What is a Computer?

A computer is an electronic device

that processes data according to a
set of instructions called
programs. It can perform a wide
range of tasks, from simple
calculations to complex operations
involving artificial intelligence.

Main Components of a Computer

1. Central Processing Unit (CPU)

o The brain of the computer that
performs calculations and executes
instructions.
o Consists of the Arithmetic Logic
Unit (ALU) and Control Unit (CU).
2. Memory
o RAM (Random Access Memory):
Temporary storage used by the
CPU to store data that is being
processed.
o ROM (Read-Only Memory):
Permanent storage that contains
essential instructions for booting the computer.
3. Storage
o Hard Disk Drives (HDD) and Solid-State Drives (SSD): Used for long-term
data storage.
o External Storage: Includes USB drives and external hard drives for additional
storage.
4. Input Devices
o Devices like keyboards, mice, and scanners that allow users to input data into
the computer.
5. Output Devices
o Devices like monitors, printers, and speakers that display or output data from
the computer.
6. Motherboard
o The main circuit board that connects all the components of the computer.
7. Power Supply Unit (PSU)
o Converts electrical power from an outlet into a usable form for the computer.
8. Cooling System
o Includes fans and heat sinks to prevent overheating.

Functions of a Computer

1. Data Processing
o Computers can process large amounts of data quickly and accurately.
2. Storage
 Computers can store vast amounts of data for long-term use.
o
3. Communication
o Computers can connect to networks and communicate with other devices.
4. Automation
o Computers can automate repetitive tasks, increasing efficiency and productivity.

Types of Computers

1. Personal Computers (PCs)

o Used by individuals for personal tasks like browsing the internet, word
processing, and gaming.
2. Laptops
o Portable computers that combine the functionality of a desktop with mobility.
3. Servers
o Powerful computers that provide services to other computers on a network.
4. Supercomputers
o Extremely powerful computers used for complex scientific calculations and
simulations.
5. Embedded Systems
o Computers integrated into other devices, like smartphones, appliances, and cars.

Computers have revolutionized the way we live and work, making it possible to perform tasks
more efficiently and effectively.

Characteristics of a Computer

1. Speed
o Computers can process data and perform calculations at incredibly high speeds,
measured in microseconds, nanoseconds, and even picoseconds. This allows
them to execute millions of instructions per second.
2. Accuracy
o Computers perform tasks with a high degree of precision. Errors typically occur
due to human input or software bugs, not the computer itself.
3. Diligence
o Unlike humans, computers do not suffer from fatigue or lack of concentration.
They can perform repetitive tasks consistently without any decline in
performance.
4. Versatility
o Computers can perform a wide range of tasks, from simple calculations to
complex simulations. They can be used in various fields such as education,
healthcare, finance, and entertainment.
5. Reliability
o Computers are highly reliable and can operate continuously without failure,
provided they are maintained properly. They produce consistent results for the
same set of inputs.
6. Consistency
o Computers provide the same output for the same input every time, ensuring
consistent performance and results.
7. Storage Capacity
 oComputers can store vast amounts of data, from small text files to large
multimedia files. This data can be retrieved and processed quickly.
8. Automation
o Computers can automate repetitive tasks, reducing the need for human
intervention and increasing efficiency. This is particularly useful in industrial
and business applications.
9. Memory
o Computers have both primary memory (RAM) for temporary storage and
secondary memory (HDD/SSD) for long-term storage. This allows them to
handle large amounts of data efficiently.
10. Remembrance Power
o Computers can remember data and instructions for long periods, making them
useful for tasks that require long-term data retention.

These characteristics make computers indispensable tools in modern society, enabling

advancements in technology, science, and everyday life.

Generations of Computers

The evolution of computers is often categorized into five distinct generations, each marked by
significant technological advancements. An overview of each generation:

1. First Generation (1940-1956): Vacuum Tubes

• Technology: Used vacuum tubes for circuitry and magnetic drums for memory.
• Characteristics: Large, expensive, and consumed a lot of power. They generated a lot
of heat and were prone to malfunctions.
• Examples: ENIAC, UNIVAC.

2. Second Generation (1956-1963): Transistors

• Technology: Transistors replaced vacuum tubes, making computers smaller, faster, and
more reliable.
• Characteristics: Reduced size and cost, increased speed and efficiency.
• Examples: IBM 7094, CDC 1604.

