Introduction to Control Systems

(EPCE3204)
Credit: 3 Hrs (Lecture: 2 Hr, Tut: 3Hr & Lab: 3 Hr)
_______________________________________________________________
Chapter-Five
Outline: Frequency Domain Analysis
1. Introduction
• Methods of frequency response
• Correlation b/n Frequency domain & Time domain analysis
• Advantage & Disadvantage of frequency domain analysis
2. Bode plot
• Step to sketch bode plot
• Stability analysis using bode plot
3. polar plot
• Polar plot of standard function
4. Nyquist plot
• Nyquist analysis
• Nyquist stability criterion Course Instructor: Tamiru Getahun G. (Lecturer @ASTU, EPCE)

• Nichol’s char Email:getahung.2004@gmail.com/tamiru.getahun@astu.edu.et

ASTU
• Advantage of Nyquist plot May 16 , 2023
 Frequency domain Analysis

1. Objectives
After Completing this chapter, student will able to:
• Analyze the system behavior/ Dynamics.
• Analysis Steady state response of different systems.
• Plot the magnitude and phase curve of the system using frequency Domain
methods.
• Check the Stability of the system.

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 Frequency domain Analysis

5.1 Introduction
• Frequency Response, we mean the steady-state response of a
system to a sinusoidal input.

Where :

• In frequency-response methods, we vary the frequency of the input

signal over a certain range and study the resulting response.

• The information we get from such analysis is different from what

we get from root-locus analysis. In fact, the frequency response and
root-locus approaches complement each other.
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 Frequency domain Analysis
Advantage Of The Frequency-response Approach:
✓ We can use the data obtained from measurements on the
physical system without deriving its mathematical
model.
✓ simple and can be made accurately by use of readily
available sinusoidal signal generators and precise
measurement equipment.
✓ A system may be designed so that the effects of
undesirable noise are negligible and that such analysis
and design can be extended to certain nonlinear control
systems.
✓ The transfer function is complex function, which is
characterized by its magnitude and phase angle.
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 Frequency domain Analysis
Obtaining Steady-State Outputs to Sinusoidal Inputs
• The steady-state output of a transfer function system can be
obtained directly from the sinusoidal transfer function—that is, the
transfer function in which s is replaced by jω,where ω is
frequency.
• Let us assume that the input signal to the system is given by

• steady-state response can be given by

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 Frequency domain Analysis
• The steady-state response of a stable, LTI system to a sinusoidal
input does not depend on the initial conditions. (Thus, we can
assume the zero initial condition.)

• The inverse Laplace transform

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 Frequency domain Analysis
• Then, the steady-state response becomes

• where

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 Frequency domain Analysis
• Similarly, we obtain the following expression for G(–jω):

where

Then ,

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 Frequency domain Analysis

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 Frequency domain Analysis
• Generally,

• Example: For the system given below, the transfer function G(s) is

• For the sinusoidal input

• the steady-state output yss(t) can be found as follows: Substituting
jω for s in G(s) yields

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 Frequency domain Analysis

Commonly used Graphical representations of

sinusoidal transfer function

✓Bode diagram or logarithmic plot

✓Nyquist plot or polar plot

✓Log-magnitude-versus-phase plot (Nichols plots)

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 Frequency domain Analysis

I. Bode diagram or logarithmic plot

❖ A Bode diagram consists of two graphs:
1) One is a plot of the logarithm of the magnitude of a
sinusoidal transfer function(It’s unit is decibel
(dB))
2) the other is a plot of the phase angle (It’s unit is in
degrees); both are plotted against the frequency on a
logarithmic scale.
The standard representation of the logarithmic magnitude of
G(jω) is 20 log |G(jω)|.
• The main advantage of using the Bode diagram is that
multiplication of magnitudes can be converted into
addition.
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 Frequency domain Analysis

Cont…
• Basic Factors of G( jω)H(jω)
The basic factors that very frequently occur in an arbitrary
transfer function

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 Frequency domain Analysis

The Gain K
• A number greater than unity has a positive value in
decibels, while a number smaller than unity has a
negative value.
• The log-magnitude curve for a constant gain K is a
horizontal straight line at the magnitude of 20 log K
decibels.
• The phase angle of the gain K is zero.
• The effect of varying the gain K in the transfer function
is that it raises or lowers the log-magnitude curve of the
transfer function by the corresponding constant amount,
but it has no effect on the phase curve.

