STUDY MATERIAL FOR PHYSICS

CLASS x a AND X h for board

examination 2020-21

Please note highlighted

material in this text is only for
practice (numerical problems) if
time permits
 CHAPTER - 10
LIGHT – REFLECTION AND REFRACTION
LIGHT
An object reflects light that falls on it. This reflected light when received by our eyes,
enables us to see things.

Reflection of light
Reflection of light is the phenomenon of bouncing back of light in the same medium
on striking the surface of any object.
There are two types of reflection:
1. Regular reflection or Specular Reflection
2. Irregular reflection or Diffuse Reflection

Regular Reflection: When the reflecting surface is smooth and well polished, the
parallel rays falling on it are reflected parallel to one another, the reflected light goes
in one particular direction. This is Regular reflection or Specular reflection see below
figure.

Irregular reflection: When the reflecting surface is rough, the parallel rays falling on
it reflected in different direction, as shown in below fig. Such a reflection is known as
diffuse reflection or irregular reflection.

LAWS OF REFLECTION OF LIGHT

According to the laws of Reflection of light,

(i) The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection, and
(ii) The incident ray, the normal to the mirror at the point of incidence and the
reflected ray, all lie in the same plane.
These laws of reflection are applicable to all types of reflecting surfaces including
spherical surfaces.

OBJECTS
Anything which gives out light rays either its own or reflected by it is called an
object.

LUMINOUS OBJECTS: The objects like the sun, other stars, electric bulb, tube-
light etc. which emit their own light are called luminous objects.
NON – LUMINOUS OBJECTS: The objects which do not emit light themselves but
only reflect or scatter the light which falls on them, are called non-luminous objects.
A flower, chair table, book, trees, etc are all non-luminous objects.

IMAGES
Image is an optical appearance produced when light rays coming from an object are
reflected from a mirror (or refracted through lens).

REAL IMAGE
The image which can be obtained on a screen is called a real image. In a cinema hall,
we see the images of actors and actress on the screen. So, the images formed on a
cinema screen is an example of real images.

VIRTUAL IMAGE
The image which cannot be obtained on a screen is called a virtual image. A virtual
image can be seen only by looking into a mirror. The image of our face in a plane
mirror is an example of virtual image.

LATERAL INVERSION
When an object is placed in front of a plane mirror, then the right side of object
appears to become the left side of image; and the left side of object appears to become
the right side of image. This change of sides of an object and its mirror image is called
lateral inversion.
The phenomenon of lateral inversion is due to the reflection of light.

CHARACTERISTICS OF IMAGES FORMED BY PLANE MIRRORS

The characteristics of images formed by plane mirrors are:
1. The image of real object is always virtual. Such image cannot be taken on a
screen.
2. The image formed in a plane mirror is always erect.
3. The size of the image in a plane mirror is always the same as the size of the
object.
4. The image formed in a plane mirror is as far behind the mirror, as the object is in
front of the mirror.
5. The image formed in a plane mirror is laterally inverted i.e. the left side of the
objects becomes the right side of the image and vice-versa.

SPHERICAL MIRROR
A spherical mirror is that mirror whose reflecting surface is the part of a hollow
sphere of glass. The spherical mirrors are of two types: Concave mirror and Convex
mirror.

CONCAVE MIRROR: A concave mirror is that spherical mirror in which the

reflection of light takes place at the concave surface (or bent-in surface).

CONVEX MIRROR: A convex mirror is that spherical mirror in which the

reflection of light takes place at the convex surface (or bulging –out surface).

TERMS RELATED TO SPHERICAL MIRRORS

Centre of Curvature(C): The centre of curvature of a spherical mirror is the centre
of the hollow sphere of glass of which the spherical mirror is a part. It is represented
by letter „C‟.
Pole(P): The pole of a spherical mirror is the centre of the mirror. It is represented by
letter „P‟.
Radius of Curvature(R): The radius of curvature of a spherical mirror is the radius
of the hollow sphere of glass of which the spherical is a part. It is represented by the
letter „R‟.
Principal axis: The principal axis of a spherical mirror is the straight line passing
through the centre of curvature C and pole P of the spherical mirror, produced on both
sides.
Aperture: The aperture of a spherical mirror is the diameter of the reflecting surface
of the mirror.
PRINCIPAL FOCUS OF A SPHERICAL MIRROR

The principal focus of a concave mirror is a point on its principal axis to which all the
light rays which are parallel and close to the axis, converge after reflection from the
concave mirror. A concave mirror has a real focus. The focus of a concave mirror is in
front of the mirror. Since a concave mirror converges a parallel beams of light rays, it
is also called converging mirror.

The principal focus of a convex mirror is a point on its principal axis from which a
beam of light rays, initially parallel to the axis, appears to diverge after being reflected
from the convex mirror. A convex mirror has a virtual focus. The focus of a convex
mirror is situated behind the mirror. Since a convex mirror diverges a parallel beams
of light rays, it is also called diverging mirror.

Focal Length: The focal length of a spherical mirror is the distance between its pole
and principal focus. It is denoted by the letter „f‟.

Relation between Radius of curvature and focal length of a spherical mirror

The focal length of a spherical mirror is equal to half of its radius of curvature.
R
f 
2
In other words, for spherical mirrors of small apertures, the radius of curvature is
found to be equal to twice the focal length.

R = 2f
RULES FOR OBTAINING IMAGES FORMED BY SHPERICAL MIRRORS

The intersection of at least two reflected rays give the position of image of the point
object. Any two of the following rays can be considered for locating the image.

1. A ray parallel to the principal axis, after reflection, will pass through the principal
focus in case of a concave mirror or appear to diverge from the principal focus in
case of a convex mirror.

2. A ray passing through the principal focus of a concave mirror or a ray which is
directed towards the principal focus of a convex mirror, after reflection, will
emerge parallel to the principal axis.

3. A ray passing through the centre of curvature of a concave mirror or directed in

the direction of the centre of curvature of a convex mirror, after reflection, is
reflected back along the same path. The light rays come back along the same path
because the incident rays fall on the mirror along the normal to the reflecting
surface.
4. A ray incident obliquely to the principal axis, towards a point P (pole of the
mirror), on the concave mirror or a convex mirror , is reflected obliquely. The
incident and reflected rays follow the laws of reflection at the point of incidence
(point P), making equal angles with the principal axis.

FORMATION OF DIFFERENT TYPES OF IMAGES BY A CONCAVE MIRROR

The type of image formed by a concave mirror depends on the position of object in
front of the mirror. There are six positions of the object:
Case–1: Object is in between P and F
When an object is placed between the pole(P) and focus(F) of a concave mirror, the
image formed is
(i) behind the mirror
(ii) virtual and erect and
(iii) larger than the object (or magnified)

Case–2: Object is at the focus(F).

When an object is placed at the focus of a concave mirror, the image formed is
(i) at infinity
(ii) real and inverted, and
(iii) highly magnified (or highly enlarged)
Case–3: Object is in between focus(F) and centre of curvature(C)
When an object is placed between the focus(F) and centre of curvature(C) of a
concave mirror, the image formed is
(i) beyond the centre of curvature
(ii) real and inverted, and
(iii) larger than the object (or magnified)

Case–4: Object is at the centre of curvature(C)

When an object is placed at the centre of curvature of a concave mirror, the image
formed is
(i) at the centre of curvature
(ii) real and inverted, and
(iii) same size as the object

Case–5: Object is beyond the centre of curvature(C)

When an object is placed beyond the centre of curvature of a concave mirror, the
image formed is
(i) between the focus and centre of curvature
(ii) real and inverted, and
(iii) smaller than the object (or diminished)
Case–6: Object is at infinity.
When an object is placed at infinity of a concave mirror, the image formed is
(i) between the focus and centre of curvature
(ii) real and inverted, and
(iii) much smaller than the object (or highly diminished)

USES OF CONCAVE MIRRORS

1. Concave mirrors are commonly used in torches, search-lights and vehicles

headlights to get powerful parallel beams of light.
2. Concave mirrors are used as shaving mirrors to see a larger image of the face.
3. The dentists use concave mirrors to see large images of the teeth of patients.
4. Concave mirrors are used as doctor‟s head mirrors to focus light coming from a
lamp on to the body parts of a patient to be examined by the doctor.
5. Concave dishes are used in TV dish antennas to receive TV signals from the
distant communications satellite.
6. Large concave mirrors are used to concentrate sunlight to produce heat in solar
furnaces.

FORMATION OF DIFFERENT TYPES OF IMAGES BY A CONVEX MIRROR

The type of image formed by a convex mirror depends on the position of object in
front of the mirror. There are six positions of the object:
Case–1: Object is placed between P and infinity
When an object is placed between pole and infinity in front of a convex mirror, the
image formed is
(i) between the pole and focus
(ii) virtual and erect, and
(iii) smaller than the object (or diminished)
Case–2: Object is at infinity.
When an object is placed at infinity of a convex mirror, the image formed is
(i) behind the mirror at focus
(ii) virtual and erect, and
(iii) much smaller than the object (or highly diminished)

USES OF CONVEX MIRRORS

Convex mirrors are commonly used as rear-view (wing) mirrors in vehicles. These
mirrors are fitted on the sides of the vehicle, enabling the driver to see traffic behind
him/her to facilitate safe driving. Convex mirrors are preferred because they always
give an erect, though diminished, image. Also, they have a wider field of view as they
are curved outwards. Thus, convex mirrors enable the driver to view much larger area
than would be possible with a plane mirror.

INTEXT QUESTIONS PAGE NO. 168

1. Define the principal focus of a concave mirror.

Ans. Light rays that are parallel to the principal axis of a concave mirror converge at a
specific point on its principal axis after reflecting from the mirror. This point is
known as the principal focus of the concave mirror.

2. The radius of curvature of a spherical mirror is 20 cm. What is its focal length?
Ans. Here R = 20 cm
R 20
We know that f  f  10cm
2 2
3. Name a mirror that can give an erect and enlarged image of an object.
Ans. When an object is placed between the pole and the principal focus of a concave
mirror, the image formed is virtual, erect, and enlarged.

4. Why do we prefer a convex mirror as a rear-view mirror in vehicles?

Ans. Convex mirrors give a virtual, erect, and diminished image of the objects placed
in front of them. They are preferred as a rear-view mirror in vehicles because they
give a wider field of view, which allows the driver to see most of the traffic behind
him.

MIRROR FORMULA

In a spherical mirror, the distance of the object from its pole is called the object
distance (u). The distance of the image from the pole of the mirror is called the image
distance (v). The distance of the principal focus from the pole is called the focal
length (f). There is a relationship between these three quantities given by the mirror
formula which is expressed as
1 1 1
 
f v u

MAGNIFICATION

Magnification produced by a spherical mirror gives the relative extent to which the
image of an object is magnified with respect to the object size. It is expressed as the
ratio of the height of the image to the height of the object. It is usually represented by
the letter m. If h1 is the height of the object and h2 is the height of the image, then the
magnification m produced by a spherical mirror is given by

height of the image h2

m m
height of the object h1

The magnification m is also related to the object distance (u) and image distance (v). It
can be expressed as:
h v
m 2 
h1 u
Points to be remembered:

 The height of the object is taken to be positive as the object is usually placed
above the principal axis.
 The height of the image should be taken as positive for virtual images. However,
it is to be taken as negative for real images.
 When the image is real, it is inverted so h2 is negative which results m is –ve. A
negative sign in the value of the magnification indicates that the image is real.
 When the image is virtual, it is erect so h2 is positive which results m is +ve. A
positive sign in the value of the magnification indicates that the image is virtual.
SIGN CONVENTION FOR SPHERICAL MIRRORS

The following sign convention is used for measuring various distances in the ray
diagrams of spherical mirrors:

1. Object is always placed to the left of mirror

2. All distances are measured from the pole of the mirror.
3. Distances measured in the direction of the incident ray are positive and the distances
measured in the direction opposite to that of the incident rays are negative.
4. Distances measured above the principal axis are positive and that measured below the
principal axis are negative.

INTEXT QUESTIONS PAGE NO. 171

1. Find the focal length of a convex mirror whose radius of curvature is 32 cm.
Ans.
Ans. Here R = 32 cm
R 32
We know that f  f  16cm
2 2
Hence, the focal length of the given convex mirror is 16 cm.

2. A concave mirror produces three times magnified (enlarged) real image of an

object placed at 10 cm in front of it. Where is the image located?
Ans. Here, magnification, m = –3,
object distance, u = –10 cm and
image distance, v = ?
Putting these values in the magnification formula for a mirror, we get
v
m    3   v
u 10
 v  30cm
 NUMERICALS BASED ON CONVEX AND CONCAVE MIRROR

1. Find the focal length of a convex mirror of radius of curvature 1m.

2. Focal length of a convex mirror is 50 cm. What is its radius of curvature?
3. Radius of curvature of a concave mirror is 25 cm. What is its focal length?
4. A concave mirror produces 10 cm long image of an object of height of 2cm. What is
the magnification produced?
5. An object 1 cm high is held near a concave mirror of magnification 10. How tall will
be the image?
6. An object 4 cm in size is placed at a distance of 25 cm from a concave mirror of focal
length 15 cm. Find the position, nature and height of the image.
7. A converging mirror forms a real image of height 4 cm, of an object of height 1 cm
placed 20 cm away from the mirror. Calculate the image distance. What is the focal
length of the mirror?
8. A 4.5 cm needle is placed 12 cm away from a convex mirror of focal length 15 cm.
Give the location of the image and the magnification. Describe what happens as the
needle is moved farther from the mirror.
9. An arrow 2.5 cm high is placed at a distance of 25 cm from a diverging mirror of
focal length 20 cm., Find the nature, position and size of the image formed.
10. The image formed by a convex mirror of focal length 20cm is a quarter of the object.
What is the distance of the object from the mirror?
11. Find the size, nature and position of image formed by a concave mirror, when an
object of size 1cm is placed at a distance of 15cm. Given focal length of mirror is
10cm.
12. An object 2cm high is placed at a distance of 16cm from a concave mirror, which
produces 3cm high inverted image. What is the focal length of the mirror? Also, find
the position of the image.
13. An erect image 3 times the size of the object is obtained with a concave mirror of
radius of curvature 36cm. What is the position of the object?
14. A 2.5cm candle is placed 12 cm away from a convex mirror of focal length 30cm.
Give the location of the image and the magnification.
15. An object is placed in front of a concave mirror of focal length 20cm. The image
formed is 3 times the size of the object. Calculate two possible distances of the object
from the mirror.
16. The image formed by a convex mirror is virtual, erect and smaller in size. Illustrate
with figure.
17. A concave mirror produces a real image 10mm tall, of an object 2.5mm tall placed at
5cm from the mirror. Calculate focal length of the mirror and the position of the
image.
18. An object is placed at a large distance in front of a convex mirror of radius of
curvature 40cm. How far is the image behind the mirror?
19. An object is placed 15cm from a convex mirror of radius of curvature 90cm.
Calculate position of the image and its magnification.
20. The image formed by a convex mirror of focal length 30cm is a quarter of the object.
What is the distance of the object from the mirror?
21. When an object is placed at a distance of 60cm from a convex mirror, the
magnification produced is 1/2. Where should the object be place to get a
magnification of 1/3?
22. An object is placed 18cm front of a mirror. If the image is formed at 4cm to the right
of the mirror. Calculate its focal length. Is the mirror convex or concave? What is the
nature of the image? What is the radius of curvature of the mirror?
23. A convex mirror used for rear view on an automobile has a radius of curvature of 3m.
If a bus is located at 5m from this mirror, find the position, nature and magnification
of the image.
24. An object 3cm high is held at a distance of 50cm from a diverging mirror of focal
length 25cm. Find the nature, position and size of the image formed.
25. An converging mirror of focal length 20cm forms an image which is two times the
size of the object. Calculate two possible distances of the object from the mirror.
26. The linear magnification of a convex mirror of focal length 15cm is 1/3. What is the
distance of the object from the focus of the mirror?
27. The focal length of a convex mirror is 12.5 cm. How far is its centre of curvature (i)
from the pole (ii) from the focus.
28. Find the focal length of a concave mirror that produces four times larger real image of
an object held at 5cm from the mirror.
29. An object is held at 30cm in front of a convex mirror of focal length 15cm. At what
distance from the convex mirror should a plane mirror be held so that images in the
two images coincide with each other?
30. Draw any three ray diagrams to show how the size and nature of image of an object
change when it move from centre of curvature of concave mirror towards the pole of
the mirror.
REFRACTION OF LIGHT
The change in direction of light when it passes from one medium to another
obliquely, is called refraction of light. In other words, the bending of light when it
goes from one medium to another obliquely is called refraction of light. The refraction
takes place when light enters from air to water (see below figure).

The speed of light is different in different substances. The refraction of light is due to
the change in the speed of light on going from one medium to another. Thus, when
light goes from one medium to another, its speed changes. And this change in speed
of light causes the refraction of light.

MEDIUM
A transparent substance in which light travels is known as a medium. Medium can be
divided into two types:
1. Optically rarer medium: A medium in which the speed of light is more is known
as optically rarer medium (or less dense medium)
2. Optically denser medium: A medium in which the speed of light is less is known
as optically rarer medium (or more dense medium)
Glass is an optically denser medium than air and water.

