may sometime be harmful for
users if the proper care is not taken.
4. Increase dependency on machines: With the increment of technology, people are getting more dependent on
devices and hence they are losing their mental capabilities.
5. No Original Creativity: As humans are so creative and can imagine some new ideas but still AI machines
cannot beat this power of human intelligence and cannot be creative and imaginative.

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HISTORY OF AI

Year 1943: The first work which is now recognized as AI was done by Warren McCulloch and Walter pits in
1943. They proposed a model of artificial neurons.
Year 1949: Donald Hebb demonstrated an updating rule for modifying the connection strength between
neurons. His rule is now called Hebbian learning.
Year 1950: The Alan Turing who was an English mathematician and pioneered Machine learning in 1950. Alan
Turing publishes "Computing Machinery and Intelligence" in which he proposed a test. The test can check the
machine's ability to exhibit intelligent behavior equivalent to human intelligence, called a Turing test.
Year 1955: An Allen Newell and Herbert A. Simon created the "first artificial intelligence program"Which was
named as "Logic Theorist". This program had proved 38 of 52 Mathematics theorems, and find new and more
elegant proofs for some theorems.
Year 1956: The word "Artificial Intelligence" first adopted by American Computer scientist John McCarthy at
the Dartmouth Conference. For the first time, AI coined as an academic field.
Year 1966: The researchers emphasized developing algorithms which can solve mathematical problems. Joseph
Weizenbaum created the first chatbot in 1966, which was named as ELIZA.
Year 1972: The first intelligent humanoid robot was built in Japan which was named as WABOT-1.
Year 1974-1980: The duration between years 1974 to 1980 was the first AI winter duration. AI winter refers to
the time period where computer scientist dealt with a severe shortage of funding from government for AI
researches.
Year 1980: After AI winter duration, AI came back with "Expert System". Expert systems were programmed
that emulate the decision-making ability of a human expert.
Year 1987-1993: The duration between the years 1987 to 1993 was the second AI Winter duration. Again
Investors and government stopped in funding for AI research as due to high cost but not efficient result.
Year 1997: In the year 1997, IBM Deep Blue beats world chess champion, Gary Kasparov, and became the first
computer to beat a world chess champion.
Year 2002: for the first time, AI entered the home in the form of Roomba, a vacuum cleaner.
Year 2006: AI came in the Business world till the year 2006. Companies like Facebook, Twitter, and Netflix
also started using AI.
Year 2011: In the year 2011, IBM's Watson won jeopardy, a quiz show, where it had to solve the complex
questions as well as riddles. Watson had proved that it could understand natural language and can solve tricky
questions quickly.
Year 2012: Google has launched an Android app feature "Google now", which was able to provide information
to the user as a prediction.
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Year 2014: In the year 2014, Chatbot "Eugene Goostman" won a competition in the infamous "Turing test."
Year 2018: The "Project Debater" from IBM debated on complex topics with two master debaters and also
performed extremely well.
Now AI has developed to a remarkable level. The concept of Deep learning, big data, and data science
are now trending like a boom. Nowadays companies like Google, Facebook, IBM, and Amazon are working
with AI and creating amazing devices. The future of Artificial Intelligence is inspiring and will come with high
intelligence.

INTELLIGENT SYSTEMS
AI is the combination of computer science, physiology and philosophy. AI is a broad topic consisting of
different fields from Machine vision to expert systems. John McCarthy was one of the founders of AI field who
stated that “AI is the science and engineering of making intelligent machines, especially intelligent computer
programs”.

Other Definitions of AI:

1. AI is the study of mental faculties through the use computational models.
2. The art of creating machines that performs functions which require intelligence when performed by
people.
3. AI is a field of study that seeks to explain & emulate intelligent behavior in terms of computational
processes.
4. AI is the study of how to make computers do things at which, at the moment, people are better.
5. AI is the study of the computations that make it possible to perceive reason & act.
6. AI is the branch of computer science that is concerned with the automation of intelligent behavior.

ELIZA: ELIZA was a program that conversed with user in English. The program was able to converse about
any subject, because it stored subject information in data banks. Another feature of ELIZA was its ability to
pick up speech patterns from user‟s questions & provide responses using those patterns. The following is a
passage that contains dialogue between Eliza & a teenage girl

ELIZA: Hello. I am Eliza.

GIRL: Can you help me?
ELIZA: Don‟t you believe that I can help you?
GIRL: Yes.
ELIZA: I see.
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GIRL: I feel depressed.
ELIZA: How long have you been feeling depressed?
GIRL: Since last month.
ELIZA: That is quite interesting.
GIRL: What is interesting in this?
ELIZA: Have you asked anyone else?
GIRL: NO.
ELIZA: Are you saying no just to be negative?
GIRL: NO I did not ask anyone.
ELIZA: Why no?
GIRL: I do not believe other people.
ELIZA: Say, do you have any psychological problems?
GIRL: I do not know.
ELIZA: Tell me more.

Since then a lot many versions of ELIZA have been developed & are available on the internet. The basic
philosophy & characteristics in all these programs are same.

Characteristics of ELIZA:
1. Simulation of Intelligence
2. Quality of Response
3. Coherence
4. Semantics

Simulation of Intelligence: Eliza programs are not intelligent at all in real sense. The do not understand the
meaning of utterance. Instead these programs simulate intelligent behavior quite effectively by recognizing
keywords & phrases. By using a table lookup, one of a few ways of responding question is chosen.
Quality of Response: It is limited by the sophistication of the ways in which they can process the input text at a
syntactic level. For example, the number of templates available is a serious limitation. However, the success
depends heavily on the fact that the user has a fairly restricted notion of the expected response from the system.
Coherence: The earlier version of the system imposed no structure on the conversation. Each statement was
based entirely on the current input & no context information was used. More complex versions of Eliza can do a
little better. Any sense of intelligence depends strongly on the coherence of the conversation as judged by the
user.
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Semantics: Such systems have no semantic representation of the content of either the user‟s input or the reply.
That is why we say that it does not have intelligence of understanding of what we are saying. But it looks that it
imitates the human conversation style. Because of this, it passed Turing test.

Categorization of Intelligent Systems:

 System that thinks like humans
 System that acts like humans
 System that thinks rationally
 Systems that acts rationally

1. System that thinks like humans: This requires cognitive modeling approaches. Most of the time, it is a
black box where we are not clear about our thought process. One has to know the functioning of the
brain & its mechanism for processing information.
2. System that acts like humans: This requires that the overall behavior of the system should be human like
which could be achieved by observation. Turing test is an example.
Turing Test: Turing Test was introduced by Alan Turing in 1950. A Turing Test is a method of inquiry
in artificial intelligence (AI) for determining whether or not a computer is capable of thinking like a
human.
To conduct this test, we need two people and a machine to be evaluated. One person plays the role of an
interrogator, who is in a separate room from the computer and the other person. The interrogator can ask
questions of either the person or the computer by typing the questions and receiving typed responses.
The interrogator knows them only as A and B and aims to determine which is the person and is a
machine. The goal of the machine is to fool the interrogator into believing that the machine can think. If
a large multiplication, for example, given the computer can give a wrong answer by taking a long time
for calculation as a man can do, to fool the interrogator.

Turing proposed that if the human interrogator in Room C is not able to identify who is in Room A or in
Room B, then the machine possesses intelligence. Turing considered this is a sufficient test for

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 attributing thinking capacity to a machine. As of today, Turing test is the ultimate test a machine must
pass in order to be called as intelligent test.
3. System that thinks rationally: This relies on logic rather than human to measure correctness. For
example, given John is a human and all humans are mortal than one can conclude logically that John is
mortal.
4. System that acts rationally: This is the final category of intelligent system whereby rational behavior we
mean doing the right thing. Even if the method is illogical, the observed behavior must be rational.

Components of AI:
 Knowledge base
 Control strategy
 Inference mechanism

Knowledge base: Ai programs should be learning in nature & update its knowledge accordingly. Knowledge
base generally consists of facts & rules & has the following characteristics:
 It is voluminous in nature & requires proper structuring
 It may be incomplete & imprecise
 It may be dynamic & keep on changing
Control Strategy: It determines which rule to be applied. To know this rule, some heuristics or thumb rules
based on problem domain may be used.
Inference mechanism: It requires search through knowledge base & derives new knowledge using the existing
knowledge with the help of inference rules.

FOUNDATIONS OF AI
The foundations of AI in various fields are as follows
 Mathematics
 Neuroscience
 Control theory
 Linguistics

Mathematics: AI systems use formal logical methods & Boolean logic, Analysis of limits to what to be
computed, probability theory & uncertainty that forms the basis for most approaches to AI, fuzzy logic etc.

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Neuroscience: This science of medicine helps in studying the function of brain. Recent studies use accurate
sensors to correlate brain activity to human thought. By monitoring individual neurons, monkeys can now
control a computer mouse using thought alone. Moore‟s law states that the computers will have as many gates
as humans have neurons. Researchers are working to know as to how to have a mechanical brain. Such systems
will require parallel computation, remapping and interconnections to a large extent.
Control Theory: Machines can modify their behaviour in response to the environment. Steam engine governor,
thermostat & water flow regulator are few examples of Control Theory. This theory of stable feedback systems
helps in building systems that transition from initial state to goal state with minimum energy.
Linguistics: Speech demonstrates so much of human intelligence. Analysis of human language reveals thought
taking place in ways not understood in other settings. Children can create sentences they have never heard
before. Languages & thoughts are believed to be tightly intertwined.

APPLICATIONS OF AI
1. Gaming: AI plays crucial role in strategic games such as chess, poker, tic-tac-toe, etc., where machine can
think of large number of possible positions based on heuristic knowledge.
2. Natural Language Processing: It is possible to interact with the computer that understands natural
language spoken by humans.
3. Expert Systems: There are some applications which integrate machine, software and special information
to impart reasoning and advising. They provide explanation and advice to the users.
4. Vision Systems: These systems understand, interpret and comprehend visual input on the computer. For
example,
a. A spying aeroplane takes photographs, which are used to figure out spatial information or map of the
areas.
b. Doctors use clinical expert system to diagnose the patient.
c. Police use computer software that can recognize the face of criminal with the stored portrait made by
forensic artist.
5. Speech Recognition: Some intelligent systems are capable of hearing and comprehending the language in
terms of sentences and their meanings while a human talks to it. It can handle different accents, slang
words, noise in the background, change in human‟s noise due to cold, etc.
6. Handwriting Recognition: The handwriting recognition software reads the text written on paper by a pen
or on screen by a stylus. It can recognize the shapes of the letters and converts it into editable text.
7. Intelligent Robots: Robots are able to perform the tasks given by humans. They have special sensors to
detect physical data from the real world such as light, heat, temperature, movement, sound, bump, and

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 pressure. They have efficient processors, multiple sensors and huge memory, to exhibit intelligence. In
addition, they are capable of learning from their mistakes and they can adapt to the new environment.

TIC-TAC-TOE GAME PLAYING

TIC-TAC-TOE is a two-player game with one player marking O & other marking X, at their turn in the
spaces in a 3X3 grid. The player who succeeds in playing 3 respective marks in any horizontal, vertical or
diagonal row wins the game.
Here we are considering one human player & the other player to be a computer program. The objective to
play this game using computer is to write a program which never loses. Below are 3 approaches to play this
game which increase in
 Complexity
 Use of generalization
 Clarity of their knowledge
 Extensibility of their approach

Approach 1:
Let us represent 3X3 board as nine elements vector. Each element in a vector can contain any of the
following 3 digits:
 0 - representing blank position
 1 - indicating X player move
 2 - indicating O player move
It is assumed that this program makes use of a move table that consists of vector of 39 (19683) elements.

Index Current Board Position New Board Position

0 000000000 000010000
1 000000001 020000001
2 000000002 000100002
3 000000010 002000010
.
.
.