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 Frequency domain Analysis

Cont…
• A number–decibel conversion line
•As a number increases by a
factor of 10, the
corresponding decibel value
increases by a factor of 20.
This may be seen from the
following:

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 Frequency domain Analysis

Derivative and Integral and Factors (jω)+1

• The logarithmic magnitude of 1/jω in decibels is

• The phase angle of 1/jω is constant and equal to –90°.

• If the transfer function contains the factor (1/jω)n or
(jω)n, the log magnitude becomes, respectively,

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 Frequency domain Analysis
Cont…

(a) Bode diagram of G(jω)=1/jω; (b) Bode diagram of G(jω)=jω.

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 Frequency domain Analysis

First-Order Factors (1+ jωT) +1

• The log magnitude of the first-order factor 1/(1+jωT) is

• For low frequencies,

• For high frequencies,

determine At ω =1/T and 10/T

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 Cont… Frequency domain Analysis

• The exact phase angle f of the factor 1/(1+jωT) is

( )

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 Frequency domain Analysis

Cont…
• At zero frequency, the phase angle is 0°.
• At the corner frequency, the phase angle is
w=1/T

• At infinity, the phase angle becomes –90°.

• The phase angle is skew symmetric about the inflection
point at – 45°
• The maximum error occurs at the corner frequency and
is approximately equal to –3 dB, since

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 Frequency domain Analysis
• The Log-magnitude curve, together with the asymptotes,
and phase-angle curve for 1+jωT as follows.

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 Frequency domain Analysis

Quadratic Factors [1+ 2ξ(jω/ ωn) + (jω/ ωn) 2 ]+1

• Control systems often possess quadratic factors of the form

• The asymptotic frequency-response curve may be obtained

as follows: Since

• For low frequencies such that ω << ωn ,the log magnitude

becomes
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 Frequency domain Analysis

• For high frequencies such that ω >> ωn, the log magnitude
becomes

• The high-frequency asymptote intersects the low-frequency

one at ω = ωn, since at this frequency

• This frequency, ωn, is the corner frequency for the

quadratic factor considered.
• The two asymptotes just derived are independent of the
value of ξ.
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 Frequency domain Analysis

• The phase angle of the quadratic factor [1+ 2ξ(jω/ ωn) + (jω/ ωn) 2 ]-1 is

• The phase angle is a function of both ω and ξ.

• At ω=0, the phase angle equals 0°.
• At the corner frequency ω = ωn, the phase angle is –90°
regardless of ξ , since

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 Frequency domain Analysis

✓At ω=ꝏ, the phase

angle becomes –180°.

✓The phase-angle curve

is skew symmetric
about the inflection
point—the point where

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 Frequency domain Analysis
The Resonant Frequency ωr and the Resonant Peak Value Mr
• The magnitude of

• If |G(jω)| has a peak value at some frequency, this frequency is

called the resonant frequency.
• a peak value of |G(jω)| will occur when

is a minimum.

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 Frequency domain Analysis
• The above equation can be written

• The minimum value of g(ω) occurs at

• Thus the resonant frequency ωr is

• For 0 < ξ ≤ 0.707, the resonant frequency ωr is less than

the damped natural frequency ωd.

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 Frequency domain Analysis

• For ξ ≥ 0.707, Mr = 1
• As ξ approaches zero, Mr approaches infinity.
• This means that if the undamped system is excited at its
natural frequency, the magnitude of G(jω) becomes
infinity.
• The relationship between Mr and ξ
• At the resonant frequency ωr ,

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 Frequency domain Analysis

General Procedure for Plotting Bode Diagrams

1) First rewrite the sinusoidal transfer function G(jω)H(jω)
as a product of basic factors discussed above.
2) Then identify the corner frequencies associated with
these basic factors.
3) Draw the asymptotic log-magnitude curves with proper
slopes between the corner frequencies. The exact curve,
which lies close to the asymptotic curve, can be obtained
by adding proper corrections.
4) The phase-angle curve of G(jω)H(jω) can be drawn by
adding the phase-angle curves of individual factors.

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 Frequency domain Analysis
EXAMPLE: Draw the Bode diagram for the following transfer function

Solution:
1) rewrite the sinusoidal transfer function G(jω)H(jω)
as a product of basic factors

This function is composed of the following factors:

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 Frequency domain Analysis

2) the corner frequencies associated with these basic factors.