RULES OF REFRACTION :
Rule-1 : When a light ray travels from a rarer medium to a denser medium, the light
ray bends towards the normal.
Rule-2 : When a light ray travels from a denser medium to a rarer medium, the light
ray bends away from the normal

LAWS OF REFRACTION
According to laws of refraction of light.
(i) The incident ray, the refracted ray and the normal to the interface of two transparent media at
the point of incidence, all lie in the same plane.
(ii) The ratio of sine of angle of incidence to the sine of angle of refraction is a constant, for the
light of a given colour and for the given pair of media. This law is also known as Snell’s
law of refraction.
If i is the angle of incidence and r is the angle of refraction, then,
sin i
 constant . This constant value is called the refractive index of the second
sin r
medium with respect to the first.

REFRACTIVE INDEX
The refractive index of a medium is defined as the ratio of speed of light in vacuum to
the speed of light in the medium. It is represented by n.

speed of light in vacuum/air c

 Refractive index of a medium, n  
speed of light in medium v
Both c and v are in m/s
n2 v1
 Relative refractive index of medium 2 w.r.t. medium 1 is 1n  
n1 v2
 Both v1, v2 are in m/s, n2, n1 have no units
1
 1n 
2 2
n1
 Snell‟s law of refraction: When light travels from medium 1 to medium 2, then
n sin i
1
n2 2 
n1 sin r
 an  real depth(x)
w
apparent depth(a)
Both x and y are in metre or in cm.
 Velocity of light in vacuum/air is c = 3 x 108 m/s.

TWO REFRACTIONS THROUGH A RECTANGULAR GLASS SLAB

On passing through a rectangular glass slab, a ray of light suffers two refractions, one
while going from air to glass and the other while going from glass to air. Light
emerges from rectangular slab in a direction parallel to that in which it entered the
glass slab. However the final emergent ray is slightly shifted sideways from the
direction of original incident ray by a distance x called lateral shift.

The perpendicular distance between the original path of incident ray and the emergent
ray coming out of the glass slab is called lateral displacement of the emergent ray of
light. Lateral displacement depends mainly on three factors: angle of incidence,
thickness of glass slab and refractive index of glass slab. Actually lateral displacement
is directly proportional to (i) angle of incidence (ii) thickness of glass slab (iii)
refractive index of glass slab. Higher the values of these factors, greater will be the
lateral displacement. The angle which the emergent ray makes with the normal is
called the angle of emergence.

CONDITION FOR NO REFRACTION

Refraction will not take place under the following two conditions:
1. When light is incident normally on a boundary.
A ray of light traveling in medium 1 falls normally. Therefore angle of incidence,
I = 00 .
 According to Snell‟s law.
sin i n2

sin r n1
n n n
or sin r  1 sin i  1 sin 00  1  0  0
n2 n2 n2
or r  0

Thus, there is not deviation in the ray at the boundary. Hence, no refraction occurs
when light is incident normally on a boundary of two media.

2. When the refractive indices of two media are equal.

When refractive index of medium 1 is equal to refractive index of medium 2 i.e.
n1 = n2, then according to Snell‟s law
sin i  n2  1
sin r n1
or sin i  sin r
or i  r
Hence no refraction occurs at the boundary that separates two media of equal
refractive indices.

INTEXT QUESTIONS – PAGE No. 176

1. A ray of light travelling in air enters obliquely into water. Does the light ray
bend towards the normal or away from the normal? Why?
The light ray bends towards the normal. When a ray of light travels from an
optically rarer medium to an optically denser medium, it gets bent towards the
normal. Since water is optically denser than air, a ray of light travelling from air
into the water will bend towards the normal.
2. Light enters from air to glass having refractive index 1.50. What is the speed
of light in the glass? The speed of light in vacuum is 3 × 108 m/s.
Refractive index of a medium nm is given by,
Speed of light in vacuum c
nm  
Speed of light in the medium v
Speed of light in vacuum, c = 3 × 108 m/s
Refractive index of glass, ng = 1.50
c 3108 8
Speed of light in the glass, v    2 10 m
ng 1.50
3. Find out, from Table 10.3, the medium having highest optical density. Also
find the medium with lowest optical density.
Highest optical density = Diamond
Lowest optical density = Air
Optical density of a medium is directly related with the refractive index of that
medium. A medium which has the highest refractive index will have the highest
optical density and vice-versa.
It can be observed from table 10.3 that diamond and air respectively have the
highest and lowest refractive index. Therefore, diamond has the highest optical
density and air has the lowest optical density.

4. You are given kerosene, turpentine and water. In which of these does the
light travel fastest? Use the information given in Table 10.3.
Speed of light in a medium is given by the relation for refractive index (nm). The
relation is given as
Speed of light in vacuum c
nm  
Speed of light in the medium v
c v 1
v
nm nm
It can be inferred from the relation that light will travel the slowest in the material
which has the highest refractive index and travel the fastest in the material which
has the lowest refractive index.
It can be observed from table 10.3 that the refractive indices of kerosene,
turpentine, and water are 1.44, 1.47, and 1.33 respectively. Therefore, light travels
the fastest in water.
5. The refractive index of diamond is 2.42. What is the meaning of this
statement?
Refractive index of a medium nm is related to the speed of light in that medium v
by the relation:
Speed of light in vacuum c
nm  
Speed of light in the medium v
Where, c is the speed of light in vacuum/air
The refractive index of diamond is 2.42. This suggests that the speed of light in
diamond will reduce by a factor 2.42 compared to its speed in air.

NUMERICALS

1. Light travels through water with a speed of 2.25 x 108 m/s. What is the refractive
index of water?
2. Light travels from rarer medium 1 to a denser medium 2. The angle of incident
and refraction are respectively 450 and 300. Calculate the (i) refractive index of
second medium with respect to the first medium and (ii) refractive index of
medium 1 with respect to the medium 2.
3. A pond of depth 20cm is filled with water of refractive index 4/3. Calculate
apparent depth of the tank when viewed normally.
4. How much time will light take to cross 2mm thick glass pane if refractive index of
glasses is 3/2?
Page - 18 -
5. Calculate speed of light in water of refractive index 4/3.
6. A ray of light passes from air to glass (n = 1.5) at an angle of 300. Calculate the
angle of refraction.
7. A ray of light is incident on a glass slab at an angle of 450. If refractive index of
glass be 1.6, what is the angle of refraction?
8. The refractive index of diamond is 2.47 and that of glass is 1.51. How much faster
does light travel in glass than in diamond?
9. The refractive index of glycerine is 1.46. What is the speed of light in air in air if
its speed in glecerine is 2.05 x 108 m/s?
10. The refractive index of glass is 1.6 and that of diamond is 2.4. Calculate (i)
refractive index of diamond with respect to glass and (ii) refractive index of glass
with respect to diamond.
11. A ray of light is travelling from glass to air. The angle of incidence in glass is 300
and angle of refraction in air is 600. What is the refractive index of glass w.r.t air?
12. A ray of light is travelling from air to water. What is the angle of incidence in air,
if angle of refraction in water is 450? Take refractive index of water = 1.32
13. A water tank appears to be 4 m deep when viewed from the top. If refractive index
of water is 4/3, what is the actual depth of the tank?
14. What is the real depth of a swimming pool when its bottom appears to be raised
by 1m? Given refractive index of water is 4/3.
15. A jar 15 cm long is filled with a transparent liquid. When viewed from the top, its
bottom appears to be 12cm below. What is the refractive index of the liquid?

SPHERICAL LENSES
A lens is any transparent material (e.g. glass) of an appropriate shape that can
take parallel rays of incident light and either converge the rays to a point or diverge
the rays from a point.
A transparent material bound by two surfaces, of which one or both surfaces
are spherical, forms a lens.
Some lenses will focus light rays to a single point. These lenses are called
converging or concave lenses. Other lenses spread out the light rays so that it looks
like they all come from the same point. These lenses are called diverging or convex
lenses. Lenses change the direction of light rays by refraction. They are designed so
that the image appears in a certain place or as a certain size. Lenses are used in
eyeglasses, cameras, microscopes, and telescopes.

CONVEX LENS

A lens may have two spherical surfaces, bulging outwards. Such a lens is called a
double convex lens. It is simply called a convex lens. It is thicker at the middle as

Page - 19 -
compared to the edges. Convex lens converges light rays. Hence it is called
converging lens.

CONCAVE LENS

A double concave lens is bounded by two spherical surfaces, curved inwards. It is

thicker at the edges than at the middle. Such lenses diverge light rays and are called
diverging lenses. A double concave lens is simply called a concave lens.

TERMS RELATED TO SPHERICAL LENS

Principal Axis: The principal axis is the line which runs horizontally straight through
the optical centre of the lens. It is also sometimes called the optic axis. In other words,
an imaginary straight line passing through the two centres of the curvature of a lens is
called its principal axis.

Optical Centre: The optical centre (O) of a convex lens is usually the centre point of
the lens. The direction of all light rays which pass through the optical centre, remains
unchanged.

Centre of Curvature: A lens has two spherical surfaces. Each of these surfaces
forms a part of a sphere. The centers of these spheres are called centres of curvature
Page - 20 -
of the lens. The centre of curvature of a lens is usually represented by the letter C.
Since there are two centre‟s of curvature, we may represent them as C1 and C2.

Aperture: The effective diameter of the circular outline of a spherical lens is called
its aperture. Lenses whose aperture is much less than its radius of curvature are
called thin lenses with small aperture.

Focus: The focus or focal point of the lens is the position on the principal axis where
all light rays that run parallel to the principal axis through the lens converge (come
together) at a point. Since light can pass through the lens either from right to left or
left to right, there is a focal point on each side of the lens (F1 and F2), at the same
distance from the optical centre in each direction. (Note: the plural form of the word
focus is foci.)

Focal Length: The focal length (f) is the distance between the optical centre and the
focal point.

RULES FOR OBTAINING IMAGES FORMED BY SHPERICAL LENSES

The intersection of at least two reflected rays give the position of image of the point
object. Any two of the following rays can be considered for locating the image.

1. A ray of light from the object, parallel to the principal axis, after refraction from a
convex lens, passes through the principal focus on the other side of the lens, as
shown in below figure. In case of a concave lens, the ray appears to diverge from
the principal focus located on the same side of the lens, as shown in below figure

2. A ray of light passing through a principal focus, after refraction from a convex
lens, will emerge parallel to the principal axis. This is shown in below figure. A
ray of light appearing to meet at the principal focus of a concave lens, after
refraction, will emerge parallel to the principal axis. This is shown in below
figure.

Page - 21 -
3. A ray of light passing through the optical centre of a lens will emerge without any
deviation. This is illustrated in below figure.

FORMATION OF DIFFERENT TYPES OF IMAGES BY A CONVEX LENS

The type of image formed by a convex lens depends on the position of object in front
of the lens. There are six positions of the object:

Case–1: Object is in between optical centre(O) and focus (F1)

When the object is placed between optical centre(O) and focus(F1), the image formed
is (i) behind the object (on th left side of lens)
(ii) virtual and erect, and
(iii) larger than the object (enlarged or magnified)

Case–2: Object is at the focus (F1)

When the object is placed at the focus(F1), the image formed is

(i) at infinity
(ii) real and inverted, and
(iii) highly enlarged

Page - 22 -
Case–3: Object is in between F1 and 2F2

When the object is placed between F1 and 2F1 in front of a convex lens, the image
formed is
(i) beyond 2F2,
(ii) real and inverted, and
(iii) larger than the object (or magnified).

Case–4: Object is at 2F1

When the object is placed at a distance 2f in front of convex lens, the image formed is
(i) at 2F2 on the other side of the lens,
(ii) real and inverted, and
(iii) of the same size as the object.

Page - 23 -
Case–5: Object is at beyond 2F1
When the object is placed beyond 2F1 in front of the convex lens, the image formed is
(i) between F2 and 2F2 on the other side of the lens,
(ii) real and inverted, and
(iii) smaller than the object (or diminished)

Case–6: Object is at infinity

When the object is placed at the infinity, the image formed is
(i) at the focus F2.
(ii) real and inverted, and
(iii) much smaller than the object (or highly diminished or point sized)

FORMATION OF DIFFERENT TYPES OF IMAGES BY A CONCAVE LENS

The type of image formed by a concave lens depends on the position of object in front
of the lens. There are two positions of the object:

Case–1: Object is at infinity

When the object is placed at the infinity, the image formed is
(i) at the focus F1.
(ii) virtual and erect, and
(iii) much smaller than the object (or highly diminished or point sized)

Page - 24 -
Case–2: Object is in between optical centre(O) and infinity
When the object is placed in between optical centre(O) and infinity, the image formed
is (i) between optical centre(O) and focus F1.
(ii) virtual and erect, and
(iii) smaller than the object (or diminished)

SIGN CONVENTION FOR SPHERICAL LENSES

While using the lens formula we must make use of proper sign convention while
taking the values of object (u), image distance (v), focal length (f), object height (h)
and image height (h‟). The sign conventions are as follows:
1. All distances are measured from the optical centre of the lens.
2. The distances measured in the same direction as the incident light are taken
positive.
3. The distances measured in the direction opposite to the direction of incident light
are taken negative.
4. Heights measured upwards and perpendicular to the principal axis are taken
positive.
5. Heights measured downwards and perpendicular to the principal axis are taken
negative.

Consequences of new Cartesian sign convention:

 The focal length of a convex lens is positive and that of a concave lens is negative.
 Object distance u is always negative.
 The distance of real image is positive and that of virtual image is negative.
 The object height h is always positive. Height h' of virtual erect image is positive
and that of real inverted image is negative.
 The linear magnification, m = h'/h is positive for a virtual image and negative for
a real image.
LENS FORMULA
Lens formula gives the relationship between object distance (u), image-distance (v)
and the focal length (f ). The lens formula is expressed as
1 1 1
 
f v u
where „u‟ is the distance of the object from the optical centre (O), „v‟ is the distance
of the image from the optical centre (O) and „f‟ is the distance of the principal focus
from the optical centre (O).

MAGNIFICATION
The magnification produced by a lens, similar to that for spherical mirrors, is defined
as the ratio of the height of the image and the height of the object. It is represented by
the letter m. If h is the height of the object and h‟ is the height of the image given by a
lens, then the magnification produced by the lens is given by,
Height of the Image h '
m 
Height of the object h
Magnification produced by a lens is also related to the object-distance u, and the
image-distance v. This relationship is given by
h' v
Magnification (m )  
h u

Points to be remembered
 If the magnification „m‟ has a positive value, the image is virtual and erect. And if
the magnification „m‟ has a negative value, the image will real and inverted.
 A convex lens can form virtual images as well as real images, therefore, the
magnification produced by a convex lens can be either positive or negative.
 A convex can form images which are smaller than the object, equal to the object
or bigger than the object, therefore magnification „m‟ produced by a convex lens
can be less than 1, equal to 1 or more than 1.
 A concave lens, however, forms only virtual images, so the magnification
produced by a concave lens is always positive.
 A concave lens forms image which are always smaller than the object, so the
magnification „m‟ produced by a concave lens is always less than 1.

NUMERICALS BASED ON CONVEX LENS

1. A convex lens of focal length 10cm is placed at a distance of 12cm from a wall.
How far from the lens should an object be placed so as to form its real image on
the wall?
2. If an object of 7cm height is placed at a distance of 12cm from a convex lens of
focal length 8cm, find the position, nature and height of the image.
3. An object 4 cm high is placed at a distance of 10cm from a convex lens of focal
length 20cm. Find the position, nature and size of the image.
4. A small object is so placed in front of a convex lens of 5 cm focal length that a
virtual image is formed at a distance of 25cm. Find the magnification.
5. Find the position and nature of the image of an object 5cm high and 10cm in front
of a convex lens of focal length 6cm.
6. Calculate the focal length of a convex lens, which produces a virtual image at a
distance of 50cm of an object placed 20cm in front of it.
7. An object is placed at a distance of 100 cm from a converging lens of focal length
40cm. What is the nature and position of the image?
8. A convex lens produces an inverted image magnified three times of an object at a
distance of 15 cm from it. Calculate focal length of the lens.
9. An object placed 4cm in front of a converging lens produces a real image 12cm
from the lens. What is the magnification of the image? What is the focal length of
the lens? Also draw the ray diagram to show the formation of the image.
10. A lens of focal length 20cm is used to produce a ten times magnified image of a
film slide on a screen. How far must the slide be placed from the lens?
11. Determine how far an object must be placed in front of a converging lens of focal
length 10cm in order to produce an erect image of linear magnification 4.
12. A convex lens of focal length 6cm is held 4cm from a newspaper, which has print
0.5cm high. By calculation, determine the size and nature of the image produced.
13. A convex lens of focal length 0.10m is used to form a magnified image of an
object of height 5mm placed at a distance of 0.08m from the lens. Find the
position, nature and size of the image.
14. An erect image 2cm high is formed 12cm from a lens, the object being 0.5cm
high. Find the focal length of the lens.
15. The filament of a lamp is 80 cm from a screen and a converging lens forms an
image of it on a screen, magnified three times. Find the distance of the lens from
the filament and the focal length of the lens.
16. An object 2cm tall is placed on the axis of a convex lens of focal length 5cm at a
distance of 10cm from the optical centre of the lens. Find the nature, position and
size of the image formed. Which case of image formation by convex lenses is
illustrated by this example?
17. A converging lens of focal length 5cm is placed at a distance of 20cm from a
screen. How far from the lens should an object be placed so as to form its real
image on the screen?
18. An object 5cm high is held 25cm away from a converging lens of focal length
10cm. Find the position, size and nature of the image formed. Also draw the ray
diagram.
19. At what distance should an object be placed from a convex lens of focal length
18cm to obtain an image at 24cm from it on the other side? What will be the
magnification produced in this case?
20. The magnification produced by a spherical lens is +2.5. What is the nature of
image and lens?
21. What is the nature of the image formed by a convex lens if the magnification
produced by a convex lens is +3?
22. What is the nature of the image formed by a convex lens if the magnification
produced by a convex lens is –0.5?
23. What is the position of image when an object is placed at a distance of 10cm from
a convex lens of focal length 10cm?
24. Describe the nature of the image formed when an object is placed at a distance of
30cm from a convex lens of focal length 15cm.
25. At what distance from a converging lens of focal length 12cm must an object be
placed in order that an image of magnification 1 will be produced?