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 All the possible board positions are stored in Current Board Position column along with its
corresponding next best possible board position in New Board Position column.

Algorithm:
 View the vector (board) as a ternary number.
 Get an index by converting this vector to its corresponding decimal number.
 Get the vector from New Board Position stored at the index. The vector thus selected represents the way
the board will look after the move that should be made.
 So set board position equal to that vector.
Advantage:
 Very efficient in terms of time.
Disadvantages:
 Requires lot of memory space to store move table.
 Lot of work is required to specify entries in move table manually.
 This approach cannot be extended to 3D TIC-TAC-TOE as 327 board positions are to be stored.

Approach 2:
The board B[1..9] is represented by a 9-element vector.
 2 - Representing blank position
 3 - Indicating X player move
 5 - Indicating O player move
In his approach we use the following 3 sub procedures.
 Go(n) – Using this function computer can make a move in square n.
 Make_2 – This function helps the computer to make valid 2 moves.
 PossWin(P) – If player P can win in the next move then it returns the index (from 1 to 9) of the square
that constitutes a winning move, otherwise it returns 0.

The strategy applied by human for this game is that if human is winning in the next move the human plays
in the desired square, else if human is not winning in the next move then one checks if the opponent is winning.
If so then block that square, otherwise try making valid 2 in any row, column (or) diagonal.
The function PossWin operates by checking, one at a time, for each of rows/columns & diagonals.
 If PossWin(P)=0, then P cannot win. Find whether opponent can win. If so then block it. This can be
achieved as follows:

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  If (3*3*2=18) then X player can win as there is one blank square in row, column (or) diagonal.
 If (5*5*2=50) then player O can win.
Advantages:
 Memory Efficient
 Easy to understand
Disadvantages:
 Not as efficient as first one with respect to time
 This approach cannot be extended to 3D TIC-TAC-TOE

Approach 3:
In this approach, we choose board position to be a magic square of order 3; blocks numbered by magic number.
The magic square of order n consists of n2 distinct numbers (from 1 to n2), such that the numbers in all rows, all
columns & both diagonals sum to be 15.

In this approach, we maintain a list of the blocks played by each player. For the sake of convenience,
each block is identified by its number. The following strategy for possible win for a player is used.
 Each pair of blocks a player owns is considered.
 Difference D between 15 & the sum of the two blocks is computed.
o If D<0 or D>9, then these two blocks are not collinear & so can be ignored. Otherwise if the
block representing difference is blank (not in either list) then player can move in that block.
 This strategy will produce a possible win for a player.

Execution: Here, Human uses mind & Machine uses calculations. Assuming that Machine is the first player
Move 1: Machine: Takes the element 5.
Move 2: Human: Takes the element 8.
Move 3: Machine: Takes the element 4. So, the machine elements consists of 5, 4.
Move 4: Human: Takes the element 6. So, the human elements consists of 8, 6.
Move 5: Machine: From the above moves machine has the elements 5, 4. First machine checks whether it can
win. 5+4=9, 15-9=6. Since the element 6 is already taken by the human, there is no possibility of machine
winning in this move. Now machine checks whether human can win (or) not. The elements taken by human 8,
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6. So, 8+6=14, 15-14=1. Since the element 1 is available the machine takes the element 1. Finally, the elements
taken by the Machine are 5, 4, 1.
Move 6: Human: Takes the element 3. So, the human elements consist of 8, 6, 3.
Move 7: Machine: Considering all the elements taken by the 5, 4, 1 now 5+1=6, 15-6=9. Since the element 9 is
available machine takes the element 9.
Therefore, 1+5+9=15 which leads to Machine winning state.
Advantage:
 This approach could extend to handle three-dimensional TIC-TAC-TOE.
Disadvantage:
 Requires more time than other 2 approaches as it must search a tree representing all possible move
sequences before making each move.

DEVELOPMENT OF AI LANGUAGES
AI Languages have traditionally been those which stress on knowledge representation schemes, pattern
matching, flexible search & programs as data. Examples of such languages are
 LISP
 Prolog
 Pop-2
 Machine Learning (ML)

LISP: LISP is a functional Language based on lambda Calculus.

Prolog: It is based on first-order predicate logic. Both the languages are declarative languages where one is
concerned about „what to compute‟ & not „how to compute‟.
Pop-2: It is based on stack-based language providing greater flexibility. It is similar to LISP.
Machine Learning (ML): It is an application of AI that provides systems the ability to automatically learn and
improve from experience without being explicitly programmed. Machine learning focuses on the development
of computer programs that can access data and use it learn for themselves. The primary aim is to allow the
computers learn automatically without human intervention.

CURRENT TRENDS IN AI
 Hard Computing Techniques
 Soft Computing Techniques

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Conventional Computing (Hard Computing) is based on the concept of precise modeling & analyzing to yield
accurate results. Hard Computing Techniques works well for simple problems, but is bound by NP-complete set
which include problems often occurring in biology, medicine, humanities, management sciences & similar
fields.
Soft Computing is a formal computer Science area of study which refers to a collection of computational
techniques in computer science, machine learning & some engineering disciplines, which study, model &
analyze very complex phenomena. Components of Soft Computing include Neural Networks, Fuzzy Systems,
Evolutionary Algorithms, Swarm Intelligence etc.
 Neural Networks have been developed based on functioning of human brains. Attempts to model the
biological neuron have led to development of the field called Artificial Neuron Network.
 Fuzzy Logic (FL) is a method of reasoning that resembles human reasoning. The approach of FL
imitates the way of decision making in humans that involves all intermediate possibilities between
digital values YES and NO. The conventional logic block that a computer can understand takes precise
input and produces a definite output as TRUE or FALSE, which is equivalent to human‟s YES or NO.
 Evolutionary techniques mostly involve meta-heuristic optimization algorithms such as evolutionary
algorithms & Swarm Intelligence.
 Genetic algorithms were developed mainly by emulating nature & behavior of biological chromosome.
 Ant colony algorithm was developed to emulate the behavior of real ants. An ant algorithm is one in
which a set of artificial ants (agents) cooperate to find the solution of a problem by exchanging
information on graph edges.
 Swarm Intelligence (SI) is a type of AI based on the collective behavior of decentralized, self organized
systems. Social insects like ants, bees, wasps & termites perform their tasks independent of other
members of the colony. However, they are able to solve complex problems emerging in their daily lives
by mutual cooperation. This emergent behavior of self organization by a group of social insects is
known as Swarm Intelligence.
 Expert system continues to remain an attractive field for its practical utility in all walk of real life.
 Emergence of Agent technology as a subfield of AI is a significant paradigm shift for software
development & break through as a new revolution. Agents are generally suited in some environment &
are capable of taking autonomous decisions while solving a problem. Multi Agent Systems are designed
using several independent & interacting agents to solve the problems of distributed nature.

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 2. PROBLEM SOLVING: STATE-SPACE SEARCH AND CONTROL STRATEGIES

INTRODUCTION

Problem solving is a method of deriving solution steps beginning from initial description of the problem
to the desired solution. In AI, the problems are frequently modeled as a state space problem where the state
space is a set of all possible states from start to goal states.

The 2 types of problem-solving methods that are generally followed include general purpose & special
purpose methods. A general purpose method is applicable to a wide variety of problems, where a special
purpose method is a tailor method made for a particular problem. The most general approach for solving a
problem is to generate the solution & test it. For generating new state in the search space, an
action/operator/rule is applied & tested whether the state is the goal state or not. In case the state is not the goal
state, the procedure is repeated. The order of application of rules to the current state is called control strategy.

GENERAL PROBLEM SOLVING

Production System:

Production System (PS) is one of the formalisms that help AI programs to do search process more
conveniently in state-space problems. This system consists of start (initial) state(s) & goal (final) state(s) of the
problem along with one or more databases consisting of suitable & necessary information for a particular task.
Production System consists of a number of production rules.

Example 1: Water Jug Problem

Problem Statement: There are two jugs a 4-Gallon one and 3-Gallon one. Neither has any measuring marker on
it. There is a pump that can be used to fill the jugs with water. How can we get exactly 2- Gallon water into the
4- Gallon jug?

The state space for this problem can be described as the set of ordered pairs of integers (x, y) such that x
= 0, 1, 2, 3 or 4 and y = 0, 1, 2 or 3. x represents the number of gallons of water in the 4- Gallon jug. y
represents the number of gallons of water in the 3- Gallon jug. The start state is (0, 0). The goal state is
(2, n) for any value of n.

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 S.No Rule Result Rule Description

1. (x, y) if x<4 (4, y) fill the 4-g jug

2. (x, y) if y<3 (x, 3) fill the 3-g jug

3. (x, y) if x>0 (x-d, y) pour some water out of the 4-g jug

4. (x, y) if y>0 (x, y-d) pour some water out of the 3-g jug

5. (x, y) if x>0 (0, y) Empty the 4-g jug on the ground

6. (x, y) if y>0 (x,0) Empty the 3-g jug on the ground

7. (x, y) if x + y ≥ 4 & y>0 (4,y-(4-x)) Pour water from the 3-g jug into the 4-g jug
until the 4-g jug is full

8. (x, y) if x + y>3 & x>0 (x-(3-y), 3) pour water from the 4-g jug into the 3-g jug
until the 3-g jug is full

9. (x, y) if x + y ≤ 4 & y>0 (x+y,0) Pour all the water from 3-g jug into 4-g jug.

10. (x, y) If x + y ≤ 3 & x>0 (0,x+y) Pour all the water from the 4-g jug into

One Solution to the Water Jug Problem:

Gallon in the 4-Gallon Jug Gallon in the 3-Gallon Jug Rule Applied

0 0

0 3

3 0

3 3

7
15
4 2

5/12

0 2

9/11

2 0

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Example 2: Water Jug Problem

Problem Statement: There are two jugs a 5-Gallon one and 3-Gallon one. Neither has any measuring marker on
it. There is a pump that can be used to fill the jugs with water. How can we get exactly 4- Gallon water into the
5- Gallon jug?
The state space for this problem can be described as the set of ordered pairs of integers (x, y) such that x
= 0, 1, 2, 3, 4 or 5 and y = 0, 1, 2 or 3. x represents the number of gallons of water in the 5- Gallon jug. y
represents the number of gallons of water in the 3- Gallon jug. The start state is (0, 0). The goal state is
(4, n) for any value of n.

Table: Production Rules for Water Jug Problem

One Solution to the Water Jug Problem:

Rule Applied 5-G Jug 3-G Jug

Start State 0 0
1 5 0
8 2 3
4 2 0
6 0 2
1 5 2
8 4 3
Goal State 4 0

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Example 3: Missionaries & Cannibals Problem
Problem Statement: Three missionaries & three cannibals want to cross a river. There is a boat on their side of
the river that can be used by either 1 (or) 2 persons. How should they use this boat to cross the river in such a
way that cannibals never outnumber missionaries on either side of the river? If the cannibals ever outnumber the
missionaries (on either bank) then the missionaries will be eaten. How can they cross over without eaten?
Consider Missionaries as „M‟, Cannibals as „C‟ & Boat as „B‟ which are on the same side of the river.
Initial State: ([3M, 3C, 1B], [0M, 0C, 0B]) Goal State: ([0M, 0C, 0B], [3M, 3C, 1B])

Production rules are as follows:

Rule 1: (0, M): One Missionary sailing the boat from Bank-1 to Bank-2.

Rule 2: (M, 0): One Missionary sailing the boat from Bank-2 to Bank-1.

Rule 3: (M, M): Two Missionaries sailing the boat from Bank-1 to Bank-2.

Rule 4: (M, M): Two Missionaries sailing the boat from Bank-2 to Bank-1.

