Linux Basics

Wisoot Amatariyakul
 Roadmap
 What is Unix?
 What is Linux?
 Which Linux Distribution is better?
 UNIX structures
 Directories, Files, Inodes
 File type
 Access permissions
 Special characters
 Control characters
 Roadmap
 Pipes
 Shell Variable
 Process
 Manual
 Login & Log out
 Basic Commands
 vi Editor
 Q&A
 Quiz
 What is Unix?
 A multi-task and multi-user Operating System
 Developed in 1969 at AT&T’s Bell Labs by
 Ken Thompson (Unix)
 Dennis Ritchie (C)
 Douglas Mcllroy (Pipes - Do one thing, do it well)
 Written in C Programming language
 Some other variants: System V, Solaris, SCO
Unix, SunOS, 4.4BSD, FreeBSD, NetBSD,
OpenBSD, BSDI
 What is Linux?
 A clone of Unix
 Developed in 1991 by Linus Torvalds, a Finnish
graduate student
 Inspired by and replacement of Minix
 Linus' Minix became Linux
 Consist of
 Linux Kernel
 GNU (GNU is Not Unix) Software
 Software Package management
 Others
What is Linux?
 Originally developed for
32-bit x86-based PC
 Ported to other
architectures, eg.
 Alpha, VAX, PowerPC,
IBM S/390, MIPS, IA-64
 PS2, TiVo, cellphones,
watches, Nokia N810,
NDS, routers, NAS, GPS,
…
Which Linux Distribution is better?

 > 300 Linux Distributions

 Slackware (one of the oldest, simple and stable distro.)
 Redhat
 RHEL (commercially support)
 Fedora (free)
 CentOS (free RHEL, based in England)
 SuSe ( based in German)
 Debian (one of the few called GNU/Linux)
 Ubuntu (based in South Africa)
 …

 More info. https://lwn.net/Distributions/

Which Linux Distribution is better?
Which Linux Distribution is better?

 Ask yourself these questions (from Linux

Admin Handbook(LAH))
 Is it going to be around in 5 yrs?
 Is it going to stay on top of the latest security
patches?
 Is it going to release updated software promptly?
 If I have problems, will the vendor talk to me?
UNIX/Linux structure
 UNIX/Linux structure
 Kernel
 is the heart and brain of the operating system.
 is a layer of software that sits between the user of
a computer and its hardware, and is responsible
for efficiently managing the system's resources.
 Interfacing with hardware devices(network adapters,
hard disk and so on)
 Allocating memory to individual programs
 Allocating CPU time to individual programs
 In UNIX, core kernel and service layers(like
MemoryMgmt/ProcessMgmt/IPC/..) are statically
compiled and linked to create a kernel executable.
A single static binary file.
 UNIX/Linux structure
 Kernel
 In GNU Hurd, core kernel only is built into a static
executable and services are built as dynamic
modules. At boot up time core kernel gets loaded
and stay resident in memory. Core kernel will
dynamically load a service layer when it is
required. Services will be unloaded when they are
not required. Kernel with loadable modules.
 Linux kernel integration(build) policy called
“Modular kernel”, which is a mixture of above two
policies.
 UNIX/Linux structure
 Kernel Adv/Disadv:
 A single static binary file has less response time.
 Kernel with loadable modules has more response
time
 A single static binary file takes more memory
since the foot print carries complete static image
with all services
 Kernel with loadable modules take less memory
 UNIX/Linux structure
 Shell
 shell is not part of the kernel, but it does communicate
directly with the kernel. It is the "shell around the kernel.“
 is a command line interpreter that executes the commands
you type in. It translates your commands from a human-
readable format into a format that can be understood by the
computer.
 Shell program
 Bourne Shell (sh)
 C Shell (csh)
 Bourne Again Shell (bash)
 Korn Shell (ksh)
LINUX structure
LINUX file system