3. Third Generation (1964-1971): Integrated Circuits

• Technology: Integrated Circuits (ICs) replaced transistors, further reducing size and
cost while increasing speed.
• Characteristics: More reliable, capable of multitasking, and supported higher-level
programming languages.
• Examples: IBM 360 series, PDP-8.

4. Fourth Generation (1971-Present): Microprocessors

• Technology: Microprocessors, which integrate thousands of ICs into a single chip,

revolutionized computing.
 • Characteristics: Personal computers became common, significant improvements in
speed, efficiency, and user interface.
• Examples: Intel 4004, Apple II.

5. Fifth Generation (Present and Beyond): Artificial Intelligence

• Technology: Based on artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning, utilizing

advanced parallel processing and quantum computing.
• Characteristics: Focus on developing systems that can learn and adapt, natural
language processing, and advanced robotics.
• Examples: IBM Watson, Google DeepMind.

Each generation has brought about significant changes, making computers more powerful,
efficient, and accessible.

Memory in a Computer System

Memory in a computer system is essential for storing data and instructions that the CPU needs
to process. There are different types of memory, each serving a specific purpose and having
unique characteristics.

Types of Memory

1. Primary Memory (Main Memory)

o RAM (Random Access Memory): Volatile memory used for temporary storage
while the computer is running. It allows data to be read and written quickly.
o ROM (Read-Only Memory): Non-volatile memory that stores critical data and
instructions needed for booting the computer. It cannot be easily modified.
2. Secondary Memory
o Hard Disk Drives (HDD): Non-volatile storage used for long-term data
storage. It has a larger capacity but slower access speed compared to RAM.
o Solid-State Drives (SSD): Faster than HDDs, SSDs use flash memory to store
data. They are more durable and have quicker access times.
3. Cache Memory
o A small, high-speed memory located close to the CPU. It stores frequently
accessed data and instructions to speed up processing.
4. Registers
o Small, fast storage locations within the CPU used to hold data temporarily
during processing.

Memory Hierarchy

The memory hierarchy in a computer system is

designed to balance speed, cost, and size. It
organizes memory into different levels based on
their speed and proximity to the CPU.

1. Registers
 o Fastest and smallest memory located within the CPU.
o Used for immediate data processing.
2. Cache Memory
o Divided into levels (L1, L2, L3) with L1 being the fastest and smallest.
o Stores frequently accessed data to reduce access time.
3. Main Memory (RAM)
o Larger and slower than cache memory.
o Used to store data and instructions currently in use by the CPU.
4. Secondary Storage (HDD/SSD)
o Much larger but slower than main memory.
o Used for long-term data storage.
5. Tertiary and Off-line Storage
o Includes magnetic tapes and optical disks.
o Used for backup and archival purposes.

Why Memory Hierarchy is Important

Memory hierarchy is crucial because it optimizes the performance of a computer system by

ensuring that the most frequently accessed data is stored in the fastest memory. This reduces
the time the CPU spends waiting for data, thereby improving overall system efficiency.

RAM: Random Access Memory, is a crucial component in computers and other devices,
allowing for the temporary storage and quick access of data. There are several types of RAM,
each with its own characteristics and uses:

1. Static RAM (SRAM)

• Characteristics: Uses six transistors per memory cell, does not need to be refreshed.
• Uses: Often used for cache memory in CPUs due to its speed.
• Pros: Faster and more reliable.
• Cons: More expensive and consumes more power.

2. Dynamic RAM (DRAM)

• Characteristics: Uses a transistor and a capacitor per memory cell, needs to be

refreshed periodically.
• Uses: Commonly used for the main memory in computers.
• Pros: Less expensive and consumes less power.
• Cons: Slower than SRAM.

ROM, or Read-Only Memory, is a type of non-volatile memory used in computers and

other electronic devices to store data that does not change. Here are the main types of ROM:

1. Mask ROM (MROM)

• Characteristics: Programmed during the manufacturing process.

• Uses: Used in applications where the data does not need to be changed.
• Pros: Cost-effective for large volumes.
• Cons: Cannot be reprogrammed or erased.
2. Programmable ROM (PROM)

• Characteristics: Can be programmed once after manufacturing.

• Uses: Used in applications where data needs to be written once and not changed.
• Pros: Flexible for initial programming.
• Cons: Cannot be erased or reprogrammed.