Rule 5: (M, C): One Missionary & One Cannibal sailing the boat from Bank-1 to Bank-2.

Rule 6: (C, M): One Cannibal & One Missionary sailing the boat from Bank-2 to Bank-1.

Rule 7: (C, C): Two Cannibals sailing the boat from Bank-1 to Bank-2.

Rule 8: (C, C): Two Cannibals sailing the boat from Bank-2 to Bank-1.

Rule 9: (0, C): One Cannibal sailing the boat from Bank-1 to Bank-2.

Rule 10: (C, 0): One Cannibal sailing the boat from Bank-2 to Bank-1.

S.No Rule Applied Persons on River Bank-1 Persons on River Bank-2

1 Start State 3M,3C,1B 0M,0C,0B
2 5 2M,2C,0B 1M,1C,1B
3 2 3M,2C,1B 0M,1C,0B
4 7 3M,0C,0B 0M,3C,1B
5 10 3M,1C,1B 0M,2C,0B
6 3 1M,1C,0B 2M,2C,1B
7 6 2M,2C,1B 1M,1C,0B
8 3 0M,2C,0B 3M,1C,1B
9 10 0M,3C,1B 3M,0C,0B
10 7 0M,1C,0B 3M,2C,1B
11 10 0M,2C,1B 3M,1C,0B
12 7 0M,0C,0B 3M,3C,1B

18
State Space Search:

A State Space Search is another method of problem representation that facilitates easy search. Using this
method, we can also find a path from start state to goal state while solving a problem. A state space basically
consists of 4 components:

1. A set S containing start states of the problem.

2. A set G containing goal states of the problem.
3. Set of nodes (states) in the graph/tree. Each node represents the state in problem-solving process.
4. Set of arcs connecting nodes. Each arc corresponds to operator that is a step in a problem-solving
process.

A solution path is a path through the graph from a node in S to a node in G. The main objective of a search
algorithm is to determine a solution path in graph. There may be more than one solution paths, as there may be
more than one ways of solving the problem.

Example: The Eight-Puzzle Problem

Problem Statement: The eight-puzzle problem has a 3X3 grid with 8 randomly numbered (1 to 8) tiles arranged
on it with one empty cell. At any point, the adjacent tile can move to the empty cell, creating a new empty cell.
Solving this problem involves arranging tiles such that we get the goal state from the start state.

A state for this problem should keep track of the position of all tiles on the game board, with 0 representing the
blank (empty cell) position on the board. The start & goal states may be represented as follows with each list
representing corresponding row:

1. Start state: [ [3, 7, 6], [5, 1, 2], [4, 0, 8] ]

2. Goal state: [ [5, 3, 6], [7, 0, 2], [4, 1, 8] ]
3. The operators can be thought of moving {Up, Down, Left, Right}, the direction in which blank space
effectively moves.

19
Solution: Following is a Partial Search Tree for Eight Puzzle Problem

The search will be continued until the goal state is reached.

Search Tree for Water Jug Problem:

20
Example: Chess Game (One Legal Chess Move)
Chess is basically a competitive 2 player game played on a chequered board with 64 squares arranged in
an 8 X 8 square. Each player is given 16 pieces of the same colour (black or white). These include 1 King, 1
Queen, 2 Rooks, 2 Knights, 2 Bishops & 8 pawns. Each of these pieces move in a unique manner. The player
who chooses the white pieces gets the first turn to play. The players get alternate chances in which they can
move one piece at a time. The objective of this game is to remove the opponent‟s king from the game. The
opponent‟s King has to be placed in such a situation where the king is under immediate attack & there is no way
to save it from the attack. This is known as Checkmate.
For a problem playing chess the starting position can be described as an 8 X 8 array where each position
contains a symbol standing for appropriate piece in the official chess opening position. We can define our goal
as any board position in which the opponent does not have a legal move & his/her king is under attack. The
legal moves provide the way of getting from initial state to goal state. They can be described easily as a set of
rules consisting of 2 parts
 A left side that serves as a pattern to be matched against the current board position
 A right side that describes the change to be made to the board position to reflect the move

Fig: One Legal Chess Move

Note: There will be several number of Rules.

Fig: Another way to Describe Chess Moves

21
Control Strategies:

Control strategy is one of the most important components of problem solving that describes the order of
application of the rules to the current state. Control strategy should be such that it causes motion towards a
solution. The second requirement of control strategy is that it should explore the solution space in a systematic
manner. Depth-First & Breadth-First are systematic control strategies. There are 2 directions in which a search
could proceed
 Data-Driven Search, called Forward Chaining, from the Start State
 Goal-Driven Search, called Backward Chaining, from the Goal State

Forward Chaining: The process of forward chaining begins with known facts & works towards a solution. For
example, in 8-puzzle problem, we start from the start state & work forward to the goal state. In this case, we
begin building a tree of move sequences with the root of the tree as the start state. The states of next level of the
tree are generated by finding all rules whose left sides match with root & use their right side to create the new
state. This process is continued until a configuration that matches the goal state is generated.
Backward Chaining: It is a goal directed strategy that begins with the goal state & continues working backward,
generating more sub-goals that must also be satisfied to satisfy main goal until we reach to start state. Prolog
(Programming in Logic) language uses this strategy. In this case, we begin building a tree of move sequences
with the goal state of the tree as the start state. The states of next level of the tree are generated by finding all
rules whose right sides match with goal state & use their left side to create the new state. This process is
continued until a configuration that matches the start state is generated.
Note: We can use both Data-Driven & Goal-Driven strategies for problem solving, depending on the nature of
the problem.

CHARACTERISTICS OF PROBLEM

1. Type of Problems: There are 3 types of problems in real life,

 Ignorable
 Recoverable
 Irrecoverable
Ignorable: These are the problems where we can ignore the solution steps. For example, in proving a theorem, if
some lemma is proved to prove a theorem & later on we realize that it is not useful, then we can ignore this
solution step & prove another lemma. Such problems can be solved using simple control strategy.

22
Recoverable: These are the problems where solution steps can be undone. For example, in Water Jug Problem,
if we have filled up the jug, we can empty it also. Any state can be reached again by undoing the steps. These
problems are generally puzzles played by a single player. Such problems can be solved by back tracking, so
control strategy can be implemented using a push-down stack.
Irrecoverable: The problems where solution steps cannot be undone. For example, any 2-Player games such as
chess, playing cards, snake & ladder etc are example of this category. Such problems can be solved by planning
process.
2. Decomposability of a Problem: Divide the problem into a set of independent smaller sub-problems,
solve them and combine the solution to get the final solution. The process of dividing sub-problems continues
till we get the set of the smallest sub-problems for which a small collection of specific rules are used. Divide-
And-Conquer technique is the commonly used method for solving such problems. It is an important & useful
characteristic, as each sub-problem is simpler to solve & can be handed over to a different processor. Thus, such
problems can be solved in parallel processing environment.
3. Roll of Knowledge: Knowledge plays an important role in solving any problem. Knowledge could be in
the form of rules & facts which help generating search space for finding the solution.
4. Consistency of Knowledge Base used in Solving Problem: Make sure that knowledge base used to solve
problem is consistent. Inconsistent knowledge base will lead to wrong solutions. For example, if we have
knowledge in the form of rules & facts as follows:
If it is humid, it will rain. If it is sunny, then it is day time. It is sunny day. It is night time.
This knowledge is not consistent as there is a contradiction because „it is a day time‟ can be deduced from the
knowledge, & thus both „it is night time‟ and „it is a day time‟ are not possible at the same time. If knowledge
base has such inconsistency, then some methods may be used to avoid such conflicts.
5. Requirement of Solution: We should analyze the problem whether solution require is absolute (or)
relative. We call solution to be absolute if we have to find exact solution, where as it is relative if we have
reasonable good & approximate solution. For example, in Water Jug Problem, if there are more than one ways
to solve a problem, then we follow one path successfully. There is no need to go back & find a better solution.
In this case, the solution is absolute. In travelling sales man problem, our goal is to find the shortest route,
unless all routes are known, it is difficult to know the shortest route. This is the Best-Path problem; where as
Water Jug is Any-Path problem. Any-Path problem is generally solved in reasonable amount of time by using
heuristics that suggest good paths to explore. Best-Path problems are computationally harder compared with
Any-Path problems.

23
EXHAUSTIVE SEARCHES (OR) UNIFORMED SEARCHES
 Breadth-First Search
 Depth-First Search
 Depth-First Iterative Deepening
 Bidirectional Search

1. Breadth-First Search (BFS):

 BFS is the most common search strategy for traversing a tree or graph. This algorithm searches
breadth wise in a tree or graph.
 BFS algorithm starts searching from the root node of the tree and expands all successor node at the
current level before moving to nodes of next level.
 The breadth-first search algorithm is an example of a General-Graph search algorithm.
 Breadth-first search implemented using FIFO queue data structure.

Algorithm:
1. Create a variable called NODE-LIST and set it to the initial state.
2. Loop until the goal state is found or NODE-LIST is empty.
a. Remove the first element, say E, from the NODE-LIST. If NODE-LIST was empty then quit.
b. For each way that each rule can match the state described in E do:
i. Apply the rule to generate a new state.
ii. If the new state is the goal state, quit and return this state.
iii. Otherwise add this state to the end of NODE-LIST

Advantages:
 BFS will provide a solution if any solution exists.
 If there is more than one solution for a given problem, then BFS will provide the minimal solution
which requires the least number of steps.

Disadvantages:
 BFS requires lots of memory since each level of the tree must be saved into memory to expand the next
level.
 BFS needs lots of time if the solution is far away from the root node.

24
Example 1: S---> A--->B---->C--->D---->G--->H--->E---->F---->I --- >K.

Example 2: a---> b---> c---> d---> e---> f---> g---> h---> i---> j ---> k.

Example 3: BFS for Water Jug Problem

25
Example 4: 8-Puzzle Problem

Example 5:

2. Depth-First Search (DFS):

 DFS is a recursive algorithm for traversing a tree or graph data structure.
 It is called the depth-first search because it starts from the root node and follows each path to its greatest
depth node before moving to the next path.
 DFS uses a stack data structure for its implementation.

26
Algorithm:
1. If the initial state is a goal state, quit and return success.
2. Otherwise, loop until success or failure is signaled.
a) Generate a state, say E, and let it be the successor of the initial state. If there are no more successors,
signal failure.
b) Call Depth-First Search with E as the initial state.
c) If success is returned, signal success. Otherwise continue in this loop.

Advantages:
 DFS requires very less memory as it only needs to store a stack of the nodes on the path from root node
to the current node.
 It takes less time to reach to the goal node than BFS algorithm (if it traverses in the right path).

Disadvantages:
 There is the possibility that many states keep re-occurring, and there is no guarantee of finding the
solution.
 DFS algorithm goes for deep down searching and sometime it may go to the infinite loop.

Example 1:

Note: It will start searching from root node S, and traverse A, then B, then D and E, after traversing E, it will
backtrack the tree as E has no other successor and still goal node is not found. After backtracking it will traverse
node C and then G, and here it will terminate as it found goal node.

27
Example 2:

Example 3: Water Jug Problem

Example 4: 8- Puzzle Problem

28
Example 5: 8- Puzzle Problem

3. Depth-First Iterative Deeping (DFID):

 DFID is a combination of DFS and BFS algorithms. This search algorithm finds out the best depth limit
and does it by gradually increasing the limit until a goal is found.
 This algorithm performs depth-first search up to a certain "depth limit", and it keeps increasing the depth
limit after each iteration until the goal node is found.
 This Search algorithm combines the benefits of Breadth-first search's fast search and depth-first search's
memory efficiency.
 The iterative search algorithm is useful uninformed search when search space is large, and depth of goal
node is unknown.

