GSO S6 01(M/P)

Exam. Code: SOP6A

RURAL AND URBAN SOCIOLOGY

SEMESTER VI

SOCIOLOGY
BLOCK 1

KRISHNA KANTA HANDIQUI STATE OPEN UNIVERSITY

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 Subject Experts

Professor Jyoti Prasad Saikia, Dibrugarh University

Professor Dr. Nirmali Goswami, Tezpur Central University

Course Co-ordinator: Dola Borkataki, KKHSOU

SLM Preparation Team

UNITS CONTRIBUTORS
1 Dr. Indrani Sarma, Cotton University
3,4,6,7 Pooja Kotoky, Researcher
2 Dola Borkataki, KKHSOU
5 Dr. Upala Barua, Cotton University
Dola Borkataki, KKHSOU
8 Dr. Upala Barua, Cotton University

Editorial Team
Content : Dr. Sambit Mallick, IIT, Guwahati
Language : Prithwa Deb, Debraj Roy College

Structure, Format & Graphics : Dola Borkataki, KKHSOU

August, 2019

ISBN:
This Self Learning Material (SLM) of the Krishna Kanta Handiqui State University
is made available under a Creative Commons Attribution-Non Commercial-ShareAlike4.0
License (International): http.//creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0.
Printed and published by Registrar on behalf of the Krishna Kanta Handiqui State Open
University.

Head Office : Patgaon, Rani Gate, Guwahati-781 017;

City Office : Housefed Complex, Dispur, Guwahati-781 006; Website: www.kkhsou.in

The University acknowledges with thanks the financial support provided by the
Distance Education Bureau, UGC, for the preparation of this study material.

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 CONTENTS

Page No:
UNIT 1: INTRODUCTION TO RURAL SOCIOLOGY 7-18
Scope of Rural Sociology, Characteristics of Rural Society, Rural-Urban
Continuum.
UNIT 2: RURAL SOCIAL STRUCTURE 19-29
Rural Social Structure in India, Caste in Rural Society, Class in Indian
Rural Society, Family and kinship.
UNIT 3: CHANGING TRENDS IN RURAL SOCIAL STRUCTURE 30-42
Migration, Types and Determinants of Migration; Urbanization and its
Causes; Effects of Rural-Urban Migration and Urbanisation; Caste-Class
Continuum;
UNIT 4: RURAL ECONOMY 43-60
Land Tenure System, Land Reforms, Green Revolution, Bonded and
Migrant Labourers.
UNIT 5: CHANGES IN THE RURAL ECONOMY 61-75
Changes in Rural Economic Structure after Independence, Changes in
Agriculture, Structural Changes Transformation from Subsistence to
Market Economy, Other Changes ; Causes and Factors of Changes,
Impact of Science and Technology, Impact of Industrialisation, Impact of
Urbanisation and Rural Outmigration, Impact of Liberalisation and
Globalisation, Growth of Secondary and Tertiary Sector, Poverty
Alleviation in rural area
UNIT 6: RURAL POLITICAL STRUCTURE 76-97
Traditional Caste System in India, Features of Caste System., Evolution
in the Caste System, Caste in rural political structutre; Village Panchayat,
Panchayati Raj System in India, Salient Feature of Panchayat Raj
System, Composition and Functions of Panchayati Raj Institution,
Women Empowerment in Panchayati Raj Institution.
UNIT 7: DEVELOPMENT OF WOMEN AND CHILDREN IN RURAL AREAS 98-112
Women in Indian Economy; Ministry of Women and Child Development;
Social and Economic Development Schemes for Women; Integrated
Child Protection Schemes

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 UNIT 8: RURAL RELIGION 113-129
Religion: Definitions and Meaning; Sociological Approach to the study of
Religion; Social Functions of Religion; Rural Religion in India: An
Overview; Significance of the study of Rural Religion; Characteristics of
Rural Religion in India; Changing Scenerio; Functions of Rural Religion
in India

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 COURSE INTRODUCTION

The course ‘Rural and Urban Sociology’ introduces a specialised field of Sociology dealing
with the Rural and Urban Societies. It intends to familiarize the learners with some of the basic
concepts and various aspects of Rural and Urban Society. The course comprises of 15 units
and are divided into two blocks. The first block consists of the first eight units and the second
block consists of the remaining seven units.
Unit 1- Unit 8 discusses different aspects of Rural Society. From discussing about the
emergence and scope of Rural Sociology in Unit 1, discussions on Rural Social Structure,
Rural Economy and its changing trends, Rural Polity, Development of Women and Children in
Rural areas, Rural Religion are made in the subsequent units.
Block 2 of the course comprises of Unit 9-13. Unit 9 and Unit 10 discusses about various
schemes and policies regarding Rural and Tribal Development. Unit 11 makes a discussion
about the impact of Globalisation on Rural Peasantry. Unit 12-15 mostly focus on Urban
Society and its varied aspects. Beginning with a discussion on Origin and Scope of Urban
Sociology, this block tries to introduce to the learners the basic concepts in Urban Sociology.
Further, Urban Problems and Issues are also discussed at length to develop critical thinking
among the learners.

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 BLOCK INTRODUCTION

This is the first block of the paper titled ‘Rural and Urban Sociology’ of B.A Sociology 6th
Semester Programme of Krishna Kanta Handiqui State Open University. This block intends to
provide the learners a basic understanding regarding one of the specialised fields of Sociology
i.e Rural Sociology. After reading this block, the learners will be able to understand the different
aspects of Rural Society Unit 1 will explain the learners about Rural Sociology and Rural Society.
The learners will also get to know about the subject matter of Rural Sociology in this unit. Unit
2 shall discuss about the Rural Social Structure where the focus is laid on Caste, Class, Family
and Kinship in Rural Societies. Unit 3 shall discuss the changing trend in Rural Society. The
Unit shall try to explain to the learners how migration and urbanization have led to far reaching
changes in the rural societies. Unit 4 and Unit 5 shall discuss about the nature of rural economy
and the changes that have taken place in the rural economy. Unit 6 shall discuss Rural Polity.
The unit shall explain to the learners about Panchayati Raj System in India. Unit 7 shall discuss
about various schemes and polices for women and child development in India. Unit 8 shall
discuss about the significance and functions of Rural Religion.
While going through the units of the block, you will find that unit is further divided into
certain sections and sub-sections, wherever necessary, for your better understanding. Again,
the units carry certain activities after a particular section where needed. These “ACTIVITIES”
will provide you the opportunity to practically apply your own thoughts based on the knowledge
gained from reading the text in a particular section. Besides, in order to give you additional
information on certain relevant topics, you will find a category called “LET US KNOW” after the
sections in each unit. Another category that has been included at the end of each section of a
particular unit is “CHECK YOUR PROGRESS”. The purpose of this category is to help you to
asses for yourself as to how thoroughly you have understood a particular section. You may
then match your answers with “ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS” given at the end
of each unit. The section “FURTHER READING” in each unit contains the names of a few
books, which you might want to consult if you are interested in learning more elaborately about
the concepts discussed in a particular unit. Furthermore, the category called “POSSIBLE
QUESTIONS” is intended to give you a hint of the type of questions you are likely to get in the
examination.

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 Introduction to Rural and Urban Sociology Unit 1

UNIT 1:INTRODUCTION TO RURAL SOCIOLOGY

UNIT STRUCTURE
1.1 Learning Objectives
1.2 Introduction
1.3 Scope of Rural Sociology
1.4 Characteristics of a Rural Society
1.5 Rural-Urban Continuum
1.6 Let Us Sum Up
1.7 Further Reading
1.8 Answers to Check Your Progress
1.9 Model Questions

1.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After going through this unit, you will be able to -

l identify the sociological significance of studying rural society
l outline some of the important contributions of the sociologists in the
study of rural society
l discuss different characteristics of rural societies.

1.2 INTRODUCTION

Our understanding of Indian social institutions has been largely

based on knowledge of village communities. Before the advent of field studies
of the Indian villages by trained sociologists and anthropologists in the 1940s,
ideas regarding Indian society and its different social institutions were mainly
derived from Indological literature. A few sociologists who knew Sanskrit
engaged themselves in studies such as Hindu kinship, marriage, caste
system, social ethics as represented in the Epics and the rites de passage.
These studies were largely based on book-knowledge, which in actual reality
was different. On the contrary, the field studies of the Indian villages in I n d o l o g i c a l :
Understanding the
different parts of the country provided insights into the actual social situation.
Indiana through
There is now a significant literature on villages, which throws light on different
religious texts.
aspects of social structure, organisation and social change.
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 Unit 1 Introduction to Rural and Urban Sociology
The study of the Indian village began in the eighteenth century, with
intensive survey work regarding land holdings. Intensive empirical studies
of village social life became popular in the twentieth century. The studies by
Munro, Metcalfe, Maine, Marx and Baden-Powell considered the Indian
village as a ‘closed’ and ‘isolated’ system. Sir Charles Metcalfe considered
the Indian village a monolithic, atomistic and an unchanging entity. Metcalfe
writes: “The village communities are little republic, having nearly everything
that they want within themselves and are almost independent of any foreign
relations.” Now the question arises if this characteristisation of a typical
Indian village is appropriate and true?
While field studies of villages have proved valuable, there is a
tendency to treat them as the bases of generalisations of the Indian society
as a whole. Hence, it is necessary to promote urban studies which would
supplement the rural view and thus provide a balanced picture of the Indian
social institutions. However, some circles of sociologists lament that the
distinction between rural sociology and urban sociology is not meaningful
in the Indian context because about 80% of the people live in villages, and
hence there is hardly any justification for the requirement of urban studies.
On the other hand, it has also been argued that, although religion, caste
and kinship are the bases of social organisation in both villages and towns,
there are significant differences in the working of these in the two contexts.
For example, the rules of the caste system regarding occupation are to a
great extent strictly observed in the villages but in cities the same rules
tend to become flexible. In the urban context, the institutional framework
and the constraints in which religion, caste and kinship operate are not the
same as those in the villages. Therefore, in order to study rural and urban
societies in their entirety, rural and urban sociologies have been developed
as specialised fields of sociology in India. The development of these
specialised fields help our further understanding of the social structure,
system of stratification as well as the social processes which vary in rural
and urban societies.

8 Rural and Urban Sociology

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 Introduction to Rural and Urban Sociology Unit 1
It is true that over the last few decades, the census definitions of
cities and towns in India have not remained uniform. This immediately points
out to the rate of urban development. The cities and towns are growing at a
much faster rate. Also that increasingly improved means of transport and
communication are bringing the villages near the urban centers is an
accepted phenomenon. In brief, therefore, at whatever pace it may be, urban
development and urbanisation are gaining momentum in the country. The
moot questions are: what is their effect on the social transformation of the
people involved? How far, and in what manner, then, the rural-urban
differences and interrelations can be explained in context of India?
The unit begins with a preliminary discussion on the specialised
field of Sociology, namely Rural Sociology. In this unit we shall mainly focus
on the nature and scope of this specialised field and then we shall proceed
to understand rural society in terms of different social interactions, social
structures, social processes, institutions, etc. In addition, an attempt has
also been made to understand that in spite of differences, there is a rural-
urban continuum, that makes both depend on each other for various
requirements.

1.3 SCOPE OF RURAL SOCIOLOGY

As mentioned above, Rural Sociology and Urban Sociology are

specialised branches of sociology. Both branches have their own distinctive
focus areas with systematic methodologies of study. Now, we shall discuss
each of the specialised branches of study in detail. Rural Sociology is a
specialised field of Sociology. As the name indicates, it deals with the society
of village or the rural society. It is a systematic and scientific study of the
rural society. The majority of the people live in villages and rural areas and
follow patterns of occupation and life that if somewhat different from those
living in the urban areas. Their behaviour, way of life and beliefs are
conditioned and deeply influenced by their rural environment. A specialised
branch of sociology called Rural Sociology, has, therefore, emerged in order
to study the rural areas. According to A.R. Deasi, Rural Sociology is the

Rural and Urban Sociology 9

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 Unit 1 Introduction to Rural and Urban Sociology
science of rural society. It is the science of laws of change and development
of rural society. On the other hand, F. Stuard Chapin defines rural sociology
as follows: The sociology of rural life is the study of the rural population,
rural social organization and rural social processes comparative, in rural
society. It is clear from the above-mentioned definitions that rural sociology
studies the social interactions, institutions, and activities and social changes
that take place in the rural society. It studies the rural social organisations,
structure and set-up and provides us accurate knowledge about the rural
social phenomenon which can help us in contributing to the development
of the rural society. At present the study of the Rural Sociology, especially
in developing countries like India is vital. Rural societies are changing rapidly,
because of linkages with the urban centers, market linkages, and ongoing
programmes of rural community development.
The scope and the subject matter of rural sociology is the
study of rural society with all its complexities. The main tasks of
rural sociology can be mentioned as follow:
Ø Rural Community and Rural Problems: This includes the
characteristics and nature of rural community and its problems.
Ø Rural Social Life: This includes various aspects of the rural
people.
Ø Rural Social Organisation: This includes the study of various
rural social organisations and institutions including family and
marriage.
Ø Rural Social Institutions and Structure: This includes the study
of dogmas, customs, traditions, values, conventions, morals,
practices and various political, economic, religious and cultural
institutions.
Ø Rural Planning and Reconstructions: Rural Sociology has great
practical applications. Hence, rural planning and reconstruction
are also the main tasks of rural sociology to be dealt with.
Ø Social Control and Social Change in Rural Social Set-up: Here
we study the impact of city on rural life. The mechanisms of
social control of rural society are also examined here.
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 Introduction to Rural and Urban Sociology Unit 1
Ø Religion and Culture in Rural Society: Religion plays an important
role in a rural set-up. The culture of a rural society exhibits striking
peculiarities. These come within the domain of Rural Sociology.
Ø Rural Social Processes: Different social processes such as
cooperation, competition, integration, isolation, differentiation,
etc. that take place in rural society are also studies in Rural
Sociology.
Ø Differences between Urban and Rural Society: The study of rural
society also includes the differences between the urban and
rural society.
Admittedly, rural sociology is a specialised application of
sociology. It is, therefore, imperative to study rural life from this
perspective. When a sociologist approaches rural life, he is
concerned with the human relationships taking place among the
village people. It would not be incorrect to say that no other discipline
of study focuses primarily attention on human relationships as such.
It is here that sociology differs from all other social sciences. In
other words, the sociologist interests himself in human relationships
simply because they are social in nature and not because they are
related to economic, political, religious and other types of activities.
In its broadest sense, Rural Sociology is the study of human
relationships in the rural environment. This definition correctly implies
that it is neither more nor any less than the sociology of life in rural
setting. The systematised knowledge of rural social relationships
could more aptly be called the sociology of rural life. The social
relationships which take place in what we call rural society are
manifested in family, caste, class or economy, such as, agriculture,
politics, religion, etc.

Rural and Urban Sociology 11

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 Unit 1 Introduction to Rural and Urban Sociology
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Q 1: What is the importance of studying Rural Sociology?

..........................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................
Q 2: Fill in the blank.
According to……………sociology is the science of rural society.

1.4 CHARACTERISTICS OF RURAL SOCIETIES

Some of the important characteristics of rural societies are:

l Rural people are basically agriculturalists. It is because a substantial
part of their income is drawn from agriculture. The peasants have always
stayed in contact with the land, which is the basic source of their
livelihood.
l Village society is a simple society. It is simple because it is closer to
nature. The people are bound up with the agricultural activities. Their
festivals, fairs, folk songs and folk tales have resemblances to their
agriculture. All over India, the rural folk-literature pertaining to rural life is
very rich. In India, the rural folk-literature is the treasure of village traditions
and culture. The tribal villages also give expression of folk songs and
folk dances. Verrier Elwin, an anthropologist, has brought out several
instances of the simplicity of tribal expressions. Paying the flute, dancing
and drinking liquor for the whole night is the festive expression of a
village life. Though these folk songs and dances do not exhibit
sophistication, they are excellent examples of rural performing arts. It
shows the characteristic features of rural people.
l In rural India, the police force, which exercises control over the people
are based far away from the village locales. Control in the village society
is exercised through informal methods. Petty issues like, stealing,
disputes among the fellow villagers, etc are solved by means of informal

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 Introduction to Rural and Urban Sociology Unit 1
methods. When the less violent means of social control do not suffice,it
is then that the law courts and the police play their role for necessary
punishment. It is the rural public opinion which sets the society in order.
l In the rural societies, cultural usage is reflected largely in the homes.
The absence or presence of certain necessities, such as cycle, motor
cycle, electricity, irrigation, engine, tractor, thresher, and push carts to
carry paddy from the field, etc determines both the level of living and the
degree of participation in the culture. The types of houses found in the
rural societies also reflect their culture. For example, mud layered
bamboo walls with roofs of either straw or tins are generally found in
the villages of Assam. Today, concrete houses are also coming up in
the villages. A large front and back yard are common to these houses.
l One of the most obvious features of rural social life is that the importance
of primary groups in the village community assumes vital significance
in the patterns of interaction. It is quite interesting to know that in the
Indian village an individual can be identified from his belonging to a
particular village and caste group. Second, his identification refers to
caste. Caste represents the hierarchical divisions in a society. There
are four main castes, namely Brahmin, Kshatriya, Vaishya and Shudra.
The caste groups are guided by their strict rules pertaining to
occupations, rules of commensality, rules of marriage, rules of purity
and pollution, rules of exogamy, etc. Gradually, the caste bound
occupations have been replaced by secular occupations. Even the
concept of ‘purity and pollution’ with respect to occupations has
undergone changes.
Rural sociologists have discussed the sociology of rural life in the
studies largely conducted during 1950s. They have discussed village unity
as a characteristic mark of India’s villages. But, the contact with nearby
towns and cities has brought about significant transformation in the village
societies today. Migration has also become a common phenomenon in the
lives of the village people. Today, the people do come out of their villages in
search of newer prospects and livelihoods. With the narrowing of available

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 Unit 1 Introduction to Rural and Urban Sociology
land for cultivation and pressure of increasing population on land, the rate
of migration has increased. People from villages do work in the government
offices or in other forms of sundry works as vegetables vendors, construction
workers, shopkeepers, daily labourers, etc. Some of them commute daily,
some have even settled in the urban areas, and they visit their ancestral
homes only during festivals and other occasions. The developments of
transport and communication have brought these villages closer to town
and cities.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Q 3: Fill in the blanks.

(a) Village societies are basically……………….societies
(b) ……………..is the most important form of social stratification in
the rural societies.

1.6 RURAL-URBAN CONTINUUM

Rural and urban communities form the end points in the continuum
of development of human habitats. Although, urban habitats developed out
of the rural habitats, they show glaring differences in every aspect of life.
Urban communities have developed out of the functional necessities of a
society. They have absorbed a multitudinous and diversified population from
different villages. Let us try to understand about Rural-Urban Continuum in
the next section.

1.6.1 Rural-Urban Continuum

In spite of the differences, rural and urban societies are also

dependent on each other for various requirements. The
developments in all spheres of urban life are also making deep
impact in the rural areas.

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 Introduction to Rural and Urban Sociology Unit 1
Ø The role of Migration: Rural and urban societies form two ends
of a continuum and they exist side by side and interact with one
another in several ways. Rural-urban migration is a main form
of rural-urban contact which is promoted by the development of
transport and means of communication. There has been a
greater amount of migration of rural people to urban areas. The
main cause of migration lies in availability of facilities in urban
areas. Thus, the rural to urban stream of internal migration is
the most important stream from the viewpoint of social change.
There are various push and pull factors that determine the
migration of rural population to the urban areas. They are:
m Push factors at the place of origin (rural areas) are:
poverty, lack of opportunities, landlessness, low level of
subsistence, etc.
m Pull factors at the place of destination (urban areas)
are: bright lights of cities, availability of facilities such as
housing, education, work opportunities, and so on.
People migrate from the rural areas for attaining better socio-
economic prospects, more entertainments of the bright lights of the
cities and a breakaway from their rural habitats. In addition, high
man-land ratio in rural areas is another factor of migration, because
it aggravates rural poverty. Education is an important source of social
change. Young and aspiring rural population go out to the urban
areas for pursuing quality higher education. The educational
achievement of the rural youths is promoting a kind of attitude and
desire that alienates them from their village of origin because village
life becomes incompatible with their education. This is also a reason
that rural youths are moving to urban areas.
Urban growth is another important pull factor of migration
because it exerts its influence on the people from outside the village
community. It is very closely related with migration. It compels
migration in the same way in which migration stimulates urban
growth. The migration to the urban areas becomes a process of
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 Unit 1 Introduction to Rural and Urban Sociology
urban growth, urbanisation, social transformation, and social
integration. The urban areas provide greater opportunities of highly
diverse, predominantly non-agricultural services and manufacturing,
better paid economic activities, business, trade, commerce, and
communications. They also consist of better health, environment
for social recreation, residential, and media facilities in addition to
other urban amenities and overall glittering city life. All such urban
opportunities are referred to as factors of attractions, which vary by
the degree of urban growth, urbanisation, and development.
However, the migration of large numbers of rural population
to urban areas has also shown negative impacts. These are:
congestion and overcrowding, environmental conditions, creation
of urban slums, housing and sanitation, and so on.
Nevertheless, the rural areas have come under the influence
of urban areas in a number of ways. The migration from rural to
urban areas has brought about a change in the value-orientation of
the migrants and its effects on their families left behind. The migrants
usually keep contact with their families to maintain personal links
and family tradition. The migrants who originally followed the rural
tradition are now exposed to the urban tradition and culture. They
imbibe new social and material values, new skills, new outlooks
towards life, experiences, knowledge, consciousness, etc. The
internalised urban values are consciously transmitted and fed back
into their native place and people. In addition to these changes,
migration has also changed the demographic profile of rural areas.
The fertility behaviour of migrants changes when migrants are
exposed to the urban way of life. The modern urban influences
stimulate them to accept new family norms, postpone childbearing
and raise the age of marriage.