(kernel file)
LINUX file system

(kernel file)
 Linux file system
 The Linux file system looks like an inverted tree
structure.
 You start with the root directory (/) at the top and
work down through sub-directories.
 Each node is either a file or directory of files,
where the latter can contain other files and
directories.
 You specify a file or directory by its path name,
either the full (or absolute) path name or the one
relative to a location
 Pathname
 Absolute Pathname
 Specify the location of file/directory from the root
directory(/)
 To write an absolute pathname:
 Start at root directory(/) and work down
 Write a slash(/) after every directory name
 Example:
 $ cat /var/log/messages
 Pathname (Cont.)
 Relative Pathname
 Specify the location of file/directory from your
current directory(pwd) and never starts with /
 Use . and .. in relative pathname
 Example:
 $ pwd
/home/guest1
 $ cd ../guest2

 $ ls dir2/*
 Directories, Files, Inodes
 Everything is Linux called file.
 Every directory and file is listed in its parent
directory
 A directory is a file that contains a table listing the
files contained within it, giving file names to the
inode numbers in the list.
Directories, Files, Inodes (Cont.)
 The information about all the files and directories is
maintained in INODE TABLE
 An inode (Index Nodes) is an entry in the table
containing information about a file (metadata)
including file permissions, UID, GID, size, time
stamp, pointer to files data blocks on the disk etc.
 You can use “ls –li” to show detail of file structure.
 1 file  1 inode ?

 1 inode  1 file ?
Directories, Files, Inodes (Cont.)
 File type
 Ordinary file (regular file, text file) (-)
-rw-r--r– 1 root root 2306 Apr 22 13:20 /etc/passwd
 Directory file (d)

dr-xr-xr-x 17 root root 284 2017-02-09 12:01 /

 Link file (l) – refer to file without data in file

lrwxrwxrwx 1 root root 7 Jun 13 2018 /bin -> usr/bin

 File type
 Character device special file (c) – mouse, keyboard
 Direct access to device
crw--w---- 1 root tty 4,1 2017-02-09 12:01 /dev/tty1
 Block device special file (b) – disk, cdrom, memory

brw-rw---- 1 root disk 8,0 2017-02-09 13:00 /dev/sda

Note: Check Major No. for device from /proc/devices
 File type
 Block device special file – access through buffer cache
 File type
 Name pipes (FIFO - IPC) (p) – exchange data
between processes ex. spooler file for Printer
 # find / -type p
 File type
 Socket (s) – control some jobs or data ex: network
connection
 # find / -type s

 Command to determine file type – file

Users, groups and access permissions
 In UNIX/LINUX, there is a concept of user and an
associated group
 Each user has unique user-id number (uid)
 The system determines whether or not a user or group
can access a file or program based on permission assign
to them
 Apart from all the users, there is a special user call
Super User or the root which has permission to access
any file or directory
 Access Permissions
 There are three permissions for any file,
directory or application program
 The following lists the symbols used to denote
each, along with a brief description on file or
application:
 r – Indicates that a given category of user can

read a file
 w – Indicates that a given category of user can
write to a file
 x – Indicates that a given category of user can

execute a file
 Access Permissions
 The following lists the symbols used to denote
each, along with a brief description on directory:
 r – Indicates that a given category of user can

look at the file inside the directory

 w – Indicates that a given category of user can

add or delete files from the directory

 x – Indicates that a given category of user can
execute a file within the directory
 Access Permissions
 Each of the three permissions are assigned to
three defined categories of users
 The categories are:
 owner – The owner of the file or application