NUMERICALS BASED ON CONCAVE LENS

1. A concave lens produces an image 20cm from the lens of an object placed 30cm
from the lens. Calculate the focal length of the lens.
2. The magnification of a spherical lens is +0.5. What is the nature of lens and
image?
3. If an object is placed at a distance of 50cm from a concave lens of focal length
20cm, find the position, nature and height of the image.
4. An object is placed at a distance of 4 cm from a concave lens of focal length
12cm. Find the position and nature of the image.
5. An object is placed at a distance of 50cm from a concave lens produces a virtual
image at a distance of 10 cm in front of the lens. Draw a diagram to show the
formation of image. Calculate focal length of the lens and magnification
produced.
6. A 50 cm tall object is at a very large distance from a diverging lens. A virtual,
erect and diminished image of the object is formed at a distance of 20 cm in front
of the lens. How much is the focal length of the lens?
7. A concave lens of focal length 15cm forms an image 10cm from the lens. How far
is the object placed from the lens? Draw the ray diagram.
8. An object 60cm from a lens gives a virtual image at a distance of 20cm in front of
the lens. What is the focal length of the lens? Is the lens converging or diverging?
Give reasons for your answer.
9. A concave lens of 20 cm focal length forms an image 15cm from the lens.
Compute the object distance.
10. A concave lens has focal length 15 cm. At what distance should the object from
the lens be placed so that it forms an image at 10 cm from the lens? Also find the
magnification produced by the lens.
11. Calculate the image distance for an object of height 12 mm at a distance of 0.20 m
from a concave lens of focal length 0.30m and state the nature and size of the
image.
12. A concave lens has focal length of 20cm. At what distance from the lens a 5cm
tall object be placed so that it forms an image at 15cm from the lens? Also
calculate the size of the image formed.
13. An object is placed 20cm from (a) a converging lens and (b) a diverging lens of
focal length 15cm. Calculate the image position and magnification in each case.
14. A 2.0 cm tall object is placed 40cm from a diverging lens of focal length 15 cm.
Find the position and size of the image.
15. Find the position and size of the virtual image formed when an object 2 cm tall is
placed 20cm from (a) diverging lens of focal length 40cm and (b) converging lens
of focal length 40 cm.
16. The magnification produced by a spherical lens is +0.75. What is the nature of
image and lens?
17. The magnification produced by a spherical lens and a spherical mirror is +0.8.
What is the nature of lens and mirror?
18. The magnification produced by a spherical lens and a spherical mirror is +2.0.
What is the nature of lens and mirror?
19. The lens A produces a magnification of –0.6 whereas lens b produces
magnification of +0.6. What is the nature of lens A and B.
20. An object is 2m from a lens which forms an erect image one-fourth (exactly) the
size of the object. Determine the focal length of the lens. What type of the lens is
this?

POWER OF A LENS
The power of a lens is defined as the reciprocal of its focal length. It is represented by
the letter P. The power P of a lens of focal length f is given by
1
P
f
The SI unit of power of a lens is „dioptre‟. It is denoted by the letter D. If f is
expressed in metres, then, power is expressed in dioptres. Thus, 1 dioptre is the power
of a lens whose focal length is 1 metre. 1D = 1m–1. The power of a convex lens is
positive and that of a concave lens is negative.

Many optical instruments consist of a number of lenses. They are combined to

increase the magnification and sharpness of the image. The net power (P) of the
lenses placed in contact is given by the algebraic sum of the individual powers P1, P2,
P3, … as P = P1 + P2 + P3 +…

NUMERICALS ON POWER OF LENS

1. A concave lens produces an image 20cm from the lens of an object placed 30cm
from the lens. Calculate the power of the lens.
2. A convex lens is of focal length 10 cm. What is its power?
3. A person having a myopia eye uses a concave lens of focal length 50cm. What is
the power of the lens?
4. A thin lens has a focal length of –25cm. What is the power of the lens and what is
its nature?
5. A lens has a power of –2.5 D. What is the focal length and nature of the lens?
6. Find the power of a concave lens of focal length 2 m.
7. A convex lens forms a real and inverted image of needle at a distance of 50cm
from the lens. If the image is of the same size as the needle, where is the needle
placed in front of the lens? Also, find the power of the lens.
8. Two thin lenses of power +3.5 D and –2.5 D are placed in contact. Find the power
and focal length of the lens combination.
9. A doctor has prescribed a corrective lens of power –1.5 D. Find the focal length of
the lens. Is the prescribed lens is diverging or converging?
10. A concave lens of focal length 25 cm and a convex lens of focal length 20 cm are
placed in contact with each other. What is the power of this combination? Also,
calculate focal length of the combination.
11. A convex lens of focal length 20 cm is placed in contact with a concave lens of
focal length 10cm. What is the focal length and power of the combination?
12. An object is placed at a distance of 50cm from a concave lens of focal length
30cm. Find the nature and position of the image.
13. An object of height 2 cm is placed at a distance of 15cm in front of a concave lens
of power –10D. Find the size of the image.
14. A convergent lens of power 8D is combined with a divergent lens of power –10D.
Calculate focal length of the combination.
15. A concave lens is kept in contact with a convex lens of focal length 20cm. The
combination works as a converging lens of focal length 100cm. Calculate power
of concave lens.
16. Find the focal length and nature of lens which should be placed in contact with a
lens of focal length 10 cm so that the power of the combination becomes 5D.
17. A convex lens of power 3D is held in contact with a concave lens of power – 1 D.
A parallel beam of light is made to fall on the combination. At what distance from
the combination will the bean ge5t focussed?
18. A convex lens of focal length 25cm and a concave lens of focal length 10cm are
placed in close contact with one another.
a). What is the power of the combination?
b). What is the focal length of the combination?
c). Is this combination converging or diverging?
19. The power of a combination of two lenses X and Y is 5D. If the focal length of
lens X be 15 cm, then
a). calculate the focal length of lens Y.
b). State the nature of the lens Y.
20. Two lenses A and B have focal lengths of +20cm and – 10 cm, respectively.
a). What is the nature of lens A and lens B?
b). What is the power of lens A and lens B?
What is the power of the combination if lenses A and B are held close together?

INTEXT QUESTIONS PAGE No. 184

1. Define 1 dioptre of power of a lens.

Power of lens is defined as the reciprocal of its focal length. If P is the power of a
lens of focal length F in metres, then
The S.I. unit of power of a lens is Dioptre. It is denoted by D.
1
P 
f (in metres)
1 dioptre is defined as the power of a lens of focal length 1 metre.
Hence, 1 D = 1 m−1
2. A convex lens forms a real and inverted image of a needle at a distance of 50
cm from it. Where is the needle placed in front of the convex lens if the image
is equal to the size of the object? Also, find the power of the lens.
When an object is placed at the centre of curvature, 2F1, of a convex lens, its
image is formed at the centre of curvature, 2F2, on the other side of the lens. The
image formed is inverted and of the same size as the object, as shown in the given
figure.

It is given that the image of the needle is formed at a distance of 50 cm from the
convex lens. Hence, the needle is placed in front of the lens at a distance of 50cm.

Object distance, u = −50 cm

Image distance, v = 50 cm
Focal length = f
According to the lens formula,
1 1 1
 
v u f
1 1 1 1 1 1
    
f 50 50 50 50 25
f  25cm  0.25m
1 1
Power of the lens, P    4D
f (in metres) 0.25
Hence, the power of the given lens is +4 D.

3. Find the power of a concave lens of focal length 2 m.

Focal length of concave lens, f = 2 m
1  1
Power of the lens, P    0.5D
f (in metres) 2
Here, negative sign arises due to the divergent nature of concave lens.
Hence, the power of the given concave lens is −0.5 D.
EXERCISE QUESTIONS PAGE No. 185 and 186

1. Which one of the following materials cannot be used to make a lens?

(a) Water (b) Glass (c) Plastic (d) Clay
Ans:
(d) A lens allows light to pass through it. Since clay does not show such property,
it cannot be used to make a lens.

2. The image formed by a concave mirror is observed to be virtual, erect and larger
than the object. Where should be the position of the object?
(a) Between the principal focus and the centre of curvature
(b) At the centre of curvature
(c) Beyond the centre of curvature
(d) Between the pole of the mirror and its principal focus.
Ans:
(d) When an object is placed between the pole and principal focus of a concave
mirror, the image formed is virtual, erect, and larger than the object.

3. Where should an object be placed in front of a convex lens to get a real image of
the size of the object?
(a) At the principal focus of the lens (b) At twice the focal length (c) At infinity
(d) Between the optical centre of the lens and its principal focus.
Ans:
(b) When an object is placed at the centre of curvature in front of a convex lens,
its image is formed at the centre of curvature on the other side of the lens. The
image formed is real, inverted, and of the same size as the object.

4. A spherical mirror and a thin spherical lens have each a focal length of −15 cm.
The mirror and the lens are likely to be
(a) both concave (b) both convex (c) the mirror is concave and the lens is convex
(d) the mirror is convex, but the lens is concave
Ans:
(a) By convention, the focal length of a concave mirror and a concave lens are
taken as negative. Hence, both the spherical mirror and the thin spherical lens are
concave in nature.

5. No matter how far you stand from a mirror, your image appears erect. The mirror
is likely to be (a) plane (b) concave (c) convex (d) either plane or convex
Ans:
(d) A convex mirror always gives a virtual and erect image of smaller size of the
object placed in front of it. Similarly, a plane mirror will always give a virtual and
erect image of same size as that of the object placed in front of it. Therefore, the
given mirror could be either plane or convex.

6. Which of the following lenses would you prefer to use while reading small letters
found in a dictionary?
(a) A convex lens of focal length 50 cm
(b) A concave lens of focal length 50 cm
(c) A convex lens of focal length 5 cm
(d) A concave lens of focal length 5 cm
Ans.:
(c) A convex lens gives a magnified image of an object when it is placed between
the radius of curvature and focal length. Also, magnification is more for convex
 lenses having shorter focal length. Therefore, for reading small letters, a convex
lens of focal length 5 cm should be used.
7. We wish to obtain an erect image of an object, using a concave mirror of focal
length 15 cm. What should be the range of distance of the object from the mirror?
What is the nature of the image? Is the image larger or smaller than the object?
Draw a ray diagram to show the image formation in this case.
Ans:
Range of object distance = 0 cm to15 cm
A concave mirror gives an erect image when an object is placed between its pole
(P) and the principal focus (F).
Hence, to obtain an erect image of an object from a concave mirror of focal length
15 cm, the object must be placed anywhere between the pole and the focus. The
image formed will be virtual, erect, and magnified in nature, as shown in the given
figure.

8. Name the type of mirror used in the following situations.

(a) Headlights of a car.
(b) Side/rear-view mirror of a vehicle.
(c) Solar furnace.
Support your answer with reason.
Ans:
(a) Concave (b) Convex (c) Concave
Explanation:
(a) Concave mirror is used in the headlights of a car. This is because concave
mirrors can produce powerful parallel beam of light when the light source is
placed at their principal focus.
(b) Convex mirror is used in side/rear view mirror of a vehicle. Convex mirrors
give a virtual, erect, and diminished image of the objects placed in front of it.
Because of this, they have a wide field of view. It enables the driver to see most of
the traffic behind him/her.
(c) Concave mirrors are convergent mirrors. That is why they are used to construct
solar furnaces. Concave mirrors converge the light incident on them at a single
point known as principal focus. Hence, they can be used to produce a large
amount of heat at that point.

9. One-half of a convex lens is covered with a black paper. Will this lens produce a
complete image of the object? Verify your answer experimentally. Explain your
observations.
Ans:
The convex lens will form complete image of an object, even if its one half is
covered with black paper. It can be understood by the following two cases.

Page - 34 -
 Case I: When the upper half of the lens is covered
In this case, a ray of light coming from the object will be refracted by the lower
half of the lens. These rays meet at the other side of the lens to form the image of
the given object, as shown in the following figure.

Case II: When the lower half of the lens is covered

In this case, a ray of light coming from the object is refracted by the upper half
of the lens. These rays meet at the other side of the lens to form the image of
the given object, as shown in the following figure.

10. An object 5 cm in length is held 25 cm away from a converging lens of focal

length 10 cm. Draw the ray diagram and find the position, size and the nature of
the image formed.
Ans:
Object distance, u = −25 cm
Object height, ho = 5 cm
Focal length, f = +10 cm
According to the lens formula,
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 52 3
        
v u f v f u 10 25 50 50
50
v  16.67(approx)cm
3
The positive value of v shows that the image is formed at the other side of the
lens.
Height of the Image v 16.67
Magnification, m     0.67
Height of the object u 25
The negative sign shows that the image is real and formed behind the lens.
h' h' v
Magnification, m     0.67  h '  5 0.67  3.3cm
h 5 u
The negative value of image height indicates that the image formed is inverted.
The position, size, and nature of image are shown in the following ray diagram.

Page - 35 -
11. A concave lens of focal length 15 cm forms an image 10 cm from the lens. How
far is the object placed from the lens? Draw the ray diagram.
Ans:
Focal length of concave lens (OF1), f = −15 cm
Image distance, v = −10 cm
According to the lens formula,
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 3  2 1
        
v u f u v f 10 15 30 30
 u  30cm
The negative value of u indicates that the object is placed 30 cm in front of the
lens. This is shown in the following ray diagram.

12. An object is placed at a distance of 10 cm from a convex mirror of focal length 15

cm. Find the position and nature of the image.
Ans:
Focal length of convex mirror, f = +15 cm
Object distance, u = −10 cm
According to the mirror formula,
1 1 1
 
v u f
1 1 1
    1  1  2  3  5  1
v f u 15 10 30 30 6
 v  6cm
The positive value of v indicates that the image is formed behind the mirror.
Image distance v 6
Magnification, m      0.6
Object distance u 10
The positive value of magnification indicates that the image formed is virtual and
erect.

Page - 36 -
13. The magnification produced by a plane mirror is +1. What does this mean?
Ans:
Magnification produced by a mirror is given by the relation
Image distance h2
Magnification, m   
Object distance h1
The magnification produced by a plane mirror is +1. It shows that the image
formed by the plane mirror is of the same size as that of the object. The positive
sign shows that the image formed is virtual and erect.

14. An object 5.0 cm in length is placed at a distance of 20 cm in front of a convex

mirror of radius of curvature 30 cm. Find the position of the image, its nature and
size.
Ans:
Object distance, u = −20 cm
Object height, h = 5 cm
Radius of curvature, R = 30 cm
Radius of curvature = 2 × Focal length
R = 2f
f = 15 cm
According to the mirror formula,
1 1 1
 
v u f
1 1 1 1 1 43 7
      
v f u 15 20 60 60
60
v  8.57cm
7
The positive value of v indicates that the image is formed behind the mirror.
Image distance v 8.57
Magnification, m      0.428
Object distance u 20
The positive value of magnification indicates that the image formed is virtual and
erect.
Image distance h2 h2
Magnification, m      0.428
Object distance h1 5
 h2  0.428 5  2.14cm
The positive value of image height indicates that the image formed is erect.
Therefore, the image formed is virtual, erect, and smaller in size.

15. An object of size 7.0 cm is placed at 27 cm in front of a concave mirror of focal

length 18 cm. At what distance from the mirror should a screen be placed, so that
a sharp focussed image can be obtained? Find the size and the nature of the image.
Ans:
Object distance, u = −27 cm
Object height, h = 7 cm
Focal length, f = −18 cm
According to the mirror formula,
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 3  2 1
        
v u f v f u 18 27 54 54
 v  54cm
The screen should be placed at a distance of 54 cm in front of the given mirror.

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 Image distance v 54
Magnification, m      2
Object distance u 27
The negative value of magnification indicates that the image formed is real.
Image distance h2 h2
Magnification, m      2
Object distance h1 7
The negative value of image height indicates that the image formed is inverted.
 h2  2  7  14cm

16. Find the focal length of a lens of power – 2.0 D. What type of lens is this?
Ans:
1
Power of the lens, P   2D
f (in metres)
1
f  0.5m
2
A concave lens has a negative focal length. Hence, it is a concave lens.

17. A doctor has prescribed a corrective lens of power +1.5 D. Find the focal length of
the lens. Is the prescribed lens diverging or converging?
Ans:
1
Power of the lens, P   1.5D
f (in metres)
1 10
f   0.66m
1.5 15
A convex lens has a positive focal length. Hence, it is a convex lens or a
converging lens.

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 CHAPTER - 11
THE HUMAN EYE AND THE COLOURFUL WORLD
REFRACTION OF LIGHT THROUGH A PRISM

Prism is a transparent optical element, which refracts light. An optical object to be

defined as prism must have at least two faces with an angle between them. A
triangular glass prism has two triangular bases and three rectangular lateral surfaces.
These surfaces are inclined to each other. The angle between its two lateral faces is
called the angle of the prism

PE is the incident ray, EF is the refracted ray and FS is the emergent ray. A ray of
light is entering from air to glass at the first surface AB. So, the light ray on refraction
has bent towards the normal. At the second surface AC, the light ray has entered from
glass to air. Hence it has bent away from normal. The peculiar shape of the prism
makes the emergent ray bend at an angle to the direction of the incident ray. This
angle is called the angle of deviation. In this case D is the angle of deviation.