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 Introduction to Rural and Urban Sociology Unit 1
1.7 LET US SUM UP

l Rural Sociology is the specialised fields of study within Sociology. In

short, rural sociology concentrates itself in the study of rural social
structures.
l The sociology of rural life is the study of the rural population, rural social
organisation and rural social processes comparative, in rural society. It
is clear from the above-mentioned definitions that rural sociology studies
the social interactions, institutions, and activities and social changes
that take place in the rural society. It studies the rural social organisations,
structure and set-up. It provides us that knowledge about the rural social
phenomenon, which can help us in contributing to the development of
rural society.
l Even though rural societies differ from urban societies in every spheres
of life, both the societies also maintain a continuum. Both the societies
depend on each other for their growth and development as well as
fulfillment of a variety of requirements. For example, the people from
the villages come to the urban areas for education, work, occupations,
etc. In this way they became acquainted to the urban culture and carry
urban values and cultures to their villages.

1.8 FURTHER READING

1) Chitambar, J.B. 1993. Introductory Rural Sociology. New Delhi: New

Age International (P) Limited.
2) Desai, A. R. 1969. Rural Sociology in India. Bombay: Popular Prakashan.
3) Doshi, S.L. and P.C. Jain. 1999. Rural Sociology. Jaipur: Rawat
Publications.

1.9 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Ans to Q No 1: Rural sociology is a specialised field of sociology. The

sociology of rural life is the study of the rural population, rural social
organisation and rural social processes comparative, in rural society. It
is clear from the above-mentioned definitions that rural sociology studies
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 Unit 1 Introduction to Rural and Urban Sociology
the social interactions, institutions, and activities and social changes
that take place in the rural society. It studies the rural social organisations,
structure and set-up. It provides us that knowledge about the rural social
phenomenon which can help us in making contribution to the
development of rural society. The study of the Rural Sociology, especially
at present in developing countries like India is vital. Rural societies are
changing rapidly because of linkages with the urban centers, market
linkages, and ongoing programmes of rural community development.
Ans to Q No 2: A.R. Desai
Ans to Q No 3: (a) Agricultural (b) Caste system

1.10 MODEL QUESTIONS

Short Questions (Answer each qustion in about 150 words)

Q 1: Write short notes on the following on Rural-urban continuum
Long Questions (Answer each question in about 300-500 words)
Q 1: Discuss the characteristics of rural societies.
Q 2: Explain the scope of rural sociology.
Q 3: Examine the role of migration in India’s urban growth.
*** ***** ***

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 Rural Social Structure Unit 2

UNIT 2: RURAL SOCIAL STRUCTURE

UNIT STRUCTURE
2.1 Learning Objectives
2.2 Introduction
2.3 Rural Social Structure
2.4 Caste in Rural Society
2.5 Class in Rural Society
2.6 Family and Kinship in Rural Society
2.7 Let Us Sum Up
2.8 Further Reading
2.9 Answers to Check Your Progress
2.10 Model Questions

2.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After going through this unit, you will be able to -

l understand the social structure of a rural society
l describe the role of caste as an institution in rural society
l explain the nature of inter caste relations
l explain about the different classes that exist in a rural society
l discuss family and kinship as a social institution in rural society

2.2 INTRODUCTION

In the previous unit, we have discussed about the origin, nature

and scope of rural sociology. In this unit, we shall try to understand the rural
social structure in the context of Indian society. In doing so, we shall be
mainly focusing on the social institutions such as caste, family, kinship, so
on and so forth. It is very important to understand these social institutions
because they mould human behaviour in every society and therefore we
shall examine the functions and role these institutions play in the rural
context.

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 Unit 2 Rural Social Structure

2.3 RURAL SOCIAL STRUCTURE

Rural Society as we know literally means the villages. As majority of

the Indian Population resides in the villages, understanding rural social
structure becomes very important for a student of Sociology. The social
institutions that shape human interactions and interrelations form the rural
social structure and we have to understand the significance of these
institutions. While trying to understand about rural society, we must first
understand that Indian Rural Society is not homogeneous. Each village differs
from the other in terms of its population strength, economic development,
geographical connectivity, rigidity of caste system so on and so forth.
However, inspite of multiple differences among the villages, there are some
common features as well. They are:
l Villages are composition of people sharing a common geographical
space.
l The members of the village are bound together by a sense of 'we-
feeling and solidarity'.
l Every village have well defined social, political, religious and economic
ties with other villages.
l People of a particular village usually share a common history of migration
and settlement.
l Each village is marked by tradition, culture, folkways and mores.
l Rural economy is primarily agrarian even though other allied occupations
like poultry farming, handloom etc also exists.
l Caste in an important organizing principle in Indian villages. Different
categories and composition of castes and sub-castes are found in Indian
rural societies.
l Classes too exist in rural society.
l There is an established patron-client system known as Jajmani system
in the rural society.
Thus from the above paragraph we have got a brief idea about the
composition and features of Indian rural society. In the following subsections,
we shall learn in details about the components of rural social structure.
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2.4 CASTE IN RURAL SOCIETY

We have already learned about Caste in our previous semesters.

By now, we know that Caste is a system of stratification, which accords
different status to different groups of people in society. It is a very significant
social institution in any rural society as it governs social relationships and
social interactions. Caste status is ascribed and hereditary. We are born
to a particular Caste, which means we inherit the caste status of our parents.
Caste is hierarchical in the sense that places one caste group either in
superior or inferior position to another caste group. While this hierarchical
ranking of caste group bestows privileges to the Caste groups placed at the
top of the hierarchy, those at the bottom suffers from disabilities and
disadvantages. They face several restrictions while entering temples, public
places so on and so forth. These restrictions have however been on the
wane with Constitutional safeguards to the lower caste people, spread of
education etc. Caste is an endogamous group whereby one is allowed to
marry only from his/her caste. Further, traditionally caste fixes one's
occupation but this trend is gradually diminishing in the contemporary time.
In the above paragraph, we have discussed in brief the key features
of a caste system. The significance of Caste system in the rural social
structure lies in the fact that it provides a social status to the people and as
mentioned above, this status brings either privileges or disabilities. It
determines social relationships in the village. The nature of interaction one
is supposed to have with others is also determined by the Caste system.
Caste rules, regulations regarding dining, and commensality, marriage so
on and so forth governs the social conduct of every individual in the village.
Non-conformity to the Caste Norms are meted with punishments like Social
Ostracism. Therefore who will take food from whom, and whom to marry
are all determined by caste. Apart from that, Caste system builds a strong
solidarity among the members of a particular caste group. The members of
a particular caste-group are bound together by a 'we-feeling', which
strengthens their relationships. This in turn enhances mutual support and
cooperation. The Caste Councils also plays a crucial role in the villages. It

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resolves intra caste and inter caste conflicts in villages. The significance of
caste in rural social structure lies in the fact that it contributes to division of
labour in rural society thereby enhancing interdependence among various
caste groups. As we have already mentioned above, one's occupation is
fixed by caste. Therefore, traditionally every group has been assigned fixed
occupation that its members perform. Priest, Blacksmith, Goldsmith,
Cleaners are all traditional caste occupations, all of which are necessary
for the sustenance of the rural society. Since one caste group cannot perform
all the functions needed for its survival and sustenance, it has to depend on
others and thus it creates interdependence, which binds the rural society.
While talking about interdependence among caste groups it is important for
us to know about the Jajmani system, which is a very important aspect of
traditional rural economy. Oscar Lewis defined Jajmani system as that under
which each caste group within a village is expected to give certain
standardized services to the families of other castes. Jajmani System,
though have declined with the advent of modern monetized economy, was
once considered the backbone of rural economy and social order. The
Jajmani has been derived from the term 'jajman' which has been taken
from the Sanskrit term 'Yajman'.

2.5 CLASS IN RURAL SOCIETY

According to Giddens (2000), "a class is a large-scale grouping of

people who share common economic resources, which strongly influence
the type of lifestyle they are able to lead". Ogburn and Nimkoff defines Class
as the aggregate of persons having essentially the same social status in a
given society." i.e. a class-consciousness.Thus Class, in simple words,
refers to a group of persons sharing a similar status in society. The basis of
class is economy and hence it is an economic group. People having similar
economic conditions are considered to be of the same class group. When
we talk of class in Sociology, we mostly refer to a group of people occupying
similar position in the economic system of production and having similar
economic resources, which distinguishes them from other groups in

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society.Each Social Class has its own lifestyle
When we talk of Class, what often comes to our mind is the Class
system that exists in industrial societies. However, classes exist in Indian
Society as well even though it is primarily an agrarian society. Though Caste
is the key basis of social stratification and a very important component of
rural social structure, yet we must also understand that rural social structure
also has a class structure. Let us now try to understand how various thinkers
discussed the class structure of rural society.
Daniel Thorner classified Indian agrarian society into three classes-
Big Proprietors, Working peasants, and labourers or whom Thorner named
Malik, Kisan and Mazdur. According to Thorner, the types and the nature of
classes that exist in the agrarian society of India depends upon three key
aspects. They are-
1. Nature or the form of income from the soil- Is it rent; Is it fruit of cultivation
or Is it payment for labour
2. The type of rights an individual enjoy over a particular plot of land and
the amount of land held under these rights
3. Whether the extentof fieldwork required is performed by an individual
himself or does he hire others to do it for him?
Thorner argues that though agrarian classes vary from society to
society, yet Maliks, Kisans and Mazdurs are common to every Indian agrarian
society. Thorner distinguished these three classes on the basis of the amount
of actual labour contributed by these classes to the production process and
the share in the product.
According to Thorner, Maliksare that class of people whosemain
source of income is generated from their property rights in the soil. They
might also have other sources of income, but since they are owners of
huge plots of land, major part of their family income comes from the land.
Further, these people hardly work on their own land; rather they hire labourers
to work for them.
The second type of class according to Thorner is theKisans or the
working peasants.Theyalso own land but much lesserin comparison to the

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Maliks. They work on their own land, instead of hiring laboursand earn their
livelihood through this. In some cases, unlike the Maliks, the income
generated by the Kisans by working in their own land may not be sufficient
to meet the family expenses and therefore may have to work for others as
well. However,even in that case, the income a Kisan receives from his own
agricultural holdings is more than the income he earns from other sources
like working in others fields as labourers so on and so forth and that
differentiates him from a Mazdur.
The Third class identified by Thorner is the Labourers or Mazdurs.
They are the oneswhose means of livelihood is working in the lands of other
people. This class may have land holdings of their own, but the size of their
land holding very small. Therefore, the income they earn as wages by working
for others is much more than the income they derive by working in their own
plot of land.
Thorner also tried to identify the caste status of these classes; so
as to analyse the caste-class relationship in Indian Agrarian Society. Maliks,
who, according to him,are at the top of the class hierarchy comprise of a
small group of people usually belonging to the Brahmans and other higher
castes. Their lifestyle is very different from that of the Kisans and the Mazdurs.
They own all the luxuries, which can hardly be afforded that is beyond by the
Kisans or theMazdurs. Unlike the Maliks, Kisans belong to the cultivating
and the artisan castes and Mazdurs mostly belong to the Scheduled Castes.
From Daniel Thorner's analysis of the agrarian class structure in
India,we understand how caste and class co-exist in agrarian societies and
how one's caste status influence his/her class status in society. The upper
caste people belong tothe upper class too and enjoy the services of the
others. While the Lower class, usually belong to the lower caste and provide
services to the upper caste/class people.
D.N Dhanagare in his essay on 'The Model of Agrarian Classes' in
India discusses the class structure of the Indian agrarian society. According
to him, Indian society being a heterogeneous one, it is difficult to find one
general class structure that can incorporate all the diverse classes' that

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exist in Indian Society. But he too pointed to the nexus between caste and
class operating in the Indian Society and how upper class mostly comprised
of people belonging to the upper castes. He cited various examples of upper
caste people owning huge plots of land and lower caste people working as
labourers in other's land. Thus,his analysis highlighted thatone's caste
position determines or influences ones class position as well. However
according to him there are exceptions to this also. Not all Upper class people
belong to the upper caste and vive-versa. While some members of an upper
caste may be economically affluent owning huge amount of land, some
others of the same caste may farm labourers.

2.6 FAMILY AND KINSHIP IN RURAL SOCIETY

We have already learned about the meaning and definition of Family

and Kinship in our previous semesters. Family and Kinship are among the
core components of rural social structure. They are agents of socialisation
and social control. A family teaches an individual to emulate the norms of
the society and behave accordingly and this in turn help in maintaining social
order and sustaining of social structure. Apart from Socialisation, family
also has various religious, political and economic function in society.
Two key features mark the Rural Family structure and they are a)
Joint Family and b) Patriarchal Family Structure
The family structure in a rural society is predominantly Joint. According
to Iravati Karve, 'a joint family is a group of people who generally live under
one roof, who eat food cooked in one kitchen, who hold property in common,
participate in common family worship and are related to one another as
some particular type of kindred.' Thusin this type of family two or more
generations, live together under the same roof. They share a common
kitchen and commonplace of worship. Further, the property is also jointly
owned. However, with the advent of industrialisation and urbanisation, joint
family is gradually disappearing in the villages.
The second striking feature of a rural family is that it is mostly
patriarchal in nature where the head of the family is a male member usually

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the father. He has the supreme authority in the matters of the family. All
decisions regarding family matters are either taken by him or must be
approved by him. Women are given a subordinate position in patriarchal
family. They are hardly a part of the family's decision-making process.
Kinship is another social institution, which is a very important
component or rural social structure. In simple words, kinship refers to a
social bond or relationship between individuals and groups. It basically
includes two types of relationships- a) Consanguineal relationship b)Affinal
relationship.
Consanguineal relationahips are blood relationships established by
birth, whereas Affinal relationships are established through marriage. The
relationship between siblings is consanguineal because they are the children
of same parents and thereby share similar blood relationship. On the other
hand, the relationship between husband and wife is affinal as their bond is
established through their marriage. Kinship relationship is not just between
two individuals but it establishes relationships between groups as well. The
relationship between a women and her in-laws, between bride's family and
groom's family are all governed by kinship norms. Kinship governs one's
social behaviour and interaction. The relationship between a daughter in-
law and father in-law will not be same as the relationship between bhabi
and devar (i.e between a woman and her brother in-law). The behaviour
differs with different persons depending on the relationship they share. Some
relations are casual, friendly, and others more formal. For example, a woman
can joke with her brother in-law but cannot behave in the same way with her
mother in-law. Thus, how one is supposed to behave or the nature of his/
her interaction is governed by kinship. It also imposes social restrictions in
certain kinds of relationships, which are otherwise considered as illicit and
is prohibited by the society.Such social restrictions are called Taboos. Thus,
kinship organises relationship between individuals and groups and everyone
so that the larger social structure is maintained. However, the kinship relations
are region specific. While there are common features of kinship found across
the country, there are variations as well. For example, the kinship system of

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South India does not match with North India. Since immense regional
variations exist, we have different kinship systems in different regions.
However, this variations are only in terms of the nature of interaction between
individuals and groups.
of kinship, that is, the way in which the relations between individuals
and groups are organised, occupies a central place in all human societies.
Since India is a land of immense diversity, its different regions reflect different
systems of kinship.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Q 1: Define Jajmani System

.......................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................
Q 2: Mention two key features of Rural Family Structure.
.......................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................
Q 3: Mention the two types of kinship relationship.
.......................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................

2.7 LET US SUM UP

l Rural Society literally means the villages. As majority of the Indian

Population resides in the villages, understanding rural social structure
becomes very important for a student of Sociology.
l The social institutions that shape human interactions and interrelations
form the rural social structure and we have to understand the significance
of these institutions.
l Caste is one such significant social institution in the Rural Social
structure. The nature of interaction one is supposed to have with others
is determined by the Caste system. Caste rules, regulations regarding

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 Unit 2 Rural Social Structure
dining, and commensality, marriage so on and so forth governs the social
conduct of every individual in the village. Thus, social interactions and
social relationships are governed by caste in a rural society.
l Though the significance of caste is declining in the modern day society,
yet it continues to exert its influence to a large extent in the rural society
even today, especially when it comes to the issues of marriage.
l Class too exist in rural society. It exists within class and both caste and
class co-exist in Indian rural social structure.
l Family and Kinship are among the core components of rural social
structure. They are agents of socialisation and social control.
l Two key features mark the Rural Family structure and they are a) Joint
Family and b) Patriarchal Family Structure
l Kinship organises relationship between individuals and groups and
everyone is expected to behave as per the kinship norms so that the
larger social structure is maintained.
l However, the kinship relations are region specific. While there are
common features of kinship found across the country, there are variations
as well.

2.7 FURTHER READING

1) Desai, A.R. (1969). Rural Sociology in India. Bombay: Popular

Prakashan.
2) Doshi, S.L. & Jain, P. C. (1999). Rural Sociology, New Delhi: Rawat
Publications.
3) Srinivas, M.N. (1962). Caste in Modern India and Other Essays. New
York: Asia Publishing House.
4. Dipankar Gupta(ed.); 2010; Social Stratification; New Delhi: Oxford
University Press.

2.8 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Ans to Q No 1 : Jajmani system is that system under which each caste

group within a village is expected to give certain standardized services
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to the families of other castes.
Ans to Q No 2 : Two key features that mark the Rural Family structure are
a) Joint Family and b) Patriarchal Family Structure
Ans to Q No 3 : Two types of kinship relationships are a) Consanguineal
relationship b) Affinal relationship.

2.9 MODEL QUESTIONS

Short Questions (Answer each question in about 150 words)

Q 1: Mention some of the common features found among the Indian
Villages.
Q 2: Briefly mention the features of Caste System
Long Questions (Answer each question in about 300-500 words)
Q 1: Explain how Caste and Class co-exist in Indian Rural Society.
Q 2: 'Caste governs social behaviour and social interactions of individuals
in a society'. Elaborate the statement with examples.
Q 3: Write a note on how kinship governs social relationships.
*** ***** ***

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UNIT 3: CHANGING TREND IN RURAL SOCIAL

STRUCTURE
UNIT STRUCTURE
3.1 Learning Objectives
3.2 Introduction
3.3 Migration
3.3.1. Types of Migration
3.3.2 Determinants of Migration
3.4Urbanization
3.4.1. Causes of Urbanization
3.5 Effects of Rural Urban Migration and Urbanization
3.5.1 Caste-Class Continuum
3.6 Let Us Sum Up
3.7 Further Reading
3.8 Answers to Check your Progress
3.9 Model Questions

3.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After going through this unit, you will be able to -

l understand the concept of migration and its determinants
l explain the causes behind urbanization
l discuss the effects of urbanisation

3.2 INTRODUCTION

We are already aware that Indian society is primarily a rural society,

though urbanization is fast catching up. According to the 2011 Census,
68.84% of India's population lives in rural India. Even though a large
percentage of the population resides in rural areas there is a steady growth
in urban population since Independence. The main reasons for the increase
in urban population can be attributed to industrialization, employment
opportunities, a better standard of living and better health care facilities.
Such options play a big role in attracting young working population from
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 Changing Trend in Rural Social Structure Unit 3
rural to urban areas. As a result, a huge percentage of the population
migrates to urban centers or industrial regions and developed rural areas
with an aspiration for better employment opportunities and better standard
of living which is leading to various kinds of migrations. In this unit we will
be delving into migration, urbanization and how they have brought changes
to rural social sturcture.

3.3 MIGRATION

Generally, migration is a geographical phenomenon defined as the

permanent or semi-permanent change of residence of an individual or group
of people over a significant distance. In today's time if we observe around
us an overwhelming flow of people mostly in urban pockets belonging to
different age group, ethnicity and speaking myriad languages absorbed in
the urban labour market. In India, it is estimated that 120 million or more
people have migrated to the urban labour markets, industrial areas in search
of daily income. Migration becomes essential for people from the region
where there are problems related to natural calamities like floods, existence
of drought like-condition and from the regions facing unresolved social or
political conflicts. Other issues related to migration are lack of available
local employment opportunities, indebtedness and poverty are important
trigger points leading to migration from rural to urban areas.
In India, Bihar and Uttar Pradesh had been known for large scale
migration since decades. Recently, North-East region along with Orissa,
Madhya Pradesh have constituted bigger migrant groups to urban pockets
in the states Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Maharashtra, and Gujarat. Most of them
are absorbed in the construction, textile, transportation, mines &quarries,
manual labour sectors etc.

3.3.1 Types of Migration

On the basis of motivation, migration has been classified as

Economic migration and Social migration depending upon factors
of motive and move (distance). The movement of people that take
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place within the territorial jurisdiction of a country is called as internal
migrations. On the other hand, where the migrants move across
the international border is known as external migration. The internal
migrations can be further classified into four types on the basis of
their geographical movement- (i) Rural to Urban, (ii) Urban to Urban,
(iii) Rural to Rural and (iv) Urban to Rural.
Ø Rural to Urban: This type of migration pattern can be observed
in the underdeveloped countries. It is caused by both push and
pull factors. In developing countries, like India, where there is
rapid urban industrial development taking place there isa
continuous flow of labour population from rural areas to the
industrial areas.
The rural area becomes the push factor because of poverty,
unemployment, low wages,lack and underdeveloped facilities for
educational, health and availability of other services play a crucial
role for such migration. At the same time, urban areas act as the
pull factor as they provide better employment opportunities, regular
and higher wages, fixed working hours, better living amenities for
education and socio-cultural activities.
But the consequence of large scale unplanned migration
from rural to the urban area had lead to the emergence of slum
areas in cities. The creation of slum areas happens because the
growing cities are unable to provide the minimum amenities for good
living to the migrant workforce and have to live inconditions worse
than those of their native rural areas. One of the famous examples
is Dharavi in Mumbai.
Ø Urban to Urban Migration: Inter-urban migration takes place
between one urban center to another urban center. This
phenomenon is observed in highly urbanized countries of the
world, for examples like the U.S.A, United Kingdom to name.
The main reason for this kind of migration happens with the
objective of improving their employment prospect and economic

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gain. For example, shifting from Boston to New York in the USA,
Beijing to Hong Kong in China area few examples.
Ø Rural to Rural Migration: This kind of migration is observed in
areas where development activities like irrigation, water
harvesting, intensification of agriculture and extension of farming
areas started developing in areas of the sparse population
experiencing large scale development activities. Such areas act
as the pull factors for the rural population from crowded areas
of low agricultural productivity. The main motive of such
migration is economic gain with the motive of permanent
settlement in the near future. In India, rural to rural migration is
being witnessed in remote areas of Arunachal Pradesh where
hydro-power projects are being constructed. As there is a dearth
of labour force in Arunachal Pradesh the development projects
have become an opportunity for people from Bihar and UP to
get long term engagement at construction sites with a possibility
of a permanent job after the completion of the projects.
Ø Urban to Rural Migration: This type of migration is relatively
less common compared to other types of migrations. Such
movement takes place at the advanced stage of urbanization.
In developed countries where they have already attended a higher
degree of urbanization, such phenomena are seen mostly in
European countries.
Urban to Rural migration have resulted in developing better
connectivity in terms of transport and communication. In major
European towns, it is found that a large percentage of the working
population resides in rural areas and plying to work on a regular
basis resulting in depopulating the industrial cities.
To understand in-depth as to why migration has been a
continuous phenomenon over the years lets understand its causes.