 group – The group that owns the file or

application
 other – All users with access to the system
 Access Permissions
 One can easily view the permissions for a file by
invoking a long format listing using the
command “ls -l”
 For instance, if the user jame creates an
executable file name “test”, the output of the
command “ls -l test” would look like this:
 -rwxrwxr-x 1 jame student 0 Jan 26 12:25 test
 Access Permissions
 The permissions for this file are listed are listed
at the start of the line, starting with rwx
 This first set of symbols define owner access
 The next set of rwx symbols define group access
 The last set of symbols defining access
permitted for all other users
 Access Permissions
 This listing indicates that the file is readable,
writable and executable by the user who owns
the file (user jame) as well as the group owning
the file (which is the group named student)
 The file is also world-readable and world-
executable, but not world-writable
 Special Characters
 . .. ~
 . current working directory
 .. parent directory
 ~ home directory
 $ cd ~guest2
 $ cd ~/dir2
 $ cd; cd ../guest3
 $ cd ..
 $ cd ~/scripts
 $ sh ./test1.sh
 Question ?
 $ pwd
 /home/guest1/dir2
 $ cd ../..
 What’s the result of “cd ../..” ?
 Answer:
 Special Characters
 < > >>
 Standard input (stdin), default input receive from keyboard
and file descriptor is 0, redirect stdin used <
 Standard output(stdout), default output send to screen and
file descriptor is 1, redirect stdout used >
 Standard error(stderr), default error send to screen and file
descriptor is 2, redirect stderr used 2>
 >> redirect output to a file appending the redirected output
at the end
 > redirect output to a file, overwriting the file
 Special Characters
 Redirection example:
 $ cal > foo
 Clear space in file to 0 byte
 $ cat /dev/null > foo
 $ cat /dev/null > /var/log/messages
 $ cat /etc/motd >> foo
 $ cat < /etc/passwd ; wc < log.sh
 $ ~/prog1.sh > prog1.log 2>&1

 Send both std. out & std. error to file

 Special Characters
 &
 Start process in background process by add
ampersand (&) at the end of the command
 $ ~/bin/prog1.sh &
 Special characters (Cont.)
 * ? [ ]
 * String wildcard
 ? Single-character wildcard
 [ Start character-set wildcard
 ] End character-set wildcard
 Special characters (Cont.)
 ` ( ) $ # \
 ` command substition
 ( Start subshell
 ) End subshell
 $ Variable expression
 # Comment
 \ Quote next character
 Special characters (Cont.)
 backtick
 $ echo “The date is `date`”

 $ echo `seq 1 10`

 Special characters (Cont.)
 ; ’ ” / !
 ; Shell command separator
 ‘ Strong quote
 “ Weak quote
 / Pathname directory separator
 ! Pipeline logical NOT
 Control characters
 Ctrl-c break. Terminate a foreground job
 Ctrl-d
 Log out from shell(similar to “exit”)
 EOF (end-of-file) terminate input from stdin –Input Completed
 Ctrl-\ force terminate a foreground job
 Ctrl-s Suspend (XOFF)
 Ctrl-q Resume (XON)
 Ctrl-z Pause a foreground job

*** After using Ctrl-z, you can run the process in

background process by typing “bg” or running in
foreground bb typing “fg” ***
 Control characters (Cont.)
 Ctrl-z example:
 Control characters (Cont.)
 Ctrl-d example:
 Control characters (Cont.)
 List of control character setting
 $ stty -a
 Pipes
 Provide one-way communications between
related processes, pass output of one tool to the
input of another
 Implemented based on the kernel I/O buffers
 Pipes (Cont.)
 Pipes are accessed in a similar way as ordinary
files:
 They have assigned inodes
 Reading and writing are through file descriptors
 Pipes (Cont.)
 Differences between pipes and files:
 The pipe inode resides in the kernel, not in the
physical file system
 A pipe can exist only during the existence of its creator
process
 A pipe has limited size – check “/proc/sys/fs/pipe-
max-size”
 Pipes (Cont.)
 Example: ls | wc -w
 Same result  ls > tmpfile;wc -w tmpfile;rm tmpfile
 Pipes (Cont.)
 Pipe example:
 $ who | cut -d’ ‘ -f1 | sort | uniq | wc -l
 Pipes (Cont.)
 Pipe example:
 $ grep "/home" /etc/passwd | cut -f1 -d':’ | wc -l
 Shell Variable
 command
 $ set display a list of environment variables
 $ env display a list of shell variables
 Shell Variable
 command
 $ echo $VAR display value of variable “VAR”
 $ VAR=value Set value of variable
 $ export VAR export the variable to global
 Shell Variable
 Shell variable
 PATH tell shell where to look for commands /
executable files
 PS1 Shell command prompt
 $ normal user
 # Superuser
 PS2 prompt used for continuation interpretation
 >
 TERM Terminal type
 HOME Home directory
 PWD Current working directory
 $ man bash
 Process
 Parent and Child process
 Parent process (ppid) means process that create the child
process
 Child process (pid) means running process id