DISPERSION OF WHITE LIGHT BY A GLASS PRISM

When a ray of light enters the prism, it bends towards the normal; because light is
entering from a rarer medium to a denser medium. Similarly, when the light emerges
from the prism, it follows the laws of refraction of light. Due to the angle of the prism
and due to different wavelengths of different components of white light; the emergent

Page - 39 -
ray gets segregated into different colours. Finally, a colourful band of seven colours is
obtained. This phenomenon is called dispersion of white light by the prism.

RAINBOW FORMATION

A rainbow is a natural spectrum appearing in the sky after a rain shower. It is caused
by dispersion of sunlight by tiny water droplets, present in the atmosphere. A rainbow
is always formed in a direction opposite to that of the Sun. The water droplets act like
small prisms. They refract and disperse the incident sunlight, then reflect it internally,
and finally refract it again when it comes out of the raindrop (see below figure). Due
to the dispersion of light and internal reflection, different colours reach the observer‟s
eye.

ATMOSPHERIC REFRACTION

Atmospheric refraction is the shift in apparent direction of a celestial object caused by

the refraction of light rays as they pass through Earth‟s atmosphere.

TWINKLING OF STARS

Stars emit their own light and they twinkle due to the atmospheric refraction of light.
Stars are very far away from the earth. Hence, they are considered as point sources of
light. When the light coming from stars enters the earth‟s atmosphere, it gets refracted
Page - 40 -
at different levels because of the variation in the air density at different levels of the
atmosphere. When the star light refracted by the atmosphere comes more towards us,
it appears brighter than when it comes less towards us. Therefore, it appears as if the
stars are twinkling at night.

ADVANCE SUNRISE AND DELAYED SUNSET

The Sun is visible to us about 2 minutes before the actual sunrise, and about 2 minutes
after the actual sunset because of atmospheric refraction. By actual sunrise, we mean
the actual crossing of the horizon by the Sun. The below figure shows the actual and
apparent positions of the Sun with respect to the horizon. The time difference between
actual sunset and the apparent sunset is about 2 minutes. The apparent flattening of
the Sun‟s disc at sunrise and sunset is also due to the same phenomenon.

SCATTERING OF LIGHT

In the air, part of the sunlight is scattered. The small particles (molecules, tiny water
droplets and dust particles) scatter photons the more, the shorter their wavelength is.
Therefore, in the scattered light, the short wavelengths predominate, the sky appears
blue, while direct sunlight is somewhat yellowish, or even reddish when the sun is
very low.

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TYNDALL EFFECT

The earth‟s atmosphere is a heterogeneous mixture of minute particles. These

particles include smoke, tiny water droplets, suspended particles of dust and
molecules of air. When a beam of light strikes such fine particles, the path of the
beam becomes visible. The light reaches us, after being reflected diffusely by these
particles. The phenomenon of scattering of light by the colloidal particles gives rise to
Tyndall effect. This phenomenon is seen when a fine beam of sunlight enters a smoke-
filled room through a small hole. Thus, scattering of light makes the particles visible.
Tyndall effect can also be observed when sunlight passes through a canopy of a dense
forest.

WHY IS THE COLOUR OF THE CLEAR SKY BLUE?

The molecules of air and other fine particles in the atmosphere have size smaller than
the wavelength of visible light. These are more effective in scattering light of shorter
wavelengths at the blue end than light of longer wavelengths at the red end. The red
light has a wavelength about 1.8 times greater than blue light. Thus, when sunlight
passes through the atmosphere, the fine particles in air scatter the blue colour (shorter
wavelengths) more strongly than red. The scattered blue light enters our eyes. If the
earth had no atmosphere, there would not have been any scattering. Then, the sky
would have looked dark. The sky appears dark to passengers flying at very high
altitudes, as scattering is not prominent at such heights.

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COLOUR OF THE SUN AT SUNRISE AND SUNSET

Light from the Sun near the horizon passes through thicker layers of air and larger
distance in the earth‟s atmosphere before reaching our eyes (see below figure).
However, light from the Sun overhead would travel relatively shorter distance. At
noon, the Sun appears white as only a little of the blue and violet colours are
scattered. Near the horizon, most of the blue light and shorter wavelengths are
scattered away by the particles. Therefore, the light that reaches our eyes is of longer
wavelengths. This gives rise to the reddish appearance of the Sun.

EXERCISE QUESTIONS PAGE No. 197 & 198

6. Why do stars twinkle?
Ans:
Stars emit their own light and they twinkle due to the atmospheric refraction of
light. Stars are very far away from the earth. Hence, they are considered as point
sources of light. When the light coming from stars enters the earth‟s atmosphere, it
gets refracted at different levels because of the variation in the air density a
different levels of the atmosphere. When the star light refracted by the atmosphere
comes more towards us, it appears brighter than when it comes less towards us.
Therefore, it appears as if the stars are twinkling at night.
7. Explain why the planets do not twinkle?
Ans:
Planets do not twinkle because they appear larger in size than the stars as they are
relatively closer to earth. Planets can be considered as a collection of a large
number of point-size sources of light. The different parts of these planets produce
either brighter or dimmer effect in such a way that the average of brighter and
dimmer effect is zero. Hence, the twinkling effects of the planets are nullified and
they do not twinkle.

8. Why does the Sun appear reddish early in the morning?

Ans:
During sunrise, the light rays coming from the Sun have to travel a greater
distance in the earth‟s atmosphere before reaching our eyes. In this journey, the
shorter wavelengths of lights are scattered out and only longer wavelengths are
able to reach our eyes. Since blue colour has a shorter wavelength and red colour
has a longer wavelength, the red colour is able to reach our eyes after the
atmospheric scattering of light. Therefore, the Sun appears reddish early in the
morning.

Page - 43 -
9. Why does the sky appear dark instead of blue to an astronaut?
Ans:
The sky appears dark instead of blue to an astronaut because there is no
atmosphere in the outer space that can scatter the sunlight. As the sunlight is not
scattered, no scattered light reach the eyes of the astronauts and the sky appears
black to them.

Page - 44 -
 CHAPTER - 12
ELECTRICITY

Electricity is a general term that encompasses a variety of phenomena resulting from

the presence and flow of electric charge. These include many easily recognizable
phenomena such as lightning and static electricity, but in addition, less familiar
concepts such as the electromagnetic field and electromagnetic induction.

Electric charge
Electric charge is a fundamental conserved property of some subatomic particles,
which determines their electromagnetic interaction. Electrically charged matter is
influenced by, and produces, electromagnetic fields. The interaction between a
moving charge and an electromagnetic field is the source of the electromagnetic force,
which is one of the four fundamental forces. Electric charge is conserved, additive
and quantised. The S.I. unit of electric charge is „C‟ coulomb.
Any other charged body will have a charge Q
Q = ne
where n is the number of electrons and e is the charge on electron = 1.6 x 10–19
coulombs.

Electric current
Electric current is a flow of electrons in a conductor such as a metal wire. Electric
current is expressed by the amount of charge flowing through a particular area in unit
time. In other words, it is the rate of flow of electric charges. In circuits using metallic
wires, electrons constitute the flow of charges. However, electrons were not known at
the time when the phenomenon of electricity was first observed. So, electric current
was considered to be the flow of positive charges and the direction of flow of positive
charges was taken to be the direction of electric current. Conventionally, in an electric
circuit the direction of electric current is taken as opposite to the direction of the flow
of electrons, which are negative charges.
The magnitude of electric current in a conductor is the amount of electric charge
passing through a given point of conductor in 1 second.
Q
I 
t
S.I. unit of electric current is „A‟ (Ampere).
The electric current is expressed by a unit called ampere (A), named after the French
scientist, Andre-Marie Ampere (1775–1836).

One Ampere
When 1 coulomb of charge flows through any cross-section of a conductor in 1
second, the electric charge flowing through it is said to be 1 ampere.
Smaller unit current is milliampere(mA) and microampere( A)
1 mA = 10–3A
1 micro A = 10–6A
An instrument called ammeter measures electric current in a circuit. It is always
connected in series in a circuit through which the current is to be measured.
The direction of electric current is from positive terminal to negative terminal through
the electric circuit.

Page - 45 -
INTEXT QUESTIONS PAGE NO. 200

1. What does an electric circuit mean?

Ans. An electric circuit consists of electric devices, switching devices, source of
electricity, etc. that are connected by conducting wires.

2. Define the unit of current.

Ans. The unit of electric current is ampere (A). 1 A is defined as the flow of 1 C
of charge through a wire in 1 s.

3. Calculate the number of electrons constituting one coulomb of charge.

Ans. One electron possesses a charge of 1.6 × 10−19 C, i.e., 1.6 × 10−19 C of charge
is contained in 1 electron.
1
∴ 1 C of charge is contained in 19
 6.251018 electrons
1.610
18
Therefore, 6.2510 electrons constitute one coulomb of charge.

Potential difference
Potential difference, VA – VB between two points A and B is the work done per unit
charge in taking a charge from B to A.
work done
Potential difference, VA – VB = , where VA is potential at point A, VB is
ch arg e
potential at point B and S.I. unit of potential is volts (V), named after Alessandro
Volta (1745 –1827), an Italian physicist.

Electric Potential
Electric Potential at a point is defined as the work done per unit charge in bringing a
charge from infinity to that point.
work done W
V= =
ch arg e Q
The potential difference is measured by means of an instrument called the voltmeter.
The voltmeter is always connected in parallel across the points between which the
potential difference is to be measured.

One volt: The potential difference between two points is said to be 1 volt if 1 joule of
work is done in moving 1 coulomb of electric charge from one point to the other.
Electrons always flow from lower potential to higher potential.

INTEXT QUESTIONS PAGE NO. 202

1. Name a device that helps to maintain a potential difference across a

conductor.
Ans. A source of electricity such as cell, battery, power supply, etc. helps to
maintain a potential difference across a conductor.

2. What is meant by saying that the potential difference between two points is 1
V?
Ans. If 1 J of work is required to move a charge of amount 1 C from one point to
another, then it is said that the potential difference between the two points is 1 V.

3. How much energy is given to each coulomb of charge passing through a 6 V

battery?
Page - 79 -
 Ans. The energy given to each coulomb of charge is equal to the amount of work
required to move it. The amount of work is given by the expression,
Work done
Potential difference =
Charge
Work done = Potential difference  Charge
Where, Charge = 1 C and Potential difference = 6 V
Work done = 6 1= 6 J
Therefore, 6 J of energy is given to each coulomb of charge passing through a
battery of 6 V.

NUMERICAL PROBLEMS

1. Find the charge if the number of electrons is 4 x 10–18.

2. Find the number of electrons constituting one coulomb of charge.
3. How much work done in moving a charge of 3 coulombs from a point at 118 V to
a point at 128 volt?
4. How much work done in moving a charge of 2C across two points having a
potential difference of 12V?
5. Calculate the amount of work done to carry 4C from a point at 100 V to a point at
120 volt?
6. How much work will be done in bringing a charge of 2 x 10–3 coulombs from
infinity to a point P at which the potential is 5 V?
7. How much work will be done in bringing a charge of 3 x 10–2 coulombs from
infinity to a point P at which the potential is 20 V?
8. How much energy is given to each coulomb of charge passing through a 6V
battery?
9. How much energy is transferred by a 12 V power supply to each coulomb of
charge which it moves around a circuit?
10. What is the potential difference between the terminals of a battery if 250 joules of
work is required to transfer 20 coulombs of charge from one terminal of battery to
the other?
11. What is the potential difference between the conductors A and B shown in below
figure? If the conductors are connected by a length of wire, which way will
electrons flow? When will this flow of electrons stop?

A B

-1000V +3000V

Page - 80 -
12. A particle of charge 2C is taken from a point at a potential of 100V to another
point at a potential of 150V. Calculate the work done.
13. What is the potential difference between the conductors A and B shown in below
figure? If the conductors are connected by a length of wire, which way will
electrons flow? When will this flow of electrons stop?

A B

-500V +1200V

14. A particle of charge 5 x 10–2 C is taken from a point at a potential of 50V to

another point at a potential of 250V. Calculate the work done.
15. Three 2V cells are connected in series and used as a battery in a circuit.
(a) What is the potential difference at the terminals of the battery?
(b) How many joules of electrical energy does 1 C gain on passing through (i)one
cell (ii) all three cells.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
The Schematic diagram, in which different components of the circuit are represented
by the symbols conveniently used, is called a circuit diagram. Conventional symbols
used to represent some of the most commonly used electrical components are given
below:

1. An electric cell

2. A battery or a combination of cells

3. Plug key or switch (open)

4. Plug key or switch (closed)

5. A wire joint

6. Wires crossing without joining

7. Electric bulb

Page - 81 -
8. A resistor of resistance R

9. Variable resistance or rheostat

10. Ammeter

11. Voltmeter

Ohm’s law
According to Ohm‟s law, “At constant temperature, the current flowing through a
conductor is directly proportional to the potential difference across its ends.”
I  V or V  I at constant temperature
V  IR where R is constant of proportionally which is know as resistance.

Resistance
It is the ratio of potential difference applied between the ends of a conductor and the
current flowing through it. The unit of resistance is ohm().
V V
R I
I R
1 ohm  1 volt
1 ampere
One Ohm
One Ohm is the resistance of a conductor such that when a potential difference of 1
volt is applied to its ends, a current of 1 ampere flows through it.

If the resistance is doubled the current gets halved. In many practical cases it is
necessary to increase or decrease the current in an electric circuit. A component used
to regulate current without changing the voltage source is called variable resistance.
In an electric circuit, a device called rheostat is often used to change the resistance in
the circuit.

Factors on which the Resistance of a conductor depends

The resistance of the conductor depends (i) on its length, (ii) on its area of cross-
section, and (iii) on the nature of its material.

Resistance depends on area of cross section: It is inversely proportional to the area

of cross section (A)
1
R
A
Resistance depends on length of wire: It is directly proportional to the length of the
wire (l)
Rl

Page - 82 -
 l
Combining the above we get R 
A
l
R
A
where (rho) is a constant of proportionality which is called the resistivity or specific
resistance of the material.
If l = 1m, A = 1m2 then R =
Resistivity of a material is the resistance of a unit length of the material having unit
area of cross section.

INTEXT QUESTIONS PAGE NO. 209

1. On what factors does the resistance of a conductor depend?
Ans. The resistance of a conductor depends upon the following factors:
(a) Length of the conductor
(b) Cross-sectional area of the conductor
(c) Material of the conductor
(d) Temperature of the conductor

2. Will current flow more easily through a thick wire or a thin wire of the same
material, when connected to the same source? Why?
Ans. Resistance of a wire,
l
Where, R 
A
=Resistivity of the material of the wire
l = Length of the wire
A = Area of cross-section of the wire
Resistance is inversely proportional to the area of cross-section of the wire.
Thicker the wire, lower is the resistance of the wire and vice-versa. Therefore,
current can flow more easily through a thick wire than a thin wire.

3. Let the resistance of an electrical component remains constant while the

potential difference across the two ends of the component decreases to half of
its former value. What change will occur in the current through it?
Ans. The change in the current flowing through the component is given by Ohm‟s
law as,
V = IR
V
I
R
Where,
Resistance of the electrical component = R
Potential difference = V
Current = I
The potential difference is reduced to half, keeping resistance constant.
Let the new resistance be R' and the new amount of current be I '.
Therefore, from Ohm‟s law, we obtain the amount of new current.
V' V/2 1V 1
I'    I
 
R' R 2 R  2
Therefore, the amount of current flowing through the electrical component is
reduced by half.

Page - 83 -
4. Why are coils of electric toasters and electric irons made of an alloy rather
than a pure metal?
Ans. The resistivity of an alloy is higher than the pure metal. Moreover, at high
temperatures, the alloys do not melt readily. Hence, the coils of heating appliances
such as electric toasters and electric irons are made of an alloy rather than a pure
metal.

5. (a) Which among iron and mercury is a better conductor?

(b) Which material is the best conductor?
Ans. (a) Resistivity of iron = 10.0108 m
Resistivity of mercury = 94.0108 m
Resistivity of mercury is more than that of iron. This implies that iron is a better
conductor than mercury.

(b) It can be observed from Table 12.2 that the resistivity of silver is the lowest
among the listed materials. Hence, it is the best conductor.

NUMERICAL PROBLEMS

1. What current must flow if 0.24 coulombs is to be transferred in 15 ms?

2. If a current of 10 A flows for four minutes, find the quantity of electricity
transferred.
3. An electric bulb draws a current of 0.25A for 20 minutes. Calculate the electric
charge that flows through the circuit.
4. If the amount of electric charge passing through a conductor in 10min is 300C,
find the current.
5. How many electrons are flowing per second past a point in a circuit in which there
is a current of 4A?
6. A lamp of resistance 80 draw a current of 0.75A. Find the line voltage.
7. A electric heater draw a current of 5A when connected to 220V mains. Calculate
the resistance of its filament.
8. How much current will an electric bulb draw from a 200V source, if the resistance
of the filament is 1200?
9. How much current will an electric heater draw from a 200V source, if the
resistance of the filament is 100?
10. How much current does an electric heater draw from a 220V line, if the resistance
of the heater (when hot) is 50?
11. A bulb when cold has 1 resistance. It draws a current of 0.3A when glowing
from a source of 3V. Calculate the resistance of the bulb when flowing and
explain the reason for the difference in resistance.