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3.3.2 Determinants of Migration

Ø ECONOMIC DETERMINANTS: Economic motives are the

most vital catalyst of people moving from one place to another.
The main reasons which govern the magnitude and direction of
migration are the general economic conditions of the area,
availability of good agricultural land, size of land holdings, growth
of employment opportunities, etc.
In areas with depressed economic conditions,there is a
general trend of out-migration, whereas in areas with better economic
prosperity offers greater employment potentials and attracts in-
migration.
The most powerful economic factor determining magnitude
and direction of migration is good agricultural land. The areas which
have acute pressure of population upon their agricultural lands
resource generate out-migration. India is the perfect example in this
regard.
Another important factor is the availability of employment
opportunities. The areas experiencing developmental activities are
widening their employment potentials. With an increase in
employment opportunities, migratory tendencies have also lead to
the development of transport and communications.
Ø SOCIAL DETERMINANTS: Migration due to certain social
norms or customs is gender-specific. In India, females tend to
migrate from their place of origin (i.e. parents residence) to the
place of residence of their spouses at the time of marriage. Such
migration does not hold motive of economic gains.
Religious freedom is another cause of social migration. Such
migration was recently experiencedby Rohingya people from
Myanmar. Due to military crackdown in Myanmar, more than six
hundred thousand Rohingya people have migrated from Myanmar
to Bangladesh. In India, in the last decade of the 20th century,large
populations of Kashmiri Pandits migrated from Kashmir to other
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cities of India because of insecurity and threat.
In contemporary times, it is found that better education, more
skilled and economically better off people have a greater prospect
to migrate, particularly over long distances. The availability of
information through education, cultural contacts widen the prospect
of migration. The information network and cultural contacts widen
the horizons for job opportunities.
Ø DEMOGRAPHIC DETERMINANTS: A number of demographic
factors play a crucial role in triggering migration. Age is one of
the most important demographic factors in controlling the degree
of desire to move among potential migrants. Mostly the young
adult migrates than any other age group. And the regional disparity
of population also becomes another reason for migration. When
in certain areas the degree of population pressure and its
resource potential varies or in stress the chances of migration
increases to regions of potential abundance. In India, large scale
out-migration from crowded parts of Bihar and Uttar Pradesh is
being witnessedfor several decades.

3.4 URBANIZATION

The urban population of the world has been growing more rapidly
ever since human started to travel from one place to another in search of
food, work, and economic security. In 1800's only 2.5 percent of the world's
total population was living in urban areas and by 1980's over 40 percent of
the world's population started living in urban areas. This process of
transformation of the society has given rise to a number of issues due to
fast-changing pattern of spatial interaction. Nevertheless, we can definitely
say that the degree of urbanization is a fair index of the level of socio-
economic development of a region.
Geographer, Lampard suggested three basic distinctions to explain
the process of urbanization. They are (i) Behavioural, (ii) Structural and (iii)
Demographic aspects. The behavioural aspect of urbanization refers to

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the experience of elders through time and to the changes in the pattern of
their behaviour. The structural aspect of the process refers to the changes
in the economic structure which is a transformation from an agrarian to
industrial economy of the population. The demographic aspect refers to
the process of population concentration.
Riesman interprets urbanization as the whole process of change
and its consequences when a society gets transformed from an agrarian
economy to an industrial economy and from a small homogeneous society
to a large heterogeneous mass.
Trewartha considers urbanization as a cyclical process through
which the nations pass as they evolve from agrarian to industrial societies.
However, Haggett reflects that in the case of developing countries
the process of urbanization may not hold same to that of developing countries
because developing countries differ from the industrial countries in two
aspects. First, Urbanization in developing countries started late and it's
been more rapid. Second, the urbanization process in European countries
was mostly the product of rural-urban migration whereas in developing
countries it is both rural-urban migration and population explosion in the
countryside.
Now, let us try to understand the causes and effects of the
urbanization process in India to have an overall perspective of the changing
rural areas into urban spaces.

3.4.1 Causes of Urbanization

Ø Industrialization: Industrialization is a major cause of

urbanization. Expansion of industries has created more
employment opportunities in various urban pockets. With an
increase in employment opportunities,rural people tend to
migrate to cities in hope ofbetter income and better standard of
living.
Ø Social Factors: Cities are the main attraction to the migrant
population for a better standard of living, better educational

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facilities, and aspiration to elevate social status. These factors
induce people to migrate to the cities.
Ø Employment Opportunities: India is primarily
anagrariancountry and a larger percentage of the population
depends mainly on agriculture for their livelihood. The main factor
for better agricultural produce depends on monsoon. In a drought-
like situation or natural calamities, rural people migrate to cities
in search of other income generation avenues.
Ø Modernization: Urban areas are characterized by sophisticated
technology better infrastructure, communication, medical
facilities, etc. People feel that they can lead a comfortable life in
cities. With that hope, a large percentage of the population
migrates to cities and industrial regions.

3.5 EFFECTS OF RURAL URBAN MIGRATION AND

URBANIZATION

Rural Urban Migration due to varied reasons have led to rapid

expansion of urban centres. This has led to tremendous social changes.
Let us have a brief understanding about it in the next section.
l Problem of Over-population: Concentration of population is a major
problem of cities. It has resulted in accommodation problem, growth of
slums, increase in crime rates, etc.
l Disintegration of Joint Family: Joint family cannot be maintained in
cities on account of the higher cost of living because of which people
migrate from rural areas but prefer leaving families back in villages and
visit occasionally during festivals or family occasions.
l Impersonal Relations: Urban centers are characterized by highly
secondary relations. The concept of neighbourhood, community life are
almost absent in cities. This may have an adverse psychological effect
on individualsand they become impersonal. This way of living leads to
monotony in cities.
l Stress: Urban life can be stressful for work pressure, financial

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 Unit 3 Changing Trend in Rural Social Structure
constraints, high cost of living which can strain family relations. Stress
from various reasons deteriorates the health of a person leading to many
health issues both physical and mental.
l Pollution: In industrialized cities,pollution is a major problem because
of the constant running of industries which releases fumes, smog, and
release of industrial waste materials and toxins to rivers and other water
bodies.

3.5.1 Caste-Class Continuum

Before we understand the dynamism of how caste and class nexus

work in urban space, let us look back once what caste and class
was defined as. Class depends mainly on economic differences
between groups of individuals who are in possession and control of
material resources whereas caste system is based on birth, religion
and rituals (to the point of discriminatory at a certain point).
Looking back to thousandsof years back in the pre-historic
era, individuals evolved to become families by procreation then
gathered together to form societies. In the beginning, there was no
difference between caste and class. Once civilization evolved over
time, there was division of labour as per potentialities and ability.
In early human history, the economics of resources were
linked to food and safety of the tribal clans. Since it is the most
important aspect for the survival of the clans and society, people
providing those services became the most important member of
society. Since these people were very important for the basic survival
of the society they started getting privileges. Once they started
getting privileges a gap between resources and privileges within
the members of the society started. The privileged ones start
accumulating resources with them and af ter resource
accumulation, they started bartering resources with other services.
This is the point where the difference between social and economic
statusemerged.

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In urban areas, people migrate from rural areas. The
population migrates based on their economic agenda, social and
cultural baggage. The rural-urban migration happened gradually.In
villages, the most important identity is their 'caste identity' and wants
to protect their own vested interests. They form their settlement
based on their caste and follow occupation which is carried over
since generations. For example, Brahmin caste community will stay
together mainlynear a temple or a water bodyat the center of the
village and by profession are priests or guruswhereas communities
from lower castes are located at the periphery of the village and are
barbers or leather maker. In order to meet the financial needs of the
families male members migrate to urban or industries areas to earn
more than their existing financial condition to meet the demands of
the family.
In cities or industrial towns, the caste difference that prevails
in rural areas diminishes rather the values of an individual are based
on one's potentialities, ability, and hard work. It is observed that people
from lower castes take up any kind of jobs without prejudices. They
are conditioned to work in any kind of environment for survival and
work hard to improve their financial conditions. Whereas a man
from higher caste may not be willing to take a job that is below his
education or social acceptance level. In such a scenario the lower
caste individual is expected to prosper better and improve his
economic condition over time. He can climb up the social ladder in
urban areas sooner and be accepted by the society as his economic
status improves and the social caste is not relevant anymore.
In conclusion it can be said that due to the rapid socio-
economic changes in urban areas, rural societies have also changed
tremendously. When people migrate from rural to urban areas there
is a change in the rural joint family structure. The family size shrinks
and so also the nature of relationship. Further caste as a social
institution has also undergone massive change in rural societies
with growing migration and dissociation from caste based ocupation.
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CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Q 1: What are the different types of migration?

.......................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................
Q 2: Name the various kinds of Internal Migration?
.......................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................
Q 3: What is Push and Pull phenomena?
.......................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................
Q 4: Define Urbanization?
.......................................................................................................
......................................................................................................

3.6 LET US SUM UP

l According to the 2011 Census, 68.84% of India's population lives in

rural India.
l The main reasons for the increase in urban population are because of
industrialization, employment opportunities, a better standard of living
and better health care facilities.
l Lack of available local employment opportunities, loans and poverty
are important trigger points for migrations from rural to urban areas.
l Most of the migrants are absorbed in construction, textile, Transportation,
mines & quarries, manual labour sectors.
l The movement of people that take place within the territorial jurisdiction
of a country is called as internal migrations.
l The migrants move across the international border is known as external
migration.
l Rural to Urban migration can be seen in under Developed countries.
l Urban to Urban migration happens in highly urbanized countries with

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 Changing Trend in Rural Social Structure Unit 3
the prospect of employment and higher economic gains.
l Rural to Rural migration happens in areas of developed irrigation
facilities, use of modern technology.
l Urban to Rural migration takes place at advance stage of urbanization
in advanced developed countries.
l The main reasons which govern the magnitude and direction of migration
are the general economic conditions of the area, availability of good
agricultural land, size of land holdings, growth of employment
opportunities, etc.
l Social migration is mainly carried out by women at the time of marriage.
l Age is one of the most important demographic factors for controlling
the degree of desire to move among potential migrants.
l The three basic distinctions to explain the process of urbanization. They
are (i) Behavioural, (ii) Structural and (iii) Demographic aspects.
l The main causes of urbanization are Industrialization, Employment
Opportunities, and modernization.
l In cities or industrial towns, the caste difference that prevails in rural
areas diminishes rather the values of an individual are based on one's
potentialities, ability, and hard work.

3.7 FURTHER READING

1) Chandna. R.C (2011) "Geography of Population"; Kalyani Publishers,

LudhianaI.

3.8 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Ans to Q No 1: Migration can be classified as economic and social migration

depending upon the factors of motive and move (distance).
Ans to Q No 2: The internal migrations can be classified into four types on
the basis of their geographical movement- (i) Rural to Urban, (ii) Urban
to Urban, (iii) Rural to Rural and (iv) Urban to Rural.
Ans to Q No 3: Rural areas are surrounded by poverty, unemployment,
low wages, and lack and underdeveloped facilities for health and
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 Unit 3 Changing Trend in Rural Social Structure
education act as a push factor from the rural areas to urban or industrial
areas. Whereas urban areas act as the pull factor as they provide better
employment opportunities, regular and higher wages, fixed working
hours, better living amenities for education and socio-cultural activities.
Ans to Q No 4: Urbanization is a cyclical process through which the nations
pass as they evolve from agrarian to industrial societies.

3.9 MODEL QUESTIONS

Short Question (Answer each question in about 150 words)

Q 1: Why migration becomes essential for people from certain regions?
Q 2: What are the various causes of Urbanization? Explain in brief.
Long Questions (Answer each question in about 300-500 words)
Q 1: What is Internal and External Migration? Describe the different kinds
of Internal Migration.
Q 2: What are the main determinants of Migration? State and explain
them in brief?
Q 3: What are the main effects of Urbanization? Explain.
Q 4: Write a short note on changing nature of the caste system from
rural to urban because of migration and urbanization in India.

*** ***** ***

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 Rural Economy Unit 4

UNIT 4: RURAL ECONOMY

UNIT STRUCTURE
4.1 Learning Objectives
4.2 Introduction
4.3 Land Tenure System
4.3.1. Types of Land Tenure System Pre Independence Period.
4.3.2 Post Independence Period.
4.4 Land Reforms: Meaning and Definition
4.4.1 Land Reform Measures
4.5 Green Revolution and its impact
4.5.1 Main Objectives of the Green Revolution
4.5.2 Impact of Green Revolution
4.6 Bonded and Migrant Labourers
4.7 Let Us Sum Up
4.8 Further Reading
4.9 Answers to Check your Progress
4.10 Model Questions

4.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After going through this unit, you will be able to -

l know about the land tenure system and land reforms in India
l understand the impact of green revolution
l discuss about Bonded and Migrant Labourers

4.2 INTRODUCTION

Agriculture plays a vital role in the Indian economy. Over 70% of the
rural population is directly dependent on agriculture and contributes to one-
third of the nation's Gross Domestic Product. For centuries, Indian villages
have been self- sufficient and land was available in abundance. With the
advent of Mughal's rule in India, the land became one of the main sources
of revenue earning for the Mughal emperor and carried over for centuries.
With the dawn of British rule, the land revenue system had gone through
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transformation and continued till India's Independence. To understand the
land revenue nexus, let us understand how the land was seen by British
during its rule in the Indian peninsula.

4.3 LAND TENURE SYSTEM

In simple terms, Land Tenure refers to the agreement between an

individual and the government. The land within the political boundary of a
state is absolutely owned by the government and it is the government which
gives the individual or communities proprietary rights. For the proprietary
rights individuals has to pay revenue to the government.

4.3.1 Types of Land Tenure System Pre Independence

Period

Under the British Rule, there were three main types of land tenure
systems in India. They were Zamindari, Mahalwari, and Rayatwari.
Ø Zamindari System: This system was introduced by Lord
Cornwallis in Bengal in 1793. Under this system, the lands of a
village or few villages together were held by a single person or
family who was responsible for payment of land revenue to the
British government. The Zamindars became the intermediaries
between the cultivators and the state. This system was
introduced in many parts of the country.
The Zamindari system was based on exploitation. The
Zamindars were conferred with unlimited powers by the Emperor.
In this system, tillers of the soil were exploited by way of exorbitant
rents imposed by the zamindars. Approximately, one-fourth of the
produce was taken away by the intermediaries in the form of rent.
The tenants had to work in the houses of Zamindars on occasions
like marriage, religious festivals without any return.
The British introduced the Zamindari system to achieve two
objectives. Firstly, to collect theland revenues from farmers efficiently
through Zamindars. Secondly, it created a class of people who would
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remain loyal to the British ruler in the country.
Ø Mahalwari System: Under this system, the village lands were
held jointly by the village communities. The members of the
village were jointly responsible for the payment of the land
revenue. The lands held by the village communities were either
cultivated by the members of the village communities
themselves or leased out to others on rent. The village headman
was entrusted with the responsibility of collecting the land
revenue and depositing it in the treasury. In return, the headman
received 'Panchatra' i.e. 5% as commission.
Ø Ryotwari System: It was introduced by Sir. Thomas Munro first
in Madras state and then in Bombay state. In this system, there
was a direct relationship between government and the tenant or
Rayat i.e. individual land holder. Under this system, the
responsibility of paying land revenue to the government was of
the individual 'ryot' himself. There was no intermediary between
him and the state. The ryot or the farmer had full rights on his
land regarding sale, transfer, sub-let or lease as long as he paid
land revenue to the government.

4.3.2 Post Independence Period

After India's Independence, the Indian National Congress appointed

the Agrarian Reforms Committee under the Chairmanship of J.C.
Kumarappa formaking an in-depth study of the agrarian relationship
that existed in pre independence periodand provides
recommendation for agrarian reforms to be brought in the agrarian
policies post India's independence. The committee recommended
that all intermediaries between the state and the farmers should be
eliminated and the land must belong to the farmers adhering to certain
conditions.The state legislature passed the legislation for the abolition
of zamindari and similar exploitative land tenure systems. As a result
of the abolition of Zamindari and other land tenure system, more

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than 20 lakhs tenants got proprietary rights to land i.e. they became
owners of the land.

4.4 LAND REFORMS

Before delving into the various land reforms carried out on the
recommendation of the Agrarian Reform Committee let us understand what
Land Reform is. In broad terms, Land Reform refers to an institutional
measure directed towards altering the existing pattern of ownership, tenancy,
and management of land which existed in the pre-independence period. It
entails "redistribution of the rights of ownership, use of land away from
large landowners and in favour of cultivators with very limited or no
landholdings".
The land reform policies constituted the most important measures
to improve the economic condition of agricultural tenants along withthe
redistribution of land, regulation of rent, improving the conditions of tenancy,
cooperative organization, and agricultural education.
The main objectives of land reforms are:
l To change the Agrarian structure in a way that will not obstruct but
promote the growth of agriculture.
l To restructuring of agrarian relations to achieve an egalitarian structure;
l Elimination of exploitation in land relations;
l Improvement of socio-economic conditions of the rural poor by widening
their land base;
l Increase agriculture production and productivity;
l Facilitating land-based development forthe rural poor; and
l Infusion of a great measure of equality in local institutions.
The steps that were undertaken in the land tenure system post
Independence by the government were (i) Abolition of Intermediaries, (ii)
Tenancy Reforms, (iii) Fixation of Ceilings on land holdings and (iv)
Redistribution of Surplus land among landless or semi-landless peasants.
Besides the above stated steps special measures are adopted to prevent
alienation of tribal land.

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4.4.1 Land Reform Measures

Ø Abolition of Intermediaries: In the pre independence period,

the Indian rural economy and polity was dominated by some big
landowners. They acquired lands by paying a very small amount
of money to the British government. In addition to that, an
intermediate class was developed by the British government to
simplify their tax collecting system. The people of this class had
no direct connection with land and agriculture but captured the
land with no limit. As a result, the small and marginal farmers
were exploited and they were forced to transfer the land to the
big landlords.
Based on recommendationsf rom the Kumarappa
Committee, in the 1950s all the Indian states enacted the legislation
for the abolition of intermediary tenures. It is to be noted that the
nature and effects of the legislation varied from state to state.In West
Bengal and Jammu and Kashmir, legislation for abolishing
intermediary tenures was accompanied by simultaneous imposition
of ceilings on land holdings. In other states, intermediaries were
allowed to retain possession of lands under their personal cultivation
without limit being set, as the ceiling laws were passed only in the
year 1960.
Later the government took the land from the intermediaries.
The small landowners were compensated by the government for
giving their land. The amount of compensation was inversely
proportional to the amount of revenue earned from the land.
The biggest impact from the abolition of the intermediate
classes connected more than 20 lakh farmers directly with the
government and also increased the tax revenue from the rural areas.
The increase in tax revenue compensated the huge burden of the
government to compensate farmers and land owners. The financial
security of the farmers improved and as a result of that, productivity
and rate of employment also increased.
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Ø Tenancy Reforms: The Agrarian Reform Committee very
strongly felt that the welfare of the Indian farmers and the
progress of agriculture depended to a large extent on whether
the farmers and peasants felt secure about the source of
livelihood and whether the tenure system provided incentives
and opportunities for local development.
The First Year Plan gave the highest priority to increase
agricultural production, recommended an agrarian policy that aimed
at reducing disparities in wealth and income, eliminating exploitation
providing security for the tenant and worker and opportunities in
different sections for the rural pollution. With the guidelines provided
by the Planning Commission, the State Governments adopted
certain measures like regulation of rents, the security of tenure and
conferment of ownership on tenants.
The tenancy reforms undertaken by various states followed
four distinct patterns. First, the tenancy laws in states like Andhra
Pradesh (Telengana region included), Bihar, Himachal Pradesh,
Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, and Uttar Pradesh banned leasing out
of agricultural land except by certain disabled categories of
landowners, so as to vest the ownership of land with the actual
tillers. Secondly, the state of Kerala banned agricultural tenancy
altogether without having any exception. Third, states like Punjab,
Haryana, Gujarat, and Haryana did not ban tenancy as such. But
tenants after continuous possession of land for a certain specific
span of time eventually acquired the right to purchase the land they
cultivated. However, in all these states, leasing-out by both large
and small farmers continued.Fourth, states like West Bengal,
Orissa, Tamil Nadu, and Andhra Pradesh did not ban leasing out of
agricultural land.
Almost all State Governments provided for the regulation of
rent, except for Kerala where leasing out was completely prohibited.
The regulated or fair rent ranged between 1/4th to 1/6th of the produce
from the land. But actual rent remained always higher than the
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regulated or fair rent. In many places where small and marginal
farmers leased-in land from large or absentee landowners, the
situation continued to be exploitive, thereby discouraging the actual
tillers in order to cultivate the land efficiently.
Ø Ceilings on Land Holding: The term 'ceiling on land holdings'
refers to the legally stipulated maximum size beyond which no
individual farmer or farm household can hold any land. Like all
other land reform measures, the objective of such a ceiling is to
promote economic growth with social justice. It has been duly
recognized by India's policy makers that after a certain point
any large scale farming in the Indian context would become
uneconomic and also unjust. Small farms tend to increase the
economic efficiency of resource use and improve social equality
through employment creation and more equitable income
distribution.
In 1959, the Indian National Congress resolved the agrarian
legislation to cover restrictions on the size of the land-holdings
implemented in all states by the end of 1959. Accordingly, all the
state Governments expecting north-eastern region imposed ceilings
on land holdings by the 1960's. The states of West Bengaland
Jammu and Kashmir had already imposed ceilings on land holdings
along with the laws for abolition of intermediaries in the early 1950's
itself. However, as the ceiling laws were not ratified simultaneously
with abolition of Zamindari, except in West Bengal and Jammu and
Kashmir because of which several Nami and Benami transfer of
land took place. This reduced the potential ceiling surplus land that
could be available for redistribution. Even though there were quite
large areas of lands taken under the ceiling, few categories were
exempted from the ceiling laws, they were:
m Land under Tea, Coffee, Rubber, and Cocoa and Cardamom
plantations.
m Sugarcane Farms,