Example:

29
Iteration 1: A

Iteration 2: A, B, C

Iteration 3: A, B, D, E, C, F, G

Iteration 4: A, B, D, H, I, E, C, F, K, G

In the fourth iteration, the algorithm will find the goal node.
Advantages:
 It combines the benefits of BFS and DFS search algorithm in terms of fast search and memory efficiency.
Disadvantages:
 Repeats all the work of the previous phase.

30
4. Bidirectional Search:

Bidirectional search is a graph search algorithm that runs 2 simultaneous searches. One search moves
forward from the start state & other moves backward from the goal state & stops when the two meet in the
middle. It is useful for those problems which have a single start state & single goal state.

Advantages:
 Bidirectional search is fast.
 Bidirectional search requires less memory

Disadvantages:
 Implementation of the bidirectional search tree is difficult.
 In bidirectional search, one should know the goal state in advance.

Example:

Fig: Graph to be Searched using Bidirectional Search

If match is found, then path can be traced from start to the matched state & from matched to the goal
state. It should be noted that each node has link to its successors as well as to its parent. These links will be
generating complete path from start to goal states.

The trace of finding path from node 1 to 16 using Bidirectional Search is as given below. The Path
obtained is 1, 2, 6, 11, 14, 16.

31
5. Analysis of Search Methods:

Time Complexity: Time required by an algorithm to find a solution.

Space Complexity: Space required by an algorithm to find a solution.

Search Technique Time Space

BFS O( bd ) O( bd )
DFS O( bd ) O(d)
DFID O( bd ) O(d)
Bidirectional O( bd/2 ) O( bd/2 )
Table: Performance Comparison

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Travelling Salesman Problem (TSP):

Statement: In travelling salesman problem (TSP), one is required to find the shortest route of visiting all the
cities once & running back to starting point. Assume that there are „n‟ cities & the distance between each pair of
the cities is given.

The problem seems to be simple, but deceptive. All the possible paths of the search tree are explored &
the shortest path is returned. This will require (n-1)! paths to be examined for „n‟ cities.

 Start generating complete paths, keeping track of the shortest path found so far.
 Stop exploring any path as soon as its partial length becomes greater than the shortest path length found
so far.

In this case, there will be 4!=24 possible paths. In below performance comparison, we can notice that
out of 13 paths shown, 5 paths are partially evaluated.

33
Table: Performance Comparison

34
HEURISTIC SEARCH TECHNIQUES
Heuristic: It is helpful in improving the efficiency of search process.
 Generate & Search
 Branch & Bound Search (Uniformed Cost Search)
 Hill Climbing
 Beam Search
 Best-First Search (A* Algorithm)

Generate & Test:

The Generate and test strategy is the simplest of all approaches. This method generates a solution for the given
problem and tests the generated solution with the required solution.

Algorithm:

Start
 Generate a possible solution
 Test if it is a goal
 If not go to start else quit
End

Advantage:
 Guarantee in finding a solution if a solution really exists.

Disadvantage:
 Not suitable for the larger problems

Branch & Bound Search (Uniform Cost Search):

Uniform-cost search is a searching algorithm used for traversing a weighted tree or graph. This
algorithm comes into play when a different cost is available for each edge. The primary goal of the uniform-cost
search is to find a path to the goal node which has the lowest cumulative cost. Uniform-cost search expands
nodes according to their path costs from the root node. It can be used to solve any graph/tree where the optimal
cost is in demand. A uniform-cost search algorithm is implemented by the priority queue. It gives maximum
priority to the lowest cumulative cost.
35
Example:

Advantage:
 Uniform cost search is optimal because at every state the path with the least cost is chosen.
Disadvantage:
 It does not care about the number of steps involve in searching and only concerned about path cost. Due
to which this algorithm may be stuck in an infinite loop.

Hill Climbing:
 Simple Hill Climbing
 Steepest-Ascent Hill Climbing (Gradient Search)
Simple Hill Climbing:
Simple hill climbing is the simplest way to implement a hill climbing algorithm. It only evaluates the
neighbor node state at a time and selects the first one which optimizes current cost and set it as a current state. It
only checks it's one successor state, and if it finds better than the current state, then move else be in the same
state.
Algorithm:
Step 1: Evaluate the initial state, if it is goal state then return success and Stop.
Step 2: Loop Until a solution is found or there is no new operator left to apply.
Step 3: Select and apply an operator to the current state.
Step 4: Check new state:
 If it is goal state, then return success and quit.
 Else if it is better than the current state then assign new state as a current state.
 Else if not better than the current state, then return to step2.
Step 5: Exit.

36
Steepest-Ascent Hill Climbing (Gradient Search):
The steepest-Ascent algorithm is a variation of simple hill climbing algorithm. This algorithm examines
all the neighboring nodes of the current state and selects one neighbor node which is closest to the goal state.
This algorithm consumes more time as it searches for multiple neighbors.

Algorithm:
Step 1: Evaluate the initial state, if it is goal state then return success and stop, else make current state as initial
state.
Step 2: Loop until a solution is found or the current state does not change.
a) Let SUCC be a state such that any successor of the current state will be better than it.
b) For each operator that applies to the current state:
 Apply the new operator and generate a new state.
 Evaluate the new state.
 If it is goal state, then return it and quit, else compare it to the SUCC.
 If it is better than SUCC, then set new state as SUCC.
 If the SUCC is better than the current state, then set current state to SUCC.
Step 5: Exit.

Disadvantages of Hill Climbing:

1. Local Maximum: It is a state that is better than all its neighbours but not better than some other states which
are far away. From this state all moves looks to be worse. In such situation backtrack to some earlier state &
try going in different direction to find a solution.

2. Plateau: It is a flat area of the search space where all neighbouring states has the same value. It is not
possible to determine the best direction. In such situation make a big jump to some direction & try to get to
new section of the search space.

37
3. Ridge: It is an area of search space that is higher than surrounding areas but that cannot be traversed by
single moves in any one direction. It is a special kind of Local Maxima.

Beam Search:
Beam Search is a heuristic search algorithm in which W number of best nodes at each level is always
expanded. It progresses level-by-level & moves downward only from the best W nodes at each level. Beam
Search uses BFS to build its search tree. At each level of tree it generates all its successors of the states at the
current level, sorts them in order of increasing heuristic values. However it only considers W number of states
at each level, whereas other nodes are ignored.
Here, W - Width of Beam Search
B - Branching Factor
There will only be W * B nodes under consideration at any depth but only W nodes will be selected.

Algorithm:
1. Node=Root_Node; Found= false
2. If Node is the goal node, then Found=true else find SUCCs of Node, if any with its estimated cost and store
in OPEN list;
3. While (Found=false and not able to proceed further) do
{
 Sort OPEN list;
 Select top W elements from OPEN list and put it in W_OPEN list and empty OPEN list
 For each NODE from W_OPEN list
{

38
  If NODE=Goal state then FOUND=true else find SUCCs of NODE. If any with its estimated
cost and store in OPEN list;
}
}
4. If FOUND=true then return Yes otherwise return No;
5. Stop

Example:
Below is the search tree generated using Beam Search Algorithm. Assume, W=2 & B=3. Here black
nodes are selected based on their heuristic values for further expansion.

Best-First Search:
It is a way of combining the advantages of both Depth-First and Breadth-First Search into a single
method. At each step of the best-first search process, we select the most promising of the nodes we have
generated so far. This is done by applying an appropriate heuristic function to each of them.
In some cases we have so many options to solve but only any one of them must be solved. In AI this can
be represented as OR graphs. In this among all available sub problems either of them must be solved. Hence the
name OR graph.

To implement such a graph-search procedure, we will need to use two lists of nodes.

OPEN: This list contains all the nodes those have been generated and have had the heuristic function applied to
them but which have not yet been examined. OPEN is actually a priority queue in which the elements with the
highest priority are those with the most promising value of the heuristic function.
CLOSED: This list contains all the nodes that have already been examined. We need to keep these nodes in
memory if we want to search a graph rather than a tree.
39
Algorithm:
1. Start with OPEN containing just the initial state
2. Until a goal is found or there are no nodes left on OPEN do:
a) Pick the best node on OPEN
b) Generate its successors
c) For each successor do:
i. If it has not been generated before, evaluate it, add it to OPEN, and record its parent.
ii. If it has been generated before, change the parent if this new path is better than the
previous one. In that case, update the cost of getting to this node and to any successors
that this node may already have.
Example:

Fig: A Best-First Search

Step 1: At this level we have only one node, i.e., initial node A

Step 2: Now we generate the successors A, three new nodes are generated namely B, C, and D with the costs of
3, 5 and 1 respectively. So these nodes are added to the OPEN list and A can be shifted to CLOSED list since it
is processed.
40
Among these three nodes D is having the least cost, and hence selected for expansion. So this node is shifted to
CLOSED list.

Step 3: At this stage the node D is expanded generating the new nodes E and F with the costs 4 and 6
respectively. The newly generated nodes will be added to the OPEN list. And node D will be added to CLOSED
list.

Step 4: At this stage node B is expanded generating the new nodes G & H with costs 6 and 5 respectively. The
newly generated nodes will be added to the OPEN list. And node B will be added to CLOSED list.

Step 5: this stage node E is expanded generating the new nodes I & J with costs 2 and 1 respectively. The newly
generated nodes will be added to the OPEN list. And node E will be added to CLOSED list.

41
A* Algorithm:
A* is a Best First Search algorithm that finds the least cost path from initial node to one goal node (out of one or
more possible goals)
f l(x) = g(x) + hl(x)
Where, f l = estimate of cost from initial state to goal state, along the path that generated current node.
g = measure of cost getting from initial state to current node.
hl = estimate of the additional cost of getting from current node to a goal state.
Example 1:

Example 2: Assuming all the values (arcs) as „1‟

42
Optimal Solution by A* Algorithm:
 Underestimation
 Overestimation
Underestimation: From the below start node A is expanded to B, C & D with f values as 4, 5 & 6 respectively.
Here, we are assuming that the cost of all arcs is 1 for the sake of simplicity. Note that node B has minimum f
value, so expand this node to E which has f value as 5. Since f value of C is also 5, we resolve in favour of E,
the path currently we are expanding. Now node E is expanded to node F with f value as 6. Clearly, expansion of
a node F is stopped as f value of C is not the smallest. Thus, we see that by underestimating heuristic value, we
have wasted some effort by eventually discovered that B was farther away than we thought. Now we go back &
try another path & will find the optimal path.

Overestimation: Here we are overestimating heuristic value of each node in the graph/tree. We expand B to E, E
to F & F to G for a solution path of length 4. But assume that there is direct path from D to a solution giving a
path of length 2 as h value of D is also overestimated. We will never find it because of overestimating h(D). We
may find some other worse solution without ever expanding D. So, by overestimating h, we cannot be
guaranteed to find the shortest path.

43
Admissibility of A*:
A search algorithm is admissible, if for any graph, it always terminates in an optional path from start state to
goal state, if path exists. We have seen earlier that if heuristic function „h‟ underestimates the actual value from
current state to goal state, then it bounds to give an optimal solution & hence is called admissible function. So,
we can say that A* always terminates with the optimal path in case h is an admissible heuristic function.

ITERATIVE-DEEPING A*
IDA* is a combination of the DFID & A* algorithm. Here the successive iterations are corresponding to
increasing values of the total cost of a path rather than increasing depth of the search. Algorithm works as
follows:

 For each iteration, perform a DFS pruning off a branch when its total cost (g+h) exceeds a given
threshold.
 The initial threshold starts at the estimate cost of the start state & increases for each iteration of the
algorithm.
 The threshold used for the next iteration is the minimum cost of all values exceeded the current
threshold.
 These steps are repeated till we find a goal state.