 You can see PID and PPID with command “ps -ef”
 Process
 Zombie process
 Normally, when child process is killed, the parent process
will updated vid SIGCHLD signal
 Sometime the parent process is killed before its child is
killed. The init process become the new ppid.
 This is zombie or defunct process

 Daemon process
 Daemons are system-related background processes that
often run with permission of root and services requests
from other processes
 Manual (help)
 Manpage  4 Device drivers and
 $ man ls
network protocols
 /dev/tty
 $ man 2 mkdir
 5 Standard file formats
 $ man man
 /etc/hosts
 $ man -k mkdir
 6 Games and demos
 Manpage sections (LAH  /usr/games/fortune
Table 1.2 @ page 12)
 7 Misc. files and docs
 1 User-level cmds and apps
 man 7 locale
 /bin/mkdir
 8 System admin. Cmds
 2 System calls
 /sbin/reboot
 int mkdir(const char *,
…);
 3 Library calls  Help
 int printf(const char *,  command --help
…);  $ ls --help | more
 Login & Log out
 Login  Log out
 (via console or network  $ Ctrl-d
access)  $ exit
 Run login scripts/profile
 ksh or sh
 /etc/profile
 $HOME/.profile
 bash
 /etc/profile
 $HOME/.bash_profile
 $ or #
Command
 Command Syntax
 To execute a command, type its name and/or
arguments at the command line (case
sensitive)
 $ Command [Options] [Arguments]
 $ ls -l /etc
 Basic Commands
 ls – list directory contents
 $ ls -l
 $ ls -a
 $ ls -la
 Basic Commands
 ls – list directory contents
 $ ls -l --sort=time
 Basic Commands
 ls – list directory contents
 $ ls -l --sort=size -r
 Basic Commands
 ls – list directory contents
 $ ls -li
 $ ls -lia
 Basic Commands
 ls – list directory contents
 List subdirectories recursively (-R)
 $ ls –lR
 $ ls –lR dir[12]
 Basic Commands (Cont.)
 cd
 $ cd /usr/bin
 pwd
 $ pwd
 ~
 $ cd ~
 $ ls -ld ~
 ~user
 $ cd ~jame
 What will “cd ~/jame” do?
 Ans: change directory to jame subdirectory
under user’s home directory
 Basic Commands (Cont.)
 which – show full path of commands
 $ which ls
 whereis – locate the binary, source, manual page files for a command
 $ whereis ls
 Basic Commands (Cont.)
 find – search for files in a directory hierarchy
 $ find / | grep stdio.h
 $ find /usr/include | grep stdio.h
 Basic Commands (Cont.)
 find – search for files in a directory hierarchy
 $ find / -name stdio.h
 Basic Commands (Cont.)
 find – search for files in a directory hierarchy
 $ find / -name “*stdio.h”
 Basic Commands (Cont.)
 su – switch user
Switch user to root and execute “root” profile
 $ su -

