Module 10

Developing
Mental Health and
Coping Skills
2359

DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY AND

FOUNDATIONS OF EDUCATION
ISBN 978-81-7450-957-4
 List of Course Material

Imagine life as a game in which you are juggling five

balls in the air. You name them – work, family, health,
friends, and spirit – and you're keeping all of these in
the air. You will soon understand that work is a rubber
ball. If you drop it, it will bounce back. But the other
four balls – family, health, friends, and spirit are made
of glass. If you drop one of these, they will be irrevocably
scuffed, marked, nicked, damaged, or even shattered.
They will never be the same. You must understand that
and strive for balance in your life.

—BRIAN DYSON
 ISBN 978-81-7450-957-4
First Edition
May 2009 Jyaishtha 1931
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 About the Module
This is the tenth module of the course. It aims at introducing you to mental
health and well-being, coping skills and the influence of cultural diversity on
adjustment and mental health.
The first unit discusses the concept of mental health and its characteristics.
The influences on mental health and the role of institutions like family, school,
etc. on promotion of skills needed for adjustment and well-being have been
discussed. The second unit on development of coping skills creates awareness
of the stresses and challenges of life which affect individual’s physical and mental
health. The need for acquisition of coping skills has been highlighted. The way
coping skills could be enhanced has also been discussed in this unit. The third
unit introduces you to the factors inherent in the culture which influence
adjustment. The cross-cultural encounters in culturally diverse populations often
cause problem of adjustment which have implications for the skills needed by
counsellors. The attitudes, values and skills underlying intercultural orientation
which are important for the counsellor have been discussed.
There are self-check exercises and activities in every unit which will help
you evaluate your progress through the module. Summary given at the end provides
an overview of the unit, and references and additional readings give additional
sources of information.
 Module Development Team
CONTRIBUTORS
Daya Pant, Professor, DEPFE, NCERT, New Delhi
Girishwar Misra, Professor, University of Delhi, Delhi
Prabhat K. Mishra, Sr. Lecturer, DEPFE, NCERT, New Delhi

CONSULTING EDITOR (INSTRUCTION DESIGN)

Bruce Thompson, British Columbia, Canada

EDITOR AND TEAM LEADER

Daya Pant, Professor, DEPFE, NCERT, New Delhi

CO-EDITORS
Malvika Kapur, Professor, National Institute of Advanced Studies, Bangalore
Prabhat K. Mishra, Sr. Lecturer, DEPFE, NCERT, New Delhi

PROJECT IN-CHARGE
Nirmala Gupta, Professor, DEPFE, NCERT, New Delhi

MEMBERS OF THE REVIEW TEAM (OCTOBER, 2016)

Daya Pant, Professor, DEPFE, NCERT (Retd.), New Delhi
Jyoti Gupta, Assistant Professor, DEPFE, NCERT, New Delhi

MEMBER COORDINATORS
Anjum Sibia, Professor and Head, DEPFE, NCERT, New Delhi
Prabhat K.Mishra, Associate Professor, DEPFE, NCERT, New Delhi
 Acknowledgements
The National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT) gratefully
acknowledges the partnership and support of Commonwealth of Learning
(COL), Vancouver, Canada for development of course material. This has been
a gigantic task which has been possible with the help and cooperation of a
large number of persons whose contribution we wish to acknowledge.
We gratefully acknowledge the continued support and encouragement
provided by Professor Krishna Kumar, Director, NCERT all through the
different stages. Special thanks are due to Professor Sushma Gulati, Head,
DEPFE, NCERT for her constant guidance and leadership in steering the
work through its various stages and to Professor D. K. Bhattacharjee, the former
Head of the Department for his help in initiating this work.
Thanks are also due to Junior Project Fellows Ms. Surbhi Batra and Ms.
Poornima M. who have assisted in collection of material, preparing exercises
and activities, proof reading and making corrections in the manuscript. We
thank Mukesh Kumar, Computer Assistant and Tanveer Ahmed, DTP Operator
for typing, formatting and preparing graphics for this module.
Our grateful thanks are also due to Mrs Usha Nair for language editing.
The help provided by the Publication Department for preparing illustrations,
layout and designing, and getting the material printed is also gratefully
acknowledged.
 Contents
About the Module iii

Unit 1: Promoting Mental Health and Well-being 1

Unit 2: Developing Coping Skills 25

Unit 3: Managing Cultural Diversity for Adjustment 42

 Promoting Ment
Mentalal Health and
1 Well-being
1.0 Introduction
1.1 Objectives
1.2 Concept of Mental Health
1.2.1 Medical Approach
1.2.2 Normative Approach
1.2.3 Psycho-social Approach
1.3 Characteristics of the Mentally Healthy
1.4 Mental Health as a Continuum
1.5 Mental Health Related Skills
1.5.1 Self-knowledge and Self-acceptance
1.5.2 Self-control
1.5.3 Integration and Direction
1.5.4 Values and Social Responsibility
1.5.5 Sense of Humour and Maturity
1.5.6 Developing Healthy Habits and Lifestyles
1.5.7 Adaptability to Environmental Change
1.5.8 Involvement with Work and
Entertainment
1.5.9 Spiritual Orientation to Life
1.6 Promotion of Mental Health
1.6.1 Goals
1.6.2 Programmes for Promotion of Mental
Health and Well-being
1.7 Organising Environment for Mental Health
and Well-being
1.7.1 Personal Conditions
1.7.2 Environmental Conditions
1.8 Summary
Self-evaluation Exercises
Answer Key to Self-evaluation Exercises
Answer Key to Self-check Exercises
Suggested Readings
 Promoting Mental Health and
Well-being 1

1.0 INTRODUCTION
Childhood is the opportune time when
the foundations of personality are laid.
Family, the first institution to which a
child is exposed, plays an important role
in influencing the development of
personality. Apart from the family, the
school too has an important role in
promoting the knowledge and
competence of the child, that determines
the quality of life as an adult. Lack of
awareness among parents and teachers
about how they can help healthy personal
growth of children may cost a society dearly in terms of human resources. The role of
the school, as an educational institution, is important in promoting mental health and
undoing any wrongs done to the child’s mental health due to an impoverished family
environment. But if the school climate is not conducive to nurturing mental health,
children are likely to suffer from various psychological problems.
This unit aims at creating awareness about the concept of mental health and describes
the characteristics of mental health. The unit also explains that mental health is not an
all-or-none affair; rather it is the degree of mental health that is relevant.
The determinants of mental health, and certain ways of promoting the mental
health of pupils have also been discussed. After reading this unit, you may develop your
own conception of mental health, and visualise your role in influencing pupils positively
and creating a healthy awareness among parents so that they too can promote mentally
healthy children.
1.1 OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit, you will be able to
l describe the concept of mental health based on a medical, normative and
psychological approach.
l identify the behavioural characteristics of mentally healthy children.
l explain the continuum of mental health.
l state the skills and competencies necessary for staying mentally healthy.
l describe briefly the concept of mental health in both personal and social context.
l briefly state the goals of mental health.
l describe at least three different applications of promoting mental health.
l explain the determinants of mental health.
l discuss the role of home, family, school and society in promoting mental health.

1.2 CONCEPT OF MENTAL HEALTH

In this section, you will view mental health from three major perspectives. These views are
from the medical perspective, the normative perspective and the psycho-social approach.
1.2.1 Medical Approach
Traditionally mental health was conceptualised as the absence of mental illness. The
people with bizarre and grossly deviant behaviour were categorised as mentally ill. Non-
mentally ill people, i.e. those without any gross symptoms, were assumed normal. You
must be aware that a label of mental sickness or being associated with a therapist is
considered a social stigma. During the 18th century, the mentally sick were confined or
even worse, chained up. In many cultures and societies the mentally ill were considered
to be possessed by spirits. During the 19th century, there were advances in the field of
medicine, especially relating to identification of diseases of the nervous system. The
investigation into the causes, symptoms and diagnosis of these disorders led to medical
treatment for the mentally ill. There still is a number of mental illnesses that do not have
any organic causes. Medical treatment of such mental patients continues even today to
focus on various behavioural pathologies.
Medical practitioners prescribe drugs which bring about psychological changes and
help suppress symptoms of pathology. The individual becomes dependent on drugs. In
some cases they may be able to lead a normal life but in most cases drug dependence
may result which may even worsen the condition. Psychological counselling however
aims at helping the individual to develop greater awareness and thereby control of his
life’s circumstances that cause anxiety, depression or other abnormalities. Although both
are important depending on the diagnosis, condition and circumstances of the patent,
use of drugs should be supplemented with psychological help to the extent possible.
1.2.2 Normative Approach
Another approach to understanding mental health is normality. Normality refers to
both the statistically average behaviour as well as the behaviour expected of the people
considered normal by society. Both these criteria fall short of defining mental health as

PROMOTING MENTAL HEALTH AND WELL-BEING 3

a positive state of being. Those considered normal by one society may not necessarily
be normal in other societies. There are many behaviours which are considered normal
in western society such as dating, while in India dating is not quite an acceptable
behaviour. Even within societies, there may be differences in the concept of desirable
behaviour. The urban and rural, middle class and upper class cultures in India differ in
terms of what is considered normal behaviour.
Mental health thus cannot be defined adequately in terms of normalcy. The medical
model is based on considerations relating to organic or physiological origin of the mental
illness. Mental health defined in statistical terms as average or normal behaviour is based
on the social context. The conception of mental health based on the expectations of the
society is also a narrow and conformist view. Thus according to normative approach, the
cultural context is the ultimate framework for determining healthy behaviour. Non-
conformity, creativity, originality in any social cultural context could get labelled as
abnormality as it is different from the ways followed by the majority.
The medical model stresses upon identification and diagnosis of the psychological
disturbances whereas the statistical model stresses on conformity. The medical model
stresses too much on the presence of the pathology rather than health. In the statistical
and medical models, too much attention is paid on the absence, presence or diagnosis of
the abnormality. The models do not focus on development of the skills, competencies
and health of the individuals, their potentials and thus are not positive responses to
mental health issue. Another shortcoming of these two models is the underlying
assumption that there is some problem with the individual as a result of which s/he is
ill. Labelling of the individual as mentally ill may cause shame and stigma. A third
shortcoming of the medical model is the emphasis on the therapist and intervention,
eliminating the role of environmental, societal and home factors (the individual himself/
herself becomes a passive player in the process of therapy based on the medical model).
The role of personal and environmental forces is termed as the psycho-social approach.
This approach is discussed in the next section.
1.2.3 Psycho-social Approach
Nowadays, we are aware that there are many kinds of health problems which at times
are not obviously visible e.g. depression, stress, etc. and are associated with behavioural
symptoms like complaints of aches and pains, general lethargy, memory lapses, paralysis,
etc. Some symptoms like memory lapses or physical symptoms such as paralysis can
occur not only due to physical causes but also due to psychological causes. There are
other types of mentally ill patients who are not physiologically deficient in any way but
show behavioural symptoms like blindness, paralysis or loss of memory, etc. Such
patients suffer from emotional disturbances or hysteria. There are categories of
pathological behaviours which may not have organic origin and do not merit being
called mental illness, such as tension, restlessness, excessive anxiety, nervousness,
alcoholism, sexual deviance or immature behaviour. There are still other kinds of
behavioural problems which do not make people ill or ineffective but the person may
not be leading a healthy and happy life. People with such behaviour may or may not be

4 D EVELOPING M ENTAL H EALTH AND C OPING S KILLS

mentally or physically ill but their behaviour is grossly inadequate. Though such
individuals are not mentally ill, psychologically and socially their behaviour may be far
from adequate and may influence their peace of mind and relationships with people.
People with such problems are not mentally ill but cannot be considered mentally healthy
either. This may be due to lack of social and emotional competencies or the oppressive
social environment, which renders them over anxious, tense and poor in self-esteem.
Mental health is not a mere absence of disease or illness. Present concept of
mental health has been progressively conceived as a psycho-social process in which the
positive aspect takes centre stage rather than average behaviour or illness. The Charter
of World Health Organisation (WHO) (1978) and mental health action plan : 2013-
2020 (2013) has defined mental health as a multidimensional concept, which involves
physical, mental, social, emotional and spiritual well-being.
According to the WHO (2001), mental health includes subjective well-being,
perceived self-efficacy, autonomy, competence, inter-generational dependence and self-
actualisation of one’s intellectual and emotional potential, among others. Mentally
healthy people enjoy life, feel energetic and are not excessively afraid. They are satisfied
with their circumstances and achievements, and are generally cheerful and compassionate
towards others. Since life is full of problems and conflicts, a healthy person is not free
from all tensions and problems. However s/he feels capable of handling the ordinary
difficulties and threats of life, and capable of bouncing back to health and tension free
state when the crisis is over. Just as physically healthy persons may develop headache
or feel tired at times but recover after rest and do not develop any serious ailment,
similarly the mentally healthy person is not adversely affected by the challenges of
daily life. Let us see some of the characteristics of mental health.

Self-check Exercise 1
1. What are medical approaches to mental health?
2. What are normative approaches to mental health?
3. What are psycho-social approaches to mental health?
4. Define mental health according to the WHO.

1.3 CHARACTERISTICS OF THE MENTALLY HEALTHY

This section aims especially to enable you to understand yourself better by enumerating
the behavioural characteristics of mental health.
Mentally healthy people share the following characteristics to some degree–
l They have a healthy and easygoing attitude towards their own selves and others.
l They have realistic awareness of their own strengths and weaknesses, i.e. while
they know the things they can do well, they are not unnecessarily upset over the
things they cannot do.

PROMOTING MENTAL HEALTH AND WELL-BEING 5

l They are optimistic about life and future.
l They exercise good control over their own impulses, thoughts, habits and emotions
in line with the expectations from their environment.
l They have a healthy lifestyle and take care of their physical health, looks,
appearance, etc.
l They enjoy life and manage time well enough to relax and work.
l They are capable of getting along with people and develop healthy social
relationships.
l They possess healthy social attitudes such as–
– people are different and all cannot be the same
– caring and helpful attitude towards others
– give and take assistance whenever needed
– not overly possessive about things
l They have a healthy sense of humour; can laugh at their own mistake and
shortcomings. They do not make fun of others.
l They are able to solve the problems of daily life, resolve conflicts, and are ready
to face challenges.
l They have the initiative to do things and complete their assignments.
l They have healthy work habits and attitudes towards work.
l They work hard and can adapt to the present requirements.
l They seek help when faced with difficult problems.
l They try to learn new things and develop their capabilities.
l They have wide ranging interests, healthy habits and lifestyle.
l They enjoy work, play, entertainment and relaxation/group activities.
l Mentally healthy individuals also have a sense of spirituality in line with their
own cultural and religious beliefs.
All the above characteristics are not necessarily found among all mentally healthy
individuals. Some may possess more than others. The more the positive characteristics
possessed the better will be the mental health of the person. Mental health is like a
continuum, the meaning of which is discussed in the next section.

Self-check Exercise 2
1. List at least nine characteristics of the mentally healthy.