Let us consider as example to illustrate the working IDA* Algorithm as shown below. Initially, the
threshold value is the estimated cost of the start node. In the first iteration, threshold=5. Now we generate all the
successors of start node & compute their estimated values as 6, 8, 4, 8 & 9. The successors having values
greater than 5 are to be pruned. Now for next iteration, we consider the threshold to be the minimum of the
pruned nodes value, that is, threshold=6 & the node with 6 value along with node with value 4 are retained for
further expansion.

Advantages:
 Simpler to implement over A* is that it does not use Open & Closed lists
 Finds solution of least cost or optimal solution
 Uses less space than A*

44
 Fig: Working of IDA*

CONSTRAINT SATISFACTION
Many problems in AI can be viewed as problems of constraint satisfaction in which the goal is to
discover some problem state that satisfies a given set of constraints instead of finding a optimal path to the
solution. Such problems are called Constraint Satisfaction (CS) problems. Constraint satisfaction is a two step
process.

45
  First, constraints are discovered and propagated as far as possible throughout the system. Then, if there
is still not a solution then the search begins. A guess about something is made and added as a new
constraint
 Propagation then occurs with this new constraint.

Start State: all the variables are unassigned.

Goal State: all the variables are assigned which satisfy constraints.
Rules:
 Values of variables should be from 0 to 9
 No 2 variables have same value

Algorithm:
1. Propagate available constraints. To do this, first set OPEN to the set of all objects that must have values
assigned to them in a complete solution. Then do until an inconsistency is detected or until OPEN is empty:
a) Select an object OB from OPEN. Strengthen as much as possible the set of constraints that apply to OB.
b) If this set is different from the set that was assigned the last time OB was examined or if this is the first
time OB has been examined, then add to OPEN all objects that share any constraints with OB
c) Remove OB from OPEN.
2. If the union of the constraints discovered above defines a solution, then quit and report the solution.
3. If the union of the constraints discovered above defines a contradiction, then return failure.
4. If neither of the above occurs, then it is necessary to make a guess at in order to proceed. To do this, loop
until a solution is found or all possible solutions have been eliminated
a) Select an object whose value is not yet determined and select a way of strengthening the constraints on
that object.
b) Recursively invoke constrain satisfaction with the current set of constraints augmented by the
strengthening constraint just selected.

Example:

Let us consider M=1, because by adding any 2 single digit number, at maximum we get one as carry.
46
Assume that S=8 (or) 9, S + M = 0 (or) S + M + C3 = 0
If S = 9, S + M = 9 + 1 =10 (with no carry)
If S = 8, S + M + C3 = 8 + 1 + 1 = 10 (with carry). So, we get O value as 0.
Therefore, M = 1, S = 9 & O = 0.

So, here E + 0 = N. Then E =N (It is not possible because no 2 variables should have same value).
E + O + c2 = N
E + 0 + 1 = N which gives E + 1 = N
Estimate E value from the remaining possible numbers i.e.., 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8. So, from our estimation the E &
N values satisfies at E = 5. So, E + 1 = 5 + 1 = 6 i.e.., N = 6 (E + 1 = N)
Therefore, M = 1, S = 9, O = 0, E = 5 & N = 6.

So, here N + R + C1 = E. We already know that E = 5. So, the E value is satisfied by taking R = 8.
6 + 8 + 1 = 15.
Therefore, M = 1, S = 9, O = 0, E = 5, N = 6 & R = 8

.
Here, D + E = Y. It has to satisfy C1 = 1, so that D = 7.
Then, 7 + 5 = 12. So, Y = 2.

47
Final Values are M = 1, S = 9, O = 0, E = 5, N = 6, R = 8, D = 7 & Y = 2.
By substituting all the above values,

Some other Examples of Constraint Satisfaction are as below,

Example 2:

Example 3:

Example 4:

Example 5:

Example 6:

48
 2. PROBLEM REDUCTION AND GAME PLAYING
INTRODUCTION
An effective way of solving a complex problem is to reduce it to simpler parts & solve each part
separately. Problem Reduction enables us to obtain an elegant solution to the problem. The structure called
AND-OR graph (or tree) is useful for representing the solution of complicated problems. The decomposition of
a complex problem generates arcs which we call AND arcs. One AND arc may point to any number of
successors, all of which must be solved.

PROBLEM REDUCTION (AND-OR Graph) (or) AO* ALGORITHM

In real-world applications, complicated problems can be divided into simpler sub-problems. The
solution of each sub-problem may then be combined to obtain the final solution. A given problem may be
solved in a number of ways. An AND-OR Graph provides a simple representation of a complex problem that
leads to better understanding. For instance, if you wish to own a cellular phone then it may be possible that
either someone gifts one to you or you earn money & buy one for yourself. The AND-OR graph which depicts
these possibilities is as shown below

Fig: A simple AND-OR Graph

Let us consider a problem known as Towers of Hanoi to illustrate the need of problem reduction
concept. The Tower of Hanoi is a mathematical game or puzzle. It consists of three rods and a number of disks
of different sizes, which can slide onto any rod. The puzzle starts with the disks being stacked in descending
order of their sizes, with the largest at the bottom of the stack & the smallest at the top thus making a conical
shape. The objective of the puzzle is to move the entire stack to another rod by using the following rules:
 Only one disk can be moved at a time.
 Each move consists of taking the uppermost disk from one of the rods and sliding it onto another rod, on
top of the other disks that may already be present on that rod.
 No larger disk may be placed on top of a smaller disk.
With 3 disks, the puzzle can be solved in 7 moves. The minimal number of moves required to solve a
Tower of Hanoi puzzle is 2n − 1, where n is the number of disks which is as follows

1
 Consider an AND-OR graph where each arc with a single successor has a cost of 1. Let us assume that
the numbers listed in parenthesis ( ) denote the estimated costs, while the numbers in the square brackets [ ]
represent the revised costs of the path. Thick lines indicate paths from a given node.

Let us begin search from start node A & compute the heuristic values for each of its successors, say B &
(C,D) as 19 and (8,9) respectively. The estimated cost of paths from A to B is 20 (19 + cost of one arc from A to
B) & that from A to (C,D) is 19 (8 + 9 + cost of 2 arcs, A to C & A to D). The path from A to (C,D) seems to be
better than that from A to B. So, we expand this AND path by extending C to (G,H) and D to (I,J). Now,
heuristic values of G, H, I & J are 3, 4, 8 & 7 respectively which lead to revised costs of C & D as 9 & 17
respectively. These values are then propagated up & the revised costs of path from A to (C,D) is calculated as
28 (9 + 17+ Cost of arc A to C & A to D).

Note that the revised cost of this path is now 28 instead of the earlier estimation of 19. Thus, this path is
no longer the best path now. Therefore, choose the path from A to B for expansion. After expansion we see that
the heuristic value of node B is 17 thus making the cost of the path from A to B equal to 18. This path is the
best so far. Therefore, we further explore the path from A to B. The process continues until either a solution is
found (or) all paths lead to dead ends, indicating that there is no solution.

Algorithm for AND-OR Graphs:

1. Initialize graph with start node.

2
2. While (start node is not labeled as solved or unsolved through all paths)
{
 Traverse the graph along the best path & expand all the unexpanded nodes on it.
 If node is terminal & heuristic value of the node is 0, label it as solved else label it as unsolved &
propagate the status up to the start node.
 If node is non terminal, add its successors with the heuristic values in the graph.
 Revise the cost of the expanded node & propagate this change along the path till the start node.
 Choose the current best path.
}
3. If (start node = solved), the leaf nodes of the best path from root are the solution nodes, else no solution
exists.
4. Stop.

GAME PLAYING
Game playing is a major topic of AI as it requires intelligence & has certain well-defined states & rules.
A game is defined as a sequence of choices where each choice is made from a number of discrete alternatives.
Each sequence ends in a certain outcome & every outcome has a definite value for opening player.
Games can be classified into 2 types
 Perfect Information Games
 Imperfect Information Games
Perfect Information Games are those in which both the players have access to the same information about the
game in progress. Examples are Tic-Tac-Toe, Chess etc.
Imperfect Information Games are those in which players do not have access to the complete information about
the game. Examples are Cards, Dice etc.

Game Problem versus State Space Problem:

In state space problems, we have a start state, intermediate states, rules or operators & a goal
state. In game problems also we have a start state, legal moves & winning positions (goals).

State Space Problems Game Problems

States Legal board positions
Rules Legal moves
Goals Winning Positions

Table: Comparisons between State Space Problems & Game Problems

3
 A Game begins from a specified initial state & ends in a position that can be declared a win for
one, a loss for the other or possible a draw. A Game Tree is an explicit representation of all possible plays of the
game. The root node is an initial position of the game. Its successors are the positions that the first player can
reach in one move; their successors are the positions resulting from the second player‟s move & so on.
Terminal or leaf nodes are represented by WIN, LOSS (or) DRAW.
Game theory is based on the philosophy of minimizing the maximum possible loss and
maximizing the minimum gain. In game playing involving computers, one player is assumed to be the
computer, while the other is a human. During a game, 2 types of nodes are encountered, namely MAX & MIN.
The MAX node will try to maximize its own game, while minimizing the opponent‟s (MIN) game. Either of the
2 players MAX & MIN can play as first player.

Status Labelling Procedure in Game Tree:

Status labelling procedure for a node with WIN, LOSS or DRAW in case of a game tree is as follows:

A Game Tree in which MAX Plays First:

4
A Game Tree in which MIN Plays First:

Nim Game Problem: Nim game was developed by Charles L. Bouton of Harward University at china in 1901.

The Game: There is a single pile of matchsticks (>1) and two players. Moves are made by the players
alternately. In a move, each player can pick up a maximum of half the number or matchsticks in the pile.
Whoever takes the last match sticks loses. Let us consider for explaining the concept with single pile of 7
matchsticks
The convention used for drawing a game tree is that each node contains the total number of
sticks in the pile and is labeled as W or L in accordance with the status labeling procedure. The player who has
to pick up the last sticks loses. If a single stick is left at the MAX level then as a rule of the game, MAX node is
assigned the status L, whereas if one stick is left at the MIN level, then W is assigned to MIN node as MAX
wins. The label L or W have been assigned from MAX‟s point of view at leaf nodes. Arcs carry the number of
sticks to be removed; Dotted lines show the propagation of status. The complete game tree for Nim with MAX
playing first is as follows

5
The complete game tree for Nim with MIN playing first is as follows

6
MINIMAX PROCEDURE
MINIMAX procedure is a recursive or backtracking algorithm which is used in decision-making and
game theory. This is mostly used for game playing in AI, such as Chess, Checkers, tic-tac-toe & various tow-
players game. In this 2 players play the game, one is called MAX and other is called MIN, where MAX will
select the maximized value and MIN will select the minimized value. The minimax algorithm performs a depth-
first search algorithm for the exploration of the complete game tree. The minimax algorithm proceeds all the
way down to the terminal node of the tree, then backtrack the tree as the recursion.

Working of MINIMAX Algorithm:

 The working of the minimax algorithm can be easily described using an example. Below we have taken
an example of game-tree which is representing the two-player game.
 In this example, there are two players one is called Maximizer and other is called Minimizer.
 Maximizer will try to get the Maximum possible score, and Minimizer will try to get the minimum
possible score.
 This algorithm applies DFS, so in this game-tree, we have to go all the way through the leaves to reach
the terminal nodes.
 At the terminal node, the terminal values are given so we will compare those values and backtrack the
tree until the initial state occurs. Following are the main steps involved in solving the two-player game
tree:
Step 1: In the first step, the algorithm generates the entire game-tree. Let's take A is the initial state of the tree.
Suppose maximizer takes first turn and minimizer will take next turn.

Step 2: Now, first we find the utilities value for the Maximizer. It will find the maximum among the all.