• Note that the last term has the damping ratio of 0.3536.

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 Frequency domain Analysis

3) Draw the asymptotic log-magnitude curves with proper

slopes between the corner frequencies.

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 Frequency domain Analysis

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 Frequency domain Analysis

Nyquist Plot or Polar Plot

• Nyquist Plots were invented by Nyquist - who worked at Bell Laboratories, the
premiere technical organization in the U.S. at the time.

• Nyquist Plots are a way of showing frequency responses of linear systems.

• There are several ways of displaying frequency response data, including Bode' plots
and Nyquist plots.

• Bode' plots use frequency as the horizontal axis and use two separate plots to
display amplitude and phase of the frequency response.

• Nyquist plots display both amplitude and phase angle on a single plot, using
frequency as a parameter in the plot.

• Nyquist plots have properties that allow you to see whether a system is stable or
unstable.

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 Frequency domain Analysis

Nyquist Plot
• A Nyquist plot is a polar plot of the frequency response function of a linear system.

• That means a Nyquist plot is a plot of the transfer function, G(s) with s = jω. That
means you want to plot G(j ω).

• G(j ω) is a complex number for any angular frequency, ω, so the plot is a plot of
complex numbers.

• The complex number, G(j ω), depends upon frequency, so frequency will be a
parameter if you plot the imaginary part of G(j ω) against the real part of G(j ω).

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 Frequency domain Analysis

Sketch the Polar plot of Frequency Response

To sketch the polar plot of G(jω) for the entire range of frequency ω, i.e., from 0 to
infinity, there are four key points that usually need to be known:
1) The start of plot where ω = 0,
2) The end of plot where ω = ∞,
3) Where the plot crosses the real axis, i.e., Im(G(jω)) = 0, and
4) Where the plot crosses the imaginary axis, i.e., Re(G(jω)) = 0.

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 Frequency domain Analysis
Problem-1: Polar Plot of Integrator
Consider a first order system,

Representing G(s) in the frequency response form G( jω ) by replacing s = jω:

The magnitude of G( jω ), i.e., | G( jω) |, is obtained as;

The phase of G( jω ), denoted by, φ , is obtained as;

Bode Plot Polar Plot

Magnitude

Phase

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 Frequency domain Analysis

Problem-2: Polar Plot of First Order System

Consider a first order system where T is the time constant.

Representing G(s) in the frequency response form G( jω ) by replacing s = jω:

The magnitude of G( jω ), i.e., | G( jω) |, is obtained as;

The phase of G( jω ), denoted by, φ , is obtained as;

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 Frequency domain Analysis

The start of plot where ω = 0

The end of plot where ω = ∞

The mid part of plot where ω = 1/T

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 Frequency domain Analysis

Bode Plot Polar Plot

Magnitude

Phase

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 Frequency domain Analysis

Problem-3: Polar Plot of Second Order System

Consider a second order system where T is the time constant.

Representing G(s) in the frequency response form G( jω ) by replacing s = jω:

The magnitude of G( jω ), i.e., | G( jω) |, is obtained as;

The phase of G( jω ), denoted by, φ , is obtained as;

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 Frequency domain Analysis

The start of plot where ω = 0

1
𝐺 𝑗𝜔 = =1 ∠𝐺 𝑗𝜔 = − tan−1 0 − tan−1 0 = 0°
1+0 1+0

The end of plot where ω = ∞

1
𝐺 𝑗𝜔 = =0 ∠𝐺 𝑗𝜔 = − tan−1 ∞ − tan−1 ∞ = −90° − 90° = −180°
∞ ∞

Polar Plot

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 Frequency domain Analysis

Problem-4: Sketch the Nyquist diagram for the system shown in the following figure,
and then determine the system stability using the Nyquist criterion.

(a)

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 Frequency domain Analysis

Now that we have expressions for the magnitude and phase of the frequency response, we
can sketch the polar plot using the 4 key points.

Point 1: The start of plot where ω = 0

500 0
𝐺 0 𝐻(0) = = 16.67 ∠𝐺 0 𝐻 0 = tan−1 = 0°
30 2 30

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 Frequency domain Analysis

Point 2: The end of plot where ω = ∞

500 ∞ 3
𝐺 ∞ 𝐻(∞) = =0 ∠𝐺 ∞ 𝐻 ∞ = tan−1 = −3 × 90° = −270°
∞ 30

Point 3: Where the plot crosses the real axis, i.e., Im(G(jω)) = 0

Take the imaginary part of equation (a), and put equal to zero, to get the value of
frequency ω at the interception of real axis.