Page - 84 -
12. Calculate the potential difference required across a conductor of resistance 5 to
make a current of 1.5A flow through it.
13. What is the resistance of an electric are lamp when hot, if the lamp uses 20A when
connected to a 220V line?
14. Calculate the amount of work done to draw a current of 8A from a point at 100V
to a point at 120V in 2 seconds.
15. If 200C of charge pass a point in a circuit in 4 sec, what current is flowing?
16. A current of 4A flows around a circuit in 10 seconds. How much charge flows
past a point in the circuit in this time? Also find the number of electrons passes in
the circuit.
17. The current flowing through a resistor is 0.8 A when a p.d. of 20 V is applied.
Determine the value of the resistance.
18. Determine the p.d. which must be applied to a 2 k resistor in order that a current
of 10 mA may flow.
19. A coil has a current of 50 mA flowing through it when the applied voltage is 12 V.
What is the resistance of the coil?
20. A 100 V battery is connected across a resistor and causes a current of 5 mA to
flow. Determine the resistance of the resistor. If the voltage is now reduced to 25
V, what will be the new value of the current flowing?
21. What is the resistance of a coil which draws a current of (a) 50 mA and (b) 200
μA from a 120 V supply?
22. If a current of 5 A flows for 2 minutes, find the quantity of electricity transferred.
23. A current of 0.5 A is drawn by a filament of an electric bulb for 10 minutes. Find
the amount of electric charge that flows through the circuit.
24. How much current will an electric bulb draw from a 220 V source, if the
resistance of the bulb filament is 1200?
25. How much current will an electric heater coil draw from a 220 V source, if the
resistance of the heater coil is 100?
26. The potential difference between the terminals of an electric heater is 60 V when
it draws a current of 4 A from the source. What current will the heater draw if the
potential difference is increased to 120 V?
27. When a 12 V battery is connected across an unknown resistor, there is a current of
2.5 mA in the circuit. Find the value of the resistance of the resistor.

Page - 85 -
28. An electric heater is connected to the 230 V mains supply. A current of 8A flows
through the heater (a) How much charge flows around the circuit each second.
(b)How much energy is transferred to the heater each second?
29. How many electrons are flowing per second past a point in a circuit in which there
is a current of 5A?
30. An electric iron draws a current of 3.4A from the 220V supply line. What current
will this electric iron draw when connected to 110V supply line?
31. A simple electric circuit has a 24V battery and a resistor of 60. What will be the
current in the circuit?
32. When a 4 resistor is connected across the terminal of 12V battery, find the
number of coulombs passing through the resistor per second.
33. An electric room heater draw a current of 2.4A from the 120V supply line. What
current will this room heater draw when connected to 240V supply line?
34. A current of 200mA flows through a 4k resistor. What is the p.d. across the
resistor?
35. A p.d. of 10V is needed to make a current of 0.02 A flow through a wire. What
p.d. is needed to make a current of 250mA flow through the same wire?
36. A TV draws a current of 5 A from the 240V supply line. What current will this
TV draw when it is connected to 100V supply line.
37. The potential difference between the terminals of an electric heater is 60V when it
draw a current of 4A from the source. What current will the heater draw if the
potential difference is increased to 120V?
38. A bulb of resistance 400 is connected to 220V mains. Calculate the magnitude
of current.
39. A battery of two cells is used to light a torch bulb of resistance 5. The cells
maintain a potential difference of 3V across the bulb. How much current will flow
through the bulb?
40. A steady current of 5A flows through a circuit for 30minutes. How much charge
has circulated through the circuit in this time?

NUMERICAL PROBLEMS ON RESISTIVITY

1. Calculate the resistance of a copper wire of length 2m and area of cross section 10–
6
m2. Resistivity of copper is 1.7 x 10–8  m
2. A copper wire of length 2m and area of cross section 1.7 x 10–6m2 has a resistance
of 2 x 10–2 ohms. Calculate the resistivity of copper.

Page - 86 -
3. The amount of charge passing through a cell in 12 seconds is 3C. What is the
current supplied by the cell?
4. A 12 V battery of a car is connected across a 4  resistor. Calculate the current
passing through the resistor.
5. Resistivity of a given copper wire of length 2m is 1.7 x 10–8  m. The wire is
stretched so that its length becomes 4m. Find new resistivity of the copper wire.
6. Resistance of a given wire of length „ l ‟ is 3  . The wire is stretched uniformly
such that its length becomes 2 l . Find the new resistance of the stretched wire.
7. Resistance of a given wire of length „ l ‟ is 4  . The wire is stretched uniformly
such that its length becomes 3 l . Find the new resistance of the stretched wire.
8. A copper wire has a diameter of 0.5 mm and resistivity of 1.6 x 10–8  m. What
will be the length of this wire to make its resistance 10  ? How much does the
resistance change if the diameter is doubled?
9. A 6  resistance wire is doubled up by folding. Calculate the new resistance of
the wire.
10. Calculate the resistance of an aluminium cable of length 10km and diameter
20mm if the resistivity of aluminum is 2.7 x 10–8  m.
11. Calculate the area of cross section of a wire if its length is 1.0m, its resistance is
23  and the resistivity of the material of the wire is 1.84 x 10–6  m.
12. A piece of wire of resistance 20  is drawn out so that its length is increased to
twice its original length. Calculate the resistance of the wire in the new situation.
13. Two cylindrical wires of the same material have their lengths in the ratio of 4 : 9.
What should be the ratio of their radii so that their resistances are in the ratio of 4 :
1?
14. Two wires of the same metal, have the same area of cross section but their lengths
in the ratio of 3 : 1. What should be the ratio of current flowing through them
respectively, when the same potential difference is applied across each of their
length?
15. Two wires A and B of length 30m and 10m have radii 2cm and 1cm respectively.
Compare the resistances of the two wires. Which will have less resistance?
16. Calculate the resistance of 1km long copper wire of radius 1mm. Resistivity of
copper is 1.7 x 10–8  m
17. A 4  wire is doubled on it. Calculate the new resistance of the wire.
18. What should be the length of the nichrome wire of resistance 4.5  , if the length
of a similar wire is 60cm and resistance 2.5  ?

Page - 87 -
19. A metal wire of resistivity 64 x 10–6  m and length 198cm has a resistance of
7  . Calculate its radius.
20. Calculate the resistivity of the material of a wire 1.0m long, 0.4mm in diameter
and having a resistance of 2.0  .

RESISTANCE OF A SYSTEM OF RESISTORS

RESISTORS IN SERIES
In a series circuit
(a) the current I is the same in all parts of the circuit, and
(b) the sum of the voltages V1, V2 and V3 is equal to the total applied voltage, V, i.e.
V = V1 + V2 + V3
From Ohm‟s law:
V1 = IR1,
V2 = IR2,
V3 = IR3
and V = IR
where R is the total circuit resistance.
Since V = V1 + V2 + V3
then IR = IR1 + IR2 + IR3
Dividing throughout by I gives
R = R1 + R2 + R3
Thus for a series circuit, the total resistance is obtained by adding together the values
of the separate resistances.

When several resistors are connected in series, the resistance of the combination Rs is
equal to the sum of their individual resistances R1, R2, R3 and is thus greater than any
individual resistance.

RESISTORS IN PARALLEL
In a parallel circuit:
(a) the sum of the currents I1, I2 and I3 is equal to the total circuit current, I, i.e. I = I1
+ I2 + I3, and
(b) the source p.d., V volts, is the same across each of the resistors.
From Ohm‟s law:

Page - 88 -
 V V V V
I  , I , I3  and I
1
R1 2
R2 R R
3
where R is the total resistance of the circuit.
Since I = I1 + I2 + I3
V V V V
then   
R R1 R2 R3

dividing throughout by V, we get

1 1 1 1
  
R R1 R2 R3
This equation must be used when finding the total resistance R of a parallel circuit.
Thus the reciprocal of the equivalent resistance of a group of resistance joined in
parallel is equal to the sum of the reciprocals of the individual resistance.
For the special case of two resistors in parallel
1 1 1 R1  R2
  
R R1 R2 R1R2
Hence R  R1R2 i.e.  product 
R R sum   

1 2  

INTEXT QUESTIONS PAGE NO. 213
1. Draw a schematic diagram of a circuit consisting of a battery of three cells of
2 V each, a 5 Ω resistor, an 8 Ω resistor, and a 12 Ω resistor, and a plug key,
all connected in series.
Ans. Three cells of potential 2 V, each connected in series, is equivalent to a
battery of potential 2 V + 2 V + 2 V = 6V. The following circuit diagram shows
three resistors of resistances 5 Ω, 8 Ω and 12 Ω respectively connected in series
and a battery of potential 6 V.

Page - 89 -
2. Redraw the circuit of question 1, putting in an ammeter to measure the
current through the resistors and a voltmeter to measure potential difference
across the 12 Ω resistor. What would be the readings in the ammeter and the
voltmeter?
Ans. To measure the current flowing through the resistors, an ammeter should be
connected in the circuit in series with the resistors. To measure the potential
difference across the 12 Ω resistor, a voltmeter should be connected parallel to this
resistor, as shown in the following figure.

The resistances are connected in series.

Ohm‟s law can be used to obtain the readings of ammeter and voltmeter.
According to Ohm‟s law,
V = IR,
where, Potential difference, V = 6 V
Current flowing through the circuit/resistors = I
Resistance of the circuit, R = 5 + 8 + 12 = 25 Ω
V 6
I    0.24A
R 25
Potential difference across 12 Ω resistor = V1
Current flowing through the 12 Ω resistor, I = 0.24 A
Therefore, using Ohm‟s law, we obtain
V1  IR  0.24 12  2.88V
Therefore, the reading of the ammeter will be 0.24 A.
The reading of the voltmeter will be 2.88 V.

INTEXT QUESTIONS PAGE NO. 216

1. Judge the equivalent resistance when the following are connected in parallel
− (a) 1 Ω and 106Ω, (b) 1 Ω and 103Ω and 106Ω.
Ans. (a) When 1 Ω and 106 Ω are connected in parallel:
Let R be the equivalent resistance.
Page - 90 -
 1 1 1
   6
R 1 6 10 6
10 10
R   6  1
106 1 10
Therefore, equivalent resistance = 1 Ω
(b) When 1 Ω, 103Ω and 106Ω are connected in parallel:
Let R be the equivalent resistance.
1 1 1 1 106 103 1
  3 
R 1 10 106 106
1000000
R  0.999
1001001
Therefore, equivalent resistance = 0.999 Ω
2. An electric lamp of 100 Ω, a toaster of resistance 50 Ω, and a water filter of
resistance 500 Ω are connected in parallel to a 220 V source. What is the
resistance of an electric iron connected to the same source that takes as much
current as all three appliances, and what is the current through it?
Ans. Resistance of electric lamp, R1 = 100 Ω
Resistance of toaster, R2 = 50 Ω
Resistance of water filter, R3 = 500 Ω
Voltage of the source, V = 220 V
These are connected in parallel, as shown in the following figure.
Let R be the equivalent resistance of the circuit.
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
     
R R1 R2 R3 100 50 500
1 5  10 1 16
  
R 500 500
500
R 
16

According to Ohm‟s law, V = IR

V
I Where, Current flowing through the circuit = I
R
V 220 220 16
I    7.04 A
R 500 /16 500

Page - 91 -
 7.04 A of current is drawn by all the three given appliances.
Therefore, current drawn by an electric iron connected to the same source of
potential 220 V = 7.04 A
Let R‟ be the resistance of the electric iron. According to Ohm‟s law,
V
V  IR '  R '   220  31.25
I 7.04
Therefore, the resistance of the electric iron is 31.25 Ω and the current flowing
through it is 7.04 A.

3. What are the advantages of connecting electrical devices in parallel with the
battery instead of connecting them in series?
Ans. There is no division of voltage among the appliances when connected in
parallel. The potential difference across each appliance is equal to the supplied
voltage. The total effective resistance of the circuit can be reduced by connecting
electrical appliances in parallel.
4. How can three resistors of resistances 2 Ω, 3 Ω and 6 Ω be connected to give a
total resistance of (a) 4 Ω, (b) 1 Ω?
Ans. There are three resistors of resistances 2 Ω, 3 Ω, and 6 Ω respectively.
(a) The following circuit diagram shows the connection of the three resistors.
Here, 6 Ω and 3 Ω resistors are connected in parallel.
Therefore, their equivalent resistance will be given by
1 1 63
R 
 
 
 2
1 1 1 1 6 3
 
R1 R2 6 3
This equivalent resistor of resistance 2 Ω is connected to a 2 Ω resistor in series.
Therefore, equivalent resistance of the circuit = 2 Ω + 2 Ω = 4 Ω
Hence, the total resistance of the circuit is 4 Ω
The following circuit diagram shows the connection of the three resistors.

All the resistors are connected in series. Therefore, their equivalent resistance will
be given as
1 6
R  1 1   1
  


1 1 1 1 1 1 3  2 1 6
   
R1 R2 R3 2 3 6 6
Therefore, the total resistance of the circuit is 1 Ω

Page - 92 -
5. What is (a) the highest, (b) the lowest total resistance that can be secured by
combinations of four coils of resistance 4 Ω, 8 Ω, 12 Ω, 24 Ω?
Ans. There are four coils of resistances 4 Ω, 8 Ω, 12 Ω and 24 Ω respectively
(a) If these coils are connected in series, then the equivalent resistance will be the
highest, given by the sum 4 + 8 + 12 + 24 = 48 Ω
(b) If these coils are connected in parallel, then the equivalent resistance will be
the lowest, given by
1 1 1 24
R      2
6  3  2 1 12

  

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
     
R1 R2 R3 R4 4 8 12 24 24
Therefore, 2 Ω is the lowest total resistance.

NUMERICAL PROBLEMS

1. For the circuit shown in below Figure, determine (a) the battery voltage V, (b) the
total resistance of the circuit, and (c) the values of resistance of resistors R1, R2
and R3, given that the p.d.‟s across R1, R2 and R3 are 5 V, 2 V and 6 V
respectively.

2. For the circuit shown in below Figure, determine the p.d. across resistor R3. If the
total resistance of the circuit is 100, determine the current flowing through
resistor R1. Find also the value of resistor R2

3. A 12 V battery is connected in a circuit having three series-connected resistors

having resistances of 4, 9 and 11. Determine the current flowing through,
and the p.d. across the 9 resistor.

Page - 93 -
4. Find the voltage V in the given figure.

5. For the circuit shown in given Figure, determine (a) the reading on the ammeter,
and (b) the value of resistor R2

6. Two resistors are connected in series across a 24 V supply and a current of 3 A

flows in the circuit. If one of the resistors has a resistance of 2 determine (a) the
value of the other resistor, and (b) the p.d. across the 2 resistor. If the circuit is
connected for 50 hours, how much energy is used?

7. Two resistors, of resistance 3 and 6, are connected in parallel across a battery
having a voltage of 12 V. Determine (a) the total circuit resistance and (b) the
current flowing in the 3 resistor.

Page - 94 -
8. Given four 1 _ resistors, state how they must be connected to give an overall
1 1 1
resistance of (a)  (b) 1 (c) 1  (d) 2 , all four resistors being connected
4 3 2
in each case.

9. For the circuit shown in below Figure, find (a) the value of the supply voltage V
and (b) the value of current I.

10. For the series-parallel arrangement shown in below Figure, find (a) the supply
current, (b) the current flowing through each resistor and (c) the p.d. across each
resistor.

11. For the arrangement shown in below Figure, find the current Ix.

12. Four resistances of 16  each are connected in parallel. Four such combinations
are connected in series. What is the total resistance?

13. A battery of 9 V is connected in series with resistors of 0.2  , 0.3  ,0.4  ,0.5 
and 12  . How much current would flow through the 12  resistor?

Page - 95 -
14. An electric bulb of resistance 20  and a resistance wire of 4  are connected in
series with a 6V battery. Draw the circuit diagram and calculate: (a) total
resistance of the circuit (b) current through the circuit (c) potential difference
across the electric bulb (d) potential difference across the resistance wire.

15. Find the equivalent resistance of the given circuit.

16. Find the value of VT in the given circuit.

17. Find the voltage across each resistance in the given circuit.

18. A potential difference of 4V is applied to two resistors of 6  and 2  connected

in series. Calculate: (a) the combined resistance (b) the current flowing (c) the
potential difference across the 6  resistor

19. Resistors of 20, 20 and 30 are connected in parallel. What resistance must be
added in series with the combination to obtain a total resistance of 10.

Page - 96 -
 20. If four identical lamps are connected in parallel and the combined resistance is
100, find the resistance of one lamp.

21. Find the current across the each resistance and total current flowing in the given
circuit.

22. In the given circuit, the resistance R1 and R2 are connected in parallel. (i) Find the
value of VT. (ii) Find the total current and equivalent resistance in the circuit if
resistance R2 = 10 



23. In the given circuit, (i) find the equivalent resistance of the circuit and total
current flowing in the circuit. (ii) find the current flowing through R2 and R3. (iii)
find the voltage across each resistance.

Page - 97 -
24. In the given circuit, (i) find the equivalent resistance and total current flowing in
the circuit. (ii) find the voltage and current across each resistance in the circuit.

25. In the given circuit, (i) find the equivalent resistance and total current flowing in
the circuit. (ii) find the voltage and current across each resistance in the circuit.

26. Find the current through 10 ohm resistor for the following circuit.

27. In the given circuit, (i) find the equivalent resistance and total current flowing in
the circuit. (ii) find the voltage and current across each resistance in the circuit.

Page - 98 -
28. Find the equivalent resistance of the following circuits:

(i)

(ii)

(iii)

Page - 99 -
 (iv)

(i)

(v)

29. For the circuit shown in below Figure, determine the value of V1. If the total
circuit resistance is 36, determine the supply current and the value of resistors
R1, R2 and R3.