 For node D max(-1,4) = 4

 For Node E max(2, 6) = 6
 For Node F max(-3,-5) = -3
 For node G max(0, 7) = 7

7
Step 3: In the next step, it's a turn for minimizer,

 For node B= min(4,6) = 4

 For node C= min (-3, 7) = -3

Step 4: Now it's a turn for Maximizer, and it will again choose the maximum of all nodes value and find the
maximum value for the root node. In this game tree, there are only 4 layers, hence we reach immediately to the
root node, but in real games, there will be more than 4 layers.

 For node A max(4, -3) = 4

8
Example 2:

Time Complexity: As it performs DFS for the game-tree, the time complexity of MINIMAX algorithm
is O(bm), where b is branching factor of the game-tree, and m is the maximum depth of the tree.
Space Complexity: Space complexity of MINIMAX algorithm is also similar to DFS which is O(bm).

Limitations of MINIMAX Algorithm:

 Gets really slow for complex games such as Chess, go, etc.
 This type of games has a huge branching factor, and the player has lots of choices to decide.
Note: This limitation of the MINIMAX algorithm can be improved from alpha-beta pruning.

Example 2:

Fig: A Game Tree generated using MINIMAX Procedure

ALPHA-BETA PRUNING
Alpha-beta pruning is a modified version of the MINIMAX algorithm. It is an optimization technique
for the MINIMAX algorithm. There is a technique by which without checking each node of the game tree we
can compute the correct MINIMAX decision, and this technique is called Pruning. This involves two threshold
parameter Alpha and beta for future expansion, so it is called ALPHA-BETA pruning.
 Alpha-beta pruning can be applied at any depth of a tree, and sometimes it not only prune the tree leaves
but also entire sub-tree.
 The two-parameter can be defined as:
a) Alpha: The best (highest-value) choice we have found so far at any point along the path of
Maximizer. The initial value of alpha is -∞.

9
 b) Beta: The best (lowest-value) choice we have found so far at any point along the path of
Minimizer. The initial value of beta is +∞.
 Pruning of nodes makes the algorithm fast.

Condition for Alpha-beta pruning: α>=β

Key points:
 The Max player will only update the value of alpha.
 The Min player will only update the value of beta.
 While backtracking the tree, the node values will be passed to upper nodes instead of values of alpha
and beta.
 We will only pass the alpha, beta values to the child nodes.

Working of Alpha-beta pruning:

Step 1: At the first step the, Max player will start first move from node A where α= -∞ and β= +∞, these value
of alpha and beta passed down to node B where again α= -∞ and β= +∞, and Node B passes the same value to
its child D.

Step 2: At Node D, the value of α will be calculated as its turn for Max. The value of α is compared with firstly
2 and then 3, and the max (2, 3) = 3 will be the value of α at node D and node value will also 3.

Step 3: Now algorithm backtracks to node B, where the value of β will change as this is a turn of Min, Now β=
+∞, will compare with the available subsequent nodes value, i.e. min (∞, 3) = 3, hence at node B now α= -∞,
and β= 3.

10
In the next step, algorithm traverse the next successor of Node B which is node E, and the values of α= -∞, and
β= 3 will also be passed.

Step 4: At node E, Max will take its turn, and the value of alpha will change. The current value of alpha will be
compared with 5, so max (-∞, 5) = 5, hence at node E α= 5 and β= 3, where α>=β, so the right successor of E
will be pruned, and algorithm will not traverse it, and the value at node E will be 5.

Step 5: At next step, algorithm again backtrack the tree, from node B to node A. At node A, the value of alpha
will be changed the maximum available value is 3 as max (-∞, 3)= 3, and β= +∞, these two values now passes
to right successor of A which is Node C. At node C, α=3 and β= +∞, and the same values will be passed on to
node F.
Step 6: At node F, again the value of α will be compared with left child which is 0, and max(3,0)= 3, and then
compared with right child which is 1, and max(3,1)= 3 still α remains 3, but the node value of F will become 1.

11
Step 7: Node F returns the node value 1 to node C, at C α= 3 and β= +∞, here the value of beta will be changed,
it will compare with 1 so min (∞, 1) = 1. Now at C, α=3 and β= 1, and again it satisfies the condition α>=β, so
the next child of C which is G will be pruned, and the algorithm will not compute the entire sub-tree G.

Step 8: C now returns the value of 1 to A here the best value for A is max (3, 1) = 3. Following is the final game
tree which is the showing the nodes which are computed and nodes which has never computed. Hence the
optimal value for the maximizer is 3 for this example.

12
Example 2:

Time Complexity: O (bm/2).

TWO-PLAYER PERFECT INFORMATION GAMES

 Chess
 Checkers
 Othello
 Go
 Backgammon

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Chess: Chess is basically a competitive 2 player game played on a chequered board with 64 squares arranged in
an 8 X 8 square. Each player is given 16 pieces of the same colour (black or white). These include 1 King, 1
Queen, 2 Rooks, 2 Knights, 2 Bishops & 8 pawns. Each of these pieces move in a unique manner. The player
who chooses the white pieces gets the first turn to play. The players get alternate chances in which they can
move one piece at a time. The objective of this game is to remove the opponent‟s king from the game. The
opponent‟s King has to be placed in such a situation where the king is under immediate attack & there is no way
to save it from the attack. This is known as Checkmate.

Checkers: Checkers (or) Draughts a 2 player game played on a chequered 8 X 8 square board. Each player gets
12 pieces of the same colour (dark or light) which are played on the dark squares of the board in3 rows. The
row closest to a player is called the king row. The pieces in the king row are called kings, while others are
called men. Kings can move diagonally forward as well as backward. Men can move only diagonally forward.
A player can remove opponent‟s pieces from the game by diagonally jumping over them. When men pieces
jump over king pieces of the opponent, they transform into Kings. The objective of this game is to remove all
the pieces of the opponent from the board or by leading the opponent to such a situation where the opposing
player is left with no legal moves.

Othello: Othello (or) Reversi is a 2 player board game which is played on an 8 X 8 square grid with pieces that
have 2 distinct bi-coloured sides. The pieces typically are shaped as coins, but each possesses a light & a dark
face, each face representing one player. The objective of this game is to make your pieces constitute a majority
of the pieces on the board at the end of the game, by turning over as many of your opponent‟s pieces as
possible.

Go: It is a strategic 2 player game in which the players play alternatively by placing black & white stone on the
vacant intersections of a 19 X 19 board. The objective of the game is to control a larger part of the board than
the opponent. To achieve this, players try to place their stones in such a manner that they cannot be captured by
the opposing player. Placing stones close to each other helps them support one another & avoid capture. On the
other hand, placing them far apart creates an influence across a larger part of the board. It is a strategy that
enables players to play a defensive as well as an offensive game & choose between tactical urgency & strategic
planning. A stone or a group of stones is captured & removed if it has no empty adjacent intersections, that is, it
is completely surrounded by stones of the opposing colour. The game is declared over & the score is counted
when both players consecutively pass on a turn, indicating that neither side can increase its territory or reduce
that of its opponent‟s.

14
Backgammon: It is also a 2 player board game in which the playing pieces are moved using dice. A player wins
by removing all of his pieces from the board. All though luck plays an important role, there is a large scope for
strategy. With each roll of the dice a player must choose from numerous options for moving his checkers &
anticipate the possible counter moves by the opponent. Players may raise the stakes during the game.

15
 3. LOGIC CONCEPTS

PROPOSITIONAL CALCULUS (PC)

Propositional Calculus (PC) refers to a language of propositions in which a set of rules are used to
combine simple propositions to form compound propositions with the help of certain logical operators. These
logical operators are often called connectives. Examples of some connectives are not (~), and (Λ), or (V), implies
(→) & equivalence (↔). A well defined formula is defined as a symbol or a string of symbols generated by the
formal grammar of a formal language.

Properties of a well formed formula in PC:

 The smallest unit (or an atom) is considered to be a well formed formula.

 If α is a well-formed formula, then ~α is a well-formed formula.
 If α and β are well formed formulae, then (α Λ β), (α V β), (α → β), (α ↔ β) are also well-formed
formulae.

Truth Table:

In PC, a truth table is used to provide operational definitions of important logical operators. The logical
constants are true & false which are represented by T & F. Let us assume A, B, C, … are propositioned symbols.

A B ~A AΛB AVB A→B A↔B

T T F T T T T
T F F F T F F
F T T F T T F
F F T F F T T

Example: Compute the truth value of α: (AVB) Λ(~B→A) using truth table approach.

Solution: Using the Truth Table approach, compute truth values of (AVB) and (~B→A) and then compute for the
final expression (AVB) Λ(~B→A).

A B AVB ~B ~B →A α
T T T F T T
T F T T T T
F T T F T T
F F F T F F

Equivalence Laws:

Equivalence relations (or laws) are used to reduce or simplify a given well-formed formula or to derive a
new formula from the existing formula. Some of the important equivalence laws are:

Name of Relation Equivalence Relations

Commutative Law AVB≅BVA
AΛB≅BΛA
Associative Law A V (B V C) ≅ (A V B) V C
1
 A Λ ( B Λ C) ≅ (A Λ B) Λ C
Double Negation ~ (~ A) ≅ A
Distributive Laws A V ( B Λ C) ≅ (A V B) Λ (A V C)
A Λ ( B V C) ≅ (A Λ B) V (A Λ C)
De Morgan‟s Law ~ (A V B) ≅ ~ A Λ ~ B
~ (A Λ B) ≅ ~ A V ~ B
Absorption Laws A V (A Λ B) ≅ A
A Λ (A V B) ≅ A
A V (~A Λ B) ≅ A V B
A Λ (~A V B) ≅ A Λ B
Idempotence AVA≅A
AΛA≅A
Excluded Middle Law A V ~ A ≅ T (True)
Contradiction Law A Λ ~ A ≅ F (False)
AVF≅A
AVT≅T
AΛT≅A
AΛF≅F
Commonly used equivalence relations
A → B ≅ ~A V B
A ↔ B ≅ (A → B) Λ (B → A)
≅ (A Λ B) V (~A Λ ~B)

Let us verify the absorption law A V (A Λ B) ≅ A using the Truth Table approach

A B AΛB A V (A Λ B)
T T T T
T F F T
F T F F
F F F F

PROPOSITIONAL LOGIC (PL)

Propositional Logic (or) prop Logic deals with the validity, satisfiability (also called consistency) and
unsatisfiability (inconsistency) of a formula and the derivation of a new formula using equivalence laws. Each row
of a truth table for a given formula α is called its interpretation under which the value of a formula may be true or
false.

● A formula α is said to be a tautology if and only if the value of α is true for all its interpretations.

Now, the validity, satisfiability & unsatisfiability of a formula may be determined on the basis of the following
conditions:

 A formula α is said to be valid if and only if it is a tautology.

 A formula α is said to be satisfiable if there exists at least one interpretation for which α is true.
 A formula α is said to be unsatisfiable if the value of α is false under all interpretations.

2
Example: Show that the following is a valid argument: “If it is humid then it will rain and since it is humid today it
will rain”
Solution: Let us symbolize each part of the English sentence by propositional atoms as follows:
A: It is humid
B: It will rain
Now, the formula (α) corresponding to the given sentence: “If it is humid then it will rain and since it is humid
today it will rain” may be written as
α: [(A→B) Λ A] →B

The truth table for α: [(A→B) Λ A] →B is as follows

A B A→B=X XΛA=Y Y→ B
T T T T T
T F F F T
F T T F T
F F T F T

Truth table approach is a simple & straight forward method & is extremely useful at presenting an
overview of all the truth values in a given situation. Although it is an easy method for evaluating consistency, in
consistency (or) validity of a formula, the limitation of this method lies in the fact that the size of the truth table
grows exponentially. If a formula contains n atoms, then the truth table will contain 2n entries.