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m Co-operative Gardens, Colonies,
m Tank Fisheries,
m Land held by Religious, Charitable and Educational institutions,
m Land held by State and Central Government,
m Land held by Sugarcane Factories,
m Land awarded for gallantry,
m Land held by a public sector or industrial or commercial
undertaking,
m Specified farms engaged in cattle breeding, dairying or wool
rising.
Ø Bhoodan and Gramdan: The Bhoodan movement was
launched in 1951, immediately after the peasant uprising in
Telangana and another movement known as Gramdan came
into being in 1957. The objective of both the movement was to
persuade landowners and leaseholders in each village to
renounce their land rights, after which all the lands would become
the property of a village association for the egalitarian
redistribution and for the purpose of joint cultivation.
However, both the movements failed to achieve its targeted
objectives and the degree of success in respect of both land
acquisition and land distribution. Of the 42.6 lakhs acres of land
Believing that all people
received through Bhoodan more than 17.3 lakh acres of land were
are equally important
rejected as they were found unfit for cultivation. In the majority of the
and should have the
cases, the village
same rights and
landlords donated only those pieces of land which were either
opportunities in life.
unfit for cultivation or were in dispute with tenants or government. In
fact, the landlords preferred to part away with their disputed lands
as a compromise under the law. In return of the land donation, the
landlords received input subsidies and other facilities which were
much more than they received in relation to the land unfit for
cultivation.
Ø Consolidation of Holdings: 'Consolidation of holdings' refers
to amalgamation and redistribution of the fragmented land with
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a view to bringing together all plots of land of a cultivator into one
block. Due tothe growing pressure of population on land and the
limited opportunities for work in the non-agricultural sector, there
was an increasing trend towards sub-division and fragmentation
of land holdings. Because of which the task of irrigation
management, land improvement, and supervision of different
plots was very difficult.
After independence, almost all the states except Tamil Nadu,
Kerala, Manipur, Nagaland, Tripura, and parts of Andhra Pradesh
enacted laws for consolidation of holdings. In Punjab and Haryana,
it was made compulsory and in other states, laws provided for the
consolidation of land holdings was done on voluntary basis,provided
if it is agreed by the majority.
The consolidation acts are provided for
m Prohibition of fragmentation below standard area,
m Fixation of minimum standard area for regulating transfers,
m Schemes of Consolidation by an exchange of holdings,
m Reservation of land for common areas,
m Procedure for payment of compensation to persons allotted
holdings of less market value in exchange,
m Administrative machinery for carrying consolidation schemes
m Filing of objections, appeals, and penalties.
However, due to lack of adequate political and administrative
support, the progress made in terms of consolidation of holding
was not very satisfactory, except in Punjab, Haryana and Western
Uttar Pradesh where the task of consolidation was accomplished.
Ø Protection of Tribal Land: All the concerned states ratified laws
for prevention of alienation of tribals from the land. In all the
scheduled areas, land transfer from tribal to non-tribal population
was prohibited by law. But due to various legal loopholes and
administrative lapses, alienation of the tribals from their land
continued on a large scale. Mortgaging of land to moneylenders
due to indebtedness, poverty, and acquisition of tribal land for
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irrigation, dams and other public purposes were largely
responsible for the alienation of tribal land. There are continuous
efforts from activities and change-makers to change the laws in
order to safeguard the rights of tribal to their land.

4.5 GREEN REVOLUTION AND ITS IMPACT

Green Revolution refers to the introduction of High Yielding Variety

(HYV) of seeds and increased use of fertilizer and irrigation methods. The
aim of this revolution was to increase food security and make India self-
sufficient in food grains. Use of newer technologies including pesticides,
nitrogen fertilizers, improved crop variety was introduced to Indian farming
during the Green Revolution period. The term 'Green Revolution' is applied
to the period from 1967 to 1978.
The programme was started with the help of the United States based
Rockefeller Foundation and was based on high-yielding varieties of wheat,
rice and other grains that had been developed in Mexico and in the
Philippines. M.S Swaminathan, Indian geneticist played a special role in
India's Green Revolution programme.

4.5.1 Main Objectives of the Green Revolution

Ø To increase agricultural productivity.

Ø To aid the small and marginal farmers.
Ø To implement the usage of modern technology and techniques
in farming.
Ø To achieve self-sufficiency in the production of food crops.
Ø To introduce HYV seeds, fertilizers, and irrigation projects.
Ø To globalize the agricultural world.

4.5.2 Impact of Green Revolution

Let us now discuss the impact that the Green Revolution brought in
India:

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Ø High Yielding Varieties (HYV) of seeds: The development of
HYV seeds in the 1960s laid the foundation for the Green
Revolution in India. The HYV seeds played the role to modernize
agriculture in India like engines of change, capable of
transforming a traditional farmer into a commercial producer.
After the widespread adoption of HYV seeds the cereal
production increased, which invariably lead to investment and
increase the use of machineries.
In 1963 the National Seeds Corporation (NSC) was
established. It undertook the production of breeding seeds on its
own farms and foundation. NSC certified and quality tested seeds
through contract growers, agricultural universities, state seeds
corporations and state farms corporation in India.
In 1977 the National Seed Programme was launched in
collaboration with World Bank covering 9 states of Punjab, Haryana,
U.P, Bihar, Orissa, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, and
Rajasthan. The production distribution and utilization of quality seeds
have been increasing since the beginning of the Green Revolution.
Ø Irrigation: Irrigation is the second most important component
of Green Revolution technology after HYV seeds. India's rainfall
being unreliable, irregular and seasonal, there was an urgent
need to expand irrigation potential to meet requirements of the
Green Revolution for the successful introduction of HYV seeds
even in rain scarce region. The availability of water at the right
time and in right quantity was crucial for the success of HYV
seeds.
Ø Use of Fertilizers: The use of chemical fertilizers has been
the third most important input of Green Revolution after HYV
seeds and irrigation. The area of land available for cultivation
was limited and there was no scope for new extensive land for
agricultural expansion. In order to meet the demand of the ever-
increasing population and limited land for agriculture, multiple
cropping was introduced during the Green Revolution. The multi-
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cropping was heavily leaned on HYV seeds, irrigation, and
chemical fertilizer. To encourage the use of balanced fertilizer
and easy access to farmers at affordable prices, the Central
Government determines the price and sells at subsidy rate.
The use of fertilizer has considerably increased over the
years post-Green Revolution. In the 1970's, southern India was
leading in consumption of fertilizers, later states like Punjab, Haryana
and Uttar Pradesh became the main consumers. It is worth
mentioning that Punjab and Haryana have 6% of the country's
cropped area which consumed 18% of the fertilizers used in India.
Ø Consolidation of Holdings: As small and fragmented land
holdings have been one of the main obstacles in the progress
of agricultural development in India, consolidation of land
holdings was introduced as a policy to solve this problem.
Ø Supply of Agricultural Credit: Credit Supply is one of the most
crucial inputs in all agricultural developmental programmes.
Inputs like HYV Seeds, fertilizers, pesticides, irrigation
technology, and machineries depend on the availability of credit.
Earlier farmers used to get loans from moneylenders who
used to charge a higher interest rate. Indian farmers borrowed loans
from moneylenders because a large percentage of Indianfarmers'
community consisted of small and marginal farmers who did not
have their resources to invest in agriculture. They depended upon
agricultural credit to carry on their agricultural operations.
After Five Year Planning Commission was commissioned
Cooperatives, Commercial Banks and Regional Rural Banks
extended loans to farmers on easy terms to carry out their agriculture
activities.
Ø Rural Electrification: Electricity is a cheap source of energy
used for lifting water by tube-wells/pump sets, processing and
preservation of agricultural produce, and irrigation system in
farm operations. Realizing the importance of electricity for the
proper growth and development of agriculture, a massive
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programme of rural electrification was taken up immediately after
Independence.
Haryana was the first state to electrify all its villages in 1970.
Followed by Kerala, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Gujarat, Himachal
Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, and Maharashtra where 97 to 100 percent
villages were electrified by the mid of 1980s.
Ø Rural Roads and Marketing: Road connectivity and
infrastructure development constituted important factors to
improve agricultural productivity under the Green Revolution
programme. Connecting villages to neighbouring markets and
villages were essential for market linkages and selling.
Marketing is essential for progressive agriculture. Regulated
markets enable the farmer to sell his agricultural produce and
purchase farm implements and tools, fertilizers, pesticides, and other
agricultural inputs as well as goods for daily use.
In the words of Leo E. Holman, "Marketing is the part and
parcel ofthe modern production process, the part at the end that
gives point and purpose to all that had gone before."
Ø Agricultural Universities: Agricultural universities and other
agricultural institutes are primarily engaged in agricultural
research and passing on the research findings to farmers. The
success of Green Revolution largely depends upon the work
done by these universities.

4.6 BONDED AND MIGRANT LABOURERS

The term 'bonded labour' has been defined by the National

Commission on Labour as "labour which remains in bondage for a specific
period for the debt incurred". In general, the "Bonded Labour" or "Bonded
Labour System" refers to 'the relationship between a creditor and a debtor
who obtains loan owningto economic compulsions confronting his day-to-
day life, and agrees to abide by the terms dictated by the creditor'.The term
of the agreement between the creditor and debtor is that the debtor agrees

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 Unit 4 Rural Economy
to mortgage his services or services of any or all the members of his family
for a specified or unspecified period of time.
The main causes of growth and perpetuation of the bonded labour
system are economic, social and religious factors. The economic causes
include extreme poverty of people, inability to find work for a livelihood,
inadequate size of the landholdings to support family, lack of alternative
small scale loans for the rural and urban poor, natural calamities like drought,
floods, etc. The social factors include high expenses on occasions like
marriage, death, feast, birth of a child, etc., heavy debts, caste-based
discrimination, lack of concrete social welfare schemes to safeguard against
hunger and illness, compulsory and unequal educational system. Broadly
speaking, bondage originated mainly from economic and social pressures.
A 'migrant worker or labour' is a person who either migrates within
their home country or outside the country to pursue work. Migrant workers
usually do not have the intention to stay permanently in the country or region
in which they work.Migrant labours are generally casual and unskilled workers
who move systematically from one region to another offering their services
on a temporary, and usually on seasonal basis.
In India, more than 120 million people or more migrate from rural
areas to urban markets, industries, and farms. Migration becomes essential
for people from regions that face frequent shortages of rainfall or suffers
from floods or population is high in relation to land. Areas facing unresolved
social or political conflicts also become prone to high out-migration. Poverty,
lack of local employment opportunities and availability of work becomes
the motivation for outward rural migration.
Migration corridors in India is mostly from Bihar, UP, Odisha, Madhya
Pradesh, Rajasthan and recently North East region that send labours to
industrial regions within the country. The migrants are employed in the
construction sector, domestic work, textile, brick kiln, transportation, mines
and quarries, and agriculture. Migrant workers form the largest part of India's
vast unorganized work sector. The biggest disadvantages faced by the
unskilled migrant workers are because they are devoid of critical skills,

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 Rural Economy Unit 4
information and bargaining power which lead them to low- value and
hazardous work and do not get legal protection. Even though it is not widely
discussed the role of the migrant workers in the economic growth and
contribution to national income is enormous and there is an imminent need
for social securities and laws to make the growth inclusive.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Q 1: Who owns the land within the political boundary of a country?

.......................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................
Q 2: Who were Zamindars?
.......................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................
Q 3: What were the main objectives of the British Emperor to introduce
the Zamindari System in India?
.......................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................
Q 4: What were the main recommendations of the Agrarian Reforms
Committee?
.......................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................
Q5: What do you understand by 'Ceiling on Land Holding'?
.......................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................
Q6: What do you understand by 'Consolidation of Holdings'?
.......................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................
Q7: Define Bonded Labour and Migrant Worker?
.......................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................

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4.7 LET US SUM UP

l Over 70% of the rural population is directly dependent on agriculture

and contributes to one-third of the nation's Gross Domestic Product.
l During Mughal's rule, the land became one of the main sources of
revenue earning of the Mughal emperor and carried over for centuries.
l Land Tenure refers to the agreement between an individual and the
government.
l Zamindarisystem was introduced by Lord Cornwallis in Bengal in 1793.
l Under the Mahalwari system, the village land was held jointly by village
communities.
l In the Ryotwari system, there was a direct relationship between the
government and the tenant or Rayat. The Tenant themselves were
responsible to pay their land revenues to the government with no
intermediaries.
l After Independence an Agrarian Reform Committee was formed under
the Chairmanship of J.C. Kmarappa.
l The biggest impact from the abolition of the intermediate classes
connected more than 20 lakh farmers directly with the government and
also increased the tax revenue from the rural areas.
l With the guidelines provided by the Planning Commission, the State
Governments adopted certain measures like regulation of rents, the
security of tenure and conferment of ownership on tenants.
l Small farms tend to increase the economic efficiency of resource use
and improve social equality through employment creation and more
equitable income distribution.
l The Bhoodan movement was launched in 1951, and the Gramdan
movement was launched in 1957.
l Of the 42.6 lakhs acres of land received through Bhoodan more than
17.3 lakh acres were rejected as they were found unfit for cultivation.
l The term 'Green Revolution' is applied to the period from 1967 to 1978.
l M.S Swaminathan, Indian geneticist played a special role in India's Green
Revolution programme.
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 Rural Economy Unit 4
l Article 23 of the Constitution of India prohibited 'traffic in human beings',
'beggar' and other similar forms of forced labour.
l Migration corridors in India is mostly from Bihar, UP, Odisha, Madhya
Pradesh, Rajasthan and recently North East region that send labours
to industrial regions within the country.

4.8 FURTHER READING

1) Haque.T& Sirohi. A.S, (1985) "Agrarian Reforms and Institutional

Changes in India"; Concept Publishing Company, New Delhi.
2) Datt, G & Mahajan, A (2013) "Indian Economy"; S. Chand & Company
Pvt. Ltd, New Delhi.

4.9 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Ans to Q No 1: The land within the political boundary of a state is absolutely

owned by the government and it is the government which gives the
individual proprietary rights to individuals or communities.
Ans to Q No 2: The Zamindars were the intermediaries between the
cultivators and the state. Zamindars were conferred with unlimited rights
by the Emperor to exploit farmers and tenants to make more revenues
for British Emperor.
Ans to Q No 3: The British introduced the Zamindari system to achieve
two objectives. Firstly, to collect land revenues from farmers efficiently
through Zamindars. Secondly, it created a class of people who would
remain loyal to the British ruler in the country.
Ans to Q No 4: The committee recommended that all intermediaries
between the state and the farmers should be eliminated and the land
must belong to the farmers to certain conditions. The state legislature
passed the legislation for the abolition of zamindari and similar
exploitative land tenure systems.
Ans to Q No 5: 'Ceiling on land holdings' refers to the legally stipulated
land size beyond which no individual farmer or farm household can
hold any land.
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 Unit 4 Rural Economy
Ans to Q No 6: 'Consolidation of holdings' refers to amalgamation and
redistribution of the fragmented land with a view to bringing together all
plots of land of a cultivator into one block.
Ans to Q No 7: The term 'bonded labour' has been defined by the National
Commission on Labour as "labour which remains in bondage for a
specific period for the debt incurred".
A 'migrant worker or labour' is a person who either migrates within
their home country or outside the country to pursue work, usually, do not
have an intention to stay permanently in the country or region in which they
work.

4.10 MODEL QUESTIONS

Short Question (Answer each question in about 150 words)

Q 1: Define Land Reform. State the main objectives of Land Reforms in
India.
Q 2: Write a short note on Bhoodan and Gramdan movement.
Q 3: What do youmean by the Green Revolution and state the main
objectives of this revolution?
Q 4: What do you understand by Bonded Labour and what are the main
causes of becoming bonded labour?
Long Questions (Answer each question in about 300-500 words)
Q 1: What is Land Tenure and what are the different kinds of land tenure
system exist in India. Write a note.
Q 2: Based on the Agrarian Reform Committee what were the Land
Reform measures taken by the government? Elaborate.
Q 3: What are the major impacts observed from the Green Revolution?
Write a note of the positive impacts.

*** ***** ***

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 Changes in the Indian Economy Unit 5

UNIT 5: CHANGES IN THE INDIAN ECONOMY

UNIT STRUCTURE
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Learning Objectives
5.3 Changes in Rural Economic Structure after Independence
5.3.1 Changes in Agriculture
5.3.2 Structural Changes
5.3.3 Transformation from Subsistence to Market Economy
5.3.4 Other Changes
5.4 Causes and Factors of Changes
5.4.1 Impact of Science and Technology
5.4.2 Impact of Industrialisation
5.4.3 Impact of Urbanisation and Rural Outmigration
5.4.4 Impact of Liberalisation and Globalisation
5.4.5 Growth of Secondary and Tertiary Sector
5.4.6 Poverty Alleviation in rural area
5.5 Let Us Sum Up
5.6 Further Reading
5.7 Answers to Check Your Progress
5.8 Model Questions

5.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After going through this unit, you will be able to -

l identify the changes in the Indian Rural Economy
l understand the role of science and technology and industrialisation
in bringing change to rural economy
l understand the impact of urbanisation and Rural Outmigration on
Rural economy
l explain the impact of Liberalisation and Globalisation on Rural
Economy
l discuss the impact of the growth of Secondary and Tertiary sector
on Rural Economy
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5.2 INTRODUCTION

Indian Rural Economy is primarily agrarian in nature. Agriculture

has always been the backbone of the rural economy as well as the Indian
economy as a whole. Most of the people in rural areas are still occupied in
agriculture and allied activities. Even though India is a rapidly industrialising
nation, Agriculture continues to be a major contributor to the Gross Domestic
Product (GDP) of the country. After independence, Indian Agriculture
underwent immense transformations with the introduction of Land Reforms,
Advancement in agricultural technology, Green Revolution so on and so
forth. We have already discussed about the nature of Indian Rural economy
and the impact of Land Reforms and Green Revolution in the previous unit.
In this unit, we shall mainly discuss about the role of industrialisation,
science and technology, urbanization, growth of secondary and tertiary
sector in bringing about transformations to rural economy.

5.3 CHANGES IN THE INDIAN RURAL ECONOMY

India today is not only self-sufficient in grain production, but also

has a substantial reserve. The progress made by agriculture in the last four
decades has been one of the biggest success stories of free India. In the
subsections below, we shall try to understand the changes in the rural
economy.

5.3.1 Changes in Agriculture

As far as the Indian agrarian society is concerned, it had in the past

followed the traditional methods of cultivation. Our farmers made
use of the local breed of bullocks and never used chemicals,
fertilizers and pesticides of the modern type. Hence, they did not
have much surplus production sale in the markets. But the
introduction of modern technology has brought a lot of changes in
the cultivation process.

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Introduction of new technology in agriculture in the rural
areashave helped the peasants to attain greater level of self-
sufficiency. Whenimproved ploughing materials, hybrid seeds,
chemicals, fertilizers, tractors, tillers, threshers, spraying machines
and other modern equipment began to be introduced to agriculture,
production increased tremendously thereby generating huge surplus
production for market. Let us understand these changes in details.
Ø Crops: The 1970s saw a multi-fold increase in wheat production
that heralded the Green Revolution. In the next decade rice
production rose significantly; in 1995-96, rice production was
79.6 million tons. Total grain production crossed 191 million tons
in 1994-95, a big leap from 51 million tons in 1950-51. During
the Seventh Plan, the average grain production was 155 million
tons, 17 million tons more than the Sixth Plan average.
A National Pulse Development Programme, covering 13
states, was launched in 1986, to carry improve technologies to the
farmers. The Special Food Production Programme augmented the
efforts to boost pulse production further. In 1995-96 pulse production
was 132 million tons. With some States offering more than the
statutory minimum price, sugarcane production also received a
boost; in 1995-96 a record 283.0 million tons of sugar was registered.
Ø Irrigation: As efforts continued to increase the irrigation potential
in the country, the last 40 years saw the gross irrigated area
reach 8 million hectares. Flood forecasting has become an
important activity over the years. Over 500 hydrological stations
collect and transmit data through 400 wireless stations for
issuing forecasts for 157 sites. About 5000 forecasts are issued
in a year with 94 per cent accuracy. The country also receives
international support, with the World Bank as a primary source,
for developing the water resources. International cooperation is
also envisaged in setting up a National Centre for Information
on Water and Power.

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Ø Fertilizers: The fertilizer industry in India has grown
tremendously in the last 30 years. The Government is keen to
see that fertilizer reaches the farmers in the remote and hilly
areas. It has been decided to decontrol the prices, distribution
and movement of phosphatic andpotassic fertilizers. Steps have
been taken to ensure an increase in the supply of non-chemical
fertilizers at reasonable prices. There are 53 fertilizer quality
control laboratories in the country. Since Bio-fertilizers are
regarded as an effective, cheap and renewable supplement to
chemical fertilizers, the Government is implementing a National
Project on Development and Use of Bio- fertilizers. Under this
scheme, one national and six regional centres for organizing
training, demonstrating programmes and quality testing of bio-
fertilizers has been taken up.
Ø Fisheries: Fish production achieved an all-time high of 4.9
million tons at the end of 1995-96. Programmes that have helped
boost the production of fish include the National Programme of
Developing Fish Seeds, Fish Farmers' Development Agencies
and Brackish Water Fish Farmers' Development Agencies. The
Central Institute of Fisheries Nautical and Engineering Training
trains the necessary manpower. To diversify fishing methods
and introduce processed fish products on a semi-commercial
scale, an integrated Fisheries Project has been launched. A
National Fisheries Advisory Board has also been established.