Switch user to root and still use “user” profile

 $ su
Switch user to any user
 $ su - guest1

 sudo – run command with root privilege

 $ sudo <command>
 $ sudo whoami
 Need to add user to “wheel” group to have
“sudo” privilege (Ubuntu use “sudo” group)
 Basic Commands (Cont.)
 rpm
 $ rpm -q bash
 $ rpm -qa
 $ rpm -qa | sort | more
 Basic Commands (Cont.)
 yum
 $ yum list updates
 Basic Commands (Cont.)
 yum
 $ yum list installed
 $ yum list installed httpd
 Basic Commands (Cont.)
 yum
 $ sudo yum install <package_name>
 Basic Commands (Cont.)
 yum
 $ sudo yum update <package_name>
 $ sudo yum update

New Version
 Basic Commands (Cont.)
 yum
 $ sudo yum remove <package_name>
 Basic Commands (Cont.)
 apt (Debian/Ubuntu)
 $ sudo apt list –installed
 $ sudo apt install <package_name>
 $ sudo apt install <package_name> --no-upgrade
 $ sudo apt install <package_name> --only-upgrade
 $ sudo apt remove <package_name>
 $ sudo apt purge <package_name>
 Basic Commands (Cont.)
 apt (Debian/Ubuntu)
 Update package database
 $ sudo apt update
 List upgradable package versions
 $ sudo apt list --upgradable
 Upgrade installed package
 $ sudo apt upgrade
 $ sudo apt upgrade -y
 Basic Commands (Cont.)
 echo – display a line of text
 $ echo “Hello World”
 $ echo -n “Hello World”
 cat
1. Create simple file
 $ cat > $HOME/prog1.sh

2. Display content of file

 $ cat /etc/motd

 $ cat /proc/cpuinfo

3. Merge/Concatenate files and print on std. output

 $ cat /etc/motd /etc/TIMEZONE

 $ cat /etc/hosts /etc/TIMEZONE > testing.log

 Basic Commands (Cont.)
 cp – copy files or directories
 (create new file from existing file with difference
i-node number)
Copy file
 $ cp fox bar

 $ cp -p fox bat

Copy directory
 $ cp -R dir1 dir2

 $ cp -Rp dir1 dir3

 Basic Commands (Cont.)
 mv – move/rename files
 (change the name of file only, no change
other information)
 $ mv foo box
 $ mv -i gt4 gt5 (ask to confirm if target file exists)
 Basic Commands (Cont.)
 mkdir – create directory
 $ mkdir foo
 $ mkdir -m 444 far (create with permission)
 $ mkdir -p dir1/dir2/dir3
 Basic Commands (Cont.)
 rm – remove files/directories
 $ rm food (remove file)
 $ rm -rf dir1 (remove directory)
 $ rm -i food

 $ rm -- -foo

** Check the corrected directory with “pwd”

before remove directory with “rm -rf” command **
 Basic Commands (Cont.)
 chgrp – change group ownership of file
 $ chgrp training /home/guest2/gt3
 chsh – change login shell
 $ chsh foo
 Basic Commands (Cont.)
 chown – change file owner/group
 $ chown -R guest1:training /home/guest2/dir2
 Basic Commands (Cont.)
 file – determine file type
 $ file /home/foo
 id – print user/group IDs
 $ id
 newgrp – change default gid to new group
 $ newgrp training
 Basic Commands (Cont.)
 grep – print line matching pattern
 $ grep ^pattern file
 $ grep pattern file
 Basic Commands (Cont.)
 grep – print line matching pattern
 $ grep -v pattern file
 -v - print all lines except the “pattern”
 Basic Commands (Cont.)
 grep – print line matching pattern
 $ grep -r pattern directory
 -r - read all files under each directory, recursively
 Basic Commands (Cont.)
 chmod – change file mode bits
 Basic Commands (Cont.)
 chmod – change file mode bits
 $ chmod 755 foo
 $ chmod ug+x foo
 Basic Commands (Cont.)
 chmod – change file mode bits
 $ chmod -R 775 dir1;chmod u+x,go=rx foo1
 Basic Commands (Cont.)
 umask – get or set the file mode creation mask
Permission = Default_permission - umask_value
 $ umask

 $ umask 027
 Question ?
 What’s meaning of command?
 $ cd
 $ cd ~
 $ cd $HOME
 Answer:
 How do you do if you have the shell script that
using the same name as UNIX command?
 Answer:
 Question ?
 What’s meaning of “-rw-r--r-- … file1”?
 Answer:

 How can you change permission to “-rwxr-x---”?

