Module 1.1 2.

Quantitative Variables - measure a

Definition of Statistical Concepts numerical quantity or amount on each
and Principles experimental unit
Examples: number of accidents, volume in a
Basic Concepts of Probability and Statistics glass, weight of package
Probability is a branch of mathematics concerned a. Discrete variable - countable
with theories of uncertainty, ways of measuring number of values
uncertainty and the application of techniques Example: number of family members
involving uncertainty. a. Continuous variable -
Statistics is a branch of mathematics that examine uncountable number of values
and investigate ways to process and analyzed the Examples: time, distance, volume, height
data gathered.
VARIABLES ACCORDING TO SCALE OF
TWO MAJOR AREAS OF STATISTICS MEASUREMENT
1. Descriptive Statistics - includes those 1. Nominal - values represent categories
methods concerned with collecting, with no inherent order
organizing, summarizing and presenting Examples: Gender, Civil Status
data without drawing inference about a 2. Ordinal - values represent categories
large group. with inherent order (ranking)
2. Inferential Statistics - refers to those Examples: Educational background, Quality of
methods concerned with the analysis of Service, Grades
a subset of data leading to predictions 3. Interval - values represent ordered
and inferences about the entire set of categories with equal intervals between
data. them
- also called Inductive Statistics or Statistical Example: temperature
Inference 4. Ratio - comparing the z variables
Example: employment size
STATISTICAL TERMS
Population - consist of the totality of the DATA GATHERING INSTRUMENTS
observations with which we are concerned 1. QUESTIONNAIRES
Sample - collection of some of the elements 2. INTERVIEWS
obtained from the population 3. EXPERIMENTS
Parameter - any numerical value describing a 4. OBSERVATIONS
characteristics of a population Sampling Method
Statistic - any numerical value describing a 1. Simple Random Sampling
characteristic of a sample 2. Stratified Random Sampling
Constant - characteristics or properties whereby 3. Systematic Random Sampling
the members of the population are the same 4. Cluster Sampling
Variable - is a characteristics that changes or 5. Stage Sampling
varies over timefor different individuals or 6. Slovin’s Formula
objects under consideration How to Present Data?
1. Graphs
TYPES OF VARIABLE 2. Table charts
1. Qualitative Variables - measure a Graphs for Qualitative Data
quality or characteristic on each - what values of the variable have been
experimental unit measured
Examples: eye color, gender - how often each values has occurred
Three Measures available for this purpose Rating Frequency Relative Percent Angle
1. Frequency - the number of times a score Frequency
or group of score (class) occurs in a
A 35 0.09 9% 32.4°
population or sample
2. Relative Frequency - the frequency of B 260 0.65 65% 234°
one score or group of scores divided by C 93 0.23 23% 82.8°
the total frequency of all the observations D 12 0.03 3% 10.8°
Relative Frequency = frequency/n
n is the sum of frequencies Total 400 1.0 100% 360°
3.The percentage of measurement in each
category
Graphs for Qualitative Data
Graphs for Qualitative Data *Describing data by the amount measured in each
To display distribution of data: category:
Pie Chart - circular graph that shows how the 1. Pie Chart - displays how the total
measurements are distributed among the quantity is distributed among categories
categories 2. Bar Chart - uses the height of the bar to
[one sector of a circle is assigned to each display the amount in a particular
category; the angle of each sector should be category
proportional to the proportion of measurements *Describing data by time series:
(or relative frequency) in that category Angle = 1. Line Chart - when a quantitative variable is
relative frequency x 360°] recorded overtime at equally spaced intervals
Bar Chart - the height of the bar measures how (such as daily, weekly, monthly, quarterly), the
often a particular category was observed data set forms a time series. Time series data are
most effectively presented on a line chart with
Sample Problem time as the horizontal axis.
In a summary concerning public e d u c a t i o n ,
4 0 0 s c h o o l administrators were asked to rate Graphs for Qualitative Data
the quality of education in t h e U n i t e d S t a t *Describing data by frequency of occurrence:
e s . T h e i r responses are summarized as 1. Relative Frequency Histogram - For a
follows: quantitative data set is a bar graph in which the
Construct both a Pie chart and height of the bar represents the proportion or
Bar chart to describe the data. relative frequency of occurrence for a particular
class or sub-interval being measured. The classes
Rating Frequency
or sub-intervals are plotted along the horizontal
A 35 axis.
B 260
C 93 Graphs for Qualitative Data
*Describing data by frequency of occurrence:
D 12 2. Frequency Distribution
Total 400 a. For ungrouped data - It is a tabulation
of data showing the frequency of
occurrence of the different values of the
variable.
b. For grouped data - It is a tabulation of
data showing the number of observations
that fall in each of the classes.
 c. Class/Class Interval - a symbol defining The following scores represent the final
the arbitrary groupings. examination grade for an elementary statistic
Example: 9-11 course.
d. Class Limits - the end numbers of the 23 60 79 32 57 74 57 70 82 36 80 77 81 95 41 65
class or class interval. 92 85 55 76 52 10 64 75 78
Example: 9 and 11 where 9 is the lower class 25 80 98 81 67 41 71 83 54 64 72 88 62 74 43 60
limit and 11 is the upper class limit 78 89 76 84 48 84 90 15 79
34 67 17 82 69 74 63 80 85 61
Graphs for Qualitative Data Using 10 intervals with the lowest starting at 10
*Describing data by frequency of occurrence: set up a frequency distribution or cumulative
2. Frequency Distribution frequency distribution.
e. Class Interval Size - difference between two
successive lower class limits or two successive
upper class limits.
f. Class Boundary - halfway between the lower
limit of one class and the upper limit of the
preceding. It is the exact limit.
Example: In the interval 9-11, 8.5 is the lower
class boundary and
11.5 is the upper class boundary
g. Class Mark - the midpoint between the upper
and lower class boundaries or class limits of a
class interval
h. Class Width - the difference between upper
and lower class boundaries of a class interval The Choice of a Graph
1. Histogram - is to be preferred when only
2. Frequency Distribution one distribution is to be presented.
i. Class Frequency (f) - the number of 2. Frequency Polygon - more useful and
observations falling in a particular class. better in comparing two or more
j. Relative Frequency - the frequency of distribution graphically on the same axes.
one observation or group of observations 3. The ogive - is useful in making estimates
divided by the total frequency of all of quantities, medians and other similar
observations. points of relative positions.
k. Cumulative Frequency - the frequency 4. The Pie diagram - or circle graph is
of any class plus the frequencies of all useful when one wishes to picture
preceeding class in a distribution. proportions in a striking way.
l. Histogram - a vertical bar graph that Note: The choice of the graph or graphs to use
shows the frequencies of scores or depends on the judgment of the user based on the
classes of scores by the height of the bar. purposes or intentions that he/she has in using
m. Frequency Polygon - a graph on which these graphical representation of data.
the frequencies of classes are plotted at
the class mark and the class marks are Properties of Frequency Distribution
connected by straight lines. Frequency distributions differ from each other in
terms of their four important properties: central
Sample Problem: location, variation, skewness and kurtosis.
1. Central location - refers to the value
near the center of frequency distribution.
 2. Variation -refers to the extent of
spreading out of individual measures
from the measure of central tendency.
3. Kurtosis refers to the flatness or
peakedness of one distribution is relation
another.
4. Skewness refers to the symmetry or
asymmetry of a frequency
Properties of Frequency Distribution
Frequency distributions differ from each other in
terms of their four important properties: central
location, variation, skewness and kurtosis.
1. Central location - refers to the value
near the center of frequency distribution.
2. Variation -refers to the extent of
spreading out of individual measures
from the measure of central tendency.
3. Kurtosis refers to the flatness or
peakedness of one distribution is relation
another.
4. Skewness refers to the symmetry or
asymmetry of a frequency

Three Measures of Central Tendency

Any measure indicating the center of a set of data
arranged in an increasing or decreasing order of
magnitude.
1. Mean - the arithmetic average of all the scores
or group of scores in a distribution. It is denoted
by the symbol (μ) for population mean and X-
bar for sample mean. Three Measures of Central Tendency
For ungrouped data: 2. Median - point on the scale of measurement
that divides a series of ranked observations into
halves such that half of the observations fall
where X = score or measures in the series above it and the other half fall below it.
n = number of measures in the series For ungrouped data:
The median is the middle value if there is an odd
number of observations
Median = n + 1 th largest observation
Three Measures of Central Tendency
3. Mode -point on the measurement scale with the
maximum frequency in the given distribution
For ungrouped data:
Mode is the measurement which occurs most
frequently
Example: Find the mode of the following data
4 7 7 7 9 10 12 11 13 13 13 13 13 13 15 16
Mode is 13