For example, if we have to show that a formula α: (A ΛB ΛC ΛD) → (BVE) is valid using the truth table
approach, then we need to construct the table containing 32 rows & complete the truth values.

There are other methods which can help in proving the validity of the formula directly. Some other
methods that are concerned with proofs & deductions are

 Natural Deductive System

 Axiomatic System
 Semantic Tableaux Method
 Resolution Refutation Method

NATURAL DEDUCTION SYSTEM (NDS)

Natural Deduction System (NDS) is thus called because of the fact that it mimics the pattern of natural
reasoning. The system is based on as set of deductive inference rules. It has about 10 deductive inference rules.
They are as follows

3
Example 1: Prove that A Λ (B V C) is deduced from A Λ B.
Solution: The theorem in NDS can be written as from A Λ B infer A Λ (B V C) in NDS. We can prove the
theorem as follows

Example 2: Prove the theorem infer [(A→B) Λ (B→C)] → (A→C)

Solution: The theorem infer [(A→B) Λ (B→C)] → (A→C) is reduced to the theorem from (A→B), (B→C) infer
(A→C) using deduction theorem. Further to prove „A→C‟ we will have to prove a sub theorem from A infer C.
The proof of the theorem is as follows
4
AXIOMATIC SYSTEM
The Axiomatic System is based on a set of 3 axioms & 1 rule called Modus Ponen (MP). Although it is
minimal in structure, it is as powerful as truth table & NDS. In this system, only 2 logical operators not (~) &
implies (→) are allowed to form a formula. It should be noted that other logical operators such as and (Λ), or (V)
& equivalence (↔) can be easily expressed in terms of not (~) & implies (→) using equivalence laws. For
example,
 A Λ B ≅ ~ (~A V ~B) ≅ ~ (A→ ~ B)
 AVB≅~A→B
 A ↔ B ≅ (A → B) Λ (B → A) ≅ ~ [(A → B) → ~ (B → A)]
In axiomatic system, α, β & γ are well-formed formulae.
Axiom 1: α → (β → α)
Axiom 2: (α →(β→γ)) →((α → β) → (α → γ))
Axiom 3: (~ α → ~ β) → ( β → α)
Modus Ponen (MP) Rule: Hypotheses: α → β and α Consequent: β
Interpretation of Modus Ponen Rule: Given that α → β and α are hypotheses (assumed to be true), β is inferred
(true) as a consequent.
Example 1: Establish that A → C is a deductive consequence of {A → B, B → C}, i.e.., {A→B, B→C} |- (A→ C)

5
Example 2: Prove |- ~A → (A → B) by using deduction theorem.
Solution: If we can prove {~A} |- (A → B) then using deduction theorem, we have proved |- ~A → (A → B). The
proof is a shown below

Note: If ∑ is an empty set & α is deduced, then we can write |- α. In this case, α is deduced from axioms only &
no hypotheses are used.

SEMANTIC TABLEAU SYSTEM IN PROPOSITIONAL LOGIC

In both Natural Deduction & Axiomatic Systems, forward chaining approach is used for constructing
proofs & derivations. In this approach we start proofs (or) derivations from a given set of hypotheses (or) axioms.
In Semantic Tableau System, proofs follow backward chaining approach. In this method, a set of rules are
applied systematically on a formula or a set of formulae in order to establish consistency or inconsistency.
Semantic Tableau Rules:
The Semantic Tableau Rules are given below where α & β are two formulae

Rule 1: A tableau for a formula (α Λ β) is constructed by adding both α and β to the same path (branch).
α Λ β is true if both α and β are true

Rule 2: A tableau for a formula ~ (α Λ β) is constructed by adding two new paths, one containing ~ α and other
containing ~ β.
~ (α Λ β) is true if either ~ α or ~ β is true

6
Rule 3: A tableau for a formula (α V β) is constructed by adding two new paths, one containing α and other
containing β.
α V β is true if either α or β is true

Rule 4: A tableau for a formula ~ (α V β) is constructed by adding both ~ α and ~ β to the same path.
~ (α V β) is true if both ~α and ~β are true

Rule 5: A tableau for ~ ( ~ α ) is constructed by adding α on the same path.

~ ( ~ α ) is true then α is true

Rule 6: A tableau for a formula α → β is constructed by adding two new paths: one containing ~ α and the other
containing β.
α → β is true then ~ α V β is true

Rule 7: A tableau for a formula ~ ( α → β) is constructed by adding both α & ~ β to the same path.
~ ( α → β) is true then α Λ ~β is true

Rule 8: A tableau for a formula α ↔ β is constructed by adding two new paths: one containing α Λ β and other
~α Λ ~β which are furthur expanded.
α ↔ β is true then (α Λ β) V (~α Λ ~β) is true

7
 Rule 9: A tableau for a formula ~ ( α ↔ β) is constructed by adding two new paths: one containing α Λ ~β and
the other ~α Λ β which are furthur expanded.
~ (α ↔ β) is true then (α Λ ~β) V (~α Λ β) is true

Example 1: Construct a Semantic Tableau for a formula (A Λ ~B) Λ (~B → C)

PREDICATE LOGIC
Logic: Logic is concerned with the truth of statements about the world. Generally each statement is either True or
False. Logic includes
 Syntax
 Semantics
 Inference Procedure
Syntax: Specifies the symbols in the language about how they can be combined to form sentences. The facts about
the world are represented as sentences in logic.
Semantic: Specifies how to assign a truth value to a sentence based on its meaning in the world. It specifies what
facts a sentence refers to. A fact is a claim about the world, and it may be True or False.
Inference Procedure: Specifies methods for computing new sentences from an existing ones.

Predicate Logic: It is the study of individuals and their properties.

Conside the following set of sentences:
1. Marcus was a man.

8
 2. Marcus was a Pompeian.
3. All Pompeians were Romans
4. Caesar was a ruler
5. All Romans were either loyal to Caesar or hated him.
6. Everyone is loyal to someone.
7. People only try to assassinate rulers they are not loyal to
8. Marcus tried to assassinate Caesar.
The facts described by these sentences can be represented as a set of WFF‟s (Well Formed Formula) in Predicate
Logic as follows:
1. Marcus was a man.
man (Marcus)
2. Marcus was a Pompeian.
Pompeian (Marcus)
3. All Pompeians were Romans.
x: Pompeian(x)  Roman(x)
4. Caesar was a ruler.
ruler (Caesar)
5. All Romans were either loyal to Caesar or hated him.
x: Roman(x)loyal to (x, Caesar) V hate(x, Caesar)
6. Everyone is loyal to someone.
x: y: loyal to(x, y)
7. People only try to assassinate rulers they are not loyal to
x: y: person(x) ^ ruler(y) ^ try assassinate(x, y)  ¬ loyal to(x, y)
8. Marcus tried to assassinate Caesar.
tryassassinate(Marcus, Caesar)

Now suppose we want to use these statements to answer the question

Was Marcus loyal to Caesar?
It seems that using 7 and 8, we should be able to prove that Marcus was not loyal to Caesar. Now let‟s try to
produce a formal proof, reasoning backward from the desired goal:
¬ loyal to (Marcus, Caesar)

9
 The attempt fails, however, since there is no way to satisfy the goal person(Marcus) with the statements
available. We know that Marcus was a man; we do not have any way to conclude from that Marcus was a person.
We need to add the representation of another fact to our system, namely:

9. All men are people. x : man(x)  person(x)

Fig: An Attempt to Prove ¬ loyalto (Marcus, Caesar)

Now we can satisfy the last goal and produce a proof that Marcus was not loyal to Caesar. From this
example, we see that three important issues must be addressed in the process of converting English sentences into
logical statements and then using those statements to deduce new ones.
 Many English sentences are ambiguous. (Ex: 5, 6, and 7 above). Choosing the correct interpretation may
be difficult.
 There is often a choice of how to represent the knowledge (1 and 7). Simple representations are desirable,
but they may preclude certain kinds of reasoning.
 Even in very simple situations, a set of sentences is unlikely to contain all the information necessary to
reason about the topic at hand.

Representing Instance And Isa Relationships:

The below figure shows the five sentences of the last section represented in logic in three different ways.
The first part of the figure contains the representations we have already discussed. In these representations, class
membership is represented with unary predicates (such as Roman), each of which corresponds to a class.
Asserting that p(x) is true is equivalent to asserting that x is an instance (or element) of P. The second part of
figure contains representations that use the instance predicate explicitly.
The predicate instance is a binary one, whose first argument is an object and whose second argument is a
class to which the object belongs. But these representations do not use an explicit isa predicate. Instead,
subclass relationships, such as that between Pompeians and Romans, are described as shown in sentence 3.The
implication rule there states that if an object is an instance of subclass Pompeian then it is an instance of
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superclass Roman. This rule is equivalent to subclass-superclass relationship. The third part contains
representations that use both instance and isa predicates explicitly. The additional axiom describes how an
instance relation and an isa relation can be combined to derive a new instance relation.
Statements as well-formed formulas (WFF‟s):
1. man (Marcus)
2. Pompeian (Marcus)
3. x: Pompeian (x)  Roman(x)
4. ruler (Caesar)
5. x: Roman (x)  loyal to (x, Caesar) V hate (x, Caesar)
Statement representation using INSTANCE predicate:
1. instance (Marcus, man)
2. instance (Marcus, Pompeian)
3. x: instance (x, Pompeian)  instance (x, Roman)
4. instance (Caesar, ruler)
5. x: instance (x, Roman)  loyalto (x, Caesar) V hate (x, Caesar)
Statements using ISA predicate:
1. instance (Marcus, man)
2. instance (Marcus, Pompeian)
3. isa (Pompeian, Roman)
4. instance (Caesar, ruler)
5. x: instance (x, Roman)  loyalto (x, Caesar) V hate (x, Caesar)
6. x: y: z: instance (x, y) ^ isa (y, z)  instance (x, z)

Computable Functions And Predicates:

In some cases we need to exempt some cases. For example that Paulus was a roman and he never hates
Caesar. So in representing the statement that all roman was hated Caesar, only Paulus need to be exempted. And
hence the statement will be as follows:
x: Roman (x) ^ ¬ equalto(x, Paulus)  loyalto(x, Caesar) V hate(x, Caesar)
These types of exceptions are very easy to represent in case of smaller number of statements. Suppose
we want to express simple facts, such as the following greater-than and less-than relationships:
gt (1, 0) lt (0, 1)
gt (2, 1) lt (1, 2)
gt (3, 2) lt (2, 3) and so on.

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 If there is very large number of predicates like the above statements we can easily represent them and
more over we can also simplify them if we have additional knowledge about them. That is we can infer new
statements in smaller number by inferring new statements from the old.

1. Marcus was a man.

Man (Marcus)
2. Marcus was a Pompeian.
Pompeian (Marcus)
3. Marcus was born in 40 A.D.
born (Marcus, 40)
4. All means are mortal.
x: man(x) mortal(x)
5. All Pompeian‟s died when the volcano erupted in 79 A.D.
Erupted (volcano, 79) ^ x: [Pompeian (x)  died(x, 79)]
6. No mortal lives longer than 150yers.
x: t1: t2: mortal (x) ^ born (x, t1) ^ gt (t2-t1, 150)  dead (x, t2)
7. It is now 1991 A.D.
now= 1991
Now we want to answer the question is “Is Marcus alive?” For example, our statements talk about
dying, but they say nothing that relates to being alive, which is what the question is asking. So we add the
following facts:
8. Alive means not dead.
x : t: [alive (x, t)  ¬dead (x, t)] ^ [¬dead (x, t)  alive (x, t) ]
This is an example of the fact that rarely do two expressions have truly identical meanings in all
circumstances.
9. If someone dies, then he is dead at all later times.
x: t1: t2: died (x, t1) ^ gt (t2, t1)  dead (x, t2)
This representation says that one is dead in all years after the one in which one died. Now let‟s attempt
to answer the question “Is Marcus alive?” by proving:

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 ¬alive (Marcus, now)

Fig: Two ways of Proving that Marcus Is Dead

RESOLUTION

Resolution is a procedure used in proving that arguments which are expressible in predicate logic are
correct. Resolution is so far only defined for Propositional Logic. The resolution process can also be applied to
predicate logic also. Resolution produces proofs by refutation. In other words, to prove the validity of a
statement, resolution attempts to show that the negation of the statement produces a contradiction with the
known statements (i.e., the statement is unsatisfiable).