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 Frequency domain Analysis

Point 4: Where the plot crosses the imaginary axis, Re(G(jω)) = 0

Take the real part of equation (a), and put equal to zero, to get the value of frequency
ω at the interception of imaginary axis.

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 Frequency domain Analysis

Problem-5: Sketch the polar plot for the following transfer function.

Representing G(s) in the frequency response form G( jω ) by replacing s = jω, and then
Multiply both numerator and denominator by the conjugate of denominator.

(a)

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 Frequency domain Analysis

Point 1: The start of plot where ω = 0

At frequency ω = 0, we only observe the most significant terms that take the effect.

Magnitude at ω = 0:

Phase at ω = 0:

Point 2: The end of plot where ω = ∞

At frequency ω = ∞, we shall look at the most significant term that takes effect when the
frequency approaches infinity.

Magnitude at ω = ∞:

Phase at ω = ∞:

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 Frequency domain Analysis

Point 3: Where the plot crosses the real axis, i.e., Im(G(jω)) = 0

Take the imaginary part of equation (a), and put equal to zero, to get the value of
frequency ω at the interception of real axis.

Therefore, the intersection point between the polar plot and the real axis, when 𝝎 = 𝟓,
is located at;

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 Frequency domain Analysis
Point 4: Where the plot crosses the imaginary axis, Re(G(jω)) = 0

Take the real part of equation (a), and put equal to zero, to get the value of frequency
ω at the interception of imaginary axis.

Therefore, the intersection point between the polar plot and the imaginary axis is when
𝜔 = ∞ is located at;

Polar Plot
|G(jω)| ∠G(jω)
ω=0 ∞ -90o
ω=∞ 0 -270o
Cross Re: 1
−
𝜔= 5 3
Cross Img:
𝜔=∞ 0

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 Frequency domain Analysis

Problem-6: Sketch the polar plot for the following transfer

function.

Representing G(s)H(s) in the frequency response form G( jω )H(jω) by replacing s = jω:

The magnitude of GH(jω) i.e., |GH(jω)|, is obtained as;

1
𝐺𝐻 𝑗𝜔 =
𝜔 4 𝜔 2 + 𝑝2
The phase of GH(jω) denoted by, 𝜑, is obtained as;
𝜔
𝜑 = ∠𝐺𝐻 0 = − tan−1
𝑝

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 Frequency domain Analysis

Point 1: The start of plot where ω = 0

0
1 𝜑 = ∠𝐺𝐻 0 = −tan−1 = 0°
𝑝
𝐺𝐻(0) = =∞
0 0+ 𝑝2
∞
𝜑 = ∠𝐺𝐻 ∞ = −tan−1 = −90°
Point 2: The end of plot where ω = ∞ 𝑝

1
𝐺𝐻(∞) = =0
∞ ∞+ 𝑝2

|GH(jω)| ∠GH(jω) Polar Plot

ω=0 ∞ 0o
ω=∞ 0 -90o

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 Frequency domain Analysis

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 Frequency domain Analysis

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 Frequency domain Analysis

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 Frequency domain Analysis

Four Important Points for Derivation the

Nyquist Criterion
1. The relationship between the poles of 1 + G(s)H(s) and the poles of
G(s)H(s);
2. The relationship between the zeros of 1 + G(s)H(s) and the poles of the
closed-loop transfer function, T(s);
3. The concept of mapping points;
4. The concept of mapping contours.

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 Frequency domain Analysis

It is conclude that;

1) The poles of 1 + G(s)H(s) are the same as the poles of G(s)H(s), the open-loop system.

2) The zeros of 1 + G(s)H(s) are the same as the poles of T(s), the closed-loop system.

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 Frequency domain Analysis

The Concept of Mapping

• If we take a complex number s = x+jy on the s-plane and substitute it into a
function, F(s), another complex number results. This process is called
mapping.
OR
• The term mapping is defined as the substitution of a complex number into
a function, F(s), to get another complex number.
• For example, substituting s = 4 + j3 into the function F(s) = (s2 +2s + 1)
yields 16+j30. We say that 4 + j3 maps into 16+j30 through the function s2
+2s + 1.