5.3.2 Structural Changes

The agrarian structure has changed enormously over the time, from
the pre-colonial to the colonial and after independence. In the pre-
colonial period the cultivating castes or the actual cultivators were
not the direct owners of the land. Instead, ruling groups such as the
local kings or zamindars controlled the land. The peasants or
cultivators who worked on the land had to hand over a substantial

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 Changes in the Indian Economy Unit 5
portion of the produce to them. When the British colonized in India,
in many areas they ruled through these local zamindars. They
administered many districts through the zamindars. They also
granted property rights to the zamindars. Under the British, the
zamindarswere given more control over land than they had before.
Since the colonizers also imposed heavy land revenue on agriculture,
the zamindars extracted as much produce or money as they could
out of the cultivators. As a result of this system the agricultural
production stagnated or declined during much of the period of British
rule.
Like the zamindari system, British administration introduced
other types of land tenure system: mahalwari system and ryotwari
system. Under these systems some modifications had been made.
But the actual motivation remained the same i.e collection of more
revenue instead of more production. Indirectly, through these
systems, they exploited the actual cultivators. Soon after
independence of India, Government implemented many policies in
connection with agriculture. The Government of India and the various
state governments have taken up several measures towards Land
Reforms under the Five- Year Plans. We have discussed about
these changes in the previous unit. as well. These land reforms
have brought significant changes to the whole agriculture sector.

5.3.3 Transformation from Subsistence to Market

Economy

According to A.R.Desai, transformation from subsistence to market

economy is one of the important changes in rural society in India.
Historically speaking, village economy has been a subsistence
economy. Because of the impact of urbanization and modernization
the village economy has now become a market oriented economy.
It does not mean that there was no market in the subsistence
economy. But it was only rudimentary and served its primary function

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of supplying consumer goods to the people of the village and
sometimes to the neighbouring villagers. It had never induced people
to produce for a market. But owing to the impact of modernization
the villagers now grow not only for their own consumption but a part
of its market too. Market now constitutes the central part of the
economy. Markets are also systematically expanding. They have
stretched their hands to the villages also. Hence, even in the remote
villages toothpastes, powder, soft drinks, biscuits, etc., of various
national and international brands are available. Further, milk, egg,
fruits, vegetables, etc., of even simple remote villages have reached
metropolitan markets.

5.3.4 Other Changes

Ø Rural Employment: Employment in rural sector, which is

associated mostly with agriculture, has stagnated after
independence especially during 90's (or after post liberalization
period). Indian agriculture has been a major provider of surpluses
and investable funds, during the colonial regime. The terms of
trade were to the disadvantage of the rural population which
helped in operationalising a 'suction mechanism' for expropriating
resources from the country. These resulted in a high disparity
between agriculture and non-agriculture sectors.
In India 1990 was the period of liberalization. During this
period, inequalities in the economy widened further. Launching of
the programmes of globalization and structural reform in the country
has led to the emergence and rapid growth of a few industries.
Sluggish growth in production, near stagnation in productivity and
high regional variation have characterized agriculture, leading to a
phenomenol rise in unemployment. Agriculture and low productive
non-farm activities have come under serious stress as a large
number of workers have shared limited income. Increasing inequality
induced through globalization would accelerate rural urban migration.

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 Changes in the Indian Economy Unit 5
This has brought about changes on the employment structure.
Among the three major sectors of economic activity, namely
agriculture, industry and services, there has been a decline in the
share of agriculture and increase in the share of industry and services
in total employment. In the period from 1973 to 2000 the shares of
agriculture declined from 74 to 56 percent and the shares of industry
increased from 11 to 17 percent and in services it is 14 to 25 percent.
Thus, rural employment pattern has of one for perceptible
change. The rural people are engaged not only with agriculture but
also with other economic activities. The Government has introduced
many developmental schemes under poverty alleviation
programmes in order to help the rural population.

5.4 CAUSES OR FACTORS OF CHANGES

From the above discussion, we have learned about the changes in

the Indian Rural Economy. We have understood how agricultural production
improved. In these subsectionsbelow, we shall learn about the causes
behind such changes.

5.4.1 Impact of Science and Technology

Science and technology plays a very significant role in the changing

process of rural economy. As mentioned above, the new technology
that was introduced has improved the ploughing materials, hybrid
seeds, chemicals, fertilizers, tillers and other modern equipment
so essential for the agrarian society. Our agricultural output therefore
has greatly increased. Construction of dams- major and minor-,
borewell and tank water facilities have contributed to improving the
irrigation facilities. Fertilizers have radically improved the crops
whereas insecticides are used to save the crops from the attack of
insects, and plant diseases.
Though India is a country dominated by agriculture, it used
to suffer from the scarcity of milk and milk products. But the
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nourishment of improved cattle today has led to vast improvement
in the availability of dairy produce. Now India is in a position to export
dairy product.

5.4.2 Impact of Industrialisation

We all know that industrial revolution brought an unimaginable

change to the entire process of production. With the introduction of
machines, came specialisation, division of labour, so on and so
forth. It resulted in time and cost efficient production, which changed
the economic structure. Industrialisation therefore led to Higher
Output in lesser time. The growth of Industrialisation brought about
a huge change in Indian Economy. It led to the growth of non-agrarian
occupation, growth of industrial working class, rural-urban migration,
use of technology in agriculture production etc. All these changes
have given a new shape to the Indian Economy. Industries began to
be seen as ‘Temples of Modern India’ and massive investment has
been made in industrial development since the begining of five year
plans. In post independent period, Industrial growth not only
contributed to the GDP of the country but also opened up several
avenues for occupation. All these led to far reaching changes in the
rural economy.

5.4.3 Impact of Urbanisation and Rural Outmigration

The growth of industrialisation was accompanied by urbanization.

Urban Centres being the hub of industries opened up several
avenues for occupation thereby attracting lot of rural people. The
irregular income from agriculture also pushed people out of the
villages to urban areas in search of alternate means of livelihood.
They came in huge numbers to the urban areas to work in industries.
Further, the lack of educational and health facilities compelled people
to migrate to the urban areas and settle there. A closer look at the
villages today would give us a clear picture of how Urbanisation and
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Rural Outmigration has brought about a drastic change to the rural
areas. From every village we find people migrating to the urban
centres. If we take the example of Assam, we will see that from
almost every village, there are people working in the cities outside
the region. The young boys are gradually getting disinterested in
agriculture and find it suitable to work in industries and companies
outside the region. It is not that only the one's with educational
qualifications are migrating, but even those who do not have much
educational qualifications also migrate and get absorbed in different
kinds of jobs like security guards, etc. If we visit places like
Hyderabad, Bangalore so on and so forth, we will find lot of Assamese
boys working there. This has led to tremendous change in the rural
economy. The families in the villages now receive remittance from
their family members who work outside. Therefore, instead of or
apart from agricultural income, remittance has become a major
source of family income today. There has also been an increasing
tendency among the youth to engage in non-agricultural occupation
even if that implies leaving their home and settling elsewhere. This
is a big challenge to the Indian Agricultural sector. And perhaps
therefore the contributions of Secondary and Tertiary sectors to the
GDP of the country have been increasing in the contemporary time,
while that of agriculture has been decreasing.

5.4.4 Impact of Liberalisation and Globalisation

The liberalization policy of India has had a very significant impact on

agriculture and the rural society as a whole. The policy entails India's
participation in the World Trade Organisation (WTO), which aims
to bring about a more free international trading system that requires
the opening up of Indian markets to import.After decades of state
support and protected markets, Indian farmers have been exposed
to competition from the global market.
Now, contact farming is very common in the production of

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specialized items such as cut flowers, fruits such as grapes, figs
and pomegranates, cotton, and oilseeds. While contract farming
appears to provide financial security to farmers , it can also lead to
greater insecurity as farmers become dependent on these
companies for their livelihoods. Contract farming of export-oriented
products such as flowers and gherkins also means that agriculture
land is diverted from food grain production.
The globalization of agriculture also allows the entry of
multinationals into this sector as sellers of such agricultural inputs
as seeds, pesticides and fertilizers. Over the last decade or so, the
government has scaled down its agricultural development
programmes, and 'agricultural extension' agents have been replaced
in the villages by agents of seed, fertilizer, and pesticide companies.
These agents are often the sole source of information for farmers
about new seeds or new cultivation practices, and of course, they
have an interest in selling their products. This has led to the increased
dependence of farmers on expensive fertilizers and pesticides. This
has reduced their profit, put many farmers into debt trap, and has
also created an ecological crisis in rural areas.
The impact of globalization on agriculture is increasingly
being felt. The industrialization of agriculture which is being imposed
on the developing countries like India poses a serious threat to the
livelihood of the traditional farmers.

5.4.5 Growth of Secondary and Tertiary Sector

We all know that Indian Economy is comprised of the Primary,

Secondary and Tertiary Sectors. Primary Sector implies primary
production through extraction and collection of natural resources.
Agriculture is an important primary economic activity, and is, as we
have previous mentioned, a major contributor to the Country's GDP.
The other economic activities falling in the category of primary sector
are Mining, Fishing, and Forestry so on and so forth. Apart from the

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Primary sector, the Secondary and the Tertiary Sector are also very
significant segments of Indian Economy whose contribution to the
GDP of the country has been rapidly increasing especially in the
Post-Independence period. Secondary sector involves
manufacturing of finished goods i.e itinvolves the transformation of
raw materials into goods. This sector is also therefore referred to
as the manufacturing sector. Industrialisation and Machine-made
production has led to huge expansion of this sector thereby
increasing production. Further Tertiary sector, also known as the
Service Sector involves providing services such as Insurance,
Banking etc.
We all know that inIndiaespecially its rural societies are
predominantly agrarian in nature. But with industrialisation and
urbanisation, there has been a tendency among the rural youth to
search for livelihood mechanisms outside agriculture. Agriculture,
as we know is dependent of the weather conditions and therefore
agricultural output is uncertain. Either in times of flood or drought,
agricultural production dwindles which poses challenges to those
vast majority of people whose livelihood is dependent on agriculture.
Hence there is growing tendency especially among the rural youths
to work in non-agricultural sectors in order to have a secured source
of livelihood. Along with this the growth of Secondary and Tertiary
Sector have resulted in absorption of majority of people into these
segments. Thus in the contemporary Indian Society, Secondary and
Tertiary Sectors have emerged as major players in the country's
economic growth. Their contribution to GDP has rapidly increased
with growing industrialisation and mostly with the economic
liberalisation in 1991. Today, the top-most contributor to the GDP of
the Country is the Services Sector while the Agricultural Sector,
which was once the highest contributor to GDP, now falls even below
the industrial sector. This change has encompassed rural societies
as well and the nature of rural economy is fast changing. Even

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though large number of people are still dependent on agriculture for
their livelihood, this sector has failed to maintain its supremacy and
also to retain its numerical strength which was the case earlier.

5.4.6 Poverty Alleviation in Rural Areas

During the last few years the rate of poverty has considerably
declined. Different poverty alleviation programmes are one of the
causes of such type of development. After independence the
Government of India started paying more attention to the problems
of poverty and undertook many measures and launched many
schemes, programmes and projects for the removal of poverty.
During the various Five Years plans different developmental schemes
have been launched. In 1975-78 government introduced the 20 Point
Programme which included: distribution of surplus land to the weaker
section, providing minimum wages to the landless workers, providing
irrigational facilities to the rural peoples etc. Besides these, there
are otheanti poverty programme such as JRY
(JawaharRojgarYojana), SGSY (Swarnjayanti Gram
SwarozgarYojana), Employment Assurance Scheme (EAS), Rural
Housing Scheme - Indira AwaasYojana,SamagraAwaasYojana, etc.
Though all these schemes and programmes are not entirely
successfull in removing poverty from India, they have greatly helped
in minimizing or reducing poverty .
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Q 4: Write about two poverty alleviation programes in India.

.......................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................
Q 5: In which year was green revolution introduced in Indian agriculture?
.......................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................
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5.5 LET US SUM UP

l During the British rule, our indigenous education system was completely
destroyed by British rulers who introduced the European education
system. At the time of independence only 14% people were literate.
After independence our national leaders like Mahatma Gandhi and others
had taken many steps for the development of education system in India.
Soon after independence priority was given to Gandhiji's "Basic
Education" in primary education. Our Constitution has also provided
free and compulsory education for all children up to 14 years of age.
After the successive years of planning our government has made many
efforts to introduce different schemes for the development of Indian
education system.
l Highest priority has been given to the universalisation of primary
education. According to our Constitution, elementary education is a
fundamental right for the children in the age of 6-14 years. Thus apart
from elementary education, many changes have been brought about in
the other sectors of the education system. For example, NCERT was
set up in 1961 as an advisory council which assists the Central and
State governments on academic matters related to school education.
Regarding Higher education system UGC was established in 1956 for
the determination and the maintenance of the standards of teaching,
examination and research in the universities. Open education system
was first formulated by IGNOU, following which many open education
universities have been established in different states including Assam.
Technical and management education has also been developed by
establishing different institutions and introducing different courses.
Privatization and globalization are also important changes in Indian
education system.
l Many changes have been seen in the economic structure of rural India.
Positive changes have also appeared in the agriculture sector with the
introduction of the advanced method of cultivation. By introducing the
land reform system after independence India has abolished the previous
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 Unit 5 Changes in the Indian Economy
land tenure system and effected changes in the structure of the rural
agriculture. Besides, it has helped in improving the lives of the peasants
in many ways. Changes have occured not only in agriculture but also in
many other sectors of the rural economy in many directions. The rural
economy has changed from subsistence economy to market economy.
There are different factors that have caused changes in the rural
economy. These include land reforms, green revolution, science and
technology, globalization etc.
l Thus, after the Independence of India in 1947 there have been
considerable changes in both the education system of India and the
rural economic structure.

5.6 FURTHER READING

1) A.S.Thakur and Sandeep Berwal. Development of Educational System

in India. New Delhi: Shipra Publications.
2) C.N.Shankar Rao. Sociology of Indian Society. New Delhi: S.Chand&
Company Limited. Ram Nagar, New Delhi
3) K.Gopal Krishna Rao. Changing Rural Society in India. New Delhi:
Authors Press.
4) Pankaj Kumar Desai. History of Education in India. New Delhi: Akhand
Publishing House.
5) Ruddar Dutta and K.P.M.Sundaram. Indian Economy. New Delhi:
S.Chand& Company Limited.
6) Tara Chand. Development of Education System in India. New Delhi:
Anmol Publication Pvt Limited.

5.7 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Ans to Q No 1: 2002
Ans to Q No 2: National Council of Educational Research and Trainning
Ans to Q No 3: UGC was established in 1956.
Ans to Q No 4: JawaharRojgarYojana andSwarnjayanti Gram
SwarozgarYojana.
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 Changes in the Indian Economy Unit 5
Ans to Q No 5: Green revolution was introduced in India in mid 1960s.

5.8 MODEL QUESTIONS

Short Questions (Answer each question in about 150 words)

Q 1: What do you mean by universalisation of elementary education?
Write about its strategies.
Q 2: Write about the University Grants Commission.
Q 3: Discuss the land reforms system in India after independence.
Q 4: What are the poverty alleviation programmes in India? Briefly
describe them.
Long Questions (Answer each question in about 300-500 words)
Q 1: Discuss the changes in education system in India af ter
Independence.
Q 2: What are the main changes in agriculture after independence?
Explain the factors influencing the changes.
Q 3: Write an essay on the changes of the rural economy of India after
Independence.
*** ***** ***

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 Unit 6 Rural Political Structure

UNIT 6: RURAL POLITICAL STRUCTURE

UNIT STRUCTURE
6.1 Learning Objectives
6.2 Introduction
6.3 Traditional Caste System in India
6.3.1. Features of Caste System.
6.3.2. Evolution in the Caste System
6.3.3. Caste in Rural Political Structure
6.4 Village Panchayat
6.5 Panchayati Raj System in India
6.5.1 Salient Feature of Panchayat Raj System
6.5.2 Composition and Functions of PanchayatiRaj Institution
6.6 Women Empowerment in Panchayati Raj Institution.
6.7 Let Us Sum up
6.8 Further Reading
6.9 Answers to Check your Progress
6.10 Model Questions

6.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After going through this unit, you will be able to -

l understand the history and evolution of the Caste system in India
l explain the concept of decentralization of power
l discussabout women empowerment in the Panchayati Raj System.

6.2 INTRODUCTION

During the British rule, there was no interestin the economic and
social developmentofIndians. Therefore the issue of decentralization of
powerwas never the agenda of the British rule.After Independence even
though India took the path of democratic representation, Mahatma Gandhi
believed in village-based participatory democracy i.e.Panchayat Raj. Gandhi
felt that the real development of India could take place only through Gram

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 Rural Political Structure Unit 6
Swaraj. Therefore, after Independence,the Government of India launched
the first five-year plan and simultaneously set up committees to study the
establishment of Rural Participatory Institution. Based on the
recommendation of Mehta Committee the journey towards political
movementand decentralization started.Even though India was moving
towards the Panchayat Raj system, one of the biggest hurdles was the
existing rigid caste system and the imposition of influence by a certain class
of people at local level. In order to understand the dynamics of caste and
class it is important to delve into the evolution of caste system and how
economic endowment changes the power relation.
One of the most important evolutions of the Panchayat Raj system
is bringing women in mainstream governance. With reservation from 33%
in 1993, women reservations in PRI were increased to 50% in 2009. Later
in the chapter, you will understand the challenges and measures to
strengthen the position of women in Panchayat Raj system and ensure
their participation in governance.

6.3 TRADITIONAL CASTE SYSTEM IN INDIA

The caste system in India and Nepal originated two thousand years
ago. The caste system initiallywas associated with Hinduism where people
were categorized according to their occupations. Later the caste system
was transformed into a hereditary structure. Each person was born into an
unalterable social caste.
According to E. Blunt - "Caste is an endogamous group bearing a
common name, membership of which is hereditary, imposing certain
restrictions on its members in the matter of social intercourse, either
following a common traditional occupation, claiming a common origin and
generally regarded as forming a single homogenous community".
Ketekarexplains in his book "History of Caste in India"- 'Caste is a
social group having two characteristics (a) Membership is confined to those
who are born of members and excludes all persons not born of members,
(b) the members are forbidden by inexorable social law to marry outside

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the group.'
The term caste is derived from the Spanish word 'Breed' or 'Lineage'.
The Sanskrit word for caste is 'Varna' which means type, order, colour, and
class.There are primarily four main castes- (i) Brahmin, (ii) Kshatriya, (iii)
Vaishya and (iv) Shudra. The Brahmins are the priestly and learned people,
the Kshatriyas were the rulers, administrators, and warriors, the Vaishyas
are the artisans, merchants, tradesmen and farmers and Shudras are the
labouring classes. Some people born outside or below the caste system
were called "untouchables".
Andre Beteille summarise, "Caste may be defined as a small and
specific group of persons characterized by endogamy, hereditary
membership and a specific style which sometimes includes the pursuit, by
tradition, of a particular occupation and is usually associated with a more
or less distinct ritual status in a hierarchical system based on the concepts
of purity and pollution."
In the broad sense, caste can be defined as a hereditary
endogamous group having a common name, traditional occupation, and
common culture, and have distinctive status and single homogeneous
community. Some of the features of the caste system are explained below:

6.3.1 Features of Caste System

Ø Hereditary in nature: The caste system is based on heredity.

It is based on ascribed values from ancient Hindu scriptures
rather than achieved qualities. Birth is the determinant factor of
the caste system. Once born in a particular caste he has to
remain the same. Status, position prestige is fixed according to
his caste.
Ø Segregation: Indian society is stratified based on caste. Each
caste is an autonomous group independent of the other. For
this reason mobility from one caste to another is impossible
and each caste has its own way of life. It has its own rules and
regulations, customs, traditions, practices and rituals.

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Ø Hierarchy: Various castes are ranked higher to a lower position
based on their purity and impurity of occupations. It is like a
ladder where pure caste is ranked on the top and impure is
ranked at the bottom. D.C. Bhattacharya rightly observes that
"not only do the various castes form a hierarchy but the
occupation practiced by them, the various items of their diet
and the customs they observe all form separate hierarchies."
Ø Endogamy: It indicates that members of a particular caste have
to marry within their own caste only. Inter castes marriages are
prohibited. The violation of the rule of endogamy would mean
ostracism and loss of caste. However, in urban spaces inter-
caste marriages are gradually increasing among educated
people.
Ø Purity and pollution: Purity and pollution of caste members
are judged in terms of deeds, occupation, language, dress
patterns, as well as food habits. For example, liquor
consumption, consuming non-vegetarian food, working in
occupations like leather craft, lifting dead animals, sweeping and
carrying garbage, etc are supposed to be impure.
Ø Occupational Association: During ancient times, each caste
has a specific occupation and they cannot change the
occupation. For instance, Brahmins do priesthood and teaching,
Kayasthas maintain revenue records and writings. Baniyas are
engaged in business and Chamars are engaged in leather work,
etc. Due to industrialization and urbanization, people have shifted
from their traditional occupation. However, in rural areas,
traditional occupational are still followed.
Ø Social and Religious disabilities: The lower caste were
debarred from doing many things like they were not permitted to
enter the temple, they are not allowed to use water from the
well/pond which is used by Brahmin caste, cannot use gold
ornaments or umbrella, etc. However, things have changed

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considerably and these restrictions are hardly found today.
Ø Unique Culture: Castes are small and complete social worlds
in themselves and each distinguishes themselves from one
another. Every caste has a distinct culture, custom, and tradition
which distinguish it from those of the other castes. The food
habits, occupational specialization, behavioural patterns, etc of
a caste are handed down from one generation to another through
the process of socialization.
Ø Civil and Religious Disabilities: The people belonging to lower
castes suffer from a set of civil, social and religious disabilities.
Generally, the impure castes are made to live in the outskirts of
villages. They are forbidden to make use of the places of worship,
cremation, cremation grounds, schools, public roads, hotels,
etc.
Ø Divine Plan Assumption: The caste system is believed to have
been ordained by God and is supported by religion; the system
is based on the doctrine of Karma, the theory of rebirth.