The Basis of Resolution:

The resolution procedure is an iterative process; at each step, two clauses called the parent clauses
containing the same literal, are compared (resolved), yielding a new clause called the resolvent, that has been
inferred from them. The literal must occur in positive form in one clause and in negative form in the other. The
resolvent is obtained by combining all of the literals of the parent clauses except the ones that cancel. If the
clause that is produced is an empty clause, then a contradiction has been found.
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 Given: winter V summer
 winter V cold
We can conclude: summer v cold
In predicate logic, the situation is more complicated since we must consider all possible ways of
substituting values for the variables. The theoretical basis of the resolution procedure in predicate logic is
Herbrand‟s Theorem, which tells us the following.

 To show that a set of clauses S is unsatisfiable, it is necessary to consider only interpretations over a
particular set, called the Herbrand universe of S.
 A set of clauses S is unsatisfiable if and only if finite subset of ground instances of S is unsatisfiable.

The second part of the theorem is important if there is to exist any computational procedure for proving
unsatisfiability, since in a finite amount of time no procedure will be able to examine an infinite set. The first
part suggests that one way to go about finding a contradiction is to try systematically the possible substitutions
and see if each produces a contradiction.
So we observed here that to prove the statements using predicate logic the statements and well-formed
formulas must be converted into clause form and the process will be as follows:

Conversion to Clause Form:

One method we shall examine is called resolution of requires that all statements to be converted into a
normalized clause form .we define a clause as the disjunction of a number of literals. A ground clause is one in
which no variables occur in the expression. A horn clause is a clause with at most one positive literal.

To transform a sentence into clause form requires the following steps:

1. Eliminate .
2. Reduce the scope of each  to a single term.
3. Standardize variables so that each quantifier binds a unique variable.
4. Move all quantifiers to the left without changing their relative order.
5. Eliminate  (Skolemization).
6. Drop .
7. Convert the formula into a conjunction of disjuncts.
8. Create a separate clause corresponding to each conjunct.
9. Standardize apart the variables in the set of obtained clauses.

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 We describe the process of eliminating the existential quantifiers through a substitution process. This
process requires that all such variables are replaced by something called Skolem functions. Sometimes ones
with no arguments are called Skolem constants.
Example in Predicate logic: Suppose we know that “all Romans who know Marcus either hate Caesar or
think that any one who hates any one is crazy”. We could represent that in the following wff:
x: Roman (x)know(x,marcus)  hate(x,Caesar)  (y: z:hate(y,z) thinkcrazy(x,y))
1. Eliminate implies symbol using the fact that a  b = ab.
x:Roman(x)know(x,marcus)hate(x,Caesar)(y: ( z:hate(y,z)  thinkcrazy(x,y))
2. Reduce the scope of each  to a single term.
x: Roman(x)know(x,marcus)hate(x,Caesar)(y:z:hate(y,z) thinkcrazy(x,y))
[ ( p) = p].[(a b) = a  b]. [x: p(x) = x:  p(x)]. [x: p(x) = x:  p(x)].
3. Standardize variables so that each quantifier binds a unique variable. Since variables are just dummy names,
this process cannot affect the truth value of the wff.
x:P(x)  x:Q(x) would be converted into x:P(x)  y:Q(y)
4. Move all quantifiers to the left of the formula with out changing their relative order.
x:y:z:Roman(x)know(x,marcus)hate(x,Caesar) hate(y,z)  thinkcrazy(x,y))
5. Eliminate existential quantifiers.
In our example, there are no existential quantifiers at step 4. There is no need to eliminate those
quantifiers. If those quantifiers occur then use Skolem functions to eliminate those quantifiers. For ex:
y: President (y) can be transformed into the formula President(S1)
x : y: father-of(y, x) would be transformed into x : father-of (S2(x), x)
6. Drop the prefix. From (4).
 Roman (x) know(x, Marcus)  hate(x, Caesar)  (hate(y, z)  thinkcrazy(x, y))
7. Convert the matrix into a conjunction of disjuncts. In our problem that are no (ands) disjuncts. So use
associative property. (ab) c = a(b c).
 Roman (x) know(x, Marcus)  hate(x, Caesar)  hate(y, z)  thinkcrazy(x, y).
Ex: [winter V (summer ^ wearingsandals)] V [wearing boots V (summer ^ wearingsandals)]
(winter V summer) ^
(winter V wearingsandals) ^
(wearing boots V summer) ^
(wearing boots V wearingsandals)
8. Create a separate clause corresponding to each conjunct.
(winter V summer), (winter V wearingsandals), (wearing boots V summer), (wearing boots V wearingsandals)
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Resolution in Propositional Logic:

We first present the resolution procedure for propositional logic. We then expand it to include predicate
logic. In propositional logic, the procedure for producing a proof by resolution of proposition P with respect to a
set of axioms F is the following.

Algorithm: Resolution Propositional

1. Convert all the propositions of F to clause form.

2. Negate P and convert the result to clause form. Add it to the set of clauses obtained in 1.
3. Repeat until either a contradiction is found or no progress can be made:
a) Select two clauses. Call these the parent clauses.
b) Resolve them together. The resulting clause, called the resolvent, will be the disjunction of all of the
literals of both of the parent clauses with the following exception: if there are any pairs of literals L and L
such that one of the parent clauses contains L and other contains L, then select one such pair and eliminate
both L and L from the resolvent.
c) If the resolvent is the empty clause, then a contradiction has been found. If it is not, then add it to the
set of clauses available to the procedure.
A Few Facts in Propositional Logic:

Given Axioms Clause Form

P P (1)
(P  Q)  R P V Q V R (2)
(S V T)  Q S V Q (3)
T V Q (4)
T T (5)

Fig: Resolution in Prepositional Logic

16
The Unification Algorithm:

In propositional logic, easily determine two literals and its contradictions. Simply look for L and L In
predicate logic, this matching process is more complicated since the arguments of the predicates must be
considered. For ex: man (John) and man (John) is a contradiction. While man (John) and man (John) is not.
Thus in order to determine contradictions, we need a matching procedure that compares two literals and
discovers whether there exists a set of substitutions that makes them identical. The recursive procedure that will
do the above called the unification algorithm.

The basic idea of unification is very simple. To attempt to unify two literals, we first check,
1. If their initial predicate symbols are the same. If so, we can proceed, else we can‟t unify them. Ex. try
assassinate (Marcus, Caesar). hate (Marcus, Caesar).
2. If the predicate symbols match, we must check the arguments, one pair at a time. If the first matches, we
can continue with the second, and so on. To test each argument pair we can simply call the unification
procedure recursively. The matching rules are
 Different constants or predicates cannot match; identical ones can.
 A variable can match another variable, any constant, or a predicate expression.
With the restriction that the predicate expression must not contain any instances of the variables being matched.
For example, suppose we want to unify the expressions
P (x, x) and P (y, z)
The two instances of P match fine. Next we compare x and y, and decides that if we substitute y for x, they
could match. We will write that substitute y for x  y/x.
The next match x and z, we produce the substitution z for x.  z/x. But we cannot substitute both y and
z for x, we have not produced a consistent substitution. To avoid this we‟ll make the substitution y/x through
out the literals.
P (y, y) and P (y, z) (substitution of y/x)
Now, we can attempt to unify arguments y and z which succeeds the substitution z/y
Algorithm: Unify (L1, L2)

1. If L1 and L2 are both variables or constants, then:

a) If L1 and L2 are identical, then return NIL.
b) Else if L1 is a variable, then if L1 occurs in L2 then return {FAIL}, else return(L2/L1).
c) Else if L2 is a variable, then if L2 occurs in L1 then return {FAIL}, else return(L1/L2).
d) Else return {FAIL}.
2. If the initial predicate symbols in L1 and L2 are not identical, then return {FAIL}.

17
3. If L1 and L2 have a different number of arguments, then return {FAIL}.
4. Set SUBST to NIL.
5. For i  1 to number of arguments
a) Call Unify with the ith argument of L1 and ith argument of L2, putting result in S.
b) If S contains FAIL then return {FAIL}.
c) If S is not equal to NIL then:
i. Apply S to the remainder of both L1 and L2.
ii. SUBST:= APPEND (S, SUBST).
6. Return SUBST.

Resolution in Predicate Logic:

Algorithm: Resolution
1. Convert all the statements of F to clause form.
2. Negate P and convert the result to clause form. Add it to the set of clauses obtained in 1.
3. Repeat until either a contradiction is found or no progress can be made, or a predetermined
amount of effort has been expended.
a) Select two clauses. Call these the parent clauses.
b) Resolve them together. The resolve will be the disjunction of all of the literals of both parent
clauses with appropriate substitutions performed and with the following exception: if there is one
pair of literals T1 and T2 such that one of the parent clauses contains T1 and other contains T2
and if T1 and T2 are unifiable, then neither T1 nor T2 complementary literals. Use the
substitution produced by the unification to create the resolvent. If there is more than one pair of
complementary literals, only one pair should be omitted from the resolvent.
c) If the resolvent is the empty clause, then a contradiction has been found. If it is not, then add it to
the set of clauses available to the procedure.
Axioms in clause form:
1. man(Marcus)
2. Pompeian(Marcus)
3.  Pompeian(x1) v Roman(x1)
4. Ruler(Caesar)
5.  Roman(x2) v loyalto(x2, Caesar) v hate(x2, Caesar)
6. loyalto(x3, f1(x3))
7.  man(x4) v  ruler(y1) v  tryassassinate(x4, y1) v
loyalto (x4, y1)
8. tryassassinate(Marcus, Caesar)

18
 Prove: hate(Marcus, Caesar) hate(Marcus, Caesar) 5

Marcus/x2
3 Roman(Marcus) V loyalto(Marcus,Caesar)

Marcus/x1
Pompeian(Marcus) V loyalto(Marcus,Caesar) 2

7 loyalto(Marcus,Caesar)

Marcus/x4, Caesar/y1

1 man(Marcus) V  ruler(Caesar) V  tryassassinate(Marcus, Caesar)

 ruler(Caesar) V  tryassassinate(Marcus, Caesar) 4

 tryassassinate(Marcus, Caesar) 8

Fig: A Resolution Proof

9. persecute (x, y)  hate (y, x)

10. hate (x, y)  persecute (y, x)
Converting to clause form we get
9. persecute (x5, y2) V hate (y2, x5)
10. hate (x6, y3) V persecute (y3, x6)
Now to detect that there is no contradiction we must discover that the only resolvents
that can be generated before. In other words, although we can generate resolvents, we can generate no new
ones.

Prove: loyalto(Marcus, Caesar) loyalto(Marcus, Caesar) 5

Marcus/x2
3 Roman(Marcus) V hate(Marcus,Caesar)
Marcus/x1
Pompeian(Marcus) V hate(Marcus,Caesar) 2

hate(Marcus,Caesar)
(a)
hate(Marcus,Caesar) 10

Marcus/x6, Caesar/y3
persecute(Caesar, Marcus) 9
Marcus/x5, Caesar/y2
hate(Marcus,Caesar)
:
: (b)

Fig: An Unsuccessful Attempt at Resolution

19
Fig: Using Resolution with Equality and Reduce

20