1.4 MENTAL HEALTH AS A CONTINUUM

There are people with severe behavioural problems who are not able to manage
themselves and are definitely not mentally healthy. Others are not so disturbed and
appear to be normal but are not without problems. Frustrations, anger, temper tantrums,
disappointments, etc. are conditions prevalent among most of the people who may
otherwise appear quite normal. Life is full of challenges and problems for everyone,
even those who appears to be very resourceful and powerful. The state of mental

6 D EVELOPING M ENTAL H EALTH AND C OPING S KILLS

health, described as freedom from tensions and worry, is an ideal state. But there would
hardly be anyone without any tensions or anxiety. In the face of problems, some
individuals fall prey to their tensions and develop serious abnormalities while others
do not succumb to the pressures and manage to return to a happy, satisfied and healthy
state. There are people who are relatively more tension free than others. Such people
enjoy life better, irrespective of their circumstances like status, achievements or
possessions. Even so, the same individual may not remain tension free all the time.
Then who are the individuals who can be considered mentally healthy?
Mental health is not an all-or-none situation. One cannot categorically state that
one is either mentally healthy or otherwise. It is like a scale on which one could be very
low, average, more than average, much more than average or very high. The state of
health could be assessed in terms of various levels of mental health. Thus different
individuals may be at different levels of mental health. But where exactly the individual
will lie be on the scale of mental health depends on his own typical personal-social
development. The physical, intellectual, emotional, social and spiritual development
of the individual determines the degree of mental health which could be attained by
him/her, and also the extent to which s/he could withstand pressures. Status of mental
health could be assessed through some indicators. These indicators are discussed next.

Activity 1
1. Think of two or three persons you look up to in times of difficulty or
those you think are mentally healthy. List the kind of skills these people
have, compared to the list of characteristics of the mentally healthy. Do all
of them possess some skills?
2. Identify the skills and competencies common to these people from these lists.

You may realise that the various socio-emotional skills and competencies acquired
by individuals over the years contribute to their mental health. These socio-emotional
skills and competencies enable individuals to be healthy. In the next section, you will
see what these skills are.

1.5 MENTAL HEALTH RELATED SKILLS

Mental health and well-being of an individual are indicated by the level of self-
awareness, maturity, and integration of self, the life skills and attitudes, development
of a philosophy of life towards work, entertainment, career and morality. These indicators
may serve as guidelines of assessing as well as enhancing the mental health related
capabilities of individuals. The indicators provide guidance for equipping individuals
with the kind of qualities, skills, and attitudes they need to become mentally healthy
and happy. The programmes and interventions for promoting mental health could be
based on the inputs suggested by these indicators as discussed below.

PROMOTING MENTAL HEALTH AND WELL-BEING 7

1.5.1 Self-knowledge and Self-acceptance
Self-knowledge is the foremost competency, which determines and signifies mental
health. Self-knowledge refers to your knowledge about your abilities, interests, values,
resources, the qualities, strengths and weaknesses. This knowledge or awareness about
your own self provides directions to the goals and efforts, and ensures success in tasks
undertaken. Lack of self-knowledge may result in setting up unnecessarily high goals
that may result in failure, frustration and emotional conflicts.
Self-knowledge refers to not only awareness of our strengths and weaknesses but
also a positive attitude towards them, especially weaknesses. When we become aware
of our weaknesses we can do something about them. For instance, I am poor in
maintaining interpersonal relationships of which I am not aware. When others are not
friendly to me, I get upset. If I am aware of my own shortcomings I would do something
about it. Adequate knowledge and acceptance of one’s strengths and weaknesses helps
a person to select tasks and activities which s/he will be able to do well. By choosing
appropriate tasks one is good at, and accepting where the weaknesses lie, one can
ensure success in most of his/her endeavours. The successes may even spur the
individual to look at his/her weakness in creative ways. Self-knowledge and
accompanying success enables a person to be more accepting towards himself/herself.
The greater the acceptance of one’s self, the higher is the self-esteem. Self-esteem in a
person enables one to respect others as well. Those who are high on self-respect are not
offended by small incidents and continue to pay due regard to others. People with high
self-esteem are able to accept their own weaknesses and can take a generous view of
others’ mistakes as well, and do not belittle others for their shortcomings or failures.
On the other hand, when opportunities for participation and achieving excellence
in various activities are not available or there is too much criticism, the person who
lacks self-knowledge withdraws and looses initiative. This lack of initiative and
motivation, accompanied by criticism, leads to
Am I failures, lake of confidence and confusion about
like this? self. The confusion and vagueness of one’s own
self causes emotional conflicts and anxiety, which
is detrimental to the personal health and well-being.
An individual’s lack of self-knowledge
becomes evident in his random approach towards
various activities. Non-acceptance of his
weaknesses results in denial of his failures or
blaming them on others and setting up too high
goals for himself.
Family and school both have very important
roles in developing awareness among children/youth
about their capabilities, interests and strengths.

8 D EVELOPING M ENTAL H EALTH AND C OPING S KILLS

 Activity 2
1. Ask children to list their self-characteristics under different categories,
viz. Physical, Mental, Emotional and Social domains. Go through the list
and understand how children/youth think about themselves and which
characteristics about their own selves they can share with you.
2. Ask children of your class, your own children, colleagues and other adults
around you, what they like in you.

Discussion with children about the characteristics that they can share will reveal
what they are aware of and what they are not aware of. Your interaction with children
and others will reveal what they like about you and may reveal aspects of yourself
which may not even be known to you. Understanding self leads to development of
self-control.
1.5.2 Self-control
The first step towards positive self-
development is self-control. Let us see
how self-control leads to development.
The individual has to gradually
learn to control his thoughts, emotions
and behaviours in line with the
requirements of the family, society
and the culture of which he is a part.
If anyone fails to develop the self-
control required in the family, it invites
punishment from the parents and the
individual is forced to restrain his
behaviour, such as overeating, temper
tantrums, emotional outbursts, lack of discipline in study, sleep and enjoyment.
Punishment to be used for control of behaviour should not be negative; rather it is
absence of rewards which acts as punishment. For example, a child submits his
assignments late or does not observe punctuality. In order to control his behaviour, it is
not necessary to punish him; rather take away some reward such as the assignment will
receive less than ‘B’ grade even if it is good enough for ‘A’ or for late coming he may be
asked to sit at the back of the class or not allowed to ask questions, etc. Whatever
measures are taken, these need to be consistent and not used to humiliate but as deterrent
only.
Gradually the individual learns to control himself/herself and to avoid punishment
and restraint from outside authority. This is indicative of the maturity and nurtures
self-confidence in the person.
The more the children/youth are pressurised to restrain from undesirable acts/
behaviours, the more the frustration.

PROMOTING MENTAL HEALTH AND WELL-BEING 9

 Activity 3
1. Observe at home as well as in school how children/youth/adults react
when others control/direct their behaviour. Note down these reactions
for reference.
2. Observe you own reactions to attempts of control or direction by others
especially those in authority.

If you have to restrain or teach self-control to others how would you go about it
without upsetting them? You may draw a clue from how you would like to be restrained
yourself. The process of developing self-control has to be gradual. But, as the individual
acquires greater self-control, greater integration of his abilities follows. Integration also
leads to enhanced directedness in life.
1.5.3 Integration and Direction
Integration is the ability to give direction to conflicting thoughts and feelings, exercising
discipline and control on conflicting emotions and desires, and finding individual
orientation toward goals of life, which are in harmony with each other. The goals of
small children have diversity and lack purpose. With advancing age, comes a direction
in effort and the activities, in line with the broader goals of life. The direction in the
goals is based on accurate information, effective discipline and encouragement available
in the family and school. If the family and the school succeed in providing adequate
and accurate information, which enables the individual to form appropriate goals in
life, the direction and integration are automatically achieved.
Appropriate information leads efforts in the right direction and bring children/
youth closer to their goals. Achievement of goals and success give happiness and
confidence to them. The goals, which are in conflict with each other, and activities,
which are not in line with the goals and expectations of family and society, lead to
wastage of efforts and this brings about failure. Failure causes loss of self-confidence
and self-esteem. The goals have to be chosen carefully.
1.5.4 Values and Social Responsibility
The goals an individual sets for himself/herself also need to be in line with the values
which the society and culture holds supreme. These values ensure that the individual’s
efforts not be at cross-purpose with those of the society of which she is a part. The goals
set by the individual need to be inclusive of the welfare of the society, which ensures that
he gets cooperation from others. In case the goals chosen for self are contradictory with
social aspirations, there will be opposition and conflict with others. The individual must
have a sense of social responsibility of the collective goals of the society. The individual,
therefore, has to develop a well-defined perspective on the values upheld by the society.
The values and principles held high in societal ethics have to be reflected in the goals
children/youth set of themselves. They learn these values and principles in the family.
Families’ failure to teach these values has to be compensated by the school. In case the

10 D EVELOPING M ENTAL H EALTH AND C OPING S KILLS

individual escapes learning of these values, it will have serious consequences for his/her
mental health. When individual’s behaviour is not in conformity with the values of the
society, there will be hostility, conflicts, and emotional trauma.
1.5.5 Sense of Humour and Maturity
Developing persons at each stage of life are in the process of acquisition of knowledge,
skills, competency, and values that are in harmony with socio-cultural demands. During
the process of development, the individual may experience frustrations and failures
too. Overcoming such failures, and redirecting one’s efforts to the worthwhile goals is
the sign of maturity. A sense of humour and maturity do not allow these failures to
upset the happiness and ability to laugh at oddities. Maturity provides perspective on
life to reorient effort and learn from mistakes. Humour keeps the individual energetic
by looking at the lighter side of life. But humour is not laughing at others. Mature and
quality humour involves laughing with others or laughing at one’s own mistakes and
redirecting energies to healthy activities.
1.5.6 Developing Healthy Habits and Lifestyles
Healthy personal habits are cleanliness, healthy eating regular exercise, etc. which
enable the individual to stay healthy. Socio-emotional habits are helping, cooperation
and emotional support to others; these help maintain emotional balance and develop
satisfying social relationships. Work-related habits include attending to personal tasks,
perseverance, hard work, etc. that help to achieve work-related targets. Critical,
competitive and defensive behaviour is disabling. Individuals having such negative
behaviour focus more on unproductive tasks and feelings.
These healthy habits and lifestyles have a great effect on the mental health of the
person. The effective discipline and healthy relationships at home and in school
contribute a lot to the development of these habits. Family members particularly play
a great role in encouraging such habits. The family climate is also very important when
parents encourage and appreciate the child and persuade him/her to follow healthy
eating, maintain cleanliness, provide love and care. The child also learns and acquires
those habits modelled by parents and family. Family climate itself enables the child to
experience rich and intense social relationships. Habitual involvement in work and
personal-social activities act as a buffer during stress and crises. He acquires these life-
styles unconsciously. Those families which do not place premium on healthy routines,
criticise and blame each other, do not appreciate, rather act very competitively, produce
children who behave similarly. Continued involvement in a normal healthy routine
enables one to acquire healthy personal habits and face the changes taking place in the
environment. They in turn facilitate nurturance of healthy socio-emotional habits.
1.5.7 Adaptability to Environmental Change
Basic learning of personal and social habits, work styles, attitudes, values, etc. take
place at home but transition from home to school, work, marriage, and in many other
circumstances require new adjustments to be made. Therefore, the very concept of
mental health is dynamic in nature. The habits and lifestyles an individual has developed

PROMOTING MENTAL HEALTH AND WELL-BEING 11

need to include enough flexibility to meet changed circumstances. The environmental
changes and the challenges demand the capacity to adjust to the change. Habits and
lifestyles also need to be adapted to prevailing circumstances.
The rigidity of habits may come in the way of mental health in the changed
circumstances. For example, you are in the habit of praying or chanting loudly in the
morning and you are living in a hostel where others sleep late as they study late. What you
need to do is to be flexible in your habit and adjust your routine so that it does not cause
inconvenience to others. However, there are certain habits which are valid everywhere,
at all times, such as punctuality, hard work, responsibility, honesty, etc. There are certain
behavioural patterns that may be healthy in one context but under different circumstances
may require flexibility or adaptation. For example, you sleep early at about 9:30 p.m. and
get up early whereas others sleep late and get up late. You should try to adjust with others
and negotiate rather than make an issue out of such situations.
Points for reflection–
l Can you think of some habits/lifestyle of yours, which needed change due to
changes in your environment?
l Was it easy for you?
l Did it cause any inconvenience to you?
l Are you happy to have changed?
l If you did not change, what inconvenience did it cause?

Activity 4
Drawing from your own experience with children from different backgrounds,
can you think of some behavioural patterns/habits/lifestyles that cause
difficulty in adaptation?

1.5.8 Involvement with Work and Entertainment

Entertainment, play and other social activities also give satisfaction and enjoyment. But
enjoying work engaged in by individuals also provides them emotional satisfaction and
confidence. While it is important that individuals are involved in work, play/environment
and other social activities, they must also enjoy the work assigned to them. The greater
the range of interests and activities, greater are the opportunities for interacting with a
wide variety of people, and exposure to situations. Involvement in such a variety of
interactions and activities provides a wide repertoire of behaviour and relieves boredom.
The wide ranging behaviours also provide the capacity and opportunities to deal with
wide ranging problems and situations, which promotes mental health.
1.5.9 Spiritual Orientation to Life
There are several situations in the life of an individual that may not have any solution,
in spite of the high level of competence of the individual for problem solving. Imagine
a very hard working and intelligent child who falls sick right at the times of examinations

12 D EVELOPING M ENTAL H EALTH AND C OPING S KILLS

and has to repeat the class/or does not get selected in the desired course, etc. Such
challenging and trying times have to be endured by the individual. S/he has to develop
spiritual orientation, within the religious and the cultural boundaries, which helps him/
her to look beyond the present and plan again for future with hope and diligence.
Spirituality is a very important quality of human beings that not only provides great
endurance, but is therapeutic as well.
The concept of mental health has been described above in terms of various
behaviours/criteria/indicators, which facilitate its development and assessment.
However, in order to grow into a healthy and adequate individual there is a need for
environmental conditions (both physical and psychological) to facilitate his development
and enable him to acquire skills and competence. Creating that intra-and interpersonal
environment will lead to promoting better mental health. Let us look at how mental
health could be promoted.