30. When the switch in the circuit in below Figure is closed the reading on voltmeter
1 is 30 V and that on voltmeter 2 is 10 V. Determine the reading on the ammeter
and the value of resistor Rx.

Page - 100 -
31. A potential difference of 6V is applied to two resistors of 3  and 6  connected
in parallel. Calculate: (a) the combined resistance (b) the current flowing in the
main circuit (c) the current flowing in the 3  resistor.
32. Three resistors are connected as shown in the diagram:

Through the resistor 5  ohm, a current of 1A is flowing.

(i) What is the current through the other two resistors?
(ii) What is the p.d. across AB and across AC?
(iii) What is the total resistance?
33. For the circuit shown in the diagram below:

What is the value of: (i) current through 6  resistor? (ii) p.d. across 12 
resistor?
34. Calculate the total resistance of the circuit below, as seen by the voltage source.

Page - 101 -
35. What is the resistance between A and B in the given figure given below?

36. What is the resistance between A and B in the given figure given below?

37. Resistances of 4 and 12 are connected in parallel across a 9 V battery.

Determine (a) the equivalent circuit resistance, (b) the supply current, and (c) the
current in each resistor.

38. Three identical lamps A, B and C are connected in series across a 150 V supply.
State (a) the voltage across each lamp, and (b) the effect of lamp C failing.

39. The p.d‟s measured across three resistors connected in series are 5 V, 7 V and 10
V, and the supply current is 2 A. Determine (a) the supply voltage, (b) the total
circuit resistance and (c) the values of the three resistors.

40. If three identical lamps are connected in parallel and the combined resistance is
150, find the resistance of one lamp.

HEATING EFFECT OF ELECTRIC CURRENT

If the electric circuit is purely resistive, that is, a configuration of resistors only
connected to a battery; the source energy continually gets dissipated entirely in the
form of heat. This is known as the heating effect of electric current. This effect is
utilised in devices such as electric heater, electric iron etc

Workdone, W  Q V

Page - 102 -
 Q
I QIt
t
V
R VIR
I
W  I  t  I  R
 W  I 2 R  t
 Heat produced , H  I 2  R  t joules
This is known as Joule‟s law of heating.
The law implies that heat produced in a resistor is (i) directly proportional to the
square of current for a given resistance (I2), (ii) directly proportional to resistance for
a given current (R), and (iii) directly proportional to the time for which the current
flows through the resistor (t).

INTEXT QUESTIONS PAGE NO. 218

1. Why does the cord of an electric heater not glow while the heating element
does?
Ans. The heating element of an electric heater is a resistor. The amount of heat
produced by it is proportional to its resistance. The resistance of the element of an
electric heater is very high. As current flows through the heating element, it
becomes too hot and glows red. On the other hand, the resistance of the cord is
low. It does not become red when current flows through it.
2. Compute the heat generated while transferring 96000 coulomb of charge in
one hour through a potential difference of 50 V.
Ans. The amount of heat (H) produced is given by the Joule‟s law of heating as
H=VIt
Where, Voltage, V = 50 V, Time, t = 1 h = 1 × 60 × 60 s
Amount of current, I  Amount of Charge  96000  80 A
Time of flow of charge 1 60  60 3
80
H  50  60  60  4.8106 J
3
Therefore, the heat generated is 4.8106 J

3. An electric iron of resistance 20 Ω takes a current of 5 A. Calculate the heat

developed in 30 s.
Ans. The amount of heat (H) produced is given by the Joule‟s law of heating as
H=VIt
Where,
Current, I = 5 A
Time, t = 30 s
Voltage, V = Current × Resistance = 5 × 20 = 100 V
H = 100 x 5 x 30 = 1.5 x 104 J
Therefore, the amount of heat developed in the electric iron is 1.5 x 104 J

Practical Applications of Heating Effect of Electric Current

The flowing of current through conductor produce heat. We are using this heat due to
flow of current in our daily life as in electric iron, electric bulb, electric fuse, electric
heater and more. Heating effect of electric current are below

Page - 103 -
(i) Electric iron: In an iron the upper part is grooved. In this groove a coil is placed.
Mica as an insulator is placed between the metal part and the coil, so that there is no
electrical connection between them. Mica is a bad conductor of electricity but it is a
good conductor of heat. Due to the flow of current through the coil it becomes heated
and the heat transferred to the metal part through mica. Finally the metal part becomes
heated. Iron is used with the heating effect of an electric current.

(ii) Electric bulb: we see a thick metallic wire in the bulb. It is made of tangsten
metal. In a glass vessel or bulb the tangsten wire is kept sealed. The glass bulb is
filled with neutral gas or vacuum. Neutral gases are using now a days commonly. The
tangsten wire is known as filament when the current flows through the tangsten wire
or filament it becomes heated and emit of light. Due to the flow of current heating
effect of an electric current used as the source of light.

(iii) Electric heater: In an electric heater one type of coil is used. A high resistance
material like nichrome or same type of material is used as coil. The coil is wound in
grooves on ceramic format or china clay. Flowing electric current through the coil it
becomes heated. Due to high resistance the coil becomes red color forms.

(iv) Electric fuse: It protects circuits and appliances by stopping the flow of any
unduly high electric current. The fuse is placed in series with the device. It consists of
a piece of wire made of a metal or an alloy of appropriate melting point, for example
aluminium, copper, iron, lead etc. If a current larger than the specified value flows
through the circuit, the temperature of the fuse wire increases. This melts the fuse
wire and breaks the circuit. The fuse wire is usually encased in a cartridge of
porcelain or similar material with metal ends. The fuses used for domestic purposes
are rated as 1 A, 2 A, 3 A, 5 A, 10 A, etc. For an electric iron which consumes 1 kW
electric power when operated at 220 V, a current of (1000/220) A, that is, 4.54 A will
flow in the circuit. In this case, a 5 A fuse must be used.

Electric Power: It is the electrical work done per unit time.

W
P
t
where W = work done and t = time
S.I. unit of power is watt 
1 joule
If W = 1 joule, t = 1 second then Power   1watt
1sec ond
One watt: The rate of working of 1 joule per second is the power of 1 watt.
Electric Energy: It is the total work done by a current in an electric circuit.
work done by electric circuit
Electric power 
time takem
Work done by electric circuit = Electric Power x time taken
 E  Pt
The electrical energy consumed by an electrical appliance is given by the product of
its power rating and the time for which it is used.
Unit of Electrical consumed is watt-hour(Wh)
If P = 1 watt, t = 1 hr, then E = 1 watt x 1 hr = 1 watt-hour.
One watt-hour: It is the amount of electrical energy consumed when an electrical
appliance of 1 watt power is used for an hour.
Commercial unit of Electrical energy is kilowatt-hour(KWh)

Page - 104 -
One Kilowatt-hour: It is the amount of electrical energy consumed when an
electrical appliance having a power rating of 1 kilowatt is used in 1 hour.
1 kilowatt-hour = 36,00,000 joules or 3.6 x 106 J

INTEXT QUESTIONS PAGE NO. 220

1. What determines the rate at which energy is delivered by a current?

Ans. The rate of consumption of electric energy in an electric appliance is called
electric power. Hence, the rate at which energy is delivered by a current is the
power of the appliance.

2. An electric motor takes 5 A from a 220 V line. Determine the power of the
motor and the energy consumed in 2 h.
Ans. Power (P) is given by the expression, P = VI
Where,
Voltage, V = 220 V
Current, I = 5 A
P = 220 x 5 = 1100 W
Energy consumed by the motor = Pt
Where,
Time, t = 2 h = 2 × 60 × 60 = 7200 s
P = 1100 × 7200 = 7.92 × 106 J
Therefore, power of the motor = 1100 W
Energy consumed by the motor = 7.92 × 106 J

NUMERICAL PROBLEMS

1. What will be the current drawn by an electric bulb of 40 W when it is connected

to a source of 220V?
2. A bulb is rated as 250V;0.4A. Find its power and resistance.
3. An electric bulb is connected to a 220V power supply line. If the bulb draw a
current of 0.5A, calculate the power of the bulb.
4. An electric bulb is connected to a 250 V generator. The current is 0.50 A. What is
the power of the bulb?
5. What current will be taken by a 920W appliance if the supply voltage is 230V?
6. When an electric lamp is connected to 12V battery, it draws a current 0.5A. Find
the power of the lamp.
7. Calculate the power used in 2 resistor in each (i) a 6V battery in series with 1
and 2 resistor (ii) a 4V battery in parallel with 12 and 2 resistor.
8. A 100 W electric light bulb is connected to a 250 V supply. Determine (a) the
current flowing in the bulb, and (b) the resistance of the bulb.
9. Calculate the power dissipated when a current of 4 mA flows through a resistance
of 5 k

Page - 105 -
10. An electric kettle has a resistance of 30. What current will flow when it is
connected to a 240 V supply? Find also the power rating of the kettle.
11. A current of 5 A flows in the winding of an electric motor, the resistance of the
winding being 100. Determine (a) the p.d. across the winding, and (b) the power
dissipated by the coil.
12. The current/voltage relationship for two resistors A and B is as shown in below
Figure. Determine the value of the resistance of each resistor and also find the
power dissipated through each resistor.

13. The hot resistance of a 240 V filament lamp is 960. Find the current taken by the
lamp and its power rating.
14. A 12 V battery is connected across a load having a resistance of 40. Determine
the current flowing in the load, the power consumed and the energy dissipated in 2
minutes.
15. A source of e.m.f. of 15 V supplies a current of 2 A for six minutes. How much
energy is provided in this time?
16. Electrical equipment in an office takes a current of 13 A from a 240 V supply.
Estimate the cost per week of electricity if the equipment is used for 30 hours each
week and 1 kWh of energy costs 7p
17. An electric heater consumes 3.6 MJ when connected to a 250 V supply for 40
minutes. Find the power rating of the heater and the current taken from the supply.
18. Determine the power dissipated by the element of an electric fire of resistance
20 when a current of 10 A flows through it. If the fire is on for 6 hours
determine the energy used and the cost if 1 unit of electricity costs 7p.

Page - 106 -
19. A business uses two 3 kW fires for an average of 20 hours each per week, and six
150 W lights for 30 hours each per week. If the cost of electricity is 7p per unit,
determine the weekly cost of electricity to the business.
20. If 5 A, 10 A and 13 A fuses are available, state which is most appropriate for the
following appliances which are both connected to a 240 V supply (a) Electric
toaster having a power rating of 1 kW (b) Electric fire having a power rating of 3
kW
21. The hot resistance of a 250 V filament lamp is 625 . Determine the current taken
by the lamp and its power rating.
22. Determine the resistance of a coil connected to a 150 V supply when a current of
(a) 75 mA (b) 300 A flows through it. Determine the power dissipated through it.
23. Determine the resistance of an electric fire which takes a current of 12A from a
240 V supply. Find also the power rating of the fire and the energy used in 20 h.
24. Determine the power dissipated when a current of 10 mA flows through an
appliance having a resistance of 8 k.
25. 85.5 J of energy are converted into heat in nine seconds. What power is
dissipated?
26. A current of 4 A flows through a conductor and 10 W is dissipated. What p.d.
exists across the ends of the conductor?
27. Find the power dissipated when:
(a) a current of 5 mA flows through a resistance of 20 k
(b) a voltage of 400 V is applied across a 120 k resistor
(c) a voltage applied to a resistor is 10 kV and the current flow is 4 mA.
28. A battery of e.m.f. 15 V supplies a current of 2 A for 5 min. How much energy is
supplied in this time?
29. In a household during a particular week three 2 kW fires are used on average 25 h
each and eight 100 W light bulbs are used on average 35 h each. Determine the
cost of electricity for the week if 1 unit of electricity costs 7p.
30. Calculate the power dissipated by the element of an electric fire of resistance 30
when a current of 10 A flows in it. If the fire is on for 30 hours in a week
determine the energy used. Determine also the weekly cost of energy if electricity
costs 7.2p per unit.
31. A television set having a power rating of 120 W and electric lawnmower of power
rating 1 kW are both connected to a 240 V supply. If 3 A, 5 A and 10 A fuses are
available state which is the most appropriate for each appliance.

Page - 107 -
32. For a heater rated at 4kW and 220V, calculate: (a) the current (b) the resistance of
the heater (c) the energy consumed in 2 hours and (d) the cost if 1kWh is priced at
Rs. 4.60
33. A radio set of 60W runs for 50hrs. How much electrical energy consumed?
34. A current of 4A flows through a 12V can headlight bulb for 10min. How much
energy transfer occurs during this time?
35. Calculate the energy transferred by a 5A current flowing through a resistor of 2
for 30min.
36. A bulb is rated at 200V-100W. What is its resistance? 5 such bulbs burn for 4 hrs.
What is the electrical energy consumed? Calculate the cost if the rate is Rs. 4.60
per unit.
37. A refrigerator having a power rating of 350W operates for 10hours a day.
Calculate the cost of electrical energy to operate it for a month of 30days. The rate
of electrical energy is Rs. 3.40 per KWh.
38. What will be the current drawn by an electric bulb of 40W when it is converted to
a source of 220V?
39. An electric bulb is rated 220V and 100W. When it is operated on 110V, find the
power consumed.
40. An electric heater draws a current of 10A from a 220V supply. What is the cost of
using the heater for 5 hrs everyday for 30days if the cost of 1 unit is Rs. 5.20?
41. In house two 60W electric bulbs are lighted for 4 hrs and three 100W bulbs for 5
hrs everyday. Calculate the electrical energy consumed in 30days.
42. An electric motor takes 5A current from a 220V supply line. Calculate the power
of the motor and electrical energy consumed by it in 2 hrs.
43. An electric iron consumes energy at a rate of 840 W when heating is at the
maximum rate and 360 W when the heating is at the minimum. The voltage is 220
V. What are the current and the resistance in each case?
44. An electric refrigerator rated 400 W operates 8 hour/day. What is the cost of the
energy to operate it for 30 days at Rs 3.00 per kW h?
45. An electric motor takes 5 A from a 220 V line. Determine the power of the motor
and the energy consumed in 2 h.
46. Two lamps, one rated 100 W at 220 V, and the other 60 W at 220 V, are
connected in parallel to electric mains supply. What current is drawn from the line
if the supply voltage is 220 V?

Page - 108 -
47. Which uses more energy, a 250 W TV set in 1 hr, or a 1200 W toaster in 10
minutes?
48. Two bulbs A and B are rated 100W – 120V and 10W – 120V respectively. They
are connected across a 120V source in series. Which will consume more energy.
49. Two bulbs A and B are rated 100W – 120V and 10W – 120V respectively. They
are connected across a 120V source in series. Find the current in each bulb. Which
will consume more energy.
50. An electric kettle is rated at 230V, 1000W. What is the resistance of its element?
What maximum current can pass through its element?
51. An electric geyser has the rating 1000W, 220V marked on it. What should be the
minimum rating in whole number of a fuse wire that may be required for safe use
with this geyser?
52. The mains power supply of a house is through a 5A fuse. How many 100W, 220V
bulbs can be used in this house at the correct voltage?
53. An electrician puts a fuse of rating 5A in that part of domestic electrical circuit in
which an electrical heater of rating 1.5kW, 220V is operating. What is likely to
happen in this case and why? What change if any needs to be made/
54. Two bulbs of ratings 40W-220V and 60W-220V are connected in series and this
combination is connected with a supply of 220V. Calculate the current from the
supply line.
55. Two bulbs have the ratings 40W-200V and 20W-110V. What is the ratio of their
resistances?
56. I can spend Rs. 9 per month (30days) on electric light. If power is 30paise per
kWh and I use 5 identical bulbs for 5 hours a day, what should be the power of
each bulb?
57. Compute the number of electrons passing through per minute through an electric
bulb of 60W, 220V.
58. If electrical energy costs Rs.3 per unit, what is the total cost of leaving 4 light bulb
rated at 100W each switched on for 8 hours.
59. An electric heater of resistance 8Ω draws 15 A from the service mains 2 hours.
Calculate the rate at which heat is developed in the heater.
60. 100 J of heat are produced each second in a 4 Ω resistance. Find the potential
difference across the resistor.
61. Compute the heat generated while transferring 96000 coulomb of charge in one
hour through a potential difference of 50 V.

Page - 109 -
62. An electric iron of resistance 20 Ω takes a current of 5 A. Calculate the heat
developed in 30 s.
63. A p.d. of 250V is applied across a resistance of 500 Ω in an electric iron.
Calculate (i) current (ii) heat energy produced in joules in 10s.
64. Calculate the heat produced when 96000C of charge is transferred in 1 hour
through a p.d. of 50V.
65. A resistance of 40 Ω and one of 60 Ω are arranged in series across 220V supply7.
Find the heat in joules produced by this combination of resistances in half a
minute?
66. When a current of 4A passes through a certain resistor for 10min, 2.88 x 104 J of
heat are produced. Calculate (a) power of the resistor (b) the voltage across the
resistor.
67. A heating coil has a resistance of 200 Ω. At what rate will heat be produced in it
when a current of 2.5 Ω flows through it.
68. An electric heater of resistance 8 Ω takes a current of 15A from the mains supply
line. Calculate the rate at which heat is developed in the heater.
69. A resistance of 25 Ω is connected to a 12V battery. Calculate the heat energy in
joule generated per minute.
70. How much heat will an instrument of 12W produce in one minute if its is
connected to a battery of 12V?