3. Erasable Programmable ROM (EPROM)

• Characteristics: Can be erased by exposing it to UV light and reprogrammed.

• Uses: Used in applications where data needs to be updated occasionally.
• Pros: Reusable after erasing.
• Cons: Requires special equipment to erase.

4. Electrically Erasable Programmable ROM (EEPROM)

• Characteristics: Can be erased and reprogrammed using an electrical charge.

• Uses: Used in applications where data needs to be updated frequently.
• Pros: Can be erased and reprogrammed multiple times.
• Cons: Slower write speeds compared to other types.

5. Flash Memory

• Characteristics: A type of EEPROM that can be erased and reprogrammed in blocks.

• Uses: Used in USB drives, SSDs, and memory cards.
• Pros: Fast and durable.
• Cons: Limited number of write cycles.

Processor (CPU)

A processor, also known as the Central Processing Unit (CPU), is the

brain of a computer. It performs all the calculations and tasks that allow
the computer to function. A breakdown of its key components and
functions:

Key Components of a Processor

1. Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)

o Performs arithmetic and logical operations.
o Handles tasks like addition, subtraction, and logical comparisons.
2. Control Unit (CU)
o Directs the operation of the processor.
o Interprets instructions from memory and converts them into signals to control
other parts of the computer.
3. Registers
o Small, fast storage locations within the CPU.
o Temporarily hold data and instructions that the CPU is currently processing.
4. Cache Memory
o A small amount of high-speed memory located close to the CPU.
 o Stores frequently accessed data to speed up processing.

How a Processor Works

1. Fetch
o The CPU retrieves an instruction from the computer’s memory.
2. Decode
o The control unit interprets the fetched instruction and determines what action is
required.
3. Execute
o The ALU performs the necessary calculations or operations.
4. Store
o The result of the operation is written back to memory or a register.

Types of Processors

1. Single-Core Processors
o Have one core that handles all tasks sequentially.
o Suitable for basic computing tasks.
2. Multi-Core Processors
o Have multiple cores that can handle tasks simultaneously.
o Improve performance for multitasking and complex applications.
3. Specialized Processors
o Graphics Processing Units (GPUs): Designed for rendering graphics and
handling parallel processing tasks.
o Digital Signal Processors (DSPs): Used in audio, video, and communications
applications.

Popular Processor Brands

1. Intel
o Known for its Core series (i3, i5, i7, i9) and high-performance Xeon processors.
2. AMD
o Known for its Ryzen series and high-performance Epyc processors.

Processors are crucial for the overall performance of a computer, and advancements in
processor technology continue to drive improvements in computing power and efficiency.

Input/Output (I/O) Devices

Input/Output (I/O) devices are essential components of a computer system that allow it to
interact with the external environment. These devices enable users to input data into the
computer and receive output from it.

Input Devices

Input devices are used to provide data and control signals to a computer. Here are some
common input devices:
 1. Keyboard
o Used for typing text and commands.
o Includes keys for letters, numbers, and special functions.
2. Mouse
o A pointing device used to interact with graphical elements on the screen.
o Includes buttons and sometimes a scroll wheel.
3. Scanner
o Converts physical documents into digital format.
o Useful for digitizing photos, documents, and other printed materials.
4. Microphone
o Captures audio input.
o Used for voice commands, recording, and communication.
5. Webcam
o Captures video input.
o Used for video conferencing and streaming.

Output Devices

Output devices are used to convey information from the computer to the user. Here are some
common output devices:

1. Monitor
o Displays visual output from the computer.
o Comes in various types like LCD, LED, and OLED.
2. Printer
o Produces physical copies of digital documents.
o Includes types like inkjet, laser, and dot matrix.
3. Speakers
o Output audio signals.
o Used for playing music, sound effects, and other audio content.
4. Projector
o Projects visual output onto a larger screen.
o Used for presentations and entertainment.

Combined Input/Output Devices

Some devices can perform both input and output functions:

1. Touchscreen
o Acts as both an input and output device.
o Allows users to interact directly with what is displayed on the screen.
2. Network Interface Card (NIC)
o Facilitates communication between computers over a network.
o Handles both incoming and outgoing data.
3. External Storage Devices
o Such as USB drives and external hard drives.
o Can be used to read (input) and write (output) data.

Importance of I/O Devices

I/O devices are crucial for the usability of a computer system. They provide the means for users
to interact with the computer, input data, and receive feedback. Without these devices, a
computer would not be able to perform practical tasks.