1.6 PROMOTION OF MENTAL HEALTH

The application of the principles that promote the development of healthy personalities
thereby enhances mental health of the individuals in a society. These are based on a
way of life relevant for all, which has implications for the goals or targets to be attained
by society for ensuring mental health of people.
1.6.1 Goals
The goals that provide guidance for ensuring mental health in the society have to do
with the fulfilment of the needs of the various individuals, the need for food, safety,
security, love, belongingness, etc. If these urgent basic needs of the individuals are not
fulfilled adequately they cannot stay mentally healthy for long. The society, therefore,
should aim at providing basic amenities like clean water, food, shelter, etc. to all.
In the developing countries such as India, the basic needs of the children are not
met as indicated by infant mortality, female infanticide, and malnutrition, etc. There
are areas where drinking water is not available, people are living in constant fear of
war, or face natural disasters, etc. The principles for promotion of mental health are
aimed at satisfying the basic needs of the individuals such as hygienic conditions of
living, security, affection, achievement and recognition. In majority of individuals, the
fulfilment of these basic needs itself is difficult. Besides basic needs the psychological
needs also create urgency for satisfaction. When basic needs are satisfied, self-
actualisation takes place and overall development as a mentally mature individual is
ensured. The promotion of mental health aims at ensuring healthy development of all
aspects of the individual, viz. physical, mental, emotional, moral, and spiritual. It is
important that individuals attain full development of their abilities, and realise the
potential inherent in them. It is only human beings who are capable of moral and
spiritual development.
The principles for promotion of good mental health are applicable at personal
level as well as the societal level. At the personal level the aim is to develop awareness
about healthy lifestyle and its importance, developing skills, habits and attitudes
associated with healthy life. Individuals’ awareness, about healthy habits and attitudes

PROMOTING MENTAL HEALTH AND WELL-BEING 13

are influenced by the social environment. It is important that the social environment
itself should be consciously oriented for nurturing among children such habits, attitudes
and values which are associated with mental health.
The goals for mental health are pertinent for reorganising and enriching social
relationships in the home, family, school, work and worship places so as to enable
everyone to enjoy positive feelings, happiness, a fulfilling and productive life. In order
to create awareness among teachers and school staff about these practices, appropriate
inputs have to be introduced in the curriculum and school processes. But without
influencing home and community, the effort would not be successful.

Activity 5
1. Consider people who have good mental health and notice their awareness
about skills, competencies, habits, etc. and its association with health
and well-being.
2. Compare the awareness levels about habits and attitudes characterising a
healthy lifestyle between those that have good mental health and those
with poor mental health.
1.6.2 Programmes
1 for Promotion of Mental Health and Well-being
There are three kinds of programmes that promote mental health:
l Primary Prevention Programmes:
Proactive or developmental programmes that are aimed at creating conditions
that satisfy basic needs and develop healthy personal-social skills of children/
youth (primary prevention).
l Identification and Management Programmes:
Corrective programmes which focus on identification of those students who are
already experiencing mental health related problems and offer interventions to
bring them to normalcy (identification and management).
l Follow-up Programmes:
Supportive programmes which focus on students who had fallen victims to mental
illness earlier (follow-up).
You will look at each of these programmes from the perspective of the goals,
inputs and agency which could provide the best setting for organising these.
1.6.2.1 Primary Prevention Programmes
Primary prevention consists of developing healthy personal characteristics associated
with mental health. Nurturing attitudes and habits that characterise healthy lifestyle
are important aspects of ensuring mental health in a proactive manner. The goals of
primary prevention are to strengthen personality characteristics that impart positive
mind set. Healthy personality characteristics could be promoted by ensuring basic need
satisfaction of individuals in the family and school, the two basic institutions responsible
for healthy development of children and youth. The school has to supplement and

14 D EVELOPING M ENTAL H EALTH AND C OPING S KILLS

complement the role of home and family in ensuring healthy development of all pupils.
The family has to provide necessary nurturance to the child. In the absence or inability
of family to discharge its responsibility, the school, society or state, has to ensure that
needs of children are fulfilled, as it is society that ultimately suffers. The mid-day meals
provided in schools are one such example of proactive care in India.
The school also has to take care of security, love, recognition and affiliation needs
of the children. It has to ensure that teachers are not harsh, curriculum provides
opportunities for achievement and recognition of all kinds of talents, and also educate
parents for ensuring maximum need satisfaction and healthy development of children.
The school must organise programmes for developing children’s awareness about their
own habits, attitudes and skills for healthy, hygienic communication, decision-making,
career development, etc. These two institutions of family and school have to ensure
that the values, attitudes, norms and practices acquired by pupils are in conformity
with a healthy lifestyle. Of these two, the school has to take active role, having access
to information and knowledge. Teachers have to take responsibility for holistic
development of pupils rather than only their academic achievement. The stress on
academic outcomes has unbalanced holistic development which results in anxiety and
aggression. Teachers’ own personal development should also be enhanced by the school
through staff development programmes and counselling. Mental health among teachers
is essential for healthy school organisation. The role of local welfare organisations,
charity clubs and parents cannot be overlooked in this context.
1.6.2.2 Identification and Management Programmes
The remedial aspect of promoting health has to do with the early identification of
problematic behaviours. Intervention should occur for in school those pupils,
characterised by pronounced behavioural disturbances or maladaptive lifestyle.
Identification of such cases is very important so that therapy or individual counselling
may be offered to them. The awareness and referral of individuals is an important
aspect of promoting mental health and well-being. Early intervention can often lead to
a management programme that allows the individuals to regain their mental health.
According to Vranda (2015), suicide death rates in India are among the highest in
the world. Most of the risk taking behaviours and problems among children and
adolescents emerge during adolescent period which can be prevented through school-
based mental health programmes. It is important, therefore, that risky behaviours are
identified and appropriate referrals are made. For minor problems, counselling services
should be made available in schools.
1.6.2.3 Follow-up Programmes
Follow-up programmes are aimed at emotionally supporting those individuals who are
vulnerable or have received treatment, or show mild symptoms of emotional upset or
any other symptoms like behaviour disorder, addiction, etc. so that their condition
does not worsen or they do not relapse into mental imbalance or addiction, etc. These
programmes in the school aim at providing a secure environment to such children. The
teacher could allocate a front seat where s/he can observe the child and engage him/
her or associate some volunteers from the class with them.

PROMOTING MENTAL HEALTH AND WELL-BEING 15

 Another strategy could be that the environment could be reorganised so that
facilitating social settings are available to such individuals. A teacher’s role in school is
significant in providing such facilitation to the disturbed students who are borderline.
For instance a child who is used to delinquency may be associated with another child
who stays close to his/her home so that both could come and go together. The company
of another child would provide emotional support, so that the fear and the thoughts
that prompt him/her to run away could be prevented. Without much effort, a little
change in the seating arrangements, peer involvement, judicious flexibility in discipline
and emotional support by the teachers can go a long way in preventing the imminent
mental health problems among pupils.
The therapy or counselling should be provided to the individuals to bring them
back to normal state but they may need emotional-social support to stay healthy. The
new ways of behaviour or attitudes learned during therapy need to be consolidated in
real life. Preventive conditions like company of those children who are friendly and
caring may help recovery of the child who has received treatment or is slightly vulnerable.
These kinds of arrangements must be made for such individuals so that relapse does
not occur. Locally formed alcoholic anonymous groups, drug-addiction groups, etc. are
a few examples of how those in therapy may continue to be connected and provide
support to each other.

Self-check Exercise 3
Fill in the blanks with the following alternatives–
a. physiological b. proactive c. psychological
d. supportive e. dynamic
1. Fulfilment of _________________ needs facilitates mental health.
2. _________________ programmes focus on students who had fallen victim
to mental illness.
3. _________________ programmes aimed at creating conditions which satisfy
the basic needs develop healthy personal-social skills of the children/youth.
4. Concept of mental health is _________________ in nature.

1.7 ORGANISING E NVIRONMENT FOR MENTAL HEALTH AND

WELL- BEING
Mental health is a learned adaptive response of an individual to challenging
circumstances. Underlying such learned or habitual ways of behaving are a number of
internal and external conditions and experiences. These conditions and experiences are
essential determinants of good adjustments resulting in positive mental health.
Conditions prevailing during the early developmental period play a crucial part in
establishing strong adaptive behaviours.

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The adaptive behaviours which are prevalent among mentally healthy children must be
nurtured among all children right from early age, and it is both the personal factors and
the environmental conditions that nurture such behaviours. The environment has to be
encouraging, appreciative, for instance, when parents/teachers themselves are critical,
aggressive and do not model cleanliness and other healthy behavioural styles, the child
too would emulate such behaviour and develop unhelathy habits. Similarly the child must
be well looked after as far as his physical health is concerned. His physique and temperament
too influence the way s/he be interacting with others in his/her environment.
1.7.1 Personal Conditions
Mental health depends on adequate and regular satisfaction of an individual’s basic needs
in socially desirable ways. There are two important personal conditions for mental health–
(i) Adequate and regular satisfaction of basic needs, and
(ii) Using socially acceptable means to satisfy those needs.
1.7.1.1 Satisfaction of Needs
You may be already familiar with Maslow’s hierarchy of needs. The basic needs are of
two types, physiological and psychological. The physiological needs are the needs for
food, air, water, shelter. The psychological needs are the need for love, affection and
security, and are equally important to the physiological needs for the healthy development
of a person. The family holds the primary responsibility for satisfying the physiological
as well as the psychological needs of a child. Tension and anxiety occur if these needs
are not routinely and adequately met.

Continuous stress and tension prevents growth and development. Therefore basic
physiological needs for food, water, love, affection, appreciation are important before
the need for achievement and self-actualisation could be experienced by children.

PROMOTING MENTAL HEALTH AND WELL-BEING 17

 Among psychological needs, the needs for love and affection are stronger than
needs for achievement and recognition. If the person’s basic needs for air, water, food
and safety, etc. are not satisfied adequately during childhood, the need for security and
other higher needs are not even felt. For instance, an individual who is hungry for a long
period may indulge in behaviour harmful or dangerous for himself and others. He may
even eat bad food, and will not bother about love and appreciation from others. A child
who has not been loved and cared for does not think of achievement. All his behaviour
is oriented towards ensuring love. Only when the need for love and affection is satisfied,
the next higher needs are felt, i.e. need for achievement and success. Love and care
during childhood helps realises his/her inherent potential.
The family and parents provide the love and affection needed in the early stages.
However, later the child must learn to ensure love and care from teachers, peers and
others. This requires learning of skills of politeness, obedience, respect, restrain,
communication, etc. which ensure such experiences. It is the family where the child
learns these skills and competencies. If parents fail to teach those skills due to their
own inability and lack of time, etc. the responsibility for teaching these skills falls upon
others who take care of the child.
After the family, the school has to share the responsibility for the child’s learning.
In school some children even sacrifice their study to ensure love and affection of other
students or the teacher. They will do anything for the teacher or peers. Those are the
children whose need for love and affection or recognition have not been adequately
satisfied. There are adults too who are starved for love and affection so much in their
family and immediate environment that they try to adopt socially maladaptive or
ineffective ways to ensure love and affection from others. The maladaptive behaviour
reduces tension temporarily but not adequately and regularly. For instance, children
will offer to do errands for the teachers when they should be studying. They would be
willing to do anything for peers just to ensure their company. This would be harmful in
the long run for their achievement.
Inadequate satisfaction of the basic needs slows down the individual’s development
physically as well as psychologically. When lower order needs are fulfilled, higher order
needs guide the behaviour. Mature ways of behaving have to be learned to ensure love,
affection, appreciation or other higher needs for achievement and recognition. It is only
an adequate satisfaction of the lower order needs that higher needs like realising one’s
potential, philanthropic and spiritual needs, etc. are experienced by the individual.
However, health is a very important factor which may facilitate or hinder efforts put in
by the child. Fruition of efforts is also important for health and well-being.
1.7.1.2 Health and Physical Development
Constitutional factors such as health and temperament, etc. play an important role in
influencing mental health. The over reactivity of temperament, ill health, nutritional
deficiency, etc. adversely affect the mental health. Physical illness, poor health and
weak constitution may cause feelings of inferiority, persistent self centredness, self
pity, which affect the self concept and well-being of the individual. Thus physical

18 D EVELOPING M ENTAL H EALTH AND C OPING S KILLS

factors and deficiencies have great potential in making or marring mental health. Skin
problems, late development of sexual maturity and secondary sexual characteristics,
etc. are such problems which could cause concern among children and youth.

Activity 6
Please list from your experience the physical factors which influence mental
health among children and youth especially in view of the cultural demands
on children/youth in your area/country.

1.7.1.3 Intellectual Development

Development of intellect also influences the mental health of person. Development
of the mental capabilities, awareness, reading and acuity of intellect, though not
directly related, contribute substantially to mental health. Mental capabilities help a
person to acquire information and process it effectively to understand his
environmental context. Understanding their environment help people to respond
adequately to it. Intellectual development leads to capabilities for emotional
management which help the persons to respond in an objective manner and stay
balanced in the face of hostile and difficult circumstances.
The maturity of capabilities and emotional balance are influenced by the
opportunities for learning provided by the environment. If the environment is
impoverished and hostile, the learning of the children and youth will be limited. This
limitation will also effect their self-concept and emotional maturity.
Case Study 1
Ronny was the student of Class VIII. During class periods the teachers would often
find him day-dreaming, especially his language teacher whose period was planned just
after the lunch break. The teacher would get annoyed with him for not paying attention
and lack of participation in the class.
During the mid-term examination, she found Ronny to be amongst the top three
in class. She was impressed by the boy’s performance and talked to him gently as to
why he does not pay attention in the class. The boy, visibly moved by her concern, told
her with great hesitation that during the break a gang of bullies of the school tease him,
make fun and once even tore his notebook. The teacher understood that the reason for
the distracted look was tension and worry rather than disinterest in studies.
What do you think would have happened if the teacher did not realise that Ronny
was a high achiever? What would have happened if she did not ask the reason for
disinterest in the language class? What do you do when you come across a boy like
Ronny in your class? What do you think could be other possible causes of such behaviour
and its effect on mental health of the students?
The above case study illustrates that pressure of hostile social conditions may
cause tension and anxiety, which prevents learning and maturation. The social
environment may act as facilitator by providing necessary emotional-social support.

PROMOTING MENTAL HEALTH AND WELL-BEING 19

Psychological development is facilitated if learning experiences and socially stimulating
conditions are provided to children and youth, which lead to further motivation and
quality adjustments, and the environment is made congenial.
1.7.2 Environmental Conditions
The social and environmental enrichment available in family or society or neighbourhood
have implications for learning healthy lifestyles and practices. They work in a preventive
manner and ward off the negative effects of the hostile environment.

Activity 7
1. Identify the possible influences on the students at home/in schools which
may be the source of tension for them. One clue relevant to Indian culture
is given below–
l Excessive emotional concentration/expectations for achievement by
parents.
l _____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
2. In a group discuss the practices in the school/culture, which could exert a
preventive influence on the tensions and anxiety during the process of
growing up.

The responsibility for creating conditions which produce anxiety or balance rests
with the family, parents, school and society. Let us see how these agencies or people
influence mental health.
1.7.2.1 Home
The home one lives in has a great influence on mental health. If home is very small,
congested and lacks healthy environment such as light, cleanliness, air, facilities for
playing, etc. the health of the child may be affected. Noisy and disorganised homes
cause poor concentration and listening skills. Disorganisation in personal belongings
and daily routine gives rise to habits which have negative consequences for hard work,
perseverance, organisation and efficiency in carrying out work.
Even the locality of the home has a great potential to influence mental health.
The locality determines the exposure to activities, friends and facilities, which may
promote development or expose them to unhealthy personal social influences. These
factors should be understood by teachers and counsellors so that they do not write off
those non performing students coming from such localities, rather they should
compensate for the experiences which have been derived.

