BASIC CONCEPTS OF COMPUTER, TECHNOLOGY, AND INTERNET

1. COMPUTER
A computer is an electronic device that processes data according to instructions
(programs) to produce meaningful output. It is designed to perform tasks such as calculations,
data storage, communication, and automation.

1.1 Definitions
General definition: A programmable machine that takes input, processes it, stores it, and
produces output.
By Function: A device that solves problems by executing a set of instructions.
By Components: A system consisting of hardware and software that work together.

1.2 Characteristics of Computers

1. Speed – Can perform millions/billions of instructions per second.
2. Accuracy – Very precise; errors occur only due to wrong instructions or input.
3. Automation – Once programmed, it operates automatically
4. Versatility – Can handle different types of tasks (calculations, games, graphics).
5. Connectivity – Can be connected to other devices/networks.
6. Storage – Can store vast amounts of data (terabytes/petabytes).
7. Diligence – Does not get tired or bored like humans.
8. Programmability – Can be instructed to perform specific tasks.

1.3 Components of a Computer System

A computer system is made up of hardware, software, data, users, and procedures.

A. Hardware (Physical Parts)

Input Devices – Enter data into the computer.
Examples: Keyboard, Mouse, Touchscreen, Scanner, Microphone, Webcam.
Output Devices – Display the results.
Examples: Monitor, Printers (Inkjet, Laser), Projectors, Speakers.
Storage Devices
1. Primary Storage (Volatile): RAM (temporary memory). Main memory of a
computer system where data is temporarily stored while the computer is running. It is
 directly accessible by the CPU and is crucial for performing active tasks such as
running applications, loading the operating system, and executing instructions.

2. Secondary Storage (Non-volatile): Hard Disk Drive (HDD), Solid State Drive
(SSD), Optical Discs (CD/DVD), Flash Drives. refers to devices and media that store
data permanently, even when the computer is turned off. Unlike primary storage
(RAM), which is temporary and volatile, secondary storage provides long-term
storage for operating systems, applications, files, and user data. It is sometimes called
external storage or auxiliary storage, and it forms the backbone of computer
memory because it can store large amounts of data at a relatively low cost.
3. Tertiary Storage: Cloud storage (Google Drive, Dropbox). Generally, refers to a
storage level beyond primary (RAM) and secondary (hard drives, SSDs) storage. In
modern computing, this often points to cloud storage, which allows data to be saved,
accessed, and managed over the internet rather than on a local physical device.
4. Processing Unit (CPU – Central Processing Unit) is often referred to as the “brain of
the computer.” It is the primary component responsible for executing instructions and
processing data. Without the CPU, a computer cannot function because it controls all
operations.
5. ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit): Handles calculations and logic. is a critical part of the
CPU (Central Processing Unit). It is the component that performs all arithmetic calculations
(mathematical operations) and logical decisions (comparisons). Think of it as the
“mathematical brain” of the computer — without it, the CPU would not be able to solve
problems or make logical choices.
6. CU (Control Unit): Directs the flow of instructions. The Control Unit (CU) is the
“manager” of the CPU. It does not process data directly like the ALU but instead
directs the flow of instructions inside the computer.
7. Registers: Small storage inside CPU for immediate data. Registers are tiny, high-
speed memory units inside the CPU that store immediate data and instructions. They
are even faster than RAM.
8. Memory Types: Computer memory is divided based on speed, volatility, and
purpose:

 Primary Memory: Fast, temporary (RAM, Cache).

 Secondary Memory: Permanent, large capacity (HDD, SSD).
 Tertiary Memory: Backup or cloud storage.
 Virtual Memory: Extends RAM using storage.
 ROM: Permanent instructions for startup.

Memory types balance speed vs. capacity — faster memory (Cache, RAM) is
smaller, while slower memory (HDD, Cloud) is larger.

9. ROM (Read-Only Memory): Permanent instructions (e.g., BIOS). ROM is non-

volatile memory that permanently stores essential instructions for the computer.
Unlike RAM, its data is not lost when power is turned off.
Characteristics:

 Non-volatile: Data stays even when PC is off.

 Permanent storage: Cannot be modified easily.
 Small in size: Only stores essential programs.