Software is a collection of instructions that tell a computer how to perform specific tasks. It
can be broadly categorized into two main types: system software and application software.
Let’s explore these categories and their subtypes:

1. System Software

System software manages and controls the hardware components of a computer, providing a
platform for other software to run. It includes:

• Operating Systems (OS): These are the primary programs that manage all other
programs on a computer. Examples include Windows, macOS, Linux, and Android.
• Device Drivers: These programs allow the operating system to communicate with
hardware devices like printers, graphics cards, and keyboards.
• Firmware: This is specialized software embedded in hardware devices to control their
functions. It is often found in devices like routers, cameras, and embedded systems.
• Utilities: These are system management tools that help maintain, analyze, and optimize
computer performance, such as antivirus software and disk cleanup tools.

2. Application Software

Application software is designed to help users perform specific tasks. It includes:

• Productivity Software: Programs like Microsoft Office (Word, Excel, PowerPoint)

and Google Workspace (Docs, Sheets, Slides) that help with tasks like writing, data
analysis, and presentations.
• Web Browsers: Software like Google Chrome, Mozilla Firefox, and Microsoft Edge
used to access the internet.
• Media Players: Applications like VLC Media Player and Windows Media Player used
to play audio and video files.
• Graphics Software: Programs like Adobe Photoshop and CorelDRAW used for
creating and editing images.
• Games: Software designed for entertainment, ranging from simple mobile games to
complex PC and console games.

Other Types of Software

• Programming Software: Tools that developers use to create other software, such as
compilers, debuggers, and integrated development environments (IDEs) like Visual
Studio and Eclipse.
• Freeware: Software that is available for free, such as Audacity and GIMP.
• Shareware: Software that is distributed for free on a trial basis with the intention of
charging for it later, like WinRAR.
• Open Source Software: Software with source code that anyone can inspect, modify,
and enhance, such as Linux and Apache.
 • Closed Source Software: Proprietary software where the source code is not shared
with the public, like Microsoft Office and Adobe Creative Suite.

Operating System (OS)

An Operating System (OS) is a crucial piece of system software that manages computer
hardware and software resources and provides common services for computer programs.

Definition: The operating system is an interface between the user and the computer.

An overview of its key functions and types:

Key Functions of an Operating System

1. Resource Management
o Memory Management: Allocates and manages the computer’s primary
memory (RAM) among various applications.
o Processor Management: Schedules processes and allocates CPU time to
ensure efficient execution of tasks.
o Device Management: Manages input/output devices like printers, keyboards,
and monitors, ensuring smooth communication between hardware and software.
o File Management: Organizes and manages files on storage devices, including
creation, deletion, and access control.
2. Process Management
o Handles the creation, scheduling, and termination of processes.
o Ensures that processes do not interfere with each other and that resources are
allocated efficiently.
3. Security and Access Control
o Implements security policies to protect data and resources from unauthorized
access.
o Provides user authentication and access controls.
4. User Interface
o Provides a user interface (UI) that allows users to interact with the computer.
This can be a command-line interface (CLI) or a graphical user interface (GUI).
5. Networking
o Manages network connections and communication between computers.
o Supports networking protocols and services.

Types of Operating Systems

1. Batch Operating Systems

o Execute batches of jobs without user interaction.
o Common in early mainframe systems.
2. Time-Sharing Operating Systems
o Allow multiple users to use the system simultaneously by sharing CPU time.
o Examples include UNIX and early versions of Windows.
3. Distributed Operating Systems
o Manage a group of independent computers and make them appear as a single
coherent system.
o Examples include certain versions of Linux and Windows Server.
 4. Real-Time Operating Systems (RTOS)
o Designed to process data as it comes in, typically used in embedded systems.
o Examples include VxWorks and FreeRTOS.
5. Mobile Operating Systems
o Designed for mobile devices like smartphones and tablets.
o Examples include Android and iOS.
6. Network Operating Systems
o Provide features for managing network resources and users.
o Examples include Novell NetWare and Windows Server.

Popular Operating Systems

1. Microsoft Windows
o Dominates the personal computer market.
o Known for its user-friendly interface and wide range of applications.
2. macOS
o Developed by Apple Inc. for Mac computers.
o Known for its sleek design and integration with other Apple products.
3. Linux
o An open-source operating system used in servers, desktops, and embedded
systems.
o Known for its stability and security.
4. Android
o A mobile operating system developed by Google.
o Dominates the smartphone market.
5. iOS
o Developed by Apple Inc. for iPhones and iPads.
o Known for its smooth performance and security features.