20 D EVELOPING M ENTAL H EALTH AND C OPING S KILLS

1.7.2.2 Family
The family of the child provides the first social environment. It is the first institution
and a very important one as it contains a whole society within as there is authority
(parents), laws and norms (discipline), peers, subordinates and superiors (siblings), work
(home chores), etc. It is in these relationships and the nurturance provided that the
foundations of a healthy personality are laid.
Family provides food, nutrition, security, love and care right from birth. Even
during the prenatal stage, the type of environment available to the mother may give an
edge or disadvantage to the child’s development. The type of food the mother eats or
emotions she experiences all contribute to mental health.
The quality of parental discipline available in the family influences the healthy
emotional development, the attitudes towards authority, the initiative and motivation
among children/youth. The warm and healthy discipline represented by firm handling
of bad/undesirable behaviour, insistence on learning healthy habits through persuasion
and encouragement, etc. ward off failures and frustrations. Strict and unhealthy discipline
characterised by too many do’s and don’ts, or use of violence, and aggression produces
fear, emotional conflicts and laziness in the child. The child must learn to take
responsibilities, carry out instructions, postpone immediate fulfilment of his desires.
Acceptance of the child and focus on his strengths by guardians as against pointing
out weaknesses, helps him develop into a healthy individual with self-esteem and
confidence. Rejection of the child or overprotection, both cause harm to the child’s
personality and motivation. Parental expectations are important, as these are the goals
which the child adopts for himself/herself. If these are too high for the child to achieve,
he gets frustrated, too low expectations make him over confident, and adequate level
of expectations help him to maintain a high level of motivation and feeling of success.
The other characteristics of the family include marital relationship between the
parents, adjustment with siblings, size and constitution of the family. Single parent
family and small family may not provide opportunities to learn the social skills needed
to interact with persons of different gender, younger or older than oneself. The marital
conflicts between parents may produce emotional conflicts in children which harm the
healthy development of attitudes towards gender and problems of life.
The habits, interests, personality characteristics of the parents such as styles of
decision making, conflict resolution, religious orientation can also influence the
development of healthy lifestyles and habits among children.
1.7.2.3 School
School, being the second most important institution in the life of a child, needs
to complement the role of family in the child’s development, and may even have
to take the responsibility to undo the harm done by the unhealthy or impoverished
family environment.

PROMOTING MENTAL HEALTH AND WELL-BEING 21

 School provides opportunities for expression of the abilities, attitudes and skills
already developed by the child. The child develops awareness about the effectiveness of
these abilities and skills, and gets opportunities to learn new skills and attitudes. This
process has to be supported by the teachers through appreciation and recognition for
appropriate behaviour, and not placing too much emphasis on ineffectual learning. Focus
on punishment, ridicule and criticism leads to emotional conflicts and poor self-esteem.
Teachers provide satisfaction of the needs for information, enrichment, recognition
and appreciation. Achievement can be promoted by concentrating on successes and
ignoring the errors and failures. Basically, the school environment and teachers should
focus on promotion of learning rather than evaluation, emphasise strengths rather than
weaknesses, provide opportunities for expression of the wide variety of the talents of
the children rather than concentrate only on academics. The school curriculum, co-
curriculum and examinations philosophy may be inspired by these principles, promoting
mental health. It is the success experience that motivates; failures and criticism rob the
child of all initiative and do not serve any purpose. School may provide cultural and
life skills related education which facilitates future integration of child in the society.
1.7.2.4 Teacher-Pupil Relationships
Teacher-pupil relationships have a great significance for the mental health of the children
as well as the teacher. The teacher is a very important person in the life of almost all
children. Therefore, a teacher’s own personality is very important and his/her relationship
with pupils exerts growing influence on both of them. Teachers who are cheerful, patient,
unbiased, democratic and firm in dealing with children are preferable to those who are
critical, have favourites, are impatient, either too strict or too lenient; such teachers are
not liked by pupils. The teacher’s warmth, communication and listening skills help
him/her to relate to children effectively and help them express and resolve their
problems.
1.7.2.5 Cultural Influence on Mental Health
‘Cultural attitudes’ inspire the family and school environment, and set the stage on
which the child has already sharpened his skills, competencies and attitudes. Normally,
the individuals who are effectively socialised, which means learning of the necessary
social skills, social roles and norms prevailing in the society, are better adjusted. But if
the region/subculture to which a person belongs, and values he/she learns, are different
from the cultural traditions of the broader society, there is need for relearning and
readjustments.
Healthy cultural values, beliefs and practices which promote independence,
decision-making, peaceful resolution of conflicts, personal habits, and social
relationships, enhance mental health. The different organisations, clubs and religious/
cultural institutions existing in the society also provide opportunities of learning effective
coping skills and enhance mental health. It is important that those in change of younger
children/youth facilitate children from alienated or different communities to make
adjustments rather than ridicule or criticise them.

22 D EVELOPING M ENTAL H EALTH AND C OPING S KILLS

 1.8

Summary
This module introduced you to the concept of mental health in holistic
perspective. The medical approach, the statistical or normative approach,
the psycho-social approach and the latest concept of mental health as
psychological well-being, as defined by the WHO, were discussed. The
characteristics of mental health as tension free, easy going, and physically,
emotionally and socially healthy individuals were presented. The
characteristics which impart mental health are not an either-or-none
affair but people possess different degrees of healthy behaviour;
accordingly mental health can be visualised as a continuum. The skills
and competencies required by the individual to ensure state of mental
health such as self-control, integration and directedness of behaviour,
sense of humour and creativity, etc. have been discussed. The different
approaches for promotion of mental health and well-being, and goals
of mental health also have been discussed. The role of personal and
environmental factors, and organising these for fostering mental health
have been discussed.

1. “Mental health as a continuum.” Do you agree or disagree with

Self-evaluation Exercises

the statement? Give arguments in support of your answer.

2. Describe the attitudes and values that promote mental health.
3. Describe the different ways in which homes are responsible for
promoting mental health.
4. What can the schools do for promoting mental health?

Answer Key to Self-evaluation Exercises

1. Mental health is a continuum; health is not absolute. Those who are healthy vary
the extent to which they can resist the tensions, anxiety and other problems while
dealing with day-to-day disappointments and frustrations. Even those who are
already anxious and stressed do not always succumb to the pressure of abnormal
symptoms.
2. Elaborate on the following–
l Self knowledge and self acceptance
l Self control
l Integration and direction
l Value and social responsibilities
l Sense of humour/maturity
l Adaptability to environmental change
l Involvement with work/entertainment
l Spiritual orientation to life

PROMOTING MENTAL HEALTH AND WELL-BEING 23

3. Noisy and disorganised homes cause poor concentration and listening skills.
Disorganisation gives rise to habits which have negative consequences for hard
work, organisation and efficiency. Locality of the home determines the exposure
to activities, friends and facilities.
4. School provides opportunities for expressions of the abilities, attitudes and skills.
This has to be supported by teachers through appreciation and recognition for
appropriate behaviours. Teachers should stress on promotion of learning rather
than evaluation. School may provide cultural and life skills related education.

Answer Key to Self-check Exercises

Self-Check Exercise 1
1. Refer to Section 1.2.1
2. Refer to Section 1.2.2
3. Refer to Section 1.3.3
4. WHO (1978) defined mental health as a multidimensional concept, which
involves physical, mental, social, emotional and spiritual well-being.
Self-check Exercise 2
1. Refer to Section 1.3
Self-check Exercise 3
1. c
2. d
3. b
4. e

Suggested Readings

Jourard, S. M. 1980. Healthy Personality. Macmillan, New York.

Kapur, M. 1995. Mental Health of Indian children. Sage Publications. New Delhi.
Ketter, F. 1981. Consultation and Education in Mental Health Problems and Prospects.
Sage Publications. Beverly Hills.
Vranda, M. N. 2015. Promotion of mental health and well-being of adolescents
in schools: A NIMHANS model. Journal of Psychiatry, 18,303.
World Health Organisation. 2001. The World Health Report 2001- Mental Health:
New Understanding, New Hope (PDF). WHO, Geneva, Switzerland.
World Health Organisation. 2013. Mental Health Action Plan: 2013-2020. WHO,
Geneva, Switzerland.

24 D EVELOPING M ENTAL H EALTH AND C OPING S KILLS

2 Developing Coping Skills

2.0 Introduction
2.1 Objectives
2.2 What is Stress?
2.2.1 Definition of Stress
2.3 Sources of Stress
2.3.1 General Sources of Stress
2.3.2 Sources of Stress at Work
2.3.3 Psychological Sources
2.4 Consequences of Stress
2.4.1 Psychosomatic Consequences
2.4.2 Psychological Consequences
2.4.3 Behavioural Consequences
2.5 Coping with Stress
2.5.1 Coping Styles
2.5.2 Enhancing Coping Capabilities
2.6 Implications for Teachers and Counsellors
2.7 Summary
Self-evaluation Exercises
Answer Key to Self-evaluation Exercises
Answer Key to Self-check Exercises
References
Suggested Readings
 Developing Coping Skills
2

2.0 INTRODUCTION
The modern world, which is said to
be a world of achievements, is also
a world of stress. Often achievement
and success do not come without
challenges. This unit discusses the
challenges and the associated stress
as both sources of inspiration and
detriments to achievement. One finds stress everywhere, at home, in an educational
institution, or any business or social organisation. Stress is something that is hard to
avoid. The term stress occurs not only in our daily conversations but has also attracted
widespread media attention. Different people hold different views about it as stress
can be from a variety of sources. For example, you may ask the opinion of three different
people and you are likely to get three different definitions. The businessperson views
stress as frustration or emotional tension; the air traffic controller (ATC) sees it as a
problem of alertness and concentration; the biochemist thinks of it as a purely chemical
event. This unit starts with explaining the concept of stress. It also discusses the various
sources of stress. Further, the consequences of stress are described under three broad
categories, i.e. psychosomatic, psychological and behavioural. Finally, this unit explains
the concept of coping styles and ways of enhancing coping capabilities of children,
and implications for teachers.

2.1 OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit, you will be able to
l describe the meaning of stress.
l identify the different sources of stress.
l explain the consequences of stress.
l discuss the specific strategies for coping with stress.

2.2 WHAT IS STRESS?

The concept of stress was first introduced in the life sciences by Hans Selye, a pioneer
in stress research. Derived from the Latin word stringere, stress was popularly used in
the seventeenth century to mean hardship, strain, adversity or affliction. Normal
connotation of stress is pressure or strain exerted on a person which tends to destabilise
him/her in many ways physically, psychologically and emotionally. The pressure or
strain could be caused by a number of factors. In physiology, the various changes in the
physiological functions in response to evocative agents denote stress. These physiological
changes can be measured and often these measurements are used as indicators of the
psychological stress that a human undergoes. In psychology, stress refers to a particular
kind of state of a human resulting from some interaction between him/her and the
environment.
In order to understand stressful experience, consider the sequence of events that
lead to a stressful experience –
l a demand is made upon us
l constraints that limit our capacity to meet that demand make the demand seem
greater
l the demand and the constraints create pressure
l available supports help us to meet or manage that demand, and
l the effect on us is stress.
Each person will see the situation through his/her own eyes. It is the individual’s
perception of the demands and his/her ability to meet them, that determine whether
there is a feeling of stress. Individual responses are influenced by other factors that
relate to the situation causing stress. The same situation may or may not lead to stress for
a particular individual at any given point of time. Therefore, stress is essentially a response
to the perceived demands and ability to cope. For example, one child who fails to pass
may feel that he could do hard work, take help or put in extra effort and pass in the next
year whereas another child may feel depressed that he has failed and try to commit
suicide. Different individuals have different kinds of experiences.
The relationship between stress and external factors are as follows–
High demand + few constraints + lots of support = little or no stress
High demand + many constraints + little support = high stress
For example, consider students who are preparing for a forthcoming competitive
examination. The stress increases closer to the day of the examination and is probably at
the peak when the students enter the examination centre. The demand here is the need
to score well in the examination. There are many constraints, i.e. extensive syllabus,
anticipated difficult questions, pressure to get selected against limited seats in the university,
time limit to complete the examination, etc. The outcome is important as it determines

DEVELOPING COPING SKILLS 27

what career the students will take up in future. At the same time, the outcome is
uncertain. Much depends, however, on how individuals perceive the outcome.
Depending on how important they perceive the outcome to be, some would be quite
stressed while others may not be stressed at all.
2.2.1 Definition of Stress
There is much confusion and a lack of consensus regarding the definition of stress.
The term “stress” has been approached in at least four different ways–
l as the stimulus or external force acting on an individual
l as the response or changes in the physiological functions and other symptoms
l as the interaction between an external force and resistance, and
l as a comprehensive phenomenon encompassing all the three above.
In stimulus-oriented approach, stress is regarded as an
external force which is perceived as threatening. Some view
threat itself as stress. For instance, threat of teachers beating
children for one kind of lapse is stressful. The response-oriented
approach describes how people reacted to and how they
function under stress. Different individuals may react to stress
differently. For instance some may react by low energy levels
while others may get over activated. The way it is presumably
experienced is inferred from the response made to it. Selye’s
work falls under the stimulus-oriented approach. According to
him, any external event or any internal drive which threatens
to upset the individual’s balance is stress.
Selye (1974) defined stress as “the non-specific response of the body to any demand
made upon it”.
Stressors can be classified as distressors (negative and causing damage) and
eustressors (positive and challenging to promote action). We are familiar with the term
‘distress’, i.e. stress due to an unpleasant event such as punishment, failure, fight with
a friend, an accident or divorce. However, even a happy occasion such as long stay
with friends in a party or playground, or selection for a competition, etc. produces the
same physiological reactions as distress. Such happy occasions lead to ‘eustress’, which
is good for the person.
Selye’s General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS) has been widely held as a
comprehensive model to explain the stress phenomenon among all organisms, particularly
humans. It is a three-stage model that states when an organism is confronted with a
threat, the general physiological response occurs in three stages–
1. Alarm Reaction Stage: The first stage consists of two phases: (i) an “initial-
shock phase” in which resistance is lowered and (ii) a “counter-shock phase” in
which defensive mechanisms become active. Alarm reaction is characterised by
autonomous excitability; i.e. adrenalin discharge, increased heart rate, muscle tone
and blood content, and gastrointestinal ulceration. Depending on the nature and

28 D EVELOPING M ENTAL H EALTH AND C OPING S KILLS

 intensity of the threat and the condition of the organism, the periods of resistance
vary and the severity of symptoms may differ.
2. Resistance Stage: Maximum adaptation occurs during this stage. The bodily
signs characteristic of the alarm reaction stage disappear. Resistance increases to
levels above normal. If the stressor persists, or the defensive reaction proves
ineffective, the organism deteriorates to the next stage.
3. Exhaustion Stage: When adaptation is not possible and the organism feels
exhausted, signs of alarm reaction reappear and resistance level begins to decline
irreversibly. This results in the collapse of the organism.
The conceptualisation of stress by Selye is a physiological one in which the stress
response is seen as a necessary adjunct to the organism’s fight for survival. By causing
various body changes, the stress response prepares the individual for any exigency,
giving him/her extra resources to “fight” the emergency or take “flight” from it.
Stress has been defined as a “real or interpreted threat to the physiological or
psychological integrity of an individual that results in physiological and/or behavioural
responses” (McEwen, 2000). There are three different viewpoints or approaches to
stress: medical, psychological and sociological. The medical approach describes stress
typically as a defensive bodily response to environmental demands and involves
physiological components, such as the breathing becoming fast, or heart beat becoming
fast when they encounter threat. The psychological approach places greater emphasis
on the cognitive appraisal (mental picture) of threatening environmental conditions
and the ensuing coping process. How the individual views the stressful situation
determines stress reactions. If a child does not care for parents, anger, any situation is
stress free or if s/he feels very sensitive to any adults reaction, even a minor reproach
will be stressful to the boy or girl. The sociological approach analyses stress as the
resultant of stressful societal conditions.
Considering the definition just given, you will look at what constitutes the stressors
or the sources of stress, and then consider the stress response.