EXERCISE QUESTIONS PAGE NO. 221

1. A piece of wire of resistance R is cut into five equal parts. These parts are then
connected in parallel. If the equivalent resistance of this combination is R', then
1 1
the ratio R/R' is − (a) (b) (c) 5 (d) 25
25 5
Ans. (d) Resistance of a piece of wire is proportional to its length. A piece of wire
has a resistance R. The wire is cut into five equal parts.
R
Therefore, resistance of each part =
5
All the five parts are connected in parallel. Hence, equivalent resistance (R‟) is
given as
1 5 5 5 5 5 5  5  5  5  5 25
      
R' R R R R R R R
1 25  R  25
 
R' R R'
R
Therefore, the ratio is 25.
R'

Page - 110 -
2. Which of the following terms does not represent electrical power in a circuit?
(a) I2R (b) IR2 (c) VI (d) V2/R
Ans. (b) Electrical power is given by the expression, P = VI … (i)
According to Ohm‟s law, V = IR … (ii)
where, V = Potential difference, I = Current and R = Resistance
 P  VI
From equation (i), it can be written
P = (IR) × I
 P  I 2R
From equation (ii), it can be written
V
I
R
V V2
 P  V   P 
R R
2
 P  VI  I2R  V
R
Power P cannot be expressed as IR2.

3. An electric bulb is rated 220 V and 100 W. When it is operated on 110 V, the
power consumed will be – (a) 100 W (b) 75 W (c) 50 W (d) 25 W
Ans. (d)Energy consumed by an appliance is given by the expression,
V2
P  VI 
R
V2
R
P
where, Power rating, P = 100 W , Voltage, V = 220 V
(220)2
Resistance, R   484
100
The resistance of the bulb remains constant if the supply voltage is reduced to 110
V. If the bulb is operated on 110 V, then the energy consumed by it is given by the
expression for power as
(V ')2 (110)2
P'    25W
R 484
Therefore, the power consumed will be 25 W.

4. Two conducting wires of the same material and of equal lengths and equal
diameters are first connected in series and then parallel in a circuit across the same
potential difference. The ratio of heat produced in series and parallel combinations
would be – (a) 1:2 (b) 2:1 (c) 1:4 (d) 4:1
Ans. (c) The Joule heating is given by, H = i2Rt
Let, R be the resistance of the two wires.
The equivalent resistance of the series connection is RS = R + R = 2R
If V is the applied potential difference, then it is the voltage across the equivalent
resistance.
V  Is  2R

 Is 
2R
The heat dissipated in time t is,

Page - 111 -
 2
H  I s2  2R  t   V   2R  t  H  V t
2

 2R  2R
1 R
The equivalent resistance of the parallel connection is R  
p
1 1 2

R R
V is the applied potential difference across this RP.
R
V  I p
2
2V
Ip 
R
The heat dissipated in time2
t is,
R
H '  Ip  t  
2  2V  R
  t  H '  2V t
2


2
  
R 
2 R
 
 V 2t
So, the ratio of heat produced is, H  2R2  1
H ' 2V t 4
R
5. How is a voltmeter connected in the circuit to measure the potential difference
between two points?
Ans. To measure the potential difference between two points, a voltmeter should
be connected in parallel to the points.

6. A copper wire has diameter 0.5 mm and resistivity of 1.6 × 10–8 Ω m. What will
be the length of this wire to make its resistance 10 Ω? How much does the
resistance change if the diameter is doubled?
Ans. Resistance (R) of a copper wire of length l and cross-section A is given by
the expression,
l
R
A
Where,
Resistivity of copper,  1.6 108 m 2
 diameter 
Area of cross-section of the wire, A   
 2 
Diameter= 0.5 mm = 0.0005 m
Resistance, R = 10 Ω
Hence, length of the wire, 2
 0.0005 
10  3.14   
RA 2  10 3.14 25
l  1.6 10  8   122.72m
41.6
If the diameter of the wire is doubled, new diameter= 2 x 0.5 = 1 mm = 0.001m
Therefore, resistance R‟
l 1.6 108 122.72
R'  2
A  1 103 
2 

8

1.6 10 122.72 4 2

 R'   250.2 10  2.5

3.14106

Page - 112 -
 Therefore, the length of the wire is 122.7 m and the new resistance is 2.5 Ω

7. The values of current I flowing in a given resistor for the corresponding values of
potential difference V across the resistor are given below –
I (amperes) 0.5 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0
V (volts) 1.6 3.4 6.7 10.2 13.2
Plot a graph between V and I and calculate the resistance of that resistor.
Ans. The plot between voltage and current is called IV characteristic. The voltage
is plotted on x-axis and current is plotted on y-axis.

The slope of the line gives the value of resistance (R) as,
1 BC 2 6.8
Slope    R  3.4
R AC 6.8 2
Therefore, the resistance of the resistor is 3.4

8. When a 12 V battery is connected across an unknown resistor, there is a current of
2.5 mA in the circuit. Find the value of the resistance of the resistor.
Ans. Resistance (R) of a resistor is given by Ohm‟s law as,
V
V  IR  R 
I
where, Potential difference, V = 12 V
Current in the circuit, I = 2.5 mA = 2.5 x 10–3 A
12
V  IR  R   4.8103   4.8k
2.5103
Therefore, the resistance of the resistor is 4.8k

9. A battery of 9 V is connected in series with resistors of 0.2 Ω, 0.3 Ω, 0.4 Ω , 0.5 Ω
and 12 Ω, respectively. How much current would flow through the 12 Ω resistor?
Ans. There is no current division occurring in a series circuit. Current flow
through the component is the same, given by Ohm‟s law as
V
V  IR  I  where, R is the equivalent resistance of resistances 0.2 Ω, 0.3 Ω,
R
0.4 Ω, 0.5 Ω and 12 Ω. These are connected in series. Hence, the sum of the
resistances will give the value of R.
R = 0.2 + 0.3 + 0.4 + 0.5 + 12 = 13.4 Ω
Potential difference, V = 9 V

Page - 113 -
 9
I  0.671A
13.4
Therefore, the current that would flow through the 12 Ω resistor is 0.671 A.
10. How many 176 Ω resistors (in parallel) are required to carry 5 A on a 220 V line?
Ans. For x number of resistors of resistance 176 Ω, the equivalent resistance of
the resistors connected in parallel is given by Ohm‟s law as
V
V  IR  R 
I
where, Supply voltage, V = 220 V, Current, I = 5 A
Equivalent resistance of the combination = R, given as
1 1 176
x R
R 176 x
V 176 176  I 176 5
From Ohm‟s law,  x  4
I x V 220
Therefore, four resistors of 176 Ω are required to draw the given amount of
current.
11. Show how you would connect three resistors, each of resistance 6 Ω, so that the
combination has a resistance of (i) 9 Ω, (ii) 4 Ω.
Ans. If we connect the resistors in series, then the equivalent resistance will be the
sum of the resistors, i.e., 6 Ω + 6 Ω + 6 Ω = 18 Ω, which is not desired. If we
6
connect the resistors in parallel, then the equivalent resistance will be  3 ,
2
which is also not desired. Hence, we should either connect the two resistors in
series or parallel.
(i) Two resistors in parallel

Two 6 Ω resistors are connected in parallel. Their equivalent resistance will be

1 1 6 6
R    3
1 1 6 6
  

1 1
 
R1 R2 6 6
The third 6 Ω resistor is in series with 3 Ω. Hence, the equivalent resistance of the
circuit is 6 Ω + 3 Ω = 9 Ω.
(ii) Two resistors in series

Two 6 Ω resistors are in series. Their equivalent resistance will be the sum 6 + 6 =
12 Ω
The third 6 Ω resistor is in parallel with 12 Ω. Hence, equivalent resistance will be
1 
R 
1

12 6
 4
1 1 12  6
 

1 1
 
R1 R2 12 6
Therefore, the total resistance is 4 Ω

Page - 114 -
12. Several electric bulbs designed to be used on a 220 V electric supply line, are
rated 10 W. How many lamps can be connected in parallel with each other across
the two wires of 220 V line if the maximum allowable current is 5 A?
Ans. Resistance R1 of the bulb is given by the expression,
V2 V2
P1   R1  where, Supply voltage, V = 220 V; Maximum allowable
R1 P1
current, I = 5 A
Rating of an electric bulb , P1=10W
(220)2
R1   4840
5
According to Ohm‟s law, V = I R
where, R is the total resistance of the circuit for x number of electric bulbs
V
R   220  44
I 5
Resistance of each electric bulb, R1 = 4840 Ω
1 1  1  ....upto x times  1  1  x
 
R R1 R2 R R1
R1 4840
x   110
R 44
Therefore, 110 electric bulbs are connected in parallel.
13. A hot plate of an electric oven connected to a 220 V line has two resistance coils
A and B, each of 24 Ω resistance, which may be used separately, in series, or in
parallel. What are the currents in the three cases?
Ans. Supply voltage, V = 220 V
Resistance of one coil, R =
(i) Coils are used separately
According to Ohm‟s law, V1  I1R1 where, I1 is the current flowing through the
coil
V  220  9.166 A
1 I 
R1 24
Therefore, 9.16 A current will flow through the coil when used separately.
(ii) Coils are connected in series
Total resistance, R2 = 24 Ω + 24 Ω = 48 Ω
According to Ohm‟s law,V2  I2 R2 where, I2 is the current flowing through the
coil
V  220  4.58A
2I 
R2 48
Therefore, 4.58 A current will flow through the circuit when the coils are
connected in series.
(iii) Coils are connected in parallel
1 24
Total resistance, R3    12
1 1 2

24 24
According to Ohm‟s law, V3  I3R3 where, I3 is the current flowing through the
coil
V 220
3I    18.33A
R3 12

Page - 115 -
 Therefore, 18.33 A current will flow through the circuit when coils are connected
in parallel.

14. Compare the power used in the 2 Ω resistor in each of the following circuits: (i) a
6 V battery in series with 1 Ω and 2 Ω resistors, and (ii) a 4 V battery in parallel
with 12 Ω and 2 Ω resistors.
Ans. (i) Potential difference, V = 6 V
1 Ω and 2 Ω resistors are connected in series. Therefore, equivalent resistance of
the circuit, R = 1 + 2 = 3 Ω
According to Ohm‟s law, V = IR where, I is the current through the circuit
6
I 2A
3
This current will flow through each component of the circuit because there is no
division of current in series circuits. Hence, current flowing through the 2 Ω
resistor is 2A. Power is given by the expression,
P  (I )2 R  (2)2 2  8W
(ii) Potential difference, V = 4 V
12 Ω and 2 Ω resistors are connected in parallel. The voltage across each
component of a parallel circuit remains the same. Hence, the voltage across 2 Ω
resistor will be 4 V.
Power consumed by 2 Ω resistor is given by
2 2
P  V  4  8W
R 2
Therefore, the power used by 2 Ω resistor is 8 W.

15. Two lamps, one rated 100 W at 220 V, and the other 60 W at 220 V, are
connected in parallel to electric mains supply. What current is drawn from the line
if the supply voltage is 220 V?
Ans. Both the bulbs are connected in parallel. Therefore, potential difference
across each of them will be 220 V, because no division of voltage occurs in a
parallel circuit.

Current drawn by the bulb of rating 100 W is given by,

Power  Voltage  Current
Power 110
 Current   A
Voltage 220

Similarly, current drawn by the bulb of rating 100 W is given by,

Power  Voltage  Current
Power 60
 Current   A
Voltage 220
110 60
Hence, current drawn from the line =   0.727 A
220 220
16. Which uses more energy, a 250 W TV set in 1 hr, or a 1200 W toaster in 10
minutes?
Ans. Energy consumed by an electrical appliance is given by the expression,
H=Pxt
where, Power of the appliance = P, Time = t

Energy consumed by a TV set of power 250 W in 1 h = 250 × 3600 = 9 × 105 J

Page - 116 -
 Energy consumed by a toaster of power 1200 W in 10 minutes = 1200 × 600
= 7.2× 105 J
Therefore, the energy consumed by a 250 W TV set in 1 h is more than the energy
consumed by a toaster of power 1200 W in 10 minutes.

17. An electric heater of resistance 8 Ω draws 15 A from the service mains 2 hours.
Calculate the rate at which heat is developed in the heater.
Ans. Rate of heat produced by a device is given by the expression for power as P
= I2R
where, Resistance of the electric heater, R = 8 Ω
Current drawn, I = 15 A

P = 152 x 8 = 225 x 8 = 1800 J/s

Therefore, heat is produced by the heater at the rate of 1800 J/s.

18. Explain the following.

(a) Why is the tungsten used almost exclusively for filament of electric lamps?

(b) Why are the conductors of electric heating devices, such as bread-toasters and
electric irons, made of an alloy rather than a pure metal?

(c) Why is the series arrangement not used for domestic circuits?

(d) How does the resistance of a wire vary with its area of cross-section?

(e) Why are copper and aluminium wires usually employed for electricity
transmission?

Ans. (a) The melting point and resistivity of tungsten are very high. It does not
burn readily at a high temperature. The electric lamps glow at very high
temperatures. Hence, tungsten is mainly used as heating element of electric bulbs.

(b) The conductors of electric heating devices such as bread toasters and electric
irons are made of alloy because resistivity of an alloy is more than that of metals.
It produces large amount of heat.

(c) There is voltage division in series circuits. Each component of a series circuit
receives a small voltage for a large supply voltage. As a result, the amount of
current decreases and the device becomes hot. Hence, series arrangement is not
used in domestic circuits.

(d) Resistance (R) of a wire is inversely proportional to its area of cross-section

1
(A) , i.e., R 
A

(e) Copper and aluminium wires have low resistivity. They are good conductors of
electricity. Hence, they are usually employed for electricity transmission.

Page - 117 -
 CHAPTER – 13
MAGNETIC EFFECT OF CURRENT
The term magnetic effect of electric current means that an electric current flowing in a
wire produces a magnetic field around it.
A current flowing in a wire always gives rise to a magnetic field around it. The
magnetic effect of current is also called electromagnetism which means electricity
produces magnetism. In figure, the deflection of compass needle by the current
carrying wire in the below experiment show that an electric current produces a
magnetic field around it.

MAGNET
A magnet is an object, which attracts pieces of iron, steel, nickel and cobalt. It has two
poles at ends – South and North Pole.
 Like magnetic poles repel each other.
 Unlike magnetic poles attract each other.

MAGNETIC FIELD
The space surrounding a magnet in which the force of attraction and repulsion is
exerted is called a magnetic field.
MAGNETIC FIELD LINES
The magnetic field lines are the lines drawn in a magnetic field along which a north
magnetic pole would move. These are also known as magnetic lines of forces.
PROPERTIES OF MAGNETIC FIELD LINES
1. A magnetic field lines originate from north pole and end at its south pole.
2. A magnetic field line is a closed and continuous curve.
3. The magnetic field lines are closer near the poles of a magnet where the magnetic
field is strong and farther apart where the magnetic field is weak.
4. The magnetic field lines never intersect each other.
5. A uniform magnetic field is represented by parallel and equidistant field lines.

Page - 118 -
INTEXT QUESTIONS PAGE NO. 224
1. Why does a compass needle get deflected when brought near a bar magnet?
Ans. A compass gets deflected due to the forces acting on its poles due to the
magnetic field of the bar magnet.

MAGNETIC FIELD DUE TO A CURRENT THROUGH A STRAIGHT

CONDUCTOR
The magnetic field lines around a straight conductor carrying current are concentric
circles whose centres lies on the wire.
The magnitude of magnetic field produced by a straight current carrying wire at a
point-
 directly proportional to current passing in the wire.
 inversely proportional to the distance of that point from the wire.

RIGHT-HAND THUMB RULE

When a current-carrying straight conductor is holding in right hand such that the
thumb points towards the direction of current. Then fingers will wrap around the
conductor in the direction of the field lines of the magnetic field, as shown in below
figure. This is known as the right-hand thumb rule

Page - 119 -
Thumb-points in the direction of current then direction of fingers encircle the wire
give the direction of magnetic field around the wire.

INTEXT QUESTIONS PAGE NO. 228

1. Draw magnetic field lines around a bar magnet.
Ans.

2. List the properties of magnetic lines of force.

Ans. Refer in page no. 1

3. Why don‟t two magnetic lines of force intersect each other?

Ans. If two magnetic lines of force intersect then there would be two directions of
magnetic field at that point, which is absurd. That is why they never intersect.

MAGNETIC FIELD DUE TO A CURRENT THROUGH A CIRCULAR LOOP

The magnetic field lines are circular near the current carrying loop. As we move
away, the concentric circles becomes bigger and bigger. At the centre, the lines are
straight.
At the centre, all the magnetic field lines are in the same direction due to which the
strength of magnetic field increase.
The magnetic of magnetic field produced by a current carrying circular loop at its
centre is
 directly proportional to the current passing
 inversely proportional to the radius of the circular loop
The strength of magnetic field produced by a circular coil carrying current is directly
proportional to both number of turns(n) and current(I) but inversely proportional to its
radius(r).

Page - 120 -
MAGNETIC FIELD DUE TO A CURRENT IN A SOLENOID
The insulated copper wire wound on a cylindrical tube such that its length is greater
than its diameter is called a solenoid. The solenoid is from greek word for channel.
 The solenoid is a long coil containing a large number of close turns of insulated
copper wire.
 The magnetic field produced by a current carrying solenoid is similar to the
magnetic field produced by a bar magnet.
 The current in each turn of a current carrying solenoid flows in the same direction
due to which the magnetic field produced by each turn of the solenoid ads up,
giving a strong magnetic field inside the solenoid.

