Concept of Microprocessor
A microprocessor is a digital device on a chip that can fetch instructions from
memory, decode and execute them, and produce results. It is the brain of a
computer, responsible for executing instructions and controlling the flow of data
within the system. Microprocessors are used in a wide range of applications, from
personal computers to embedded systems and industrial automation.
Characteristics of Microprocessors
The key characteristics of microprocessors include:
i. Clock Speed: The speed at which a microprocessor executes instructions,
measured in MHz or GHz. Modern microprocessors typically operate at
speeds of 3 GHz or higher.
ii. Instruction Set: The set of machine-level instructions that a
microprocessor is designed to execute. These instructions include data
transfer, arithmetic operations, logical operations, control flow, and
input/output operations.
iii. Word Size: The number of bits that a microprocessor can process in a
single instruction. Common word sizes include 4-bit, 8-bit, 16-bit, 32-bit,
and 64-bit.
Microprocessor Components
A microprocessor consists of several key components:
(a) CPU (Central Processing Unit):
Instruction Register: Holds the instruction to be executed.
Decoder: Decodes the instruction and sends it to the ALU.
Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU): Performs arithmetic and logical
operations.
Registers: Holds intermediate results during program processing.
(b) Bus:
Data Bus: Carries data between memory and the processor.
Address Bus: Carries the address of a memory location or I/O port.
Control Bus: Carries control signals for selecting memory or I/O
devices, direction of data transfer, and synchronization.
( c) Memory:
RAM (Random Access Memory): Volatile memory that stores data
and instructions.
ROM (Read Only Memory): Non-volatile memory that stores
preprogrammed data.
Evolution of Microprocessors
Microprocessors have undergone significant evolution over the past four decades,
with advancements in technology leading to increased processing power and
reduced costs. The evolution can be categorized into five generations:
(i) First Generation (4-bit Microprocessors): Introduced by Intel in 1971,
these microprocessors were capable of basic arithmetic and logical
functions.
(ii) Second Generation (8-bit Microprocessors): Introduced in the early
1970s, these microprocessors were more powerful and widely used.
(iii) Third Generation (16-bit Microprocessors): Introduced in the late 1970s,
these microprocessors could perform 16-bit operations.
(iv) Fourth Generation (32-bit Microprocessors): Introduced in the 1980s,
these microprocessors were widely used in personal computers.
(v) Fifth Generation (64-bit Microprocessors): Introduced in the 1990s, these
microprocessors are used in modern computing systems.
Applications of Microprocessors
Microprocessors are used in a wide range of applications, including:
1. Computers: Microprocessors are the CPU's in computers, responsible for
executing instructions and controlling data flow.
2. Embedded Systems: Microprocessors are used as the main processing block
in embedded systems such as washing machines, microwaves, and other
appliances.
3. Industrial Automation: Microprocessors are used to control industrial
machinery and equipment.
4. Automotive: Modern vehicles use microprocessors in their electronic control
units (ECUs).
5. Telecommunications: Microprocessors are used in telecommunications
systems such as routers, modems, and switches.
The internal structure
The internal structure of a microprocessor includes several key components that
work together to perform various operations. These components are:
1. Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU): Performs arithmetic and logical operations on
data received from memory or input devices. It can perform operations such as
addition, subtraction, increment, decrement, logical AND, OR, and exclusive OR.
2. Register Array: Consists of registers identified by letters like B, C, D, E, H, L,
and accumulator. These registers are used to store binary information during the
execution of a program. The accumulator is the primary register associated with
the ALU and input/output operations.
3. Control Unit: Controls the flow of data and instructions within the computer. It
provides the necessary timing and control signals to all operations in the
microcomputer, including memory and I/O operations.
4. Instruction Register: Holds the binary code of the instruction that is being
executed.
5. Program Counter: Contains the address of the memory location from which the
next instruction code will be taken.
6. Timing Unit: Composed of an internal clock and associated hardware, which
generates a pulsed waveform voltage. This clock frequency determines the speed at
which the microprocessor operates.
These components work together to execute instructions, perform arithmetic and
logical operations, and communicate with peripherals and memory.
Basic Operation
The basic operation of a microprocessor involves the following steps:
(1) Fetch Phase: Retrieves the next instruction from memory.
(2) Operation: The microprocessor fetches the instruction from memory and
stores it in the instruction register.
(3) Decode Phase: The microprocessor decodes the instruction and determines
the operation to be performed.
(4) Execute Phase: The microprocessor performs the operation specified by the
instruction, using the ALU and registers.
(5) Store Phase: The microprocessor stores the result of the operation in the
appropriate register or memory location.
A microprocessor is a central processing unit (CPU) that performs most of the
processing tasks in a computer system. It is the brain of a computer and is
responsible for executing instructions and controlling the flow of data within the
system. There are several types of microprocessors, each designed for specific
purposes and applications.
Types of Microprocessors
(a) CISC (Complex Instruction Set Computer) Microprocessors:
Function: Execute complex instructions that combine multiple simple instructions.
Advantages: Fewer instructions are needed per program, reducing memory usage.
Disadvantages: Instructions are longer, taking more cycles to execute, and the
program is executed sequentially.
Examples: Intel 386, 486, Pentium.
(b)RISC (Reduced Instruction Set Computer) Microprocessors:
Function: Execute simple instructions and use pipelining to execute multiple parts
of instructions simultaneously.
Advantages: Instructions are shorter, reducing memory usage, and the program is
executed more efficiently.
Disadvantages: More instructions are needed per program, and more memory is
required for storing assembly-level instructions.
Examples: AMD K6, K7, etc.
( c) ASIC (Application Specific Integrated Circuit) Microprocessors:
Function: Designed for specific applications, such as automotive emissions control
or personal digital assistants.
Advantages: Smaller, uses less power, and processes at high speeds.
Disadvantages: Customized chips, more expensive, and less powerful than
standardized microprocessors.
Examples: Automotive emissions control, personal digital assistants.
( d) Superscalar Microprocessors:
Function: Can process multiple instructions simultaneously through pipelining.
Advantages: High processing speed and efficiency.
Disadvantages: Not a standalone processor, often used as a co-processor for
arithmetic processing and multipliers.
Examples: Used in ALUs or multipliers.
( e) DSP (Digital Signal Processor) Microprocessors:
Function: Encode and decode real-world inputs, such as video, audio, temperature,
and pressure from analog signals to digital and vice versa.
Advantages: Small, fast, and low power consumption.
Disadvantages: Limited to specific tasks and applications.
Examples: RADAR, home theaters, SONAR, TV set-top boxes, mobile phones.
( f) SIMD (Single Instruction Multiple Data) Microprocessors:
Function: Perform computations in vectors using elements in parallel instead of
serially.
Advantages: High processing speed and efficiency.
Disadvantages: Limited to specific tasks and applications.
Examples: Used in graphics processing units (GPUs).