6.3.2 Evolution in the Caste System

There have been visible changes in the caste system in India in the
last century and more visibly since independence. There are various
reasons like sanskritisation, westernization, industrialization which
have played a crucial role in bringing consequent changes in the
caste system. They are as follows:
Ø Sanskritisation: It is a process by which a lower caste or tribe
or any other group changes its customs, rituals, ideology to adapt
to the behaviour pattern, style of life, and culture of high caste.
For sanskritization, a caste must have a touchable status, better
economic conditions and should make a claim to membership
into a high caste.Sanskritization is a group process and not an
individual process over a long course of time. It does not lead to
anystructural changes only leads to positional changes. Through

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this process, a few lower castes in different parts of the country
have changed their status into higher castes like the Lingayats,
Rajputs to name a few. It is to be noted that the untouchables
were not allowed to sanskritize their status.
Ø Westernization: In India, British colonizer was the biggest
influencer of western style of living, language, dress pattern,
and behavioural pattern. The main features of westernization
are: (a) Rational outlook (scientific and goal-oriented outlook),
(b) Interest in material progress, (c) reliance on the modern
communication process and mass media, (d) English medium
education, (e) high social mobility, etc. The higher castes were
the first to expose themselves to westernization through the
process of business transactions, education, and socialization.
Later on, the lower castes also adapted to this process for social
mobility.
Ø Modernization: It relies primarily on scientific outlook; rational
attitudes, high social mobility, mass mobilization, empathy, belief
in liberty, equality, and fraternity, high level of motivation to get
perfection; and deal with complex organizations. With changes
coming to institutional, structural, attitudinal and organizational
mindset, have greatly affected the caste system where caste
structures have become flexible. In urban areas castes are
gradually become classes. Even though India has achieved
modernization still it has not abandoned the tradition in totality.
The Indian caste system has adapted suitably to modern
practices, i.e. educating people, forming a formal organization
and making people conscious of their existence.
Ø Industrialization and Urbanization: With the growth of
industrial towns and cities, migration to industrial zones and cities
have increased from rural areas over the last centurywhich has
affected the caste system. In those places, strict caste rules
are not applied rigidly.

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Ø Democratic Decentralization: With the introduction of
Panchayati Raj, local self-governments have been created in
the villages. Under the Panchayati Raj, all the castes are equally
represented. Equal opportunities are provided for the lower
castes to empower themselves and represent themselves in
matters concerning them and their communities.

6.3.3 Caste in Rural Political Structure

Caste as a social institution and a system of social

stratification played and still continues to play a very important role
in the traditional political structure. Power within rural society revolved
around caste to a great extent. The socio-economic status of an
individual is traditionallydetermined by caste, which also influences
his/her position in the rural political structure. Thus, Power and
Authority were traditionally determined by one's caste position.It is
here we need to understand the concept of Dominant Caste in order
to get a clear understanding of the connection between caste and
politics. Dominant Castes are those castes usually belonging to
the upper castes in the caste hierarchy. They have numerical strength
and are economically affluent.These caste groups due to their
economic and numerical preponderance, also occupies a position
of power in the rural political structure. Thus in the context of Indian
rural society, in most cases, the upper caste people also belongs to
upper class and their influential socio-economic position enables
them to be politically powerful as well. Again, Caste Panchayats too
played a crucial role in the rural political structure. The function of
the Caste Panchayats or Associations not only confined to resolving
inter-caste and intra-caste conflicts but they also act as interest
groups for socio-economic development of their caste.
Even today, Caste has a great significance in rural polity. Caste is a
major deciding factor in Indian Polity, based on periodic elections.
As described by anthropologist Owen M. Lynch and other scholars,

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in the expanding political arena caste groups are becoming more
politicized and are forced to compete with other interest groups for
social and economic benefits. Caste associations have expanded
their areas of concern beyond traditional elite emulation and local
politics into the wider political arenas of state and national politics.
Finding power in numbers within India's democratic system, caste
groups are pulling together closely allied sub castes in their quest
for political influence. Traditional hierarchical concerns are being
minimized in favour of strengthening horizontal unity. Thus, while
pollution observances are declining, caste consciousness is not.
Here we may cite the example of the Dalits, who form a powerful
group in the contemporary political context of India. They have been
struggling against the traditional socio-economic deprivations and
have strived to advance their social status.Dalit anger has been
expressed in writings, demonstrations, strikes, and the activities of
such groups as the Dalit Panthers, a radical political party demanding
revolutionary change.Thus even though some practices of caste
has declined in the present time, yet its position in the political arena
has rather strengthened over time.

6.4 VILLAGE PANCHAYAT

Village Panchayat is the oldest system of local government in the

Indian subcontinent. The word "panchayat" means "assembly" of five wise
and respected elders chosen and accepted by the local community.
Traditionally the village panchayat settled disputes between individuals and
villages. In 1869 the British established the first nominated local self-
government in Bombay. Later in 1882, Lord Ripon formally established local
self-government in India with setting up of district boards in Marathwada
and Vidarbha in Maharashtra.
The first piece of legislation was the Bombay Village Panchayat Act
of 1920. Under this Act, the Panchayats was constituted into an elected
body. Members were elected by adult male villagers. The Panchayat was

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entrusted with local functions, mainly civil nature and empowered to collect
compulsory house taxes. The Act of 1920 empowered village Panchayats
to take up various activities including socio-economic functions.
After India became an Independent nation and states were formed,
laws were introduced into the Panchayat system. Under the LokAdalat Act,
1958 and Article 40 of the constitution made it obligatory on the Panchayats
to hold meetings with adult residents within first two months at the onset of
every financial year and prepare an annual statement of accounts to be
placed before Gram Sabha.
The main civil duties of the Panchayats were - making provisions
for sanitation, street lights, and drinking water. The discretionary functions
covered the fields of agriculture, cooperation, animal husbandry, self-
defense, and other administrative and development works. The state
government had direct control over Panchayats through District Collector.
It was found that the government control over this institutionhad
seldom proved to be effective and the grassroot level communities were
not getting benefits from the existing system of Panchayat Raj. In order to
address the shortcomings of central committees like Balwant Rai Mehta
Committee (1957) and Ashok Mehta Committee (1977) was appointed,
based on their recommendations the shortcomings were addressed and
inserted in the Constitutional (73rd Amendment) Act of 1992. On 24th April
1993, Panchayati Raj in India came into force to provide constitutional status
to the Panchayati Raj Institutions.

6.5 PANCHAYATI RAJ SYSTEM IN INDIA

Mahatma Gandhi advocated Panchayat Raj as the foundation of

India's political system. In Panchayat Raj thepower of the government is
decentralized where each village would be responsible for its own affairs
also known as Gram Swaraj (village self-governance). The Panchayati Raj
system was formalized in 1992, following a study conducted by a number
of Indian committees on various ways of implementing a decentralized
administration.

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The 73rd Amendment to the Constitution enacted in 1992 added a
new Part IX to the Constitution titled "The Panchayats" covering provisions
from Article 243 to 243 (O); and a new XI Schedule covering 29 subjects for
the Panchayats and statutory provisions for the establishment,
empowerment, and functioning of Panchayati Raj Institutions.

6.5.1 The Salient Features of the Panchayati Raj System

Ø GRAM SABHA: It is the local body consisting of all the persons

registered in the electoral rolls in a village within the Panchayat
area. It is the primary source of democratic power in the village.
The Gram Sabha is expected to be an active institution for
starting all development activities based on local needs.
Ø THREE TIERS OF PANCHAYATI RAJ: The three-tier Panchayat
system would be constituted in every state- at village level,
intermediate level, and district level. However, the states which
were having a population below 20 lakhs are given an option to
omit the intermediate level. All the members of these three levels
are directly elected. The chairperson of Panchayats at the
intermediate and district levels are indirectly elected from
amongst the elected members.
Ø RESERVATION IN PANCHAYATS: There is a provision of
reservation of seats for Scheduled Caste and Scheduled Tribe
at every level. The reservation of seats for Scheduled Castes
and Scheduled Tribes in every Panchayat in proportion to their
population. One-third of the seats reserved for Scheduled Castes
and Scheduled Tribes will also be reserved for women.
Noteworthy, one-third of the total number of seats to be filled by
direct election shall be reserved for women.
Ø DURATION OF PANCHAYATS: Every panchayat shall remain
in office for five years normally. However, if it is dissolved for any
reason before this period is over, the election will be held within
six months.

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Ø COMPOSITION OF PANCHAYATS: Representatives chosen
by direct election shall fill all the seats in a panchayat. The
chairperson at the village level shall be elected directly and at
the intermediate and district levels the chairperson shall be
elected by and from amongst the elected members.
Ø CONDUCT OF ELECTION: The direction, control and the
preparation of electoral roll for conducting elections to the
panchayats are vested with the State Election Commission. The
State Election Commission will be responsible for conducting
the election and ensures that the elections are held in a free and
just manner.
Ø FINANCE COMMISSION: The Constitution (73rd Amendment)
Act, 1992 provides for the constitution of a Finance Commission
in every state to make enough funds available to the panchayats.
These commissions will be responsible for reviewing the
financial condition of the panchayats and make
recommendations to the respective Governors.
Ø DEVELOPMENT ACTIVITIES: The Act gives powers and
responsibilities to the panchayats to plan and execute economic
development programs. Such responsibilities include the making
of plans for economic development and social justice and
implementation of schemes listed in the11th Schedule. The
development activities for the Panchayat Institution can be
grouped under the following categories:
m Economic Development: Under economic development anti-
poverty programs, agriculture, land improvement, minor
irrigation, animal husbandry, fishery, social forestry, minor forest
produce, small scale and cottage industry, fuel, and fodder.
m Education: Primary and Secondary schools, non-formal
education, libraries, technical training, and cultural activities are
given focus.
m Health: Health and Sanitation are given prime importance.

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m Welfare Development: It includes social welfare, welfare for
weaker sections, Public Distribution System and Women and
Child Development.
m Infrastructure Development: Roads, housing, drinking water,
markets, electrification, and maintenance of community assets,
etc along with Land Reforms is taken care of.

6.5.2. Composition and Functions of Panchayati Raj

Institution (PRI)

Let us now discuss the administrative structure of the Panchayati

Raj Institution (PRI) in details.
Ø GRAM PANCHAYAT: It is the first formal democratic institution
at the village level and primary unit of local self-government.
The chairperson of this unit is called as Sarpanch.The gram
panchayat is a cabinet of the village elders, directly elected by
the adult citizens of the village.
The Gram Panchayat is the body accountable to the general
body of the village known as Gram Sabha which meets at least
twice a year. The Gram Panchayat must present its budget,
accounts of the previous year and annual administrative reports
before the Gram Sabha. The Gram Panchayat has to secure Gram
Sabha's approval of the village proposals for taxation and
development programs before they are enforced by the Panchayat.
Ø Composition: The gram panchayat is divided into wards and
each ward is represented by a Ward member or commissioner
who is directly elected by the villagers. The members of the
Gram Panchayats have a tenure of 5 years. There is provision
for reservation of seats for women and for SC and ST.
Each Panchayat elects a President/Sarpanch and Vice
President/Upsarpanch. The Sarpanch occupies a pivotal position
in Gram Panchayat. He supervises and coordinates the various
activities of the Panchayat. The Panchayat Secretary and the Village

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Level Worker are the two officers at the Panchayat level to assist
the Sarpanch in administration.
Functions of Gram Panchayat: There isa number of functions
performed by Gram Panchayats. The functions can be divided into
two categories namely, the Obligatory functions and the Option
functions.
a) Obligatory Functions:
Ø Construction, repairs, maintenance, alteration, and extension
of village roads, provisions of lights on the roads and other places
of public resort and removal of encroachments and obstructions
on the roads and other public places.
Ø Construction, maintenance, and cleaning of the drainage system
and provision of sanitation in the village by the removal of filth
and clearance of marshy areas.
Ø Supply of drinking water to the villages.
Ø Adoption of preventive measures against epidemics and other
dangerous diseases, prevention of obnoxious and dangerous
trade, registration of births and deaths and the preparation of
the necessary records for the purpose.
Ø Maintenance of common pasture and other public institutions.
Ø Preparation of census records of men and animals,
maintenance of relevant records and submission of periodic
records and returns.
Ø Management of Panchayat properties as assets.
Ø The spread of primary education and its management.
Ø Soil Conservation.
Ø Control of Markets, ferries, fairs, Ghats and other public places.
b) Optional Functions:
Ø Provision of adult education, the establishment of primary
schools with the prior approval of the Panchayat Samiti.
Ø Establishment and maintenance of works for providing
employment in a time of scarcity.

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Ø To keep the records of the unemployed persons.
Ø Famine relief measures.
Ø Construction and maintenance of Dharmasalas and Rest
houses.
Judicial Power: The powers of the Gram Panchayat are
limited when it came to judicial power. Gram Panchayat has the
authority to decide minor and criminal cases within its areas. On
account of Criminal cases, the Panchayat can hear cases involving
mischief, assault, theft of property, etc on payment of a prescribed
fee. It is to be noted that Panchayat can only impose a fine and
cannot sentence anybody to imprisonment. One thing is to be noted
that the lawyers cannot appear before the Panchayats. Both the
parties are to appear before the Panchayat to plead their cases.
Normally the decision of the Panchayat is final but an appeal can be
made to the Court of District Magistrate with its prior sanction.
Ø BLOCK PANCHAYAT: Block Panchayat is also known as
Panchayat Samiti and is the second on join tier of the Panchayati
Raj. Block Panchayat works for the villages of the tehsil or taluka
collectively known as Development Block. The Panchayat Samiti
consists of 20 to 60 villages depending on area and population.
The Panchayat Samitis are at the hub of development activities
and are headed by Block Development Officers (BDOs).
Composition: Following are the criteria to be elected for
the Block Panchayat:
Ø 20 members are elected by and from all the Panchayats falling
under the block area.
Ø Two women members and one member each from the
Scheduled Caste and Scheduled Tribes to be co-opted provided
they do not get adequate representation otherwise.
Ø Two local peoplepossessing experience of public life and
administration, which may be beneficial for the rural development
Ø Representatives of the Co-operatives will work within the

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jurisdiction of the block.
Ø The members of the State and Union legislatures representing
the area are to be taken as associate members.
Ø The President of the Panchayat Samiti is elected by an electoral
college that consists of all the members of the Panchayat Samiti
and all the Panchas of the Gram Panchayat falling within the
areas.
Functions of Block Panchayat:
Ø Block Panchayat co-ordinate the activities of the various
Panchayats within its jurisdiction.
Ø The Block Panchayat supervises the work of the Panchayats
and scrutinizes their budgets. It has the right to suggest
measures for improving the functioning of the Panchayats.
Ø The Block Panchayat is charged with the responsibility of
preparing and implementing plans for the development of
agriculture, animal husbandry, fisheries, small scale and cottage
industries, rural health tropic, etc.
Ø Establishment of primary health centers and primary schools.
Ø Supply of drinking water, drainage and construction/repair of
roads.
Ø Development of cottage and small scale industries and the
opening of cooperative societies.
Ø ZILA PARISHAD: The ZilaParishad is the apex of the three-tier
structure of the Panchayati Raj System. Members of the
ZilaParishad are elected from the district on the basis of adult
franchise for a term of five years. There are seats reserved for
Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes, Other Backward Classes,
and women representatives. The Collector or District
Commissioner is also a member of the ZillaParishad.
Composition: The Chairman of the ZillaParishad is elected
from among its members. The ZillaParishad consists of
representatives of the block panchayat or Panchayat Samiti,

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members of the State Legislature and the Parliament member
representing the area, district level officers of the Medical, Public
Health, Public Works, Engineering, Agriculture, Veterinary, Education
and other development departments.
Functions of ZilaParishad:
Ø ZilaParishad links Panchayat Samitis within the district.
Ø It coordinated their activities and supervises their functioning.
Ø It prepares district plans and integrates Samiti plans into district
plans for submission to the State Government.
Ø ZilaParishad looks after development works in the entire district.
Ø ZilaParishad undertakes schemes to improve agricultural
production, exploit ground-water resources, extend rural
electrification and distribution and initiate employment generating
activities, construct roads and other public works.
Ø It performs welfare functions like relief during natural calamities
and scarcity, the establishment of orphanages and poor homes,
night shelters, the welfare of women and children, etc.
Ø ZilaParishads perform functions entrusted to them under the
Central and State Government-sponsored programmes.

6.6 WOMEN EMPOWERMENT IN PANCHAYATI RAJ

SYSTEM IN INDIA

Women constitute about half of the world's population and are the
largest excluded group in almost all spheres of life. In sharp contrast to the
population record women hold only one tenth of the global income; own
one hundredth of means of production and nearly 70% of the women live
below the poverty line. They invariably constitute the minorities holding
elected offices of the government. Though at present women enjoy equal
status with men as per the constitution and legal provisions, still they have
a long way to go. So women empowerment plays a pivotal role towards
the development of society.
The journey to include women in the process of development in

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India took a long time. The Government of India had a major shift in their
policies from the concept of "Welfare of Women" in the 1970s to
"development of women" in the 1980s and "empowerment of women" in
the 1990s. In the year 1993, with the introduction of the Panchayati Raj
Institution into the Indian Constitution women representation in governance
changed. Under Panchayati Raj Institution 33% of seats were reserved for
women and they were given the power to take decisions at grass root level.
Later the Union Cabinet of the Government of India on 27th August 2009
approved 50% reservation for women in PRIs.
Several transformations were seen over the last two decades in
terms of womens' representation under Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRI)
which are highlighted below:
Ø Women are taking up the challenge and gearing themselves up to enter
politics at the lower level in the spirit of self- governance as committed
Citizens.
Ø Through the experience of the Indian PRI, more than ten lakh women
have actively entered into the political life in India.
Ø Womens' issues have come to the forefront at the local level and
consequently state and national level.
Ø Through PRIs women are working on creation, development, and
promotion of Self Help Groups, Cooperatives, MSMEs for better
employment and livelihood options in rural areas.
v) Women are leaders in the Panchayati Rajand are transforming local
governance by sensitizing the State on issues of poverty, inequality and
gender injustice.
Ø Through PRI, women are changing governance from the issues they
choose to tackle; like water, alcohol, abuse, education, health and
domestic violence.
Ø Women are taking action against child marriage and juvenile female
domestic labour, and promoting girl-child education.
With all the positive development through PRI women still had to face
several challenges. Let us look into the challenges women faced over

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time. The challenges are:
Ø Structural Issues: Women representatives give more importance to
issues related to social development activities like health, sanitation,
old-age pensions, and welfare but it becomes a challenge for them to
pursue it as agenda for panchayat meetings across the country as
issues related to infrastructure take priority. Social development issues
such as health and education take a back seat.
Ø Social and Cultural Barriers: Unlike male counterparts, female
candidates are exposed to several barriers that may impact their desire
to run for elected office. These barriers are sex stereotyping, political
socialization, lack of preparation for political activity and balancing work
and family.
Ø Sex Stereotyping: It is due to the aggressive and competitive nature of
politics and a belief that participation in the elected office requires
masculine traits. Hence, the bias leveled against women stems-out
from the incorrect perception that femininity inherently produces weak
leadership. It had been observed that the pressure is always on women
candidates to enhance their masculine traits in electoral campaigns for
the purpose of wooing support from voters who identify with socially
constructed gender roles.
Ø Political Socialization: Sex stereotyping begins at birth. Generally, it is
seen that politics is a male domain. Even socialization agencies like
family, school, higher education, mass media, and religion affirms the
belief of stereotyping a particular sex. Each of these agencies play a
pivotal role in either fostering a desire to enter politics or dissuade one
to do so.
Ø Balancing work and family: The work-life balance is invariably more
difficult for women as they are generally expected by society to act as
the primary caregivers for children as well as maintenance of the home.
Due to the demand for work-life balance, it is assumed that women
choose to delay political aspirations until their children are older.
To overcome the above-stated challenges and making women

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 Unit 6 Rural Political Structure
participation into governance more active and stronger there are few
steps that can be taken to bring about social transformation within
society.
Ø To empower rural women there is a need to bring about attitudinal
changes in both men and women. They believe that women are meant
for household activities and bearing children needs to be replaced by a
feeling of equal partnership between men and women.
Ø Women should independently join politics so that they can have a voice
in the nation-building and can help in women empowerment at all levels.
Ø There should be an increased emphasis on ensuring the participation
of women in the meetings of Panchayats at all the levels. This will
promote and enhance leadership qualities and self-confidence among
women.
Ø Attendance of all women must be made compulsory from Gram
Panchayat to ZillaParishad.
Ø The government should provide financial support and infrastructure to
womens' organizations and NGOs to take up the responsibility of
encouraging the women elected representatives and arranging training
programmes for the improvement of political, social and economic
knowledge.
Ø Proper utilization of different government policy like National Literacy
Mission and SarvaShikshaAbhiyan for educating the rural men and
women regarding the significance of Panchayati Raj and empowerment
of women.
Ø The media can play a vital role in restricting rural society. It can act as
an agent of political socialization for inculcating the values of gender
equality and gender justice.

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CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Q 1: What are the main caste categories in India? Explain the category
in brief.
.......................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................
Q 2: Which Act brought the Panchayat Raj System in effect?
.......................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................
Q 3: What are the main administrative structures under PRI?
.......................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................

6.7 LET US SUM UP

l Caste System in India originated two thousand years ago.

l The caste system initially was associated with Hinduism where people
were categorized according to their occupations. Later the caste system
was transformed into a hereditary structure.
l The term caste is derived from the Spanish word 'Breed' or 'Lineage'.
l The Sanskrit word for caste is 'Varna' which means type, order, colour,
and class.
l There are primarily four main castes - (i) Brahmin, (ii) Kshatriya, (iii)
Vaishya and (iv) Shudra.
l People born outside or below the caste system were called
"untouchables".
l Main features of Caste system:- Hereditary, Segregation, Endogamy,
Purity and pollution, Occupational Association, Social and Religious
disabilities, Unique Culture, Civil and Religious disabilities.
l Sanskritisation, Westernization, Modernization, Industrialization and
Urbanization and Decentralization of powers for the evolution and

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 Unit 6 Rural Political Structure
changes in the caste system.
l Class is a category of people who have similar socio-economic status
in relation to others in their community or society.
l Village Panchayat is the oldest system of local government in the Indian
subcontinent. The word "panchayat" means "assembly" of five wise
and respected elders chosen and accepted by the local community.
l The main civil duties of the Panchayats were - making provisions for
sanitation, street lights, and drinking water.
l On 24th April 1993, Panchayati Raj in India came into force to provide
constitutional status to the Panchayati Raj Institutions.
l Mahatma Gandhi advocated Panchayat Raj as the foundation of India's
political system.
l In the year 1993, under Panchayati Raj Institution 33% of seats were
reserved for women and giving them the power to take decisions at the
grass-root level. Later on 27th August 2009,the Government of India
approved 50% reservation for women in PRIs.

6.8 FURTHER READING

1) Laxmikanth. M, (2013) "Indian Polity"; McGraw Hill Education, New Delhi.