Types:

1. PROM (Programmable ROM): PROM is a memory chip that can be programmed

only once after manufacturing. Once written, the data becomes permanent and cannot
be changed or erased. It is often used for storing firmware or permanent instructions.
2. EPROM (Erasable PROM): an be erased using ultraviolet (UV) light and then
reprogrammed with new data. This makes it reusable, though the erasing process
requires special equipment. It was widely used before more convenient memory types
became common.
3. EEPROM (Electrically Erasable PROM): an be erased using ultraviolet (UV) light
and then reprogrammed with new data. This makes it reusable, though the erasing
process requires special equipment. It was widely used before more convenient
memory types became common.

10. Cache Memory: High-speed memory to assist CPU. Cache is ultra-fast memory
located very close to the CPU (sometimes inside it). It stores frequently accessed data and
instructions so the CPU doesn’t always need to fetch them from slower RAM.

Levels of Cashe:

 L1 Cache: Smallest, fastest, built inside CPU core.

 L2 Cache: Larger, slightly slower, may be on CPU or motherboard.
 L3 Cache: Shared among CPU cores, larger but slower than L1/L2.

11. Virtual Memory: Uses storage to extend RAM. Virtual Memory is a technique where
the computer uses a portion of the hard drive/SSD as “extra RAM.”

B. Software (Programs/Instructions)
System Software: is a type of computer software designed to manage and control the
hardware so that application software can function properly. It acts as a bridge between the
user and the computer hardware. Examples include operating systems (like Windows,
macOS, Linux), device drivers, utility programs, and language translators.
 Operating Systems: Operating systems are system software that manage computer
hardware and provide a platform for applications to run. Examples include Windows,
 Linux, macOS, Android, and iOS, which control resources and enable user interaction
with the computer.
 Utility Programs: Utility programs are system tools that help maintain, protect, and
optimize a computer’s performance. Examples are antivirus software, file managers,
and disk cleanup tools, which ensure the system runs smoothly and securely.
Examples are: Antivirus, File Managers, Disk Cleanup.
Application Software
General Purpose: General purpose applications are designed for everyday tasks that can be
used by a wide range of users. Examples include MS Office for productivity, web browsers
for internet access, and games for entertainment.

Specialized: Specialized applications are created for specific tasks or professional use.
Examples include Photoshop for graphic design, AutoCAD for engineering and architecture,
and accounting software for financial management.

1.4 Types of Computers

 Supercomputers: Extremely powerful, used in weather forecasting, nuclear
simulations, AI research.
 Mainframe Computers: Large, reliable systems used in banks, insurance, airlines.
 Minicomputers: Medium-sized, used in business/industrial applications.
 Microcomputers (Personal Computers): Desktops, Laptops, Tablets, Smartphones.
 Embedded Computers: Built into machines (cars, appliances, medical devices).

1.5 Generations of Computers

First Generation (1940–1956): The first generation of computers used vacuum tubes for
circuitry and magnetic drums for memory. They were very large, consumed a lot of power,
and generated excessive heat, often leading to malfunctions. These machines were mainly
used for scientific calculations and military purposes.
 Used vacuum tubes
 Very large, expensive, consumed much electricity.
Example: ENIAC, UNIVAC.

Second Generation (1956–1963): The second generation of computers replaced vacuum

tubes with transistors, making them smaller, faster, and more reliable. They consumed less
power, generated less heat, and were cheaper to maintain. These computers also introduced
the use of high-level programming languages like COBOL and FORTRAN.
 Used transistors.
 Smaller, faster, more reliable.
Third Generation (1964–1971): The third generation of computers used integrated circuits
(ICs) instead of transistors, which further reduced size and increased speed and efficiency.
They supported multitasking and were more reliable. During this period, keyboards,
monitors, and operating systems began to appear.
 Used Integrated Circuits (ICs).
 Introduced keyboards, monitors.

Fourth Generation (1971–Present): The fourth generation introduced microprocessors,

which placed thousands of integrated circuits on a single chip. This made computers smaller,
faster, cheaper, and accessible for personal use. It also marked the rise of personal computers
(PCs) like those from Apple and IBM.
 Used microprocessors.
 Personal computers developed.
 Internet and networking became common.

Fifth Generation (Present & Future): The fifth generation focuses on artificial intelligence
(AI), machine learning, and advanced parallel processing. These computers are smaller,
portable, and extremely powerful, with applications ranging from smartphones to
supercomputers. Modern technologies like voice recognition and robotics are also part of this
generation.
 Based on AI, Machine Learning, Quantum Computing, Nanotechnology.