2.3 SOURCES OF STRESS

It has been said that stress results from a lack of fit between environmental demands
and personal adequacies to meet these demands. However, management of stress is
not possible unless the individual is aware of the specific sources of stress. Stress can
emanate from a variety of sources. The sources of stress are located in the social systems
to which we all belong. These are two such systems: the primary systems such as family
(for example, relations among family members, marital adjustment, socio economic
status, economic problems, etc.) and religious, regional and linguistic groups (for
example, tensions, discrimination and group conflicts, group pressure, etc.); and the
secondary systems to which we relate, such as neighbourhood, schools (for example,
competition, parental expectations, peer pressure, etc.), colleges, technical institutes
and work organisations. It may be noted that the needs, requirements and expectations
of other members in these systems differ, and the demands made on the individual in

DEVELOPING COPING SKILLS 29

one system have their effects on his/her performance in the other. Moreover, resources
and support of relationships from one system can also be invested in the other system
to take care of the problems arising in it.
2.3.1 General Sources of Stress
There are three important sectors of life in which stress originates. These are: (a) job
and organisation, (b) social sector, and (c) intrapsychic sector. The first, namely, job
and organisation, refers to the totality of the work environment, i.e. task, atmosphere,
colleagues, compensations, policies, etc. The social sector refers to the social/cultural
context of one’s life. It may include religion, caste, language, dress and other such
factors. Sometimes the society in which the individual lives also creates stress. Each
culture produces its own unique sets of stressors. For instance, stress experienced by
those living in the Sahara desert is likely to be significantly different from those living
near the bank of the river Ganga. Cultures vary not merely in climatic conditions but in
terms of their political, social, economic and environmental conditions, each exerting
their own set of stressors. Acts of terrorism, political instability, war, etc. influence
even small children tremendously, although they are often not able to articulate their
fears and anxieties. Also, cultures vary in terms of their value systems. The intrapsychic
sector encompasses those things that are intimate and personal, such as temperament,
values, abilities and health. It is contended that stresses can originate in any of these
three sectors or in combinations thereof. In a balanced state, the magnitude of stress
emanating from the three sectors of life is in consonance with the stress tolerance limit
of the individual.
There is another perspective on stress offered by Brown described below which
takes into account the incremental stress accumulating in the life of the individual.
Both these perspectives together enable us to understand sources of stress.
Brown (1984) proposed following five sources of stress–
(i) Customary anticipated life events (any major change in life), such
as beginning or ending of school, marriage, children leaving home
and retirement.
(ii) Unexpected life events (any major life event which occurs
suddenly), for example, a major accident, becoming aware of a
terminal illness, unexpected bereavement and sudden loss of job.
(iii) Progressive, accumulating situational events (any continuously
recurring problems in life’s activities) like daily hassles, school stress
and competition, and family stress.
(iv) Personality characteristics that create social problems, for example, poor
communication, low self-esteem, insecurity, lack of confidence, poor decision-
making and fear of failure.
(v) Value dependent traits (circumstances generating thought-feeling conflict), for
instance, moral dilemmas such as cheat or fail, peer pressure vs. personal
conscience, and broken homes.

30 D EVELOPING M ENTAL H EALTH AND C OPING S KILLS

 This system of categorisation is also amenable to the measurement of stress. For
example, one of the earliest scales for the measurement of stress called the Schedule
of Recent Experiences (Holmes and Rahe, 1967) is related to stressful life events, life
stress. These are concerned with situational encounters and the meaning that a person
may attach to such events. The stressful life events are implicated in a variety of
undesirable effects on our performance and health. The assumptions behind these ideas
are (a) life changes require adaptation on the part of the individual and are stressful,
and (b) persons experiencing marked life changes in the recent past are susceptible to
physical and psychotic problems.
In today’s fast changing world, one is under constant tensions and anxieties related
to work and non-work life and this leads to stress which affects both the quality of work
life and quality of life. The counsellor trainees must be aware of the stresses generally
associated with work so that they can deal with not only the ordinary stresses related to
their work but particularly counselling work. Counselling work demands a person to be
healthy without any stresses themselves. The following section presents sources of stress
at work.

Self-check Exercise 1
Fill in the blanks with the following alternatives–
a. initial-shock phase b. physiological
c. environment d. resistance stage
1. Stress is a state of the organism resulting from interaction between him/her
and the _________________.
2. In _________________, resistance increase to levels above normal.
3. Resistance is lowered in _________________.
4. Selye’s Model of Stress is _________________ in nature.

2.3.2 Sources of Stress at Work

Stress in an organisation has been defined in terms of lack of fit between a person’s
skills and abilities, and the demands of his/her job. Regardless of how one job may
compare to another in terms of stress, it is helpful to recognise that every job has
potential stress agents. Researchers have identified the following six major sources of
stress at work. Although common to all jobs, these sources vary in the stress they could
produce in each job.
1. Factors intrinsic to the job: These are related to poor working conditions such as
lack of facilities like bathrooms, refreshment, common room etc., long hours, lack
of technology skills and training, and work overload.
2. Role in the organisation: When a person’s role in an organisation is clearly defined
and understood, and expectations placed upon the individuals are clear and non-
conflicting, stress can be kept to the minimum. Three critical factors – role ambiguity,

DEVELOPING COPING SKILLS 31

 role conflict, and the degree of responsibility for others – are seen as major
sources of stress.
3. Relationships at work: The working relationship that one has with people working
in the same organisation can also be a major source of stress. There are three
critical relationships at work – those with superiors, those with subordinates, and
those with peers. Each set of relationships can produce its own stress.
4. Career development: A number of issues such as fear of job loss, retirement and
performance appraisals also contribute to create pressure and strain.
5. Organisational structure and climate: Just being part of an organisation can
present threats to a person’s sense of freedom and autonomy. People working in
organisations have often complained that they don’t have a sense of belonging and
that they lack adequate opportunities to participate; they feel that their behaviour is
unduly restricted and that they are not included in office communications and
consultations. All these have been found to be major sources of stress.
6. Non-work factors: Other factors, apart from work, that cause stress in an individual
are family problems, economic problems or health problems, etc. Such external
work factors often impact work performance and can lead to increased work stress.
All the work related stressors discussed above need not be equally stressful for all.
The experience with general sources of stress discussed above, particularly the personality
factors and stressful life events, put individuals on the threshold. This renders some work
related stressors more threatening to those persons altering their capacity to tolerate stress.
2.3.3 Psychological Sources
People already on the threshold of stress due to the accumulated stress from their
previous experience are particularly prone to break down in the face of otherwise not
so severe stressful factors. These experiences may originate in the health, family structure
(e.g. single parent, dominating parents, influence of outsiders/reletives), financial
conditions of the family, strained relationships, lack of interpersonal skills, or diverse
cultural environments. For example, some children who have been frequently beaten at
home are scared of teachers more than other children and run away even after the
smallest indication of punishment.
Thus stressors may not be severe in themselves but these become psychologically
threatening.
Some work stressors are examples of psychologically threatening events. These
have the following common characteristics–
l They have stress value not because of their objective ability to do harm, but
because the person perceives them as threatening. For example, the usual playful
remarks of children or casual remarks of teacher are taken very seriously by some
children and it hurts their self-esteem and relationships resulting in depression.
l Stressors impact different individuals differently due to their in ability to cope
with such perceived stressors.
l Personal appraisal of stress by an individual makes it threatening in different
degrees to different persons.

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l Psychological stressors are the same as physical stressors in the effects they cast
on the physiological systems, i.e. a child who is afraid of a peer who does not
physically harm but simply threatens can have similar fear and physiological
depression from a violent peer.
It is clear that stress is a personal response to certain variations in the environment.
It is, therefore, possible to conceive that the same set of stressors can be differently
perceived depending on–
l the nature and magnitude of the stressor,
l the importance of the stressor to the individual,
l the perception of a threat element as a component of the stressor,
l the personal and social support systems available to the individual, and
l the involvement and willingness on the part of the individual to do something
about the state of stress.
Sources of stress lie not only in the environment, whether it is general environment
or work, but also psychological factors that are unique to the individual, these factors
also influence and alter the response or the consequences of stress among individuals.
Activity 1
Identify and list the potential stressors in the organisations (e.g. family, school,
college, etc.) you are associated with. Explain why you consider them stressors
using examples.

2.4 CONSEQUENCES OF STRESS

Stress is unique in the category of diseases. It has no biological carrier such as a germ or
virus. Rather, it is the result of how our mind and body function and interact. It can be
a major contributor to disturbances in one’s emotional, social and family life. It inhibits
creativity and personal effectiveness, and exhibits itself in a general dissatisfaction.
The short term effect of stress could be intention, irritability, indigestion, anxiety,
palpitation, etc. As a result the person is not able to attend to the task in hand efficiently
as his attention as well as general health gets affected. This further contributes to his
own irritability, dissatisfaction, and others also get impatient with him/her. If the situation
remains unintervened, prolonged exposure to stress has been shown to cause a variety
of serious psychosomatic, psychological and behavioural consequences.
You will look at each of these consequences in turn below.
2.4.1 Psychosomatic Consequences
The term “psychosomatic” consists of two words – psyche (mind) and soma (body) – suggesting
thereby that though the symptoms are physical, the causes are mental. A high percentage of
diseases afflicting mankind are psychosomatic and their primary causes are our thoughts,
attitudes and beliefs.
There are many examples of psychosomatic diseases which are directly related to
stress. These include ulcers, bronchial asthma, common cold, headache, chest pain,
DEVELOPING COPING SKILLS 33
constipation, etc. Many physical illnesses and disorders, such as coronary heart disease
(CHD), hypertension, gastrointestinal disorders (e.g. peptic ulcer and irritable bowel
syndrome), skin problems (e.g. eczema and acne), and cancer are said to be associated
with stress. Most of these occur at some point after a stressful event.
It is still not known why one organ system is affected by stress and not another.
Certainly, genetic factors, diet, and physical conditioning are involved, but the key lies in
one’s mental structures. In other words, it can be said that stress is at the root of all
psychosomatic diseases regardless of the organ system involved.
2.4.2 Psychological Consequences
Stress manifests itself in the form of many psychological problems. For example,
researchers have found that stress is associated with anxiety, depression, hopelessness,
anger and helplessness. It has also been reported that stressed people are more likely to
be psychologically distressed than those who are not. They have a lower tolerance level
and a slight provocation may cause extreme anxiety, depression and emotional outbursts
of anger. Some of the other common indications of psychological effects are –
l becoming unnecessarily over-emotional or aggressive in conflict situations
l loss of interest in personal appearance, other people, social events or previously
enjoyed activities such as a favourite sport
l poor concentration, difficulty in remembering and an inability to make decisions
l sadness, guilt, fatigue, apathy and a pronounced feeling of helplessness or failure
l loss of confidence in personal ability, often coupled with a lack of self-worth.
2.4.3 Behavioural Consequences
The third category of consequences is purely behavioural which is easily observable. A
high degree of stress may make people adopt behavioural symptoms as gluttony, obesity,
or the opposite of this could be not feeling hungry or the sight of food turning them
off. Other behavioural symptoms could be sleeplessness, excessive smoking and
drinking. Stress can turn an occasional smoker into a chain smoker and the social drinker
into an alcoholic. Some of the other commonly seen behavioural effects are –
l arguments and fights over relatively trivial matters
l overdependence
l uncommunicativeness
l unreasonableness
l lack of interest/over interest in sex.
Individuals weakened by chronic stress are far more susceptible to other illnesses
and terminal conditions because their immune systems are weakened. The most common
symptom of stress is that people do not feel well and medical practitioners find no
medical reason. In short, the negative effects of stress can be highly visible such as
absenteeism, smoking, alcohol abuse, etc. but can also be less visible in the form of
bad decision-making, reduced creativity and apathy.
Although stress is an inevitable part of human life yet it can also yield positive
effects.. People’s systems are equipped with certain innate “stress alarms” that allow

34 D EVELOPING M ENTAL H EALTH AND C OPING S KILLS

them to function effectively in many situations. Without stress, there would not be
constructive or creative activity. What we need is to reduce the amount of negative
stress (distress), and enjoy and appreciate the positive stress (eustress). Moreover, it is
natural and healthy to maintain optimal level of stress to achieve success and higher
productivity. However, when left unchecked and unmanaged, stress can create problems
in performance and affect the health and well-being of a person.
You have just read that many ailments from which individuals suffer are not purely
physiological disorders but can also be psychosomatic, or psychological or behavioural
in nature. The cause of such disorders may lie in stresses generated in the family, schools
or society. Apart from knowledge about sources and consequences of stress it would
help to know how to enhance individuals, capacities to deal with stress in order to
minimise its harmful effects. The next section describes different coping strategies which
have been used to manage stress.

Self-check Exercise 2
State whether the following statements are True or False:
1. Role ambiguity in an organisation can be a major source of stress.
2. Stress is a personal response to certain variations in the environment.
3. Individuals weakened by chronic stress are less susceptible to illnesses.
4. Skin problems are not associated with stress.

2.5 COPING WITH STRESS

Individuals cannot remain in a continuous state of tension. Even if a deliberate and
conscious strategy is not adopted to deal with stress, some innate strategy will occur.
For example, to leave the conflicts and stress to take care of themselves is one simple
strategy used in avoidance behaviour.
2.5.1 Coping Styles
The word ‘coping’ is frequently used to describe ways of dealing with stress, or to
modify or elevate the conditions causing harm, threat or challenge.
Coping responses can be active in nature and oriented towards confronting a
problem, or they can be strategies that entail an effort to reduce tension by avoiding
dealing with a problem.
The first category involves facing the realities of stress consciously, and taking
some action to solve the problems at the individual level or with the help of other
people. These styles of coping with stressful situations are functional. On the other
hand, the second category consists of persons who decide to suffer from, accept or
deny the experienced stress, or put the blame on somebody (self and others) for being
in that stressful situation. These are avoidance styles and are dysfunctional styles of
coping with stressful situations.

