Biostatistics and Research

Methodology

Assist. Prof. Dr. Bahra M. Noori

Third Stage / Second semester
2025
 Methods of Presentation Data

I. Mathematical presentation

II. Tabular presentation

III. Graphical presentation

 II. Tabular Presentation Data

Presentation of data in tables make them into a compact,

concise and readily comprehensible form. They can display
the characteristics of data more efficiently than the raw
data.
Types Of Tables

1. Simple Table including one variable (quantitative or

qualitative) and the corresponding frequency.

2. Cross tabulation is a tabular method for simultaneously

summarizing the data for two categorical variables.

Tabular presentation - simple
Table (I): Distribution of 50 patients at the surgical department
of Rizgari hospital in May 2019 according to their ABO blood
groups.

Blood group Frequency %

A 12 24
B 18 36
A 5 10
B 15 30
O
Total 50 100
Tabular presentation - Complex
Table (II): Distribution of 20 lung cancer patients at the chest
department of Nanakali hospital and 40 controls in May
2019 according to smoking
Lung cancer Total
Smoking Cases Control
No. % No. % No. %
Smoker 15 75% 8 20% 23 38.33
Non smoker 5 25% 32 80% 37 61.67
Total 20 100 40 100 60 100
 III. Graphical Presentation Data
The use of diagrams or pictures to describe the distribution
or characteristics of one or more sets of data in a compact
and readily comprehensible form. They can provide a better
visual presentation of characteristics of data than tabular
presentation.
Graphs were drawn using Cartesian coordinates

1) Line graph
2) Frequency polygon
3) Frequency curve
4) Histogram
5) Bar graph
6) Scatter plot
7) Pie chart
Tabular and Graphical Presentation Data
1-Qualitative Data:
Tabular Presentation Include:
1. Frequency distribution.
2. Relative frequency distribution.
3. Percent frequency distribution.
4. Cross tabulation.
Graphical Presentation Include:
1. Pie Chart.
2. Bar Chart.
Frequency Distribution
1) Frequency: It determines the number of observations
falling into each category.
2) Relative frequency: It determines the proportion of
observation in the particular class relative to the total
observations.
3) A relative frequency distribution is a tabular summary of
a set of data showing the relative frequency for each class.
4) The percent frequency of a class is the relative frequency
multiplied by 100.
Frequency Distribution
Example: A sample of 10 students were examined by
certain teacher and the results of examination was as below:
 Result Frequency Relative Percent
frequency frequency

Poor 3 0.3 30%

Good 3 0.3 30%

Very Good 2 0.2 20%

Excellent 2 0.2 20%

Total 10 1 100%
Bar Chart
A bar graph is a graphical device for depicting qualitative
data.
On the horizontal axis, we specify the labels that are used
for each of the classes. A frequency, relative frequency, or
percent frequency scale can be used for the vertical axis.
Using a bar of fixed width drawn above each class label, we
extend the height appropriately. The bars are separated to
emphasize the fact that each class is a separate category.
Bar Chart
Pie Chart
The pie chart is a commonly used graphical device for
presenting relative frequency distributions for qualitative
data. First draw a circle; then use the relative frequencies to
subdivide the circle into sectors that correspond to the
relative frequency for each class.
Since there are 360 degrees in a circle, a class with a relative
frequency of 0.25 would consume 0.25(360) = 90 degrees of
the circle.
Cross-Tabulations
Cross-tabulation: is a tabular method for simultaneously
summarizing the data for two categorical variables.
Steps for Constructing a Cross-tabulation:
1) Put the categories of one variable at the top of each column,
and the categories of the other variable at the beginning of each
row.
2) For each row and column combination, enter the number of
observations that fall in the two categories.
3) The bottom of the table gives the column totals, and the right-
hand column gives the row totals.
Cross-Tabulations
Clustered Bar Charts
Clustered bar graphs are useful for comparing two categorical
variables and are often used in conjunction with cross-
tabulations . (we can use frequency or relative frequency ).
2-Quanitative Data
The Frequency Distribution
To group a set of observations, we select a set of contagious,
non-overlapping intervals, such that each value in the set of
observations can be placed in one, and only one, of the
intervals, and no single observation should be missed.
Number of class interval : Too few intervals are not good
because information will be lost. Too many intervals are not
helpful to summarize the data.
A commonly followed rule is that the number of class
2-Quanitative Data
The Frequency Distribution
1) Range: R= Largest Value – Smallest Value
2) Number of classes:
M =𝟐. 𝟓 ∗ 𝟒 𝒏 or M= 1+3.322 (log n)
M= Number of class intervals.
N= Number of observations in the set.
3) The width of the interval (W):
W= R / M
The Mid-interval (midpoint): It can be computed by adding the lower bound of the
interval plus the upper bound of it and then dividing by 2.
Example: The following are the heart rate of 50 patients
The Mid-interval (midpoint): It can be computed by adding the lower
bound of the interval plus the upper bound of it and then dividing by 2.
Find these:
•Construct Frequency distribution.
•Mid point.
•Relative frequency.
•Cumulative frequency and cumulative relative frequency.

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Histogram Graph
A common graphical presentation of quantitative data is a histogram.
The variable of interest is placed on the horizontal axis.
A rectangle is drawn above each class interval with its height
corresponding to the interval’s frequency, relative frequency, or percent
frequency.
Unlike a bar graph, a histogram has no natural separation between
rectangles of adjacent classes.
To draw the histogram, the true classes limits should be used. They can
be computed by subtracting 0.5 from the lower limit and adding 0.5 to
the upper limit for each interval.
Frequency Polygon Graph
Another form of graphical presentation of frequency distribution of
quantitative variables.
It is similar to the histogram, but instead of using rectangles to present
data, the midpoint of the top of each rectangle are plotted, and connected
together by straight lines.
Scatter Diagram
A scatter diagram is a graphical presentation of the relationship
between two quantitative variables.
One variable is shown on the horizontal axis and the other variable is
shown on the vertical axis. The general pattern of the plotted points
suggests the overall relationship between the variables.
Line Graph
A line graph is used to show the trend of events with the passage of
time and show how the frequency of a particular event changes over
time. Time could be (Seconds - Minutes - Hours – Days - Weeks -
Months – Years - Decades - Centuries – etc).
Thank you