Assembler

An assembler is a type of computer program that translates assembly language code into
machine code, which is a set of instructions that a computer’s processor can execute directly.
Here’s a detailed look at the concept of an assembler:

What is Assembly Language?

Assembly language is a low-level programming language that is closely related to machine

code but is more readable for humans. It uses symbolic names (mnemonics) for operations and
memory locations, making it easier to write and understand compared to raw binary code.

Example of Assembly Language

Example to illustrate how assembly language looks and how an assembler translates it:

START: MOV AX, 5 ; Move the value 5 into register AX

ADD AX, 3 ; Add the value 3 to the register AX
MOV BX, AX ; Move the value in AX to register BX
END ; End of the program
Importance of Assemblers

Assemblers are crucial for low-level programming, especially in systems programming,

embedded systems, and performance-critical applications. They provide a way to write human-
readable code that can be efficiently translated into machine code.

Compiler:
A compiler is a specialized program that translates code written in a high-level programming
language (like C, Java, or Python) into machine code that a computer’s processor can execute.
This process is essential for creating executable programs from human-readable source code.

Interpreter:

An interpreter is a type of computer program that directly executes instructions written in a

programming or scripting language, without requiring them to be compiled into machine
code first.

The key differences between a compiler and an interpreter are:

Linker

The linker is a program that combines various pieces of code and data together to form a single
executable file. It performs several key functions:

1. Combining Object Files: It takes multiple object files generated by the compiler and
combines them into a single executable file.
2. Symbol Resolution: It resolves symbols (such as function names and variable names)
that are referenced across different object files.
 3. Address Binding: It assigns final memory addresses to the code and data sections of
the program.
4. Library Linking: It links external libraries to the program, providing additional
functionality.

Types of Linkers

• Static Linker: Combines all modules and libraries into a single executable file at
compile time.
• Dynamic Linker: Links libraries at runtime, allowing for smaller executable files and
shared library usage.

Loader

The loader is a part of the operating system that loads the executable file into memory and
prepares it for execution. Its main functions include:

1. Loading: It loads the executable file into the main memory.

2. Relocation: It adjusts the program’s memory addresses to reflect its location in
memory.
3. Symbol Resolution: It resolves any remaining external symbols that are required by
the program.
4. Memory Allocation: It allocates memory space for the program’s code, data, and stack.

Types of Loaders

• Absolute Loader: Loads the program at a specific memory location.

• Relocating Loader: Adjusts addresses based on the program’s actual load location.
• Direct Linking Loader: Combines the functions of both the linker and loader.
• Bootstrap Loader: A small program that loads the operating system into memory when
the computer is started.
The idea of Algorithm:

An algorithm is a set of step-by-step instructions designed to perform a specific task or solve a

particular problem. Here are some key points about algorithms:

Definition: An algorithm is a finite sequence of well-defined instructions, typically used to

solve a class of specific problems or to perform a computation.

Characteristics:

o Finite: It must have a clear starting and ending point.

o Definite: Each step must be precisely defined.
o Input: It may have zero or more inputs.
o Output: It must produce at least one output.
o Effective: The steps must be simple enough to be performed, in principle, by a
person using only pencil and paper.

Algorithms are fundamental to computer science and are used in various applications, from
simple tasks like sorting numbers to complex ones like machine learning and artificial
intelligence.

Representation of Algorithm

Algorithms can be represented in various ways, including natural language, flowcharts, and
pseudocode.

Example: Algorithm to prepare a tea:

 1. Start
2. Get the ingredients WATER, MILK, SUGAR and TEA LEAVES.
3. Boil the water and add TEA LEAVES.
4. Add SUGAR and pour MILK.
5. Stir well.
6. Pour into cup.
7. A CUP OF TEA is ready to drink.
8. Stop.

Example: Algorithm to add two numbers:

1. Start
2. Read a, b
3. C=a+b
4. Print or display c
5. Stop

Flowchart

A flowchart is a graphical representation

of an algorithm. Programmers often use
it as a program-planning tool to solve a
problem. It makes use of symbols that
are connected among them to indicate
the flow of information and processing.
The process of drawing a flowchart for
an algorithm is known as
“flowcharting”.