 Answer:

 What’s meaning of command “chmod 756 file1?

 Answer:
 Basic Commands (Cont.)
 Hard, soft (symbolic) link
 Hard link – create new file from existing file
with same inode
 $ ln vmlinuz-2.6.24.4 vmlinuz
 $ ln test1 test3
 Symbolic link – shortcut to file location
 Most useful when need to point crossing filesystem
 $ ln -s test1 test4
 Basic Commands (Cont.)
 last – show listing of last logged in users
 $ last -20
 $ last | more

 Last searches back through the file /var/log/wtmp

 Basic Commands (Cont.)
 who – show who is logged on
 $ whoami
 $ who
 $ who -a
 $w

 get information from /var/run/utmp, /var/log/wtmp

 Basic Commands (Cont.)
 tty – show logged on terminal of user
 $ tty

 Clear the terminal screen

 $ clear
 Question ?
 How to redirect output of following command to
save in “testing.out” without overwritten?
 $ who -a
 $ id
 Basic Commands (Cont.)
 touch – change file timestamps
 $ touch log.sh

 more – filter for viewing

 $ more foo
 tail – output the last part of files
 $ tail -30 /var/log/messages
 $ tail -f /var/log/messages
 Basic Commands (Cont.)
 ps – report a snapshot of the current processes
 $ ps -ef
 Basic Commands (Cont.)
 ps – report a snapshot of the current processes
 $ ps aux  (refer to CPU utilization(%CPU))
 Basic Commands (Cont.)
 ps – report a snapshot of the current processes
 $ ps avx  (refer to Memory utilization(%MEM))
 Basic Commands (Cont.)
 top – display Linux processes
 $ top
 Basic Commands (Cont.)
 top – display Linux processes
 $ top
 Press “h” for more commands in ‘top’
 Basic Commands (Cont.)
 nohup – no hangup processes after user log out
 $ nohup prog1.sh &
 jobs – display status of jobs in the current
session (background processes)
 $ jobs -l
 kill – terminate process
 $ kill -9 1234
 $ kill 1234
 See signal(7) for more information ($ man 7 signal) ($ kill -l)
 Basic Commands (Cont.)
 tar – archiving utility
 $ tar cvfp lab1.tar lab1
 $ tar cvzfp lab1.tgz lab1 (archive with compress)
 gzip – compress or expand files
 $ gzip -9 lab1.tar
 untar & ungzip
 $ tar xvfz lab1.tar.gz
 Display contents of gzip compression tar archive
 $ tar tvzf lab1.tar.tgz
 Basic Commands (Cont.)
 Disk usage (filesystem usage, available)
 $ df -h /
 $ df -h
 $ df -i
 Basic Commands (Cont.)
 File space usage
 $ du -sh ~/
 $ du -sh ~/*
 $ du -h Pictures/
 $ du -sh Pictures/
 Basic Commands (Cont.)
 uname - print system information
 $ uname -a
(Kernel name)
(Node name)
(Kernel release)
(Kernel version)
(machine)
(processor)
(Hardware platform)

(Operating system)

 hostname - show the system's host name

 $ hostname
 Basic Commands (Cont.)
 Showing disk partition table (root privilege)
 # fdisk -l
 Basic Commands (Cont.)
 Showing disk partition table
 $ cat /proc/partitions
 sda = the first scsi disk, s – scsi, a – 1st disk
(b=2nd,c=3rd,…)
 Basic Commands (Cont.)
 Showing CPU information
 $ cat /proc/cpuinfo
 Basic Commands (Cont.)
 Showing CPU information
 $ lscpu
 $ nproc
 Basic Commands (Cont.)