6.9 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Ans to Q No 1: There are primarily four main castes - (i) Brahmin, (ii)
Kshatriya, (iii) Vaishya and (iv) Shudra. The Brahmins are the priestly
and learned people, the Kshatriyas were the rulers, administrators and
warriors, the Vaishyas are the artisans, merchants, tradesmen and
farmers and Shudras are the labouring classes. Some people born
outside or below the caste system were called "untouchables".
Ans to Q No 2:The Constitutional (73rd Amendment) Act 1992.
Ans to Q No 3:There are three main levels under the Panchayat Raj System.
They are: i) Gram Panchayat; ii) Block Panchayat and iii) ZilaParishad.

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6.10 MODEL QUESTIONS

Short Question (Answer each question in about 150 words)

Q 1: Define the caste system in India with example.
Q 2: How are Caste and Class different from each other?
Q 3: What is the Panchayati Raj System?
Q 4: What are the main reasons for the Caste system in India to change
over time? Explain briefly.
Long Questions (Answer each question in about 300-500 words)
Q 1: What are the features of the Caste System in India? Elaborate.
Q 2: What are the Salient features of Panchayat Raj System? Elaborate.
Q 3: Write a note on the composition and functions of Panchayati Raj
Institution.
Q 4: What are the major challenges faced by women under PRI? and
explain in points steps taken to overcome those challenges.

*** ***** ***

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 Unit 7 Development of Women and Children in Rural Area

UNIT 7: DEVELOPMENT OF WOMEN AND

CHILDREN IN RURAL AREA
UNIT STRUCTURE
7.1 Learning Objectives
7.2 Introduction
7.3 Women in Indian Economy
7.3.1 Ministry of Women and Child Development
7.3.2 Social and Economic Development Schemes for Women
7.4Integrated Child Protection Schemes
7.5 Let Us Sum up
7.6 Further Reading
7.7 Answers to Check your Progress
7.8 Model Questions

7.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After going through this unit, you will be able to -

l learn how Ministry of Women and Child Development came into
inception,
l understand various schemes for Women empowerment and
Childcare
l explain the development initiatives taken by the Government of India
and its impact and outreach across India through its development
programmes and policy implementations.

7.2 INTRODUCTION

For centuries women in India were suffering due to discrimination,

exploitation and exposed to various kinds of harassment at different levels.
Women constitute 48.52% of the total population of the country and therefore
it becomes crucial that the development of the country make women as
the nucleus to any major policy planning. It is essential because
empowerment and autonomy of women will bring improvement to their

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 Development of Women and Children in Rural Area Unit 7
political, social, economic and health status. After Independence, the policy
planners envisaged various constitutional provisions to protect the interest
of women and has undertaken various socio-economic development
measures for their upliftment. Over the years, experiences have shown
that the development programmes were most effective when simultaneous
steps were taken to improve the status of women in society. Let us now
delve deeper into the policies which were implemented in the post
Independence periodthat led to the inception of the ministry of Women and
Child Development for empowering women in India.

7.3 WOMEN IN INDIAN ECONOMY

Attention for the development of women in India received its attention

from the government since the First Five year plan (1951-56). At the beginning
of the planningphase, issues of women were clubbed with the welfare of
the disadvantaged group like disable, destitute and aged. From first to fifth
five year plan (1951 to 1979) followed a similar pattern of focus with addition
to priorities like womens' education, and measures to improve maternal
and child health services. In the sixth five year plan (1980-85), a shift from
'Welfare' planning to 'development' of womenapproach was taken up. The
plan adopted a multi-disciplinary approach with an emphasis on health,
education, and employment.
The seventh five year plan (1985-90) stressed on raising their
economic and social status to bring women population into mainstream
national development. The eighth five year plan (1992-97) ensured that the
benefits of development to women flowed from other development sectorsto
ensure that women should be equal partners and participants in the
development process.
The ninth five year plan (1997-2002) made two important changes
in the strategy of development for women. First, 'Empowerment of
Women';its aim was to create an enabling environment where women
canfreely exercise their rights both within and outside the home as equal
partners with men. The second was convergences of existing services

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 Unit 7 Development of Women and Children in Rural Area
available in both women-specific and women related sectors. The tenth
five year plan (2002-2007) target was to set certain monitorable targets for
women. It focused on organizing women into Self-Help Groups (SHGs) for
income generation activities and also facilitated access to services such
as literacy, health, non-formal education, water supply, etc. Women's
Component Plan (WCP) ensured that 30% of funds/benefits were
earmarked for women under the various schemes of different ministries/
departments.
In the previous plans, there were consistent efforts to bridge the
gender gap and provide an environment for women to become
economically, politically and socially free and empowered. In a unique move
ineleventh five year plan (2007-12) a committee of "feminist" economists
was constituted to ensure gender sensitive allocation of public resources
apart from identifying significant trends for women in the economy and
suggesting policy measures to integrate women into the growth agenda. In
the twelfth five year plan (2012-2017) the Planning Commission pushed for
special dispensation for the single woman and encourages women to
actively participate in the field of agriculture and animal husbandry in addition
to health, education, urbanization, and governance.

7.3.1 Ministry of Women and Child Development

The Ministry of Women and Child Development came into existence

as a separate ministry from 30th of January, 2006 . Previously, since
1985 the ministry was known as the Department of Women and
Child Development under the Ministry of Human Resources
Development, Government of India.
The ministry was constituted with the prime intention of
addressing the gaps in the national-state action plan for women
and children development initiatives and promoting inter-Ministerial
and inter-sectoral convergence to create gender equitability and child-
centered legislation policies and programmes.
The Vision of the Ministry is to empower women to live with

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 Development of Women and Children in Rural Area Unit 7
dignity and contributing as equal partners in development in an
environment free from violence and discrimination. And, well-nurtured
children with full opportunities for growth and development in a safe
and protective environment.
The Mission of the ministry is to promote social and
economic empowerment of women through cross-cutting policies
and programmes, mainstreaming gender concerns, creating
awareness about rights and facilitating institutional and legislative
support. Secondly, ensuring development care and protection of
children, spreading awareness about their rights and facilitating
access to learning, nutrition, institutional and legislative support for
enabling them to grow and develop to their full potential.

7.3.2 Social and Economic Development Schemes for

Women

The following schemes are being implemented by the Ministry for

the social and economic development of women.
Ø BetiBachao, BetiPadhao: The campaign was launched by
Prime Minister Narendra Modi on 22nd January 2015 from
Panipat, Haryana on the occasion of International Day of the
Girl Child. It aims to address the issue of the declining child sex
ratio. This is a national initiative jointly run by the Ministry of
Women and Child Development, the Ministry of Health and
Family W elfare and the Ministry of Human Resource
Development.
The main objective of the campaign was to-
m To prevent gender biased sex selective elimination.
m To ensure survival and protection of the girl child.
m To ensure the education of the girl child.
The main reason to start this initiative was because
ofdownward increasing skewed female to male ratio in India. States
like Haryana (861), Punjab (876), Jammu & Kashmir (892), Uttar

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Pradesh (898), and Bihar (919) was showing the lowest female to
male ratio in per 1000 births in the census of India 2001. This was
happening because of Sex-selective abortion or female foeticide.
To sensitize the Indian population large scale sustained
mobilization and communication campaign was rolled out to create
equal value for the girl child and promote her education.
Ø One-Stop Centres (OSCs): These centersare intended to
support women affected by violence, in private and public
spaces, within family, community or at work place. Aggrieved
women facing any kind of violence due to attempted sexual
harassment, sexual assault, domestic violence, trafficking,
honor-related crimes, acid attacks or witch-hunting will be
provided with specialized services.
The Ministry of Women and Child Developmentstarted
implementing the OSC scheme since 1st April 2015. Under this
scheme, it has been envisaged that OSCs would be set up across
the country in a phase wise manner (2017-18, 2018-19 and 2019-
20). The Govt.of India has set up a dedicated fund called the
"Nirbhaya Fund" to establish the OSCs with enhanced safety and
security provisions.
The main objectives of the schemes are:
m To provide integrated support and assistance to women affected
by violence, both in private and public spaces under one roof.
m To facilitate immediate, emergency and non-emergency access
to a range of services including medical, legal, psychological
and counseling support under one roof to fight against any form
of violence against women.
Ø WOMEN HELPLINE SCHEME: This scheme is intended to
provide 24 hours immediate and emergency response to women
affected by violence and information about women related
government schemes/programmes across the country through
a single uniform number. The Women Helpline (WHL) is/will be
integrated with the One-Stop Centre Scheme (OSCs) in every
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state. The scheme was launched on 1st of April 2015 along with
the One-Stop Centre. The Department of Telecommunication
has allocated code 181 to all states/Union Territories to use it as
the Women Helpline number.
The main objectives of the scheme are:
m To provide toll-free, 24 hours telecom service to women affected
by violence seeking support and information.
m To facilitate crisis and non-crisis intervention through referral to
the appropriate agencies such as police/hospitals/ ambulance
service/ District Legal Service Authority (DLSA)/ Protection
Officer (PO)/ OSC.
m To provide information about the appropriate support services,
government schemes and programmes available to the woman
affected by violence, and location-based information to a
particular woman residing or employed in a certain area.
Ø SWADHAR GREH: The scheme was launched by the Ministry
of Women and Child Development in 2002 for the rehabilitation
of women in difficult circumstances. Under the scheme women
in need of institutional support for rehabilitation to lead their life
with dignity. They are provided shelter, food, clothing, health
care as well as economic and social security.
Under the scheme, SwadhaarGrehwill be set up in every
district with a capacity of thirty women at a time. The primary
objectives of the schemes are:
m To cater to the primary needs of shelter, food, clothing, medicinal
treatment and care of the women in distress and who are without
any social and economic support.
m To enable them to regain their emotional strength that was
hampered due to their encounter with unfortunate
circumstances.
m To provide them with legal aid and guidance to enable them to
take steps for their readjustment in family/society and rehabilitate
them economically and emotionally.
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Ø WORKING WOMEN HOSTEL: With more women leaving their
homes in search of employment in big cities as well as urban
and rural industrial clusters, they face the difficulty of finding
safe and conveniently located accommodation.
The objective of the scheme is to promote availability of safe
and conveniently located accommodation for working women with
day-care facility for their children in urban, semi-urban or rural areas
where employment opportunities for women exist. The working
women hostel project will be made available to all working women
without any distinction with respect to caste, religion, marital status,
etc. The Working Women Hostel scheme makes the provision for
girls'upto age 18 years and boys upto age 5 years to accompany
working mothers and can avail services of the Day Care Centre as
provided under the scheme.
Ø Support to Training and Employment Programme for
Women (STEP): The Support to Training & Employment
Programme for Women (STEP) was launched as a Central
Sector Scheme in 1986-87. STEP aims to make a significant
impact on women by upgrading their skills for self and wage
employment. Through the scheme it aims to mobilize women
in viable groups, improving their skills, arranging for productive
assets/access to wage employment, creating backward and
forward linkage, improving and arranging for support services,
providing access to credit, awareness generation, gender
sensitization, nutrition education, sensitization of project
functionaries to name a few. The ultimate aim of the scheme is
to develop women groups to thrive on a self- sustaining basis in
the market place with minimal government support and
intervention after the project period is over.
The main objectives of the schemes are:
m Mobilizing women in small viable groups and making facilities
available through training access to credit and other inputs.

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m Enabling groups of women to take up employment-cum-income
generation programmes of their own, or to access wage
employment.
m Provide support services for further improving and employment
conditions of women and access to health care, literacy, legal
literacy, and other related information.
Ø MAHILA E-HAAT: This is a unique direct online marketing
platform for supporting women entrepreneurs/SHGs/NGOs for
showcasing the products/services which are made and
manufactured by women enterprises. The Ministry of Women
& Child Development launched "Mahila E-Haat" a bilingual portal
on 7th of March, 2016. This initiative plays a critical component
for business efficiency and making it easy access to the majority
of women entrepreneurs/SHGs/NGOs.
The main objectives of this online marketing platform are:
m Facilitating direct contact between the vendors and buyers.
m Women entrepreneurs/SHGs/NGOs can showcase their
services and products directly that will strengthen their services
and outreach.
m The Mahila E-Haat directly supports the "Make in India" campaign
through the online marketing platform.
Ø MAHILA POLICE VOLUNTEERS (MPVs): Gender-Based
Violence (GBV), faced by women both in public and private
spaces, including domestic violence, sexual assault, rape,
stalking,etc is a major threat to women equality and
empowerment. In order to protect and increase focused
community outreach, Government of India envisages
engagements/ nomination of Mahila Police Volunteers (MPVs)
in all States and Union Territories to act as a link between police
and the community and facilitate women in distress.
The main objectives of MPV are:
m An MPV will serve as a public interface in order to fight crime
against women.
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 Unit 7 Development of Women and Children in Rural Area
m MPVs will report incidences of violence against women such as
domestic violence, child marriage, dowry harassment and
violence faced by women in public spaces.
m An MPV is an honorary position.
Ø MAHILA SHAKTI KENDRA: Mahila Shakti Kendra is 'one-stop
convergent support services' for empowering rural women with
opportunities for skill development, employment, digital literacy,
health and nutrition'. The scheme will provide an interface for
rural women to approach the government for availing their
entitlements and for empowering them through awareness
generation, training and capacity building programmes. The
scheme was approved for implementation during 2017-18
financial years. There will be student volunteers to encourage
the spirit of voluntary community service and gender equality.
The main objectives are:
m The MSK envisaged working at various levels. National Level -
Knowledge support and at the state level - will provide technical
support to the respective governments on issues related to
women. The district and block-level centers will provide support
to MSK and give a foothold to women empowerment schemes.
m Through community engagement student volunteers will be
encouraged and will play an instrumental role in awareness
generation regarding various government schemes/programmes
as well as social issues that have an impact on the lives of
women.
Ø NARI SHAKTI PURASKAR: Nari Shakti Puraskaris the highest
civilian honour for women in the Republic of India. Every year on
the occasion of International W omen's DayNari Shakti
Puraskaris awarded. The coveted award is conferred to
exceptional Women and Institutions who have been working
towards the cause of Women Empowerment.

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7.4 INTEGRATED CHILD PROTECTION SCHEME

(ICPS)

The ICPS is a governmental program implemented by the govt of

India to help secure the safety of children, with a special emphasis on children
in need of care and protection, juveniles in conflict or contact with the law
and other vulnerable children. The primary purpose of ICPS is to create a
central structure to provide insight and standardization for pre-existing and
evolving child protection schemes in India.
In 2009 the ICPS was implemented. It was administered at the state
level by state child protection societies, among other institutions.
The flagship programmes under ICPS are explained below:
l INTEGRATED CHILD DEVELOPMENT SERVICES (ICDS): The ICDS
Scheme was launched on 2nd October 1975 and is one of the flagship
programmes of the government of India and represents one of the
world's largest and unique programmes for early childhood care and
development. ICDS commits to children and nursing mothers and
providing pre-school non-formal education and aims in breaking the
vicious cycle of malnutrition, morbidity, reduced learning capacity, and
mortality.
The biggest beneficiaries of the ICDS scheme are children in the
age group of 0-6 years, pregnant and lactating mothers. Objectives of the
scheme are:
Ø To improve the nutritional and health status of children in the age group
0-6 years.
Ø To lay the foundation for proper psychological, physical and social
development of the child.
Ø To reduce the incidence of mortality, morbidity, malnutrition and school
dropout.
Ø To achieve effective co-ordination of policy and implementation amongst
the various departments to promote child development.
Ø To enhance the capability of the mother to look after the normal health
and nutritional needs of the child through proper nutrition and health
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education.
l NATIONAL CRECHE SCHEME: W ith growing employment
opportunities more and more women are working within and outside
their homes. At the same time, they face the challenges of providing
quality care and protection for their children because of rapid increase
in nuclear families and migration of extended family members. It became
necessary to provide support to the young children quality and substitute
care and other services while the mothers are at work.
The National Creche Scheme aims at providing a safe place for
mothers to leave their children while they are at work and where children
are provideda stimulating environment for their holistic development.
The objectives of the National Creche Scheme are:
Ø To provide day-care facilities for children (6 months to 6 years) of working
mothers in the community.
Ø To improve nutrition and health status of children.
Ø To promote physical, cognitive, social and emotional development of
children.
Ø To educate and empower parents/caregivers for better childcare.
l SCHEME FOR ADOLESCENT GIRLS (SAG): SAG was devised in
the year 2010 using the ICDS infrastructure with an aim at breaking the
inter-generational life cycle of nutritional and gender disadvantage for
girls by providing a supportive environment for self-development of
adolescent girls. The SAG focuses on out of school adolescent girls in
the age group of 11-14 years. The Scheme for Adolescent Girls
(SAG)was implemented using the platform of Anganwadi Services under
the umbrella of ICDS through Anganwadi Centres (AWCs).
The key objectivesof the schemes are:
Ø Enable Adolescent Girls for self-development and empowerment.
Ø Improve their nutrition and health status.
Ø Support out of school Adolescent girls to successfully undergothe
transition phase and go back to formal schooling or bridge learning/skill
training.

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 Development of Women and Children in Rural Area Unit 7
Ø Upgrade their home-based and life skills.
Ø Provide information/guidance about existing public services such as
Primary Health Centers, Rural Hospitals/CHCs, Post Office, Bank,
Police Station, etc.
l INTEGRATED CHILD PROTECTION SCHEME (ICPS): The ICPS is
a centrally sponsored scheme aimed at building a protective environment
for children in difficult circumstances, as well as other vulnerable children,
through Government-Civil Society partnership. ICPS was proposed in
2006 and implemented in 2009. The ICPS is administered at the state
level by State Protection Committees and societies and at the district
level by Child Protection societies among other institutions.
The primary objectives of ICPS are:
Ø ICPS together brings multiple existing child protection schemes of the
Ministry under one comprehensive umbrella and integrates additional
interventions for protecting children and preventing harm.
Ø ICPS institutionalize essential services and strengthen structures,
enhance capacities at all level, create database and knowledge base
for child protection services, strengthen child protection at family and
community level to ensure appropriate inter-sectoral response at all
level.
Ø ICPS aims to set up a child protection data management system to
formulate and implement effective intervention strategies and monitor
their outcomes.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Q 1: What was the main objective of creating the Ministry of Women

and Child Development in 2006?
.......................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................

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 Unit 7 Development of Women and Children in Rural Area
Q 2: What was the name of the fund to establish One Stop Centres?
.......................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................
Q 3: When was STEP launched and the main aims of the program?
.......................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................
Q 4: Why was the Mahila Police Volunteers programme launched?
.......................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................

7.5 LET US SUM UP

l Development of women in India received its attention from the

government since the First 5-year plan (1951-56).
l In the 6th 5-year plan (1980-85), a shift from 'Welfare' planning to
'development' of women was taken up.
l The 9th 5-year plan (1997-2002) made two important changes in the
strategy of development of women. First, 'Empowerment of Women',
its aim was to create an enabling environment where women could
freely exercise their rights both within and outside the home as equal
partners with men. The second was convergence of existing services
available in both women-specific and women related sectors.
l 10th 5-year plan (2002-2007) focused on organizing women into Self-
Help Groups (SHGs) for income generation activities started.
l In the 12th 5-year plan (2012-2017) the Planning Commission pushed
for special dispensation for the single woman and encourages women
in participation in the field of agriculture and animal husbandry in addition
to health, education, urbanization, and governance.
l The Ministry of Women and Child Development came into existence as
a separate ministry from 30th of January, 2006.
l Beti Bachao, Beti Padhao campaign was launched by Prime Minister
Narendra Modi on 22nd January 2015 from Panipat, Haryana on the
occasion of International Day of the Girl Child.

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 Development of Women and Children in Rural Area Unit 7
l The Ministry of Women and Child Development started implementing
the One-Stop Centres (OSC) scheme since 1st April 2015.
l The Women Helpline Scheme was launched on 1st of April 2015 along
with One-Stop Centre.
l The Ministry of Women & Child Development launched "Mahila E-Haat"
a bilingual portal on 7th of March, 2016. The platform was launched to
play an important role for women entrepreneurs.
l Mahila Shakti Kendra is 'one-stop convergent support services' for
empowering rural women with opportunities for skill development,
employment, digital literacy, health, and nutrition'.
l Nari Shakti Puraskar is the highest civilian honour for women in the
Republic of India. Every year on the 8th of March on the occasion of
International Women's Day is it conferred.
l The ICDS Scheme was launched on 2nd October 1975, it is one of the
world's largest and unique programmes for early childhood care and
development.
l The Integrated Child Protection Scheme (ICPS)was proposed and
implemented in 2009. The ICPS is administered at the state level by
State Protection Committees and societies and at the district level by
Child Protection societies among other institutions.

7.6 FURTHER READING

1) Rao. M. Koteswara, (2005) "Empowerment of Women in India";

Discovery Publishing House, New Delhi.
2) Chopra. G, (2015) "Child Rights in India: Challenges and Social Action";
Springer, New Delhi.

7.7 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Ans to Q No 1: The ministry was constituted with the prime intention of

addressing gaps in national-state action for women and children
development initiatives and promoting inter-Ministerial and inter-sectoral
convergence to create gender equitability and child-centered legislation,
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policies, and programmes.
Ans to Q No 2: The GoI has set up a dedicated fund called the "Nirbhaya
Fund" to establish the One-Stop Centres with enhanced safety and
security provisions.
Ans to Q No 3: The Support to Training & Employment Programme for
Women (STEP) was launched as a Central Sector Scheme in 1986-
87. STEP aims to make a significant impact on women by upgrading
skills for self and wage employment.
Ans to Q No 4: Women face Gender-Based Violence (GBV) both in public
and private spaces, including domestic violence, sexual assault, rape,
stalking,etc is a major threat to women equality and empowerment. In
order to protect and increase focused community outreach, Government
of India envisages engagements/ nomination of Mahila Police Volunteers
(MPVs) in all States and Union Territories

7.8 MODEL QUESTIONS

Short Question (Answer each question in about 150 words)

Q 1: When did the Ministry of Women and Child Development come into
existence and mention their Vision and Mission?
Q 2: Name the schemes implemented by GOI focusing on Women
Security and Protection and write a brief note on each of the
schemes.
Q 3: Name the schemes implemented by GOI focusing on Women
Entrepreneurship and write a brief note on each of the schemes.
Long Questions (Answer each question in about 300-500 words)
Q 1: What was the main objective of the Integrated Child Protection
Scheme (ICPS) implemented by the Government of India and
discuss the various schemes launched under the ICPS.