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 Frequency domain Analysis

The Concept of Mapping Contours

The collection of points, called a contour.

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 Frequency domain Analysis
Examples of Contour Mapping
If we assume a clockwise direction for mapping the points on contour A, the contour B
maps a clockwise direction if F(s) has just zeros or has just poles that are not encircled by
the contour.

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 Frequency domain Analysis
Examples of Contour Mapping
The contour B maps in a counter clockwise direction if F(s) has just poles that are encircled
by the contour, Also, you should verify that, if the pole or zero of F(s) is enclosed by
contour A, the mapping encircles the origin .

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 Frequency domain Analysis

Examples of Contour Mapping

In this last case, the pole and zero rotation cancel, and the mapping
does not encircle the origin.

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 Frequency domain Analysis

THE NYQUIST STABILITY CRITERION

• A linear closed-loop continuous control system is absolutely stable if the roots of
the characteristic equation have negative real parts.

• Equivalently, the poles of the closed-loop transfer function, or the zeros of the
denominator, 1 + GH(s), of the closed-loop transfer function, must lie in the left-
half plane.

• The Nyquist Stability Criterion establishes the number of zeros of 1 + GH(s) in the
right-half plane directly from the Nyquist Stability Plot of GH(s).

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 Frequency domain Analysis

Nyquist Stability Criterion

The closed-loop control system whose open-loop transfer function is GH is stable if
and only if

Where,

N = total number of CW encirclements of the (-1,0) point (i.e., GH = - 1 ) in the GH-

plane.
Po = number of poles of GH in the right-hand-plane RHP for continuous systems.

If N > 0, the number of zeros Zo of 1 + GH in the RHP for continuous systems, is

determined by

If N ≤ 0 and Po = 0, then the system is absolutely stable if and only if N = 0; that is, if
and only if the (-1,0) point does not lie in the shaded region.

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 Frequency domain Analysis

Problem-7: Sketch the polar plot for the following transfer function and check
the stability of the system.

There is one pole at the origin.

Representing G(s)H(s) in the frequency response form G( jω )H(jω) by replacing s = jω:

The magnitude of GH(jω) i.e., |GH(jω)|, is obtained as;

1
𝐺𝐻 𝑗𝜔 =
𝜔 𝜔2 + 1

The phase of GH(jω) denoted by, 𝜑, is obtained as;

𝜔
𝜑 = ∠𝐺𝐻 0 = −90° − tan−1
1

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 Frequency domain Analysis

Point 1: The start of plot where ω = 0

1 0
𝐺𝐻(0) = =∞ 𝜑 = ∠𝐺𝐻 0 = −90° −tan −1
= −90°
0 0+1 1

Point 2: The end of plot where ω = ∞

1 ∞
𝐺𝐻(∞) = =0 𝜑 = ∠𝐺𝐻 ∞ = −90 − tan−1 = −90° − 90° = −180°
∞ ∞+1 𝑝

Polar Plot

|GH(jω)| ∠GH(jω)
ω=0 ∞ -90o
ω=∞ 0 -180o

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 Frequency domain Analysis

Nyquist or Polar Plot Nyquist Diagram

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 Frequency domain Analysis
• The region to the right of the contour has been shaded.

• Clearly, the (-1,0) point is not in the shaded region; therefore it is not enclosed by
the contour and so N ≤ 0.

• The poles of GH(s) are at s = 0 and s = -1, neither of which are in the right-hand-
plane RHP; hence Po = 0. Thus N = -Po = 0, and the system is absolutely stable.

ASTU – EPCE Dpt Introduction to Control Systems By Tamiru G. G.(Lecturer) 68

 Frequency domain Analysis

Problem-8: The Nyquist Stability Plot for GH(s) = 1/s(s-1) is given in the figure below.

• The region to the right of the contour has been shaded and the (-1,0) point is enclosed; then
N > 0. (It is clear that N = 1).
• The poles of GH are at s = 0 and s = +1, the latter pole being in the RHP. Hence Po = 1.

• N ≠ Po indicates that the system is unstable.

• Z = N + Po = 1 + 1 = 2, therefore the poles of the closed-loop transfer function, or the zeros

of the characteristic equation 1+GH in the right-hand plane RHP.

ASTU – EPCE Dpt Introduction to Control Systems By Tamiru G. G.(Lecturer) 69