DEVELOPING COPING SKILLS 35

 There are seven styles of coping that are used in attempts to reduce stress–
l Avoiding the stressor: This style involves identification and active avoidance
of stress causing situations, individuals, activities, etc. This is functional but not
very effective.
l Blaming others or the system: This style is also not functional as the person
avoids dealing with the issue, its cause or effective action to reduce stress. Focus is
on blaming self or others rather than resolving stress.
l Asking others for help: This is an effective strategy that focuses on the real issues
underlying stress by talking to others, seeking suggestions, resources, etc.
l Engaging in indirect stress reducing activities: This involves indulging in
activities that reduce stress. However the stress causing factors are not directly
identified or dealt with.
l Collecting information: This involves collecting information about stressful
situations and one’s own capacity to deal with stress. This is a higher level coping
style as it involves not only identifying the stressor but also enhancing one’s own
capabilities and strengths.
l Acting the opposite of the way one feels: This is not a very healthy style although
it does relieve the person of stress and anxiety immediately. However, the underlying
problem is not dealt with adequately.
l Minimising the importance of the stressful event: This is also a useful way.
However, this cannot be relied upon very frequently. Rather than working on stress
and enhancing the capabilities to deal with it, minimising the importance could
lead to accumulation of factors.
It may be mentioned here that the above styles are not intended to suggest that
people use one kind of coping process or other exclusively. Rather, it is common
knowledge that different persons employ combinations of different strategies underlying
these styles to deal with the same kind of stress. The strategies of dealing with stress
vary from person to person and in the same person from time to time.
Research has also shown that social and emotional support available to the person
helps him/her to cope effectively with stress. Persons maintaining close interpersonal
relationships with friends and families are able to suggest and facilitate use of more
approach strategies. Social support includes both material support (providing resources)
and emotional support (listening to the person and encouraging him/her). For example,
during times of stress supportive friends and family can reassure the individual that one
is loved and cared for. However, studies have also reported that unsolicited support
may have negative consequences as individual’s own initiative may become minimal,
making him/her dependent, or the failure of the advice or support may not succeed,
causing reprisal.
2.5.2 Enhancing Coping Capabilities
It is important that schools make efforts to enable young children and adults to cope
with stresses which are accumulating in them. Family itself which was a source of
comfort and security, in modern times has become a source of stress due to

36 D EVELOPING M ENTAL H EALTH AND C OPING S KILLS

competitiveness spurred on by parents. The strategies which could enhance coping
abilities of youngsters have been discussed in this section.
However, when the stress inducers could not be identified or there is actual
underlying organic problem, drug therapy may be used. But other supportive coping
mechanisms also must be suggested for use.
The non-drug or supportive methods of coping are more advantageous and much
safer. Some of the non-drug methods, which an individual can undertake to cope
with stress, are–
(i) Exercise
Physical exercise is necessary to keep the body healthy, both physically and
mentally, and is the best antidote for stress. Emotional strength is a by-product of
regular exercise, and self-confidence is a natural consequence. Exercise eases
nervous tension and anxiety by providing an outlet for pent-up feelings of
aggression and hostility. One of the best exercises is walking.
(ii) Yoga
It involves various asanas or body postures and breathing exercises. Among these,
shavasana or the corpse posture is the best. It brings not only mental calm and
relief from stress but better health, more vigour, and a more alert mind.
According to yoga, we are unconscious of those mental/emotional/perceptual
processes which habitually create stress. Yoga involves a systematic method by
which we can begin to expand our awareness of these processes and thus begin
to gain control over them. So, in a very practical sense, yoga gives us the tools
and techniques by which we can expand our conscious awareness into the
unconscious parts of the mind in order to become aware of the patterns and
habits which lead to stress.
(iii) Meditation
Meditation is of far greater importance than medication for whatever afflicts
mankind today. Meditation is the only process by which awareness is systematically
expanded under one’s direct control. It is not a state; it is, rather, the means through
which we can achieve a particular level of awareness. Meditation is a practical,
systematic method which allows one–
l to understand himself/herself at different levels of being
l to understand his/her environment completely
l to eliminate and prevent inner conflicts
l to obtain a tranquil and peaceful mind.
It has been reported that the practice of meditation–
l reduces many problem behaviours
l increases emotional and physical health, and psychological well-being
l reduces the frequency of negative thoughts
l reduces substance abuse
l generally improves the quality of life.

DEVELOPING COPING SKILLS 37

(iv) Recreation
Recreation provides an opportunity to let oneself go, become uninhibited, thus
reducing tension and stress. There are various forms of recreation like music and
entertainment, painting, gardening, dancing, etc. These recreational pursuits are
important for the prevention of the damaging effects of stress.
(v) Communication Skills
These are very important set of skills that children lack causing stress accumulation.
Teachers can organise programmes for communication skill enhancement, play
games where children listen to each other. Some of the communication skills
have been discussed in Module-2 on ‘Counselling Skills and Strategies’.
(vi) Relationship Building and Peer Counselling Activities
You have been exposed to these in Module -2 on ‘Counselling Skills and Strategies’.
It involves developing capabilities of children and understanding the importance
of relationships for mental health. Details can be found in Module-9 on ‘Special
Concerns in Counselling’.
Besides the above mentioned strategies to overcome stress, there are certain safety valves
(Veninga and Spradley, 1981), which serve at least two important functions : enable one to
escape the direct pressure of work stress, and counteract the biochemical and psychological
changes that occur when1 mobilised to deal with stress. Some safety valves are–
l Changing Gears
It involves shifting ‘from’ work ‘to’ something else. In order to change gears, one
has to try activities that capture one’s interest. The pursuit of any non-work project
or hobby can reduce stress. Although there is no single best strategy for helping
someone to recover from stress or job burnout, sometimes an effective beginning
is to help the person regain control over leisure time. If used well, leisure can help
one to stay on an even mental keel. It is a change in setting and pace from the
highly competitive world of work and can become a form of relaxation that is
indispensable to emotional stability.
l Pamper Yourself
Most of us know how to pamper other people when they experience a crisis.
Sending flowers to a friend in the hospital is just one of the many ways in which
we pamper others. Such special attention helps people cope with stress. Pampering
oneself can have the same effect. The key object here is to break the routine.
l Warm up Slowly
One can often get control of a tense, pressured workday if one changes the way
it begins. If an individual’s day begins with a sudden rush of activity or a mad
scramble on some crowded metro, it will add to the stress. The most important
two-hour period in one’s day is prior to starting work. The little things one does in
the morning prepares one for the tensions encountered during the day.
Tubesing and Tubesing (1982) contended that stress affects the whole person.
Stress management approaches should cover all aspects of human experience.

38 D EVELOPING M ENTAL H EALTH AND C OPING S KILLS

 More than one coping style may be used in any stressful situation. None of these
styles is inherently good or bad. How well the styles work depends on the situation,
how they are used, and the degree to which they are used.
It is not advisable to use drugs continuously to cope with the stress-related ailments
like headaches and backaches etc. When the stress levels increase too much to be
handled by an individual himself and these affect his/her health and physiological
process it is advisable to consult a therapist.

Activity 2
Give any one situation that you often find stressful. What strategies would
you use to cope with that stress in your life? Explain why it is a successful
coping mechanism for you. If you don’t think that it is very successful as a
coping mechanism, describe what alternative strategy you could use in that
situation and why it might work better.

2.6 IMPLICATIONS FOR TEACHERS AND COUNSELLORS

Whenever a teacher or counsellor notices that a child is lagging behind in studies or
absenting himself/herself from school, or frequent emotional outbursts are seem without
any discernable cause they may be alert and look out for symptoms of stress due to
various factors enumerated earlier in this unit.
In such situations, it will help to talk with the child and listen to his/her difficulties.
However teachers may be cautious that many a time children are not able to articulate
their own stress. The teacher must enquire about the family, friends and other
relationships of the child to identify the sources of stress and suggest some strategies
for enhancing coping capabilities. They may even give suggestion to the parents to ease
out the stress by giving emotional support or taking care of medical problems, if any.

2.7 Summary
A stress-free life is not possible in today’s environment. All that we can
manage is to reduce our stress to a reasonable level, even to the level
where it can play a positive role rather than adversely affect our health
and well-being.
This unit has dealt with the concept of stress. The initial sections tried to
offer a definition of stress. It has also discussed the various sources of
stress, i.e. general sources as well as sources of stress at work. Every
individual needs a moderate amount of stress to be alert and capable of
functioning. However, an excess of stress can make a person
dysfunctional. The threshold of stress varies for each individual. The
consequences of stress have been described under three broad

DEVELOPING COPING SKILLS 39

 categories: psychosomatic, psychological and behavioural. Finally, the
unit explained the concept and forms of coping, and discussed some
strategies to cope effectively with stress at school level. Implications
for teachers/counsellors have also been outlined.
Self-evaluation Exercises

1. What are the three approaches to stress?

2. What are the three main sources of stress? Explain with suitable
examples.
3. Describe any three consequences of stress.
4. What is coping? Describe any four coping styles use to deal with
stress.

Answer Key to Self-evaluation Exercises

1. Elaborate on the following three approaches:
(i) Medical
(ii) Psychological
(iii) Sociological
2. Explain with examples the following three main sources of stress:
(i) Anticipated life events
(ii) Unexpected life events
(iii) Progressive, accumulating situational events
3. Describe the following consequences of stress:
(i) Psychosomatic
(ii) Psychological
(iii) Behavioural
4. Coping is the way of dealing with stress. Describe any four coping styles:
(i) Avoiding the stressor
(ii) Blaming others or the system
(iii) Asking others for help
(iv) Engaging in indirect stress reducing activities
(v) Collecting information
(vi) Acting the opposite of the way one feels
(vii) Minimising the importance of stressful events
Answer Key to Self-check Exercises
Self-check Exercise 1
1. c
2. d
3. a
4. b

40 D EVELOPING M ENTAL H EALTH AND C OPING S KILLS

Self-check Exercise 2
1. True
2. True
3. False
4. False

References

Brown, B. B. 1984. Between Health and Illness: New Notions on Stress and the Nature
of Well-being. Houghton-Miffin, Boston.
Holmes, T. H. and Rahe, R. H. 1967. The social readjustment rating scale.
Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 2, 213-18.
McEwen, B.S. 2000. Stress, Definitions and Concepts of. Encycolopedia of Stress
(Volume 3, pp.508-09). Academic Press, San Diego.
Selye, H. 1974. The Stress of Life. McGraw-Hill, New York.
Tubesing, N. L. and Tubesing, D. A. 1982. The treatment of choice: Selecting
stress skills to suit the individual and the situation. In W.S. Paine (Ed.), Job stress
and Burnout: Research, Theory, and Intervention Perspectives. Sage, California.
Veninga, R. L. and Spradley, J. P. 1981. The Work Stress Connection: How to Cope
with the Burnout. Little & Brown, Boston

Suggested Readings

Agrawal, R. 2001. Stress in Life and at Work. Response Books, New Delhi.
Lazarus, R. S. 1966. Psychological Stress and the Coping Process. McGraw-Hill.
New York.
Mason, J. W. 1975. A historical view of stress field. Journal of Human Stress.
March, 6-12.
Misra,G. (Ed). 1999. Psychological Perspectives on Stress and Health. Concept.
New Delhi.
Pestonjee, D. M. 1999. Stress and Coping: The Indian Experience (2nd ed.). Sage,
New Delhi.
Taylor, S. E. 2006. Health Psychology (6th ed.). Tata McGraw-Hill. New Delhi.

DEVELOPING COPING SKILLS 41

 Managing Cultur
Culturalal Diversity
3 for Adjustment

3.0 Introduction
3.1 Objectives
3.2 What is Culture?
3.2.1 Characteristics of a Culture
3.2.2 Social Norms and Standards
3.2.3 Culture and Socialisation in Families
3.2.4 Variations within and Across
Cultures
3.3 Cultural Influences on Adjustment
3.3.1 Information and Technology
3.3.2 Pace of Life
3.3.3 Social Reorganisation
3.3.4 Changed Living Styles
3.3.5 Intermingling of Cultures
3.4 Managing Cultural Diversity
3.4.1 Cross-cultural Communications
3.4.2 Self-awareness
3.4.3 Familiarity with Other Cultures
3.4.4 Sensitivity to Culturally Different
3.4.5 Communication Skills
3.5 Role of Culture in Counselling
3.5.1 Intercultural Communication
3.5.2 Implications of Ethnocentrism for
Counselling
3.5.3 Qualities of a Culturally Sensitive
Counsellor
3.6 Summary
Self-evaluation Exercises
Answer Key to Self-evaluation Exercises
Answer Key to Self-check Exercises
Suggested Readings
 Managing Cultural Diversity
for Adjustment 3

3.0 INTRODUCTION
Previously the development and
adjustment of individuals, as
influenced by various internal
factors and external environmental
factors such as family, peer group,
and school, were discussed. The
external factors, however, vary
across social groups. There are
influences even beyond the
immediate environment–
geographical, economic and
sociological in origin–that affect the process of adjustment and development across a
life span. There may or may not be visible effects of these factors on the adjustment
and development across a life span. These factors also interact with the local
neighbourhood, family, school and work environment, and their effect on the individuals
could be altered. These tangible or intangible influences are referred to as culture by
sociologists. Culture is that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals,
laws, customs and other capabilities acquired as member of a social group. The large
social group that shares culture is also referred to as societies. These capabilities are the
product of socialisation. With increasing globalisation and migration of work forces
around the globe, it is becoming very common to find people from diverse cultural
backgrounds working together. Different ethnic, cultural and racial groups encounter
each other, which causes problems of adjustment. There is diversity within social groups.
The needs, goals and aspirations of these social groups sometimes clash with each
other and give rise to conflicts of various kinds. Problems of adjustment arise due to
these conflicts.
 This unit will introduce you to the concept of culture and its characteristics. The
implications of culture for socialisation and adjustment are discussed. The way culture
influences various social norms and practices prevalent in the society, that in turn
influences the psychological adjustment are discussed. There is also description of
conflicts among individuals that arise at various levels due to differences in socialisation
of cultures. This unit will also familiarise you with ways of dealing with cultural diversity
and the attitudes and skills that impart cross-cultural orientation to counselling.

3.1 OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit, you will be able to
l understand the different characteristics of culture.
l explain the relationship between culture and socialisation practices.
l understand the role of cultural norms and practices in the society for promoting
adjustment.
l explain the implications of cultural diversity for adjustment.
l list the important skills for adjusting to culturally diverse environments.

3.2 WHAT IS CULTURE?

Culture is the description of the way people live in a certain geographical area. It is
adaptation of the individual to the unique environment prevailing in the area. Therefore,
culture is created by people and passed on to the following generations. As a way of life,
it includes styles of eating food, dress, language, sculpture and other art forms as well as
attitudes, beliefs, values and goals that are learned through socialisation. These are often
transmitted from one generation to another and provide certain degree of continuity of
the social life. Due to sharing of common ways of living, people inhabiting a certain area
are also referred to as a society. Ecological and climatic conditions shape cultures and
place certain limits on the cultural lives of people, which in turn influence the development
patterns and personality of the people. For instance, those geographical regions where
severe weather conditions prevail, most of the socio-cultural activities get organised around
spring. In addition to the climate, technology and economic conditions too have their
influence on culture. Therefore, before we can discuss the role played by culture, it is
important to understand some characteristics that define a culture.
3.2.1 Characteristics of a Culture
Culture is the result of learning beliefs, attitudes and values that are considered
appropriate. Sometimes, even after the people have moved to another place, these
attitudes continue. These attitudes and beliefs dictate about how one should behave in
public and private life. These rules indicate that everyone accepts them as good practice
and enforces them. These cultural rules are agreed upon and time tested ways of being,
passed on and accumulated over the years. Although cultures continuously evolve, it is
a slow and invisible change. Only over a long period of time change could be seen. The
change is apparent if there is a recorded history.