Common Flowchart Symbols:

• Oval: Start/End
• Rectangle: Process/Instruction
• Diamond: Decision
• Parallelogram: Input/Output
• Arrow: Flow of control

Example: To add two numbers and display the results:

Pseudo Code

Pseudocode is a high-level description of an algorithm that uses the structural conventions of

programming languages but is intended for human reading rather than machine reading.
Guidelines for writing pseudo code:

1. Should be written in simple English.

2. Steps must be understandable.
3. Should be concise.

Example: To add two numbers and display the result:

START
Input A, B
Sum = A + B
Output Sum
END

From Algorithms to Programs

The process of converting an algorithm into a program involves several steps:

1. Writing the Algorithm: Define the steps needed to solve the problem.
2. Creating a Flowchart or Pseudocode: Represent the algorithm visually or in
structured text.
3. Writing Source Code: Translate the flowchart or pseudocode into a programming
language.
4. Compiling: Convert the source code into machine code using a compiler.
5. Executing: Run the compiled code on a computer.

Source Code

Source code is the set of instructions written in a programming language that defines what a
program does. It is the human-readable form of a program before it is compiled into machine
code.
History of C Language:

C is a general−purpose, high−level language that was originally developed by Dennis M.

Ritchie to develop the UNIX operating system at Bell Labs. C was originally first implemented
on the DEC PDP-11 computer in 1972.

In 1978, Brian Kernighan and Dennis Ritchie produced the first publicly available description
of C, now known as the K&R standard.

C is a Procedural and Structured Language

C is described as a procedure-oriented and structured programming language. It is procedural

because a C program is a series of instructions that explain the procedure of solving a given
problem. It makes the development process easier.

Features and Characteristics of C:

The C programming language, developed by Dennis Ritchie in 1972, is known for its powerful
features and characteristics that make it a popular choice for system programming and other
applications. The key features are:

1. Procedural Language: C follows a procedural programming paradigm, which means

it relies on functions to carry out tasks in a step-by-step manner.
2. Low-Level Access to Memory: C provides direct access to memory through pointers,
making it suitable for system-level programming like operating systems and embedded
systems.
3. Portability: C programs can run on different hardware platforms and operating systems
with minimal or no modification, thanks to its standardized core features.
 4. Fast and Efficient: C is known for its performance. It is a statically typed language,
which means type checking is done at compile-time, leading to faster execution.
5. Modularity: C supports modular programming, allowing code to be organized into
reusable libraries.
6. Rich Set of Operators: C has a diverse set of built-in operators that facilitate complex
operations with ease.
7. General-Purpose Language: C is versatile and can be used for a wide range of
applications, from operating systems to photo editing software.
8. Middle-Level Language: C is considered a middle-level language because it combines
the features of both high-level and low-level languages.
9. Rich Standard Library: C comes with a robust standard library that provides
numerous built-in functions for various tasks.
10. Static Type System: In C, the type of a variable is checked at compile-time, which
helps in catching errors early in the development process.

These features make C a foundational language in computer science and a stepping stone for
learning other programming languages.

Limitations of C:

While C is a powerful and widely used programming language, it does have some limitations:

1. Lack of Object-Oriented Features: C does not support object-oriented programming

(OOP) concepts like classes and objects, which can make code organization and reuse
more challenging.
2. No Exception Handling: C lacks built-in support for exception handling, making it
harder to manage errors and exceptions gracefully.
3. Manual Memory Management: C requires explicit management of memory
allocation and deallocation, which can lead to memory leaks and other issues if not
handled correctly.
4. Limited Standard Library: Compared to modern languages, C has a relatively small
standard library, which means developers often need to write more code to perform
common tasks.
5. No Built-in Thread Support: C does not have built-in support for multithreading,
requiring the use of external libraries for concurrent programming.
6. Platform Dependency: While C is portable, certain features and behaviours can be
platform-dependent, leading to potential issues when moving code between different
systems.
7. Complex Syntax: The syntax of C can be complex and prone to errors, especially for
beginners.
8. No Run-Time Type Checking: C does not perform type checking at runtime, which
can lead to type-related errors that are difficult to debug.
9. Limited Data Abstraction: C does not support high-level data abstraction, making it
less suitable for applications that require complex data structures.

Despite these limitations, C remains a foundational language in computer science and is still
widely used for system programming, embedded systems, and other performance-critical
applications.