The strong magnetic field produced inside a current-carrying solenoid can be used to
magnetise a piece of magnetic material like soft iron, when placed inside the solenoid.
The magnet thus formed is called an electromagnet.
So, a solenoid is used for making electromagnets.
The strength of magnetic field produced by a carrying current solenoid depends on
 number of turns(n)
 strength of current(I)
 nature of core material used in solenoid – use of soft iron as core in a solenoid
produces the strongest magnetism.

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ELECTROMAGNETS AND PERMANENT MAGNETS
An electromagnet is a temporary strong magnet and is just a solenoid with its winding
on soft iron core.
A permanent magnet is made from steel. As steel has more retentivity than iron, it
does not lose its magnetism easily.
Difference between Electromagnet and permanent magnet
Electromagnet Permanent magnet
1. An electromagnet is a temporary 1. A permanent magnet cannot be
magnet as it can readily demagnetized readily demagnetized.
by stopping the current through the
solenoid.
2. Strength can be changed. 2. Strength cannot be changed.
3. It produces very strong magnetic 3. It produces weal forces of
forces. attraction.
4. Polarity can be changed by changing 4. Polarity is fixed and cannot be
the direction of the current. changed.

Q. Why soft iron is used for making the core of an electromagnet?

Soft iron is used for making the core of an electromagnet because soft iron loses all of
its magnetism when current in the coil is switched off.
Q. Why steel is not used for making the core of an electromagnet?
Steel is not used for making the core of an electromagnet because steel does not loses
all of its magnetism when current in the coil is switched off.

INTEXT QUESTIONS PAGE NO. 229 and 230

1. Consider a circular loop of wire lying in the plane of the table. Let the current pass
through the loop clockwise. Apply the right-hand rule to find out the direction of
the magnetic field inside and outside the loop.
For downward direction of current flowing in the circular loop, the direction of
magnetic field lines will be as if they are emerging from the table outside the loop
and merging in the table inside the loop. Similarly, for upward direction of current
flowing in the circular loop, the direction of magnetic field lines will be as if they
are emerging from the table outside the loop and merging in the table inside the
loop, as shown in the given figure.

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2. The magnetic field in a given region is uniform. Draw a diagram to represent it.

3. Choose the correct option: The magnetic field inside a long straight solenoid-
carrying current (a) is zero. (b) decreases as we move towards its end. (c)
increases as we move towards its end. (d) is the same at all points.
The magnetic field for a point inside a long straight solenoid carrying current is
double than for a point situated at one of its ends. Thus, the correct option is (b).
FORCE ON A CURRENT-CARRYING CONDUCTOR IN A MAGNETIC
FIELD
When a current carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field it experiences a force,
except when it is placed parallel to the magnetic field.
The force acting on a current carrying conductor in a magnetic field is due to
interaction between:
1. Magnetic force due to current-carrying conductor and
2. External magnetic field in which the conductor is placed.

In the above figure, a current-carrying rod, AB, experiences a force perpendicular to

its length and the magnetic field.
The displacement of the rod in the above activity suggests that a force is exerted on
the current-carrying aluminium rod when it is placed in a magnetic field. It also
suggests that the direction of force is also reversed when the direction of current
through the conductor is reversed. Now change the direction of field to vertically
downwards by interchanging the two poles of the magnet. It is once again observed
that the direction of force acting on the current-carrying rod gets reversed. It shows
that the direction of the force on the conductor depends upon the direction of current
and the direction of the magnetic field. We considered the direction of the current and
that of the magnetic field perpendicular to each other and found that the force is
perpendicular to both of them.

FLEMING’S LEFT HAND RULE

Fleming's left hand rule (for electric motors) shows the direction of the thrust on a
conductor carrying a current in a magnetic field. The left hand is held with the thumb,
index finger and middle finger mutually at right angles.
The First finger represents the direction of the magnetic Field. (north to south)

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The Second finger represents the direction of the Current (the direction of the current
is the direction of conventional current; from positive to negative).
The Thumb represents the direction of the Thrust or resultant Motion.

FLEMING’S RIGHT HAND RULE

Fleming's right hand rule (for generators) shows the direction of induced current when
a conductor moves in a magnetic field.

The right hand is held with the thumb, first finger and second finger mutually
perpendicular to each other {at right angles}, as shown in the diagram .

The Thumb represents the direction of Motion of the conductor.

The First finger represents the direction of the Field. (north to south)
The Second finger represents the direction of the induced or generated Current (the
direction of the induced current will be the direction of conventional current; from
positive to negative).

INTEXT QUESTIONS PAGE NO. 231 AND 232

1. Which of the following property of a proton can change while it moves freely in a
magnetic field? (There may be more than one correct answer.) (a) mass (b) speed
(b) velocity (d) momentum

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 Whenever a charged proton moves in a magnetic field, its velocity changes and as
a result of this its momentum change. Thus (c) and (d) are the properties which
change when a proton moves freely in a magnetic field.

2. In Activity 13.7, how do we think the displacement of rod AB will be affected if

(i) current in rod AB is increased; (ii) a stronger horse-shoe magnet is used; and
(iii) length of the rod AB is increased?
(i) If the current in the rod AB is increased, force also increases.
(ii) When a stronger horse-shoe magnet is used, magnetic field increases as a
result force also increases.
(iii) If the length of the rod AB is increased, force also increased.

3. A positively-charged particle (alpha-particle) projected towards west is deflected

towards north by a magnetic field. The direction of magnetic field is (a) towards
south (b) towards east (c) downward (d) upward
The direction of the motion of proton is the direction of current. The direction of
force o the proton is towards north. Applying Fleming‟s left hand rule, the
direction of magnetic field is upward. The correct option is (d).

ELECTRIC MOTOR
An electric motor is a rotating device that converts electrical energy to mechanical
energy. Electric motor is used as an important component in electric fans,
refrigerators, mixers, washing machines, computers, MP3 players etc.
Principle: When a coil carrying current is placed in a magnetic field, it experiences a
torque. As a result of this torque, the coil begins to rotate.
Construction:
It consists of a rectangular coil ABCD of insulated copper wire. The coil is placed
between the two poles of a magnetic field such that the arm AB and CD are
perpendicular to the direction of the magnetic field. The ends of the coil are connected
to the two halves P and Q of a split ring. The inner sides of these halves are insulated
and attached to an axle. The external conducting edges of P and Q touch two
conducting stationary brushes X and Y, respectively, as shown in the below figure

Working:
Current in the coil ABCD enters from the source battery through conducting brush X
and flows back to the battery through brush Y.
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Notice that the current in arm AB of the coil flows from A to B. In arm CD it flows
from C to D, that is, opposite to the direction of current through arm AB.
On applying Fleming‟s left hand rule for the direction of force on a current-carrying
conductor in a magnetic field.. We find that the force acting on arm AB pushes it
downwards while the force acting on arm CD pushes it upwards. Thus the coil and the
axle O, mounted free to turn about an axis, rotate anti-clockwise.
At half rotation, Q makes contact with the brush X and P with brush Y. Therefore the
current in the coil gets reversed and flows along the path DCBA. A device that
reverses the direction of flow of current through a circuit is called a commutator. In
electric motors, the split ring acts as a commutator.
The reversal of current also reverses the direction of force acting on the two arms AB
and CD. Thus the arm AB of the coil that was earlier pushed down is now pushed up
and the arm CD previously pushed up is now pushed down. Therefore the coil and the
axle rotate half a turn more in the same direction. The reversing of the current is
repeated at each half rotation, giving rise to a continuous rotation of the coil and to the
axle.
Uses of electric motor:
The commercial motors use (i) an electromagnet in place of permanent magnet; (ii)
large number of turns of the conducting wire in the current-carrying coil; and (iii) a
soft iron core on which the coil is wound. The soft iron core, on which the coil is
wound, plus the coils, is called an armature. This enhances the power of the motor.

INTEXT QUESTIONS PAGE NO. 231 AND 232

1. State Fleming‟s left-hand rule.
Ans. Fleming‟s left hand rule states that if we arrange the thumb, the centre
finger, and the forefinger of the left hand at right angles to each other, then the
thumb points towards the direction of the magnetic force, the centre finger gives
the direction of current, and the forefinger points in the direction of magnetic
field.

2. What is the principle of an electric motor?

Ans. The working principle of an electric motor is based on the magnetic effect of
current. A current-carrying loop experiences a force and rotates when placed in a
magnetic field. The direction of rotation of the loop is given by the Fleming‟s left-
hand rule.
3. What is the role of the split ring in an electric motor?
Ans. The split ring in the electric motor acts as a commutator. The commutator
reverses the direction of current flowing through the coil after each half rotation of
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 the coil. Due to this reversal of the current, the coil continues to rotate in the same
direction.

ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION
The production of electricity from magnetism is called Electromagnetic induction.
When a straight wire is moved up and down rapidly between the poles of magnet,
then an electric current is produced in the wire. This is an example of electromagnetic
induction
The process of electromagnetic induction has led to the construction of generators for
producing electricity at power stations
The current produced by moving a straight wire in a magnetic field is called an
induced current. In the below figure, moving a magnet towards a coil sets up a current
in the coil circuit, as indicated by deflection in the galvanometer needle.

If the bar magnet moved towards south pole of the magnet towards the end B of the
coil, the deflections in the galvanometer would just be opposite to the previous case.
When the coil and the magnet are both stationary, there is no deflection in the
galvanometer. It is, thus, clear from this activity that motion of a magnet with respect
to the coil produces an induced potential difference, which sets up an induced electric
current in the circuit.

INTEXT QUESTIONS PAGE NO. 236

1. Explain different ways to induce current in a coil.
The different ways to induce current in a coil are as follows:
(a) If a coil is moved rapidly between the two poles of a horse-shoe magnet, then
an electric current is induced in the coil.
(b) If a magnet is moved relative to a coil, then an electric current is induced in the
coil

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INTEXT QUESTIONS PAGE NO. 237
1. Choose the correct option: A rectangular coil of copper wires is rotated in a
magnetic field. The direction of the induced current changes once in each (a) two
revolutions (b) one revolution (c) half revolution (d) one-fourth revolution
(c) When a rectangular coil of copper is rotated in a magnetic field, the direction
of the induced current in the coil changes once in each half revolution. As a result,
the direction of current in the coil remains the same

EXERCISE QUESTIONS PAGE NO. 240

1. Which of the following correctly describes the magnetic field near a long straight
wire?
(a) The field consists of straight lines perpendicular to the wire
(b) The field consists of straight lines parallel to the wire
(c) The field consists of radial lines originating from the wire
(d) The field consists of concentric circles centred on the wire
Ans. (d) The magnetic field lines, produced around a straight current-carrying
conductor, are concentric circles. Their centres lie on the wire.

2. The phenomenon of electromagnetic induction is

(a) the process of charging a body

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 (b) the process of generating magnetic field due to a current passing through a coil
(c) producing induced current in a coil due to relative motion between a magnet
and the coil
(d) the process of rotating a coil of an electric motor
Ans. (c) When a straight coil and a magnet are moved relative to each other, a
current is induced in the coil. This phenomenon is known as electromagnetic
induction.

3. The device used for producing electric current is called a

(a) generator. (b) galvanometer. (c) ammeter. (d) motor.
Ans. (a) An electric generator produces electric current. It converts mechanical
energy into electricity.

4. At the time of short circuit, the current in the circuit

(a) reduces substantially. (b) does not change.
(c) increases heavily. (d) vary continuously.
Ans. (c) When two naked wires of an electric circuit touch each other, the amount
of current that is flowing in the circuit increases abruptly. This causes short-
circuit.
5. State whether the following statements are true or false.
(a) An electric motor converts mechanical energy into electrical energy.
(b) An electric generator works on the principle of electromagnetic induction.
(c) The field at the centre of a long circular coil carrying current will be parallel
straight lines.
(d) A wire with a green insulation is usually the live wire of an electric supply.
Ans. (a) False
An electric motor converts electrical energy into mechanical energy.
(b) True
A generator is an electric device that generates electricity by rotating a coil in a
magnetic field. It works on the principle of electromagnetic induction.
(c) True
A long circular coil is a long solenoid. The magnetic field lines inside the solenoid
are parallel lines.
(d) False
Live wire has red insulation cover, whereas earth wire has green insulation colour
in the domestic circuits.

6. List three sources of magnetic fields.

Ans. Three sources of magnetic fields are as follows:
(a) Current-carrying conductors
(b) Permanent magnets
(c) Electromagnets

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7. How does a solenoid behave like a magnet? Can you determine the north and
south poles of a current–carrying solenoid with the help of a bar magnet? Explain.
Ans. A solenoid is a long coil of circular loops of insulated copper wire. Magnetic
field lines are produced around the solenoid when a current is allowed to flow
through it. The magnetic field produced by it is similar to the magnetic field of a
bar magnet. The field lines produced in a current-carrying solenoid is shown in the
following figure.

In the above figure, when the north pole of a bar magnet is brought near the end
connected to the negative terminal of the battery, the solenoid repels the bar
magnet. Since like poles repel each other, the end connected to the negative
terminal of the battery behaves as the north pole of the solenoid and the other end
behaves as a south pole. Hence, one end of the solenoid behaves as a north pole
and the other end behaves as a south pole.

8. When is the force experienced by a current–carrying conductor placed in a

magnetic field largest?
Ans. The force experienced by a current-currying conductor is the maximum
when the direction of current is perpendicular to the direction of the magnetic
field.

9. Imagine that you are sitting in a chamber with your back to one wall. An electron
beam, moving horizontally from back wall towards the front wall, is deflected by
a strong magnetic field to your right side. What is the direction of magnetic field?
Ans. The direction of magnetic field is given by Fleming‟s left hand rule.
Magnetic field inside the chamber will be perpendicular to the direction of current
(opposite to the direction of electron) and direction of deflection/force i.e., either
upward or downward. The direction of current is from the front wall to the back
wall because negatively charged electrons are moving from back wall to the front
wall. The direction of magnetic force is rightward. Hence, using Fleming‟s left hand
rule, it can be concluded that the direction of magnetic field inside the chamber is
downward.

10. Draw a labelled diagram of an electric motor. Explain its principle and working.
What is the function of a split ring in an electric motor?
Ans. An electric motor is a rotating device that converts electrical energy to
mechanical energy. Electric motor is used as an important component in electric
fans, refrigerators, mixers, washing machines, computers, MP3 players etc.
Principle: When a coil carrying current is placed in a magnetic field, it
experiences a torque. As a result of this torque, the coil begins to rotate.

Page - 141 -
 Construction:
It consists of a rectangular coil ABCD of insulated copper wire. The coil is placed
between the two poles of a magnetic field such that the arm AB and CD are
perpendicular to the direction of the magnetic field. The ends of the coil are
connected to the two halves P and Q of a split ring. The inner sides of these halves
are insulated and attached to an axle. The external conducting edges of P and Q
touch two conducting stationary brushes X and Y, respectively, as shown in the
below figure

Working:
Current in the coil ABCD enters from the source battery through conducting brush
X and flows back to the battery through brush Y.

Notice that the current in arm AB of the coil flows from A to B. In arm CD it
flows from C to D, that is, opposite to the direction of current through arm AB.

On applying Fleming‟s left hand rule for the direction of force on a current-
carrying conductor in a magnetic field.. We find that the force acting on arm AB
pushes it downwards while the force acting on arm CD pushes it upwards. Thus
the coil and the axle O, mounted free to turn about an axis, rotate anti-clockwise.
At half rotation, Q makes contact with the brush X and P with brush Y. Therefore
the current in the coil gets reversed and flows along the path DCBA. A device that
reverses the direction of flow of current through a circuit is called a commutator.
In electric motors, the split ring acts as a commutator.
The reversal of current also reverses the direction of force acting on the two arms
AB and CD. Thus the arm AB of the coil that was earlier pushed down is now
pushed up and the arm CD previously pushed up is now pushed down. Therefore
the coil and the axle rotate half a turn more in the same direction. The reversing of
the current is repeated at each half rotation, giving rise to a continuous rotation of
the coil and to the axle.
11. Name some devices in which electric motors are used.
Ans. Some devices in which electric motors are used are as follows:
(a) Water pumps (b) Electric fans (c) Electric mixers (d) Washing machines
12. A coil of insulated copper wire is connected to a galvanometer. What will happen
if a bar magnet is (i) pushed into the coil, (ii) withdrawn from inside the coil, (iii)
held stationary inside the coil?
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 Ans. A current induces in a solenoid if a bar magnet is moved relative to it. This is
the principle of electromagnetic induction.
(i) When a bar magnet is pushed into a coil of insulated copper wire, a current is
induced momentarily in the coil. As a result, the needle of the galvanometer
deflects momentarily in a particular direction.
(ii) When the bar magnet is withdrawn from inside the coil of the insulated copper
wire, a current is again induced momentarily in the coil in the opposite direction.
As a result, the needle of the galvanometer deflects momentarily in the opposite
direction.
(iii) When a bar magnet is held stationary inside the coil, no current will be
induced in the coil. Hence, galvanometer will show no deflection.
13. Two circular coils A and B are placed closed to each other. If the current in the
coil A is changed, will some current be induced in the coil B? Give reason.
Ans. Two circular coils A and B are placed closed to each other. When the current
in coil A is changed, the magnetic field associated with it also changes. As a
result, the magnetic field around coil B also changes. This change in magnetic
field lines around coil B induces an electric current in it. This is called
electromagnetic induction.
14. State the rule to determine the direction of a (i) magnetic field produced around a
straight conductor-carrying current, (ii) force experienced by a current-carrying
straight conductor placed in a magnetic field which is perpendicular to it, and (iii)
current induced in a coil due to its rotation in a magnetic field.
Ans. (i) Maxwell‟s right hand thumb rule
(ii) Fleming‟s left hand rule
(iii) Fleming‟s right hand rule

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