44 D EVELOPING M ENTAL H EALTH AND C OPING S KILLS

 (i) Culture is learned – Culture is a way of life that is acquired during the process of
growing up. It structures a person’s attitudes, values, beliefs and habits. The family
is generally the first institution where transfer of cultural characteristics to a child
occurs. Parents model the culturally approved behaviours and attitudes. The family
ensures learning of cultural ways by use of rewards and punishment so that a
youngster’s behaviour conforms to the cultural norms. This process of transmitting
culture from one generation to the next is learned through socialisation. One learns
socially appropriate ways of satisfying one’s needs. Although the biological needs
of humans are same–food, shelter, self–defence, etc–each culture determines in
its own way how their needs will be met. These different ways are learned.
(ii) Culture determines the way needs are satisfied–Culture lays down conditions
and rules as to how one satisfies needs like eating, enjoying leisure hours, nurturing
of children, maintaining relationships, etc. It also determines aesthetics, ethical,
and social standards of behaviour of the group. The way women should dress or
the kind of hair considered attractive is exclusive for each culture. Even ethical
ways are quite unique to culture. For example, in India, giving alms could be right
but it may not be so in other countries/cultures which consider begging unethical.
(iii) Culture is collective and shared–It is the outcome of the shared expectations
of all members of a group about their quality of life. It is a social practice to which
allegiance is desired by a majority of the members of the group. Although there
may be deviations, these are tolerated within a certain range only; beyond that the
group will apply sanctions. The beliefs about women’s freedom or dress are shared
members. There may be variations but generally all conform to these belief.
(iv) Culture is the sum total of social heritage–Culture is linked with the past. The
past endures because it lives in the present culture. It is passed from generation to
generation through traditions and customs. The socialisation processes connected
to a particular culture ensure its transmission to the next generation. However, the
changes acquired over the period are an essential feature. These changes don’t
appear as discontinuities, as the process of change is slow and invisible. It is only
after a long interval that some changes become visible. Cultures are perceived to
be social heritage passed on from the past, even though there are changes in it.
(v) Cultures evolve into forms that are more complex–Since culture is the outcome
of adaptation to climatic and geographical realities over a period, the progress of
culture proceeds through greater specialisation and interdependence. Division of
labour which develops special skills is an important characteristic of societies. For
example, technical revolution brought about by increasing mechanisation, first
the spinning wheel and later more complex machinery, led to the task of preparing
cloth getting diversified. The farmers growing cotton were confined to it. Others
engaged with dying, processing and still others in sale etc. Therefore, climate for
growing cotton, availability of machinery and space for dying etc. determined the
role of each section of society.

MANAGING CULTURAL DIVERSITY FOR ADJUSTMENT 45

(vi) Culture is an integrated system–The attitudes, beliefs and values that are
characteristic of the culture are its response to the realities experienced by the
members. The attitudes and beliefs are all part of a whole interconnected system
rather than discrete qualities. These stem from an ideal conception of society,
which lays down an integrated system of behaviours, with its supporting ideas and
values. In a highly integrated culture, all elements fit harmoniously together. The
adoption of modern technology by traditional societies brought about changes in
their traditional culture. In places where girls began to ride bicycles, the dress they
wore was suitably altered. The expansion of office and the cost of living luxurious
life in cities drove women to work.
(vii) Language is the chief vehicle of culture–The most symbolic aspect of a culture
is its language. The wisdom of the past could not possibly be handed down through
generations unless a language is available. Language makes possible this continuity
of the culture and belongingness. Language is so intimately tied up with culture
that every new addition to a group’s cultural heritage involves additions to the
language. In order to know a group one must learn to speak its language. Cultures
produce language, but language helps or hinders the spread of culture. Those who
speak a particular language also subscribe to a set of attitudes and beliefs inherent
in the language. As one learns a new language one is bound to be affected by the
beliefs inherent in it.
You can identify a culture as a separate entity through an analysis of its
characteristics. Based on these characteristics, a culture guides the way an
individual’s needs are satisfied. Society has provision for sanctions if individuals
do not comply with its cultural norms in fulfilling those needs.
The next section will discuss the norms and standards that a culture may ascribe to
ensure its own continuity.
3.2.2 Social Norms and Standards
Cultural norms regarding behaviours in different situations have to be followed. These
are often specified according to roles and expectations of individuals. Also, the ways of
expressing emotions are culture-specific. Expression of pleasure and displeasure often
varies across cultures. Expressing grief and mourning is done in many ways. Gender
differences are also linked with culture. For instance, in India men are expected to be
strong and women as weak, shy and soft-spoken. Culture defines the expected behaviours
for various roles within the family. Customs, religious practices, and rituals that are
culturally shaped play an important role in determining and organising human behaviour.
The members belonging to a culture share beliefs, values and norms for conducting
their day-to-day affairs. It is expected that members of a culture have similar assumptions
regarding how people should think, behave and communicate.
Society has norms set for most of the individual’s behaviour in public and private
life. There are standards for almost all occasions. In India marriages are solemnised by
priests and there are regional variations as per the socially approved way. For instance,
generally the men remain in their house after marriage and it is the bride who goes and

46 D EVELOPING M ENTAL H EALTH AND C OPING S KILLS

lives with the husband; in certain communities it is the groom who goes to live with the
brides’ family. Similarly, there are norms that guide all other kinds of social interactions.
Most members of a culture strictly follow the social norms, however, there are
deviations. These deviations from norms are tolerated to a certain degree by all societies
but there are limits beyond which such deviations are dealt with sternly. Many deviations
though are not illegal but still individuals do not cross the dictates of society.
There are sub-cultures within many societies that vary substantially from each other.
For instance, in India, the way people in north India live is very different from south
India or east India. The language, dress and the economic conditions too are different.
However, economy and availability of technological advancements, or urban-rural
characteristics of a society also change the lifestyle and the social norms. In rural areas,
for instance, the dress, education of girls and their role expectations vary substantially
from those of the urban areas.
Each culture ensures that children learn behaviour considered appropriate for them.
Thus, learning takes place through socialisation within families, which is discussed in the
next section.
3.2.3 Culture and Socialisation in Families
The conformity to socio-cultural mores by individuals is the result of socialisation
within families. Family ensures a child’s obedience to the cultural norms.
All societies ensure that individual members are aware of the cultural norms and
standards, acquire appropriate attitudes and values and behave in socially desirable ways
in line with society thinking ways. Socialisation process which begins in the family ensures
nurturance of these attitudes, values and behaviours. The family promotes learning of
their norms by persuading children, by withholding rewards and modeling appropriate
behaviours. As the children grow out of the family and enter the school system, the
teachers apply sanctions and encourage behaviour in line with society’s expectations.
Their peers, friends, community, and other organisations where the individual moves
through also help monitor the attitudes and values, and ensure conformity to social
norms.
These relate to the following aspects of individual behaviour–gender appropriate
behaviour and sex-role learning, and moral development.
Although in most cultures women are considered emotional, nurturing, and less
aggressive than males, but how exactly these traits find expression in different cultures
differs. For example, western society places high value on independence including the
independence of women.
Moral development is another very crucial characteristic of culture. Each culture
has well defined do’s and don’ts. If these are not adhered to, there would be criticism and
sanctions. However, societies marked by a diverse cultural climate often find
contradictory situations existing side by side. For instance, in Asian communities, taking
responsibility for old parents is morally correct while in Western society, living away
from parents is an accepted norm.

MANAGING CULTURAL DIVERSITY FOR ADJUSTMENT 47

3.2.4 Variations within and Across Cultures
Largely all the members fulfil the expectations of the society about the approved
behaviour in line with its norms and values. Societies use sanctions against members
who deviate from the norms. However, not all the members conform to the standards
completely. In spite of the fact that the most of the people most of time conform to the
rules, there will be members who are very high or very low, and still others would be
average in their conformity. Another source of variation is the degree of conformity to
the societal norms as caused by the very nature of the norms. There are core values and
standards, the norms which are enforced very strictly. For instance, there are codes about
covering the body but the kind of dress one wears and how revealing it is may not be
strictly sanctioned. Although there are unspoken or implicit norms, these are not strictly
enforced. Thus, not all norms of the society are equally enforced. These deviations lead
to differences in adherence to rules by different people. These deviations have implications
for adjustment of the individuals and their quality of life, particularly whenever there are
interactions among individuals from different groups.
3.2.4.1 Adjustment or Variation
As children grow, the requisite values, attitudes and behaviours become internalised
and form the moral framework against which they judge theirs and other’s decisions.
Any deviation from these accepted and internalised ways of behaving may meet with
criticism and disapproval.
Conflicts arise because of the variation in the learning of the acceptable norms in
attitudes and values’ and determining the flexibility in practising those norms. For example,
often people express outrage when youngsters do not adhere to the accepted dress code
or language or other social behaviour.
When individuals from different cultures or sub-cultures within a society are in
social contact, prejudices are born which are reflected in rejection and isolation of the
other. Sometimes these may not result in direct conflict but biases can remain hidden in
the form of social structures that are disadvantageous to those in a minority. Minority
groups often do not possess the essential resources and means to promote their own
welfare, education or health, etc. The majority group, having access to power, generally
manages to control the resources, opportunities, and dominates the other groups. Thereby
the majority culture becomes instrumental in destroying the quality of life of the minority
group. In schools when children mix, if they keep minority children out, the latter may
harbour deep anguish towards the community. The good practice would be to help both
interact and understand each other.

Self-check Exercise 1
1. Define culture.
2. List seven characteristics of culture.
3. What are cultural norms and standards?
4. How do cultures get perpetuated?

48 D EVELOPING M ENTAL H EALTH AND C OPING S KILLS

3.3 CULTURAL INFLUENCES ON ADJUSTMENT
People adjust to their own cultures by assimilating all of the norms of that culture. It
becomes more difficult when a society must accommodate multi-cultural influences
forcing individuals to both recognise and choose between differing norms. You have
just looked at the adjustment an individual makes within a particular culture. That
adjustment is supported and influenced by family and a close society that surrounds
them.
Cultural evolution poses a second influence on the adjustment of a person. Cultures
evolve through various changes brought about by such influences as technology, migration
of worker or trade, which cause the mixing of cultures and blurring of cultural boundaries
or norms. Let us see how all these three factors influence adjustment.

Activity 1
Think about a situation where you had the feeling of being lost because you
were seeking a host of new things, people, etc. from your past experience. It
can be about a new work culture or study environment with people from diverse
cultural backgrounds. Mention any five aspects that you felt or you faced in the
new environment.

3.3.1 Information and Technology

The world is moving towards a new era in which information and technology are key
players. The various spheres of life, i.e. family, health, business and education are
organised around information. Information changes the way one behaves, it influences
attitudes and behaviours. Youngsters who are exposed to ways of other cultures and
societies are changing. It is leading to good practices like learning of new languages,
adoption of gadgets for making life comfortable as well as some negative practices like
teenage pregnancies and alcohol consumption at an early age. We are now living in a
world in which technology is the guiding force for most of the activities. Youngsters
are more adept in the use of these technologies and thereby possess more information
than older members of family and even those on the job. The decision-making efficiency
of youngsters, due to their access to information, poses challenges to authority and
power relationships. Fast working powerful technologies have changed the experience
of time and space, and people need to adjust. For example, look at the ways in which
the cell phone has influenced current lives.
3.3.2 Pace of Life
Lifestyles are changing very fast. Traditional lifestyles have given way to new and more
practical ways of living. These new ways too have a short life span. Constant change
creates instability, confusion and induces a feeling of being lost. It also puts pressure
on people to adapt to rapid change by learning new skills and ways of life. For instance,
the emerging new jobs like call centre operators require not only new technical skills
but also a different daily routine and social environment. Middle class youth get employed

MANAGING CULTURAL DIVERSITY FOR ADJUSTMENT 49

at an early age, work late in night shifts and young men and women earn more money
than parents. Suddenly from the protection of parents they are independent, thus causing
complications in their emotional lives as seen by the increased love affairs, stress, etc.
There is need for learning better self management skills too.
The change in technology also brings people from different cultural backgrounds
in touch with each other, which requires sensitivity towards others’ views, expressions
and emotions. In the absence of skills to handle changes in cultural experiences, conflicts
are inevitable.
3.3.3 Social Reorganisation
The organisational structures are changing in many ways. The entry of women to new areas
of work force is another change. This requires major skill in attitudes and beliefs of men
towards them as co-workers. There is a shift for men to consider their wives as equal members
of the family. These basic cultural changes can cause conflicts unless the individuals adjust
to the new standards. The working of both the spouses has lead to crèches, old age homes
and other institutions to take care of family members. The lack of known social group
members is leading to marriages bureaus. The greater stress of adjustment has also put
pressure on marriages leading to problems of divorced daughters living with family. On the
organisational front the jobs specialisation has created placement agencies.
3.3.4 Changed Living Styles
The traditional institutions of family and kinship, characterised by stability and deep
emotional bonds, are challenged by the demands of new lifestyles. The instances of
both husband and wife working are on the increase. This presents problems for traditional
child rearing. Multigenerational and joint families are being replaced by nuclear families.
These changes can cause stress and anxiety in the lives of people involved in the
transition. Sick parents, children, etc. are being left alone at home due to absence of
grand parents.
The breaking down of traditional social institutions that had earlier helped health
and healing has adversely affected modern professional health services.
3.3.5 Intermingling of Cultures
Mobility of people is increasing. Migration of people to different places in the world
has changed cultural composition within countries. Different cultural groups living
together has led to changes and modifications in their style of life, religious practices
and language, and traditions. Research indicates that the majority has been found to be
enjoying better social conditions than minority groups who are likely to be oppressed,
disadvantaged or discriminated against. As a result, sometimes the minority groups
take on the characteristics of the majority which had been termed the process of
sanskritisation in India. The values of consumerism, competition and ostentatious living
have become dominant. Unlimited aspirations are receiving priority over traditional
social concerns of interdependence and cooperation. The dominant concerns become
of majority acquiring social status of life. The sort of support necessary for health and
well-being is decreasing. This is creating loneliness and depression.

50 D EVELOPING M ENTAL H EALTH AND C OPING S KILLS

 On one hand there is competition to become similar to dominant group; on the
other hand there is social economic status prejudice and biases towards culturally different.
These biases remain hidden in the form of social structures and practices maintained by
majority which are sometimes disadvantageous to the minority groups. The minority
groups get isolated. The dominant cultural group is perceived hostile as it controls jobs,
information and opportunities. The minority groups tend to stick together and violence
erupts whenever there is interface or provocation. However, even in the absence of
overt violence and conflict there is hostility which remain invisible. There is need for
intervention to promote positive attitudes.
Understanding individuals of other cultures as real individuals rather than as a
group sharing similar characteristics helps reveal cross-cultural similarities between
individuals. The understanding of other cultures requires developing positive attitudes
and skills that promote cross-cultural understanding. The tolerance for cultural diversity
and positive attitudes create harmony among culturally diverse populations.