1.6 Functions of a Computer (IPO Cycle)

Input → Process → Output → Storage → Communication

Example: Typing in Google (input) → CPU searches (processing) → Results displayed
(output) → History saved (storage) → Data transmitted across the internet (communication).

2. TECHNOLOGY
Technology is the application of knowledge, tools, and techniques to solve human problems
and improve life. It covers machines, systems, devices, and methods developed through
science.

2.1 Definitions
General: The use of tools and machines to improve human tasks.
Modern View: The study, creation, and application of technical solutions for communication,
production, healthcare, education, etc.

2.2 Types of Technology

 Information Technology (IT): Use of computers and networks to store, process, and
share data.
 Communication Technology (ICT): Tools that allow sharing of information—phones,
internet, satellites.
 Medical Technology: Diagnostic and treatment tools (X-ray, MRI, pacemakers,
biotech).
 Industrial Technology: Robotics, automation, CNC machines.
 Transportation Technology: Automobiles, airplanes, bullet trains, EVs.
 Energy Technology: Renewable energy, nuclear power, smart grids.
 Educational Technology (EdTech): Smart classrooms, e-learning platforms,
projectors, AR/VR in teaching.

2.3 Emerging Technologies

 Artificial Intelligence (AI): Simulation of human intelligence in machines.
 Machine Learning (ML): Self-learning systems.
 Internet of Things (IoT): Smart homes, wearable devices.

 Blockchain: Digital ledger for cryptocurrency and secure data.

 Virtual Reality (VR) & Augmented Reality (AR): Immersive technologies.
 Cloud Computing: Remote data storage and applications.
 Quantum Computing: Ultra-fast computing technology.

2.4 Impacts of Technology

Positive Impacts:
 Increases efficiency and productivity.
 Enhances communication globally
 Saves lives through medical innovations.
 Provides access to unlimited knowledge.
 Opens opportunities for education and work.

Negative Impacts:
  Job losses due to automation.
 Cybersecurity and privacy issues
 Addiction to digital devices.
 Environmental impact (e-waste, energy consumption)
 Social isolation and dependency.

3. INTERNET
The Internet is a global network of interconnected devices that communicate through
standardized protocols (TCP/IP).

3.1 Definition
 Called the “network of networks.”
 Origin: ARPANET (1969) – U.S. Department of Defense.
 World Wide Web (WWW) created by Tim Berners-Lee (1991).

3.2 Basic Concepts

 IP Address: Unique number for each device (IPv4, IPv6). Domain Name System
(DNS): Converts domain names into IP addresses.
 Protocols: Rules for communication.

 HTTP/HTTPS (websites).
 SMTP (emails).
 FTP (file transfers).
 VoIP (voice over internet).
 World Wide Web: A system of hyperlinked documents (websites).

3.3 Internet Services

 Communication: Email, Chat, Messaging, Social Media, Video Calls
 Information Retrieval: Search engines (Google, Bing, Yahoo).
 E-commerce: Online shopping (Amazon, Lazada), banking, mobile payments.
 Cloud Services: Google Drive, iCloud, Dropbox.
 Entertainment: YouTube, Netflix, Spotify, Online Games.
 Education: E-learning, online universities, research databases.
 Collaboration: Tools like Zoom, Google Meet, MS Teams.

3.4 Internet Infrastructure

  ISPs (Internet Service Providers): PLDT, Globe, Smart, etc.
 Routers & Modems: Connect users to the network.
 Servers & Data Centers: Store and distribute websites/data.
 Transmission Media: Fiber optic cables, satellite communication, undersea cables.
 Wireless Technology: Wi-Fi, 4G, 5G, Li-Fi.

3.5 Online Safety & Security

 Cybersecurity Tools: Firewalls, Antivirus, Encryption, VPNs.
 Threats: Hacking, Malware, Phishing, Ransomware, Identity Theft.
Best Practices:
 Use strong and unique passwords.
 Enable multi-factor authentication.
 Update software regularly.
 Avoid suspicious links and emails.

3.6 Future of the Internet

 Web 3.0: Decentralized and user-controlled.
 Metaverse: Digital 3D spaces for work and play.
 AI-driven Services: Personalized learning, recommendations.
 Global Internet Access: Satellite-based services like Starlink.
 Quantum Internet: Ultra-secure and ultra-fast communications.