 Showing memory information

 $ cat /proc/meminfo
 $ free

 Showing swap information

 $ cat /proc/swaps

 $ swapon -s
 Basic Commands (Cont.)

 Showing network interface information

 $ ifconfig -a
 Basic Commands (Cont.)

 Showing network interface information

 $ ifconfig ens192
 Basic Commands (Cont.)

 Showing network interface information

 $ ip addr
 Basic Commands (Cont.)

 Showing network routing information

 $ netstat -rn
 Flag “G” for gateway
 $ ip route
 vi Editor
 $ vi filename
 2 modes
 Input mode  Command mode
 ESC to back to
command mode
 vi Editor
 Input text mode
 Switch to input mode
 a (append)
 i (insert)
 o (insert line after)
 O (insert line before)

 A (append to end of current line)

 I (insert at beginning of current line)

 vi Editor
 Command mode
 Cursor movement
 h (left), j (down), k (up), l (right)
 ^f (page down)
 ^b (page up)
 ^ (first char.)
 0 (first char.)
 $ (last char.)
 G (bottom page)
 :1 or 1G (go to first line)
 w (forward one word)
 b (backward one word)
 vi Editor (Cont.)
 Change
 cc (change the entire current line) (*until <Esc> hit)
 10cc or c10c (change 10 lines) (*until <Esc> hit)
 cw (change the current word with new text) (*until
<Esc> hit)
 r (replace single character under cursor (no <Esc>
need)
 vi Editor (Cont.)
 Delete  Paste
 dd (delete current line)  p (paste after)
 d10d or 10dd (delete 10  P (paste before)
lines)
 Undo
 d$ (delete till end of line)
 u
 dG (delete till end of file)
 Search
 x (delete current char.)
 /string
 Copy to buffer
 N (next search in
 yy (copy a line)
backward)
 n (next search in
forward)
 vi Editor (Cont.)
 Line number
 :set nu  Copy content in line
 :set nonu  :n1,n2tn3
 Replace word  :3,6t15
 :n1,n2s/word1/word2/g  :10t20
 :n1,n2s/word1/word2  Read from file
 :%s/word1/word2/g  :r filename
 :1,$s/word1/word2/g  (read file “filename”
and insert after
Note: n1/n2/n3 = 1,2,3 or 4, … current line)
 vi Editor (Cont.)
 Save/Quit
 :w (write)
 :w newfile (write to new file named
“newfile”)
 :10,30w smallfile (write content of lines
10 through 30 to file “smallfile”)
 :q (quit)
 :wq (write and quit)
 :x (write and quit)
 :wq! Or :x! (force write and quit)
 :q! (give up changes)
Q&A
 References
 Unix history
 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unix
 http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/77/Unix_
history-simple.svg
 Linus Torvalds
 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linus_Torvalds
 Linux Kernel
 http://www.kernel.org/
 References
 GNU (Gnu’s Not Unix)
 http://www.gnu.org/
 Linux Distribution
 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linux_distribution
 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Linux_distributions
 PS2: Computational Cluster
 http://arrakis.ncsa.uiuc.edu/ps2/cluster.php
 Linux Gadgets
 http://linuxdevices.com/articles/AT4936596231.html
 TiVo
 http://dynamic.tivo.com/linux/linux.asp
 References
 Nintendo DS Lite
 http://www.nintendo.com/ds/

 Nokia N810
 http://www.nokia.com/

 http://www.engadget.com/2007/10/17/nokia-n810-gets-official/

 Linux Distribution
 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linux_distribution

 GNU/Linux Distro Timeline: http://futurist.se/gldt/

 http://www.distrowatch.com/

 http://www.linux.org/dist/

 Google Advance Search

 http://www.google.com/intl/en/help/refinesearch.html
 Quiz
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