3.4 MANAGING CULTURAL DIVERSITY

Developing multicultural orientation requires development of communication skills to
understand others. Communication skills refer to listening and attending others efficiently
individuals from different when cultures come together, their capabilities of attending
and listening attentively will help in developing positive relationships and managing
differences.
3.4.1 Cross-cultural Communications
While communicating with people from other cultures it is necessary to keep their
cultural background in mind. In a situation where you have to speak or write to a
person from a different culture you may understand the message on the basis of the
assumptions of your own culture. The receiver of the message may understand the
message as per the assumptions of his or her own culture. In this process the meaning
may be distorted or lost. In order to bridge the cultural differences successfully one
may have to develop self-awareness and the skills of cross cultural communication.
These cross cultural communication skills facilitate development of a multicultural
identity. Multicultural identity is the product of the following.
3.4.2 Cultural Awareness
This refers to an awareness of typical attitudes and beliefs that characterise a person of
your own culture and how these differ from that of other cultures, and the way these
attitudes and beliefs alter your own conception of different social situations.
Understanding of socialisation processes which ensure that people adhere to these
beliefs may help you to overcome dysfunctional ones. Self-awareness develops as a
result of efforts to understand other cultures and explore your own attitudes. In order
to develop self-awareness, a counsellor has to explore other cultures with an attitude
of understanding them.

MANAGING CULTURAL DIVERSITY FOR ADJUSTMENT 51

 Developing knowledge of multicultural issues and reading about them also facilitate
development of multicultural orientation.
What are the hurdles that come in the way of living in a multicultural environments
in different parts of the world? How do cultural interactions give rise to misunderstanding
of each other and discriminatory or prejudicial behaviour?
3.4.3 Familiarity with Other Cultures
It is important that those dealing with culturally
diverse populations try to develop as much
knowledge about their cultural practices, customs,
traditions, etc. as possible from all sources like stories,
newspapers, anecdotes or art.
3.4.4 Sensitivity to Culturally Different
Sensitivity to the other cultures means that when you
are with them you try to shown respect and concern for the customs and practices
which are different from yours, and try to understand them. It also means you do not
ridicule or belitte others even if they look irrational from your cultural perspective. It is
in this zone of extending acceptance that people forge bonds and change tools.

Self-check Exercise 2
1. Which of the following is an attribute of culture?
(a) language
(b) ethnic group
(c) gender
(d) all of the above
2. Which of the following is not a way to improve listening skills?
(i) empathise with client (ii) argue with client
(iii) ask questions (iv) make judgments

3.4.5 Communication Skills

Listening is perhaps the most important communication skill that a culturally sensitive
counsellor should master. You already know that the meaning of a message may change
depending upon the way a receiver interprets the message received. If one has no
knowledge of other cultures, then the meaning of the message or gesture is most likely
to be misinterpreted. It is important that one has the right attitude which can be acquired
through self-awareness and listening. Some important tips for improving listening skills
are as follows–
l Attend to the listener
l Show respect for the person you are listening to
l Show the person that you want to listen

52 D EVELOPING M ENTAL H EALTH AND C OPING S KILLS

l Focus on what he or she is saying
l Use appropriate non-verbal cues and paraphrasing to show that you are paying
attention
l Remove distractions
l Be patient
l Empathise with the client
l Hold your temper
l Instead of argument and criticism, ask questions
l Don’t ask excessive questions
l Avoid judgmental remarks like stupid, callous etc.
l Try to understand what the client means.
Counsellors need to be aware of their own cultural biases as discussed above before
they can successfully overlook or work with the cultural biases of their students. Listening
skills will help you improve your insight into where your student is forming their opinions
and perceptions.

3.5 ROLE OF CULTURE IN COUNSELLING

Culturally sensitive counsellors engage in actions or create conditions that maximise
the optimal development of client. The multicultural counselling competence, therefore,
involves acquisition of awareness, knowledge and skills needed to function effectively
in a pluralistic society. To this end communication skills are essential. With this in view
we may discuss important aspects of intercultural communication. Such
communications will be beneficial if the cultural differences in social values, roles and
status, decision making, customs, concepts of time, concepts of personal space, cultural
context, body language, social behaviour and manners, and patterns of legal and ethical
behaviour are recognised.
3.5.1 Intercultural Communication
Communicating with culturally diverse groups can improve if the communication
respects the following rules.
Acceptance of cultural differences
1. Adjust communication to client’s educational level.
2. Encourage client to openly discuss their culture’s customs so that differences
won’t seem strange.
3. Recognise and overcome ethnocentric reactions and stereotyping.
4. Help to stamp out negative or stereotype labels by noticing how people identify
their own groups.
Handling oral and written communication
1. Repeat the information frequently to emphasise important points.
2. Use familiar words wherever possible.
3. Don’t overload by covering too much information at one time.
4. Be specific and explicit, using descriptive words and examples wherever
possible.
MANAGING CULTURAL DIVERSITY FOR ADJUSTMENT 53
 5. Give clear reasons for following a given procedure and explain what happens
if the procedure is not followed.
6. Reduce barriers caused by language differences.
Assessing how well you have been understood
1. Be alert to facial expressions and other non verbal signs that indicate confusion
or embarrassment.
2. Observe how clients use the information you’ve provided, and review any points
that may have been misunderstood.
3. Try to understand the non verbal reactions of other cultures so that you’re
prepared to spot the more subtle signs of misunderstanding.
Offering feedback to improve communication
1. Offer feedback in terms of behaviors and conditions, not judgements about
the person.
2. Be supportive when giving feedback and reassure the client.
3.5.2 Implications of Ethnocentrism for Counselling
People often exhibit the tendency to like their own culture and are critical of the others’
culture. This is a common phenomenon called ethnocentrism. Let us try to understand it.
In a way all of us in India are multicultural beings. We belong to a culture that is shared
by the people who live in the same country. But we also belong to other cultural groups
including an ethnic group, a religious group, or a professional group. However, while
dealing with people of a different culture we tend to consider our own culture as the
standard or yardstick for judging other cultures. This reflects ethnocentric behaviour.
Ethnocentrism is a stumbling block in understanding other cultures. In order to reduce
ethnocentrism we must learn to appreciate the best that humans have produced, no
matter where it was developed. We must learn to analyse cultures objectively. While
dealing with culturally different groups, a counsellor must assume differences. The
emphasis should be on the description rather than interpretation or passing judgment
or evaluation. Finally, counsellor should not interpret other culture: rather should explore
and become aware of other practices.
When a client and counsellor come from different cultural backgrounds, it becomes
difficult to establish a quickly effective relationship.
3.5.3 Qualities of a Culturally Sensitive Counsellor
In ethnically diverse societies, mental and physical health services have to be offered
to a wide range of groups. So, in order to become a culturally sensitive counsellor, the
following qualities are desirable–
1. Awareness of oneself in the cultural context
(a) be aware of your own values and assumptions regarding human behaviour
(b) read about instances of racial and other forms of social oppression
(c) become aware of the cultural differences
(d) try to explore from a client’s point of view how cultural values influence their

54 D EVELOPING M ENTAL H EALTH AND C OPING S KILLS

 specific behaviours such as attitudes towards women, child rearing, or
discipline practices
(e) be willing to develop warm and deep relationships with culturally different
individuals
(f) be willing to self-disclose that others may also feel that they can express
themselves freely
2. Skill building
(a) be open to and accepting of their own values and beliefs
(b) accept personal responsibility for your own behaviours
(c) do not engage in cultural oppression
(d) be eclectic in approach and draw from a variety of techniques suitable to the
client’s lifestyle.
3. Understanding the worldview of the culturally different client
(a) their negative emotional reactions toward other/different groups
(b) their stereotypes and preconceived notions about other groups
4. Knowledge and information about others
(a) the group they are working with
(b) how race, culture and ethnicity, etc. may influence personality formation,
vocational choices, manifestation of psychological disorders, and help seeking
behaviours 1
(c) socio-political influences that impinge upon the life of different cultural, racial
and ethnic groups
(d) should familiarise themselves with relevant studies on mental health and mental
disorder of various ethnic groups
(e) are capable of involvement with minority individuals outside the counselling
setting.
5. Developing appropriate intervention strategies and techniques, attitudes,
language and beliefs of the clients
(a) respect client’s religious and/or spiritual beliefs and values about physical
and mental functioning
(b) respect indigenous helping practices and help giving networks
(c) value bilingualism and do not view another language as an impediment to
counselling.
6. Nature of intervention
(a) Knowledge of the generic characteristics of counselling and therapy and the
way they may clash with the values of different groups
(b) Knowledge of institutional barriers that prevent minorities from using mental
health services
(c) Awareness of the potential bias in assessment instruments, and use procedures
and interpret findings in view of the culture characteristics of clients.
(d) Understanding of family structures, hierarchies , values and beliefs of different
cultures

MANAGING CULTURAL DIVERSITY FOR ADJUSTMENT 55

 (e) Knowledge of discriminatory practices against specific cultural groups at the
social and community level.

Self-check Exercise 3
Fill in the blanks from the following alternatives.
(a) art (b) ethnocentrism
(c) adjustment (d) values
1. ___________________ is a process of achieving match between the demands
of environment and capacities of a person.
2. Material culture is represented by _______________ .
3. Subjective culture is represented by _______________.
4. ________________ acts as a stumbling block in the process of understanding
other cultures.

Activity 2
1. List down the ways in which your values/language/rituals etc. are similar
as well as different. Discuss these with a friend.
2. Choose any three of your friends from different regions and cultural
backgrounds. Discuss with your friends what they think about their
culture and the culture of others i.e., about language, food habits, family,
festivals, etc. Note it down and compare the perceptions of the culturally
different groups.

3.6 Summary
Contemporary societies are changing very fast and new challenges are
posed to one’s adjustment. These challenges include communication
revolution, technological advancement and the connection across
cultures. The meaning of self and adjustment varies across cultures.
Cultural diversity is something that is present in a large number of
societies. Culture is shared meaning and practices. The counsellor should
be sensitive to culture. People who are in the helping professions,
therefore, should learn more about cultural variety and its influence on
human functioning. The culturally skilled counsellor has to develop
competencies by refining their attitudes, beliefs, knowledge and
intervention strategies. They need to know their own culture as well the
culture of clients. The ethnocentric view needs to be replaced by respect
and sensitivity for other cultures. Communication skills play a major
role in this process. The nuances of intercultural communication need
to be attended to and appropriate skills have to be evolved.

56 D EVELOPING M ENTAL H EALTH AND C OPING S KILLS

 1. Write 250 words explaining culture. Why should a counsellor be
sensitive to cultural aspects of their client?
Self-evaluation Exercises

2. What are the challenges caused by cultural diversity faced by

mankind in today’s world? What are the impacts of these challenges?
3. Write a paragraph explaining ethnocentrism. Elaborate the concept
of ethnocentrism by giving an example.
4. What should be the role of a counsellor in dealing with culturally
different groups?
5. Is it necessary to achieve intercultural communication? Why? Give
five instances of cross-cultural communication.
6. What qualities are required to become a culturally sensitive counsellor?

Answer Key to Self-evaluation Exercises

1. Elaborate on the following points:
l Elaborate on the different aspects of culture and how it creates continuity of
social life. Also mention about other factors that give shape to culture.
l Cultural aspects involve various values, styles and norms which influences
one’s life. Only if a counsellor knows about these, can
adjustment be influenced by one’s culture.
2. Elaborate on the following points:
l Various challenges faced like the information technology revolution, constant
change in society, new forms of organisations – MNCs, BPOs etc. – and
changing lifestyle of people.
l Elaborate on the changes brought about by each factor, e.g., how it brings
anxiety, stress, and how it creates instability, confusion, and feeling of loss.
3. Elaborate on the following points:
l Elaborate on the meaning of ethnocentrism and give an example for the same.
l Make a note on the drawbacks of ethnocentrism and the ways to reduce
ethnocentrism.
4. The main concern should be on the way a counsellor handles a culturally diverse
group. Emphasis should be on description and not on interpretation, evaluation
or passing judgment. Counsellor should have awareness about cultural practices
and explore it rather than making his/her own interpretation.
5. Elaborate on the following points:
l Intercultural communication helps in bridging cultural differences. Elaborate
on how the meanings of messages are distorted or lost.
l Elaborate on what the cross-cultural studies of communication indicate.
6. A counsellor, in order to the culturally sensitive, should learn more about cultural
variety and its influence on human functioning. A counsellor has to develop
competencies in terms of communication skills, listening skills, and should refine
their attitudes, beliefs, knowledge and intervention strategies.

MANAGING CULTURAL DIVERSITY FOR ADJUSTMENT 57

Answer Key to Self-check Exercises
Self-check Exercise 1
1. Refer to Section 3.2
2. Refer to Section 3.2.1
3. Refer to Section 3.2.2
4. Refer to Section 3.2.3
Self-check Exercise 2
1. d
2. d
Self-check Exercise 3
5. c
6. a
7. d
8. b

Suggested Readings

American Psychological Association. 1993. Guidelines for providers of

psychological services to ethnic, linguistic and culturally diverse populations.
American Psychologist. 48, 45–48.
Cheatham, H. E., Ivey, A. E., Ivey, M. B. and Simek-Morgan, L. 1993.
Multicultural counseling and therapy: Changing the foundations of the field.
In A.E. Ivey,
Dryden, W. and Thorne, B. 1991. Training and Supervision for Counselling in Action.
Sage. London.
Geworge, R. L. and Christiani, T. S. 1990. Counselling Theory and Practice. Prentice-
Hall. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey.
Ivey, A. E., Ivey, M. B. and Simek-Morgan, L. (Eds.). 1993. Counselling and
Psychotherapy: A Multicultural Perspective. Allyn and Bacon. Boston.
Pederson, P. B. (Ed.). 1985. Handbook of Cross-cultural Counselling and Therapy.
Greenwood Press. Westport, CT.
Pederson, P. B. 1990. The multicultural perspective as a fourth force in
counseling. Journal of Mental Health Counselling. 12, 93–95.
Ponterotto, J. G., Cassa, J. M., Suzuki, L. A. and Alexander, C. M. (Eds.). 1995.
Handbook of Multicultural Counselling. Sage. Thousand Oaks.

58 D EVELOPING M ENTAL H EALTH AND C OPING S KILLS

 NOTES

MANAGING CULTURAL DIVERSITY FOR ADJUSTMENT 59

NOTES
 List of Course Material

Imagine life as a game in which you are juggling five

balls in the air. You name them – work, family, health,
friends, and spirit – and you're keeping all of these in
the air. You will soon understand that work is a rubber
ball. If you drop it, it will bounce back. But the other
four balls – family, health, friends, and spirit are made
of glass. If you drop one of these, they will be irrevocably
scuffed, marked, nicked, damaged, or even shattered.
They will never be the same. You must understand that
and strive for balance in your life.

—BRIAN DYSON
 Module 10

Developing
Mental Health and
Coping Skills
2359

DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY AND

FOUNDATIONS OF EDUCATION
ISBN 978-81-7450-957-4