*** ***** ***

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 Rural Religion Unit 8

UNIT 8 RURAL RELIGION

UNIT STRUCTURE
8.1 Learning Objectives
8.2 Introduction
8.3 Religion: Definitions and Meaning
8.4 Sociological Approach to the study of Religion
8.5 Social Functions of Religion
8.6 Rural Religion in India: An Overview
8.7 Significance of the study of Rural Religion
8.8 Characteristics of Rural Religion in India
8.9 Changing Scenerio
8.10 Functions of Rural Religion in India
8.11 Let Us Sum Up
8.12 Further Reading
8.13 Answers to Check Your Progress
8.14 Model Questions

8.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After going through this unit, you will be able to -

l Explain the different definitions of religion
l Discuss the meaning, concept and typology of religion
l Analyse the functions of religion in human societies
l Trace the origin of rural societies
l Discuss the characteristics of rural life in India
l Elucidate the dimensions of rural religion in India and its role and
functions

8.2 INTRODUCTION

We have learnt that religion is a common element of human culture

found universally in all human groups. Religion is born as an aspect of the
total human need for security, not only in this world, but also in the other

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world; not only in our relationships to the physical and social environment,
but also in relation to the unseen forces and beings. This world of unseen
forces and beings constitute what has been termed as the supernatural
world.

LET US KNOW

The English word “religion” is derived from the Middle English “religioun”
which came from the Old French “religion.” It may have been originally
derived from the Latin word “religo” which means “good faith,” “ritual,”
and other similar meanings. It may also have come from the Latin
“religãre” which means “to tie fast.”

At the simplest level, religion is the belief in the power of supernatural

and the transcendental. These beliefs are present in all the societies and
variations seem endless. A belief in the supernatural almost always
incorporates the idea that supernatural forces have some influence or control
upon the world. The first indication of a possible belief in the supernatural
dates from about 60,000 years ago. Archaeological evidences reveal that
Neanderthal man buried his dead with stone tools and jewellery. Religion is
often defined as people’s organized response to the supernatural, although
several movements which deny or ignore supernatural concerns have belief
and ritual systems which resemble those based on the supernatural.
However, these theories about the origin of religion can only be based on
speculation and debate. Myth, rituals, religion, magic and numerous beliefs
and practices regarding the supernatural world are the domain of religion.
Though religion is a universal phenomenon, it is understood
differently by different people. On religion, opinions differ from the great
religious leader down to an ordinary man. There is no consensus about the
nature of religion. Sociologists are yet to find a satisfactory explanation of
religion.

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Again, it must be remembered that religious beliefs and practices
vary from society to society, community to community, and region to region.
Even within the same religion, there may be some variations in terms of
urban and rural situations. Before going into the details of such variations,
let us recall the meaning, definitions and social functions of religion.

8.3 RELIGION: DEFINITIONS AND MEANING

Numerous scholars have tried to find out the feature which is

common to all religions. E.B Tylor, the father of the discipline of Anthropology
had defined religion as the belief in spiritual beings. Some scholars in recent
times have expressed that E.B.Tylor’s classic definition of religion as the
“belief in spiritual beings” is still valid today. For James Frazer, religion
concerned the “propitiation or conciliation of powers superior to man”
Durkheim, in his The Elementary Forms of the Religious Life, defines
religion as a “”a unified system of beliefs and practices relative to sacred
things, that is to say, things set apart and forbidden – beliefs and practices
which unite into one single moral community called a Church, all those
who adhere to them”.
James. G. Frazer, in his The Golden Bough, considered religion as
a belief in powers superior to man which are believed to direct and control
the course of nature and of human life.
Maclver and Page have defined religion as a relationship not merely
between man and man but also between man and some higher power.
According to Ogburn, religion is an attitude towards superhuman
powers.
Max Muller defines religion as a mental faculty or disposition which
enables man to apprehend the infinite.
Spiro in 1966 has identified a belief in “superhuman beings” as the
core variable
which ought to be designated by any definition of religion. Anthony
Wallace saw religion as a kind of human behaviour which can be classified
as belief and ritual concerned with supernatural beings, powers and forces.

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According to Surajit Sinha, religion is referred to as a system of beliefs,
practices and values concerned with the sacred. It is related to supernatural
entities and powers which are considered as the ultimate concern of all
mundane existence among human groups.
Taking various definitions together, we find that all the traditional
definitions of religion involve the following aspects:
l Belief in a supernatural being or beings in a supernatural world.
l Dependence on the supernatural world for help, inspiration, and strength,
l Behaviour patterns, practices (rituals) which express the dependence.
l Religion unites human groups.
There are certain religions that may not fit well with the traditional
definitions of religion. Although religion is defined as the system of beliefs
and practices centring the supernatural, yet certain religious groups/sects
like that of Buddhism, in its original form, is devoid of supernatural elements.
Such a religion however, like other religions provide a world view, explains
the events around us and has means and behaviour patterns to address
the crisis that occur in our lives. The basic character is that these are
considered as sacred.

LET US KNOW

Anthony F.C. Wallace proposes four categories of religion, each

subsequent category subsuming the previous. These are, however,
synthetic categories and do not necessarily encompass all religions.
l Individualistic: It is the most basic and the simplest. For example:
vision quest.
l Shamanistic: Shamans are part-time religious practitioner. They use
religion to heal and to divine, usually on the behalf of a client. The
examples of shamans are spiritualists, faith healers, palm readers,
etc. These are experts who have acquired religious authority through
one’s own means.

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l Communal: It involves elaborate set of beliefs and practices. Group
of people are arranged in clans, lineage, age groups, or some religious
societies. People take on roles based on knowledge and ancestral
worship.
l Ecclesiastical: It is the most complex of the categories. It incorporates
elements of the previous three.

8.4 SOCIOLOGICAL APPROACH TO THE STUDY OF

RELIGION

In India we find followers of almost all the major religions of the

world. The basic tenets of the major religions of India will be discussed in
Unit IX. In this Unit we will discuss the different aspects of rural religion in
India, its importance and functions. Here, we are not concerned with
competing claims of different religions. This is because Sociology is mainly
concerned with the social effects of religious beliefs and practices. Let us
go through some of the major questions that sociologists want to explore
about religion :
l How does religion reinforce the collective unity of a group through
religious worships and rituals? (Durkheim).
l How religion blocks the emotional and intellectual development of people.
(Marxian view).
l How a particular type of economic system, like capitalism, for example,
is the product of a specific religious ideology (Max Weber), and so on
and so forth.

8.5 SOCIAL FUNCTIONS OF RELIGION

Religion has a significant role to play, both in the life of the individual,
and social life in general. This varies according to the type of society.
l To the individual, religion provides emotional security. It helps man to
rationalize his/her sufferings and make them bearable.
l Religion guides the individuals in the course of life.
l It enables men to understand and explain the events occurring around

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them.
l At the social level, religion functions as a powerful means of social
control. It controls human conduct and regulates behaviour through the
ever prevailing fear of the supernatural forces. This feeling is inculcated
(learnt) by individuals very early in their lives.
l Moreover, religion functions as a bond of social union, and unity amongst
all those who follow the same religion.
However, if religion creates a sense of unity amongst those who
believe in the same religion, it tends to create, at the same time, deep
differences between people. This is mainly due to misinterpretation (wrong
concept) of religion.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Q 4: Fill in the blanks:

a) The unified system of beliefs and practices that centre on the
sacred is called as ____________.
b) According to Tylor, religion is the “belief in ___________beings”.
Q 5: State whether the following ares true or false:
a) Durkheim’s study of religion focused on the role played by religion
in society.
b) Buddhism is devoid of the supernatural.
c) Buddhism provides explanations of the events around us and to
cope with crisis.

8.6 RURAL RELIGION IN INDIA: AN OVERVIEW

The impact of religion in rural society is tremendous. In most of the

societies that we come across, religious explanations of birth, marriage,
death, disease, of natural disasters as famine and flood, and of the various
happenings in the world are prevalent. Most of these are associated with
some rituals like the funeral rites, birth rites, etc. Even the attaining of puberty

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and adulthood are associated with rites and rituals that are meant to make
smooth the passage from one social stage (for example, bachelor state) to
another (married state), and to resolve crisis, with the involvement of the
supernatural beings. Not only disease, and natural disasters, but even events
in one’s life as birth, marriage, illness, disease and death are considered
as events. The degree of dependence on religious rituals on these issues
is different in different societies. The difference is visible when we look
upon these in terms of rural and urban societies. In rural societies, people
follow the religious rites strictly, according to the customs and norms – but
in urban societies, due to the lack of time and opportunities, such functions
are very often observed symbolically. In the succeeding paragraphs we will
discuss the issues related to rural religion and its various aspects with an
introduction to rural society in India.

8.7 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY OF RURAL

RELIGION

India is basically a country of villages. It is true that urban centres

did develop in India since the days of Indus civilization, about 3500 years
ago, yet the proportion of urban centres as compared to villages have been
continuously very small all throughout the centuries. According to 2001
census there were 4378 urban centres in India.
Indian civilization has both the rural and urban dimensions. Rural
society is no doubt, a part of the general society, but it has certain element
that makes it different from the urban society or the society in general.
Throughout the millennia, there has been an interactive process going on
between the city and the rural religion in India. This can be seen in the
attraction or pull of the pilgrim centres of different faith, all over the country
and through the ages.
The village society is well knit and has strong bonds of relations.
Indian rural life is affected by land relations, family structure, caste variations,
and above all religious variation. In fact, religion affects the thought and
action of the large sections of humanity. The influence of religion on people’s

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economic and social life especially in India cannot be ignored. By prohibiting
certain activities (taboo) and restricting others, the injunctions (command)
of religion not only regulate one’s philosophy of life, but also formulate one’s
economic activities. For example, Buddhism, with its doctrine of ahimsa
and having its followers in India, China, Japan, Sri Lanka, Myanmar and
Indo-China, are adverse to stock-raising for meat and wool. Among the
Muslims, banking institutions have not developed, because Mohammad
prohibited the acceptance of interest from borrowers. They eat beef, but
not pork, and hence pig rearing is quite uncommon among the Muslims.
The Hindu society is divided into different castes, to each of which,
occupations and duties are prescribed by religion.
Thus, the Indian village life is grossly affected by religious beliefs
and customs. According to A.R. Desai, the study of rural religion in India is
important for the following reasons:
l It is observed that all over the world, rural people have greater
predisposition for religion than urban people. The religious outlook of
rural people over the world shapes their intellectual, emotional and
practical life. This is particularly true of the societies resting on
subsistence (barely sufficent to maintain life) basis. It is difficult to locate
any aspect of their life which is not shaped by their religious beliefs and
practises. Their family life, caste relations, general social life, economic
and recreational life, arts and crafts, and festivals are more or less
governed by religious norms.
l In India, rural societies are based on subsistence economies. The rural
economy, to a large extent, is still dependent on nature. Sometimes,
scientific and technological supports fail. People generally use religious
means to avoid the vagaries of nature like flood, droughts, landslides,
crop failure, and such other problems. Rural people often perform rites
and rituals at different stages of their agricultural cycle or operations.
l Priestly leadership in rural society: Irrespective of their religion, the
leadership of the village life in all domains was provided by the priestly
groups, as the Brahmins, the Maulabis and such other priestly groups.
They controlled the traditional Panchayats also. The traditions and
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conventions of the rural life were laid down and controlled by these
religious leaders. Hence, the rural life in India, in general, was moulded
by the religious spirit.
l Rural religion is at cross roads: The rural religious scene is changing
very fast in view of the secular nationhood and the new political
environment which is basically non-religious and secular. Democratic
outlook have been trying to supersede the old ones that were founded
on religion.
According to Desai, contemporary rural religion in India is a
battleground between the forces of religious orthodoxy and authoritarian
social concepts on the one hand, and those of secular –democratic advance
on the other.
These make imperative the study of religion in the context of rural
India.

8.8 CHARACTERISTICS OF RURAL RELIGION IN

INDIA

The religious situation in India is very complex. It is due to the fact

that the number of different religions is very large. Though India has no
state religion, yet the Constitution guarantees everyone the freedom of
following and practicing all religious faiths. Thus, Indian population is divided
into innumerable different faiths and sects. Secondly, the social composition
of the followers of these diverse religions is also diverse. They practice
different customs and traditions. The different religious communities also
have different types of social organizations.
At the same time, as has already been mentioned, the
characteristics of villages in India differ from place to place, from region to
region, and from community to community, due to the diverse socio-cultural,
economic, geographic, and ecological factors. Each of these villages has
a unique pattern and a mode of life. The religious life of rural India is also
very diverse.
Yet, the village communities, all over the country possess certain

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common features iin terms of their religious institutions, beliefs and
practices. Several sociologists and anthropologists have made field studies
of various villages in order to understand the rural religion in India. Some of
the major characteristics of rural religion are discussed below :
l Indian religion is quite practical: It must be remembered that religion,
more particularly, Hinduism as practiced in rural India is not the classical
form of the religion. According to S.C Dube, Hinduism as practiced in
the villages of India is not the Hinduism of the classical philosophical
systems of India, for it possesses neither the metaphysical heights,
nor the abstract content of the latter. It is a religion of fasts, and festivals,
in which prescribed rituals cover all the major crises of life. The life
histories reveal that, spiritualism cannot be said to be the keynote in the
life of the community. Far from it, religion appears to be a practical one.
l Religion in Indian influences almost all aspects of rural life. The various
aspects of rural life, like economic, social, political, personal, recreation,
art, culture, and others are influenced by religion. All these aspects are
again interrelated.
l Neighbourhood living pattern: Neighbourhood living pattern varies
from village to village. The village may be composed of a single religious
group, or a multi-religious one. There may also be differences with
regard to caste composition. Different caste groups have certain distinct
religious practices and rituals.
l Coexistence of different religious groups or sects is another feature of
rural religious life in India.
l Sacred centres or places of worship: Rural religion centres round
shrines, temples, mosques, churches and such sacred spaces.
Whatever may be the religion, these are sacred places of the village.
Such an area may be under a big tree, or on the bank of a river. Each
village has such sacred centres. They are used for holding community
rituals and festivities according to the religious traditions of the village.
These centres have their own myths and stories of origin. They are the
focal points of village life.

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Every places of worship, whether it is a naamghar, temple,
guruduwuara, mosque, or a local shrine, is run out of the property attached
to it, or from public funds and donations. Sometimes, private persons may
also build and maintain private temples or shrines. The religious focus is
mainly on the shrines of the village’s goddess and god.
l Supernatural world of Indian rural life: Rural Indians inhabit a world
full of divine and semi-divine beings, such as tree spirits (yakshas),
ghosts (bhootas), puranic, local, personal and ancestral gods, who co-
exist in a complex hierarchy. Along with the public shrines to the gods,
every Hindu home has a domestic shrine, and a veneration of sacred
trees and snakes. These were attested to millennia ago, and still play
an important part in the contemporary religious practices and beliefs.
Unlike in orthodox puranic Hinduism, the villagers have direct access to
the local gods and do not require the intercession of a priest. The
Goddess also plays a larger role in local religion and rural religion is
centred on specific places of perceived spiritual power. The shrines
themselves are relatively simple affairs. They are usually covered and
often enclosed on three sides by a low wall. Shrines with buildings on
them are quite rare. The simplest form of shrine can consist of a pile of
stones by a riverbank or in a field, where, at some point in the past, it is
believed, a spirit had made its presence known. Villages often have a
number of shrines to different deities located at the edge of the village.
l Household sacred space: Besides village level sacred spots, each
household possesses a household shrine, however small it may be.
Household deities are daily worshipped by the respective family
members.
l Sacred performances like rituals and festivals are the life line in Indian
villages. These foster unity amongst the people. Rural religion is
expressed through the tradition of life cycle rituals (like birth, marriage,
and death), festivals related to economic activities, ancestor worship
and such others. We have discussed that rural religion in India is a
practical one. Sociologists and Anthropologists have classified different
forms of religious activities. Some of these are prayers, sacrifices, rituals,
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fast, festivals, divination and such other forms.
l Sacred functionaries: Each Indian village bas a body of religious
functionaries like Maulabi, Pandit, Purohit, and priest, either full time or
part time religious specialists. The full time specialists generally do not
have any other means of livelihood. In simpler rural systems, the part
time specialists like medicineman, healers, astrologers, diviners and
others, play crucial role.

LET US KNOW

Shaman and Religious Leader A shaman is a person who is not a

part of an organized religion and is in direct contact with the spirit world,
usually through a trance state. A shaman has spirit helpers at his or her
command to carry out curing, divining, and bewitching. Shamanistic
power is acquired individually, usually in physical and/or mental solitude
and isolation from other humans. Spirits or some other supernatural
entities are revealed to the shaman and he or she learns how to control
them.A shaman is essentially a religious entrepreneur who acts for
human clients. He or she intervenes on behalf of a human client to
influence supernatural beings to perform some act such as curing an
illness or discovering the cause of an unexpected death. The shaman
essentially acts as a middleman in this. In contrast, a priest’s clients
are the gods. A priest tells people what to do. A shaman tells the
supernatural beings what to do. However, both shamans and priests
are paid for their services with material things and/or prestige. Shamans
are common in small-scale societies. However, they do not completely
disappear in large-scale societies that have organized religions. A
religious leader who is part of an organized religion is considered to be
a priest or priestess. Of course, different religions have different terms
for these individuals—they may be known as rabbis, ministers, mullahs,
imams, or something else. These individuals are the keepers of the

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sacred law and tradition. They are found mostly in large-scale
societies. Priests are authorized by priesthood, or some other religious
organization, to perform religious rituals designed to influence the
supernatural world and to guide the believers in their religious practices.
Priests personally do not have supernatural powers at their command.
Priests are initiated and ceremonially inducted members of an established
religious organization. That is, they are members of a priesthood. Their
rank and function results from holding a religious office held by others
before them.

8.9 FUNCTIONS OF RURAL RELIGION IN INDIA

l Maintaining Group identity : Alongside the personal dimensions of

worship and reverence, rural festivals and rituals can have a more basic
social function in expressing, fixing and reinforcing the shared values
and beliefs of a society. Rituals can aid in creating a firm sense of
group identity. This function can be exploited for political ends. Humans
have used rituals to create social bonds and even to nourish
interpersonal relationships.
l Means of social control : Religion is a powerful means of social control.
Each religion provides a moral code of conduct for its followers. The
fear of supernatural punishment or the wrath of the god compels a
person to abide by its religious norms. Thus, the fundamental function
of religion, particularly in rural areas of India is to maintain social order.
l Rural religion controls food habits: Religion, in a rural community is
very much linked with food habits. Certain items of food are encouraged
while some others are prohibited or tabooed by different religions. Thus,
there are religious variations.
l Preservation and maintenance of hierarchical social order : Indian
rural society is a stratified society. It is basically caste oriented. Caste
system is not only limited to Hindus only. Sociologists have shown that
castes are present among Christians, Muslims, Buddhists and religious
groups in India.

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The stratification of the rural society was also maintained through
the customs, tradition and rituals advocated by religion. Mc Kim Marriott
has also identified that the ritual and religious aspects of hierarchical relations
in the village are governed even today by the concept of purity and
pollution.The commensal relations in the village are also governed, even
today, by the concepts of purity and pollution.
l Maintenance of inter-castes relations: The Hindu caste society was
based on an elaborate division of labour which is termed as jajmani
system. Each caste has had its own hereditary occupation and each
occupational caste gave their services to their clients of other castes,
and received services or things on return. The village caste structure is
characterised by the jajmani system. Yogendra Singh has described
jajmani system as a system governed by relationship based on
reciprocity in inter-caste relations in villages. According to Leach, the
jajmani system maintains and regulates division of labour and economic
interdependence.
l Recreation, leisure, art and culture : Religious rituals and festivities
provide opportunities to the rural people to relax and enjoy life. The fairs
are also organised in Indian villages which are based on religion. Thus,
villagers get opportunities for leisure and recreation due to religious
celebration. These rituals and festivals in a village are visited by people
from distant areas also. Thus, through these festivals, ritual contact
between far flung areas could be maintained.

ACTIVITY

Q 1: Make a list of some festivals observed in the rural areas you

know.
Q 2: Systematically arrange the Bihu festival according to the
agricultural activity cycle.

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8.10 CHANGING SCENARIO

Several new trends have become visible in the post independence

period of India. Let us discuss the changing scenario of religion in India.
l Rising trend of communalism and the accompanying changes:
Violence has created a feeling of insecurity among different religious
groups in the villages, mainly among the religious minorities. We know
that India is a country with multi-religions. Even within the same religion,
we find different factions and cults. There is enough evidence in our
history to demonstrate that there has been cult conflict between the
followers of different cults, mainly in rural areas. However, in the urban
areas the effect of cult conflict is not so severe. Communalism has
been a historical occurrence. In the contemporary times, with the
development of communication technology, communalism becomes
more organised and politicised.
l New forces of globalization, capitalist economy, and consumerism
have penetrated the rural life in India: Improvement in
communication, mobile phone, and electronic media have become part
of general village life in India. All these forces and factors have reduced
the importance of religion in rural life to a great extent.
l Effects of Politics: We have already mentioned that religion develops
group identity. At the same time politics have resulted in dividing society
along the lines of religion. All over the country, the local, regional and
national politics have taken religion as a force for creating divisions in
the country. If this trend of political activities continues, then the day is
not far when religion would prove to be a highly divisive force in the
villages of India.

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 Unit 8 Rural Religion

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Q 3: Mention two of the social functions of religion in rural India.

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Q 4: Cite two modern changes of religious aspect of rural society.
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8.11 LET US SUM UP

l From this Unit we have come to know that religion plays an important
role in the various aspects of the social life of rural people.
l Their world view is dominated by religion. World view includes the ways
a group or an individual perceives the world around and explains the
events in it. As such, economic behaviour, beliefs and practices relating
to health and nutrition, marriage, birth, death, etc. are influenced by
religion.
l Religious practitioners acquire a prominent position in the society. They
come to wield power in the group.
l Religion also binds the members of the group into a unity.
l Modern trends of globalisation, consumerism, capitalism, politicisation,
and organised communalism, have brought changes in the religious
aspects of social life bringing consequent changes in the other areas of
social life of the rural as well as urban society of India.

8.12 FURTHER READING

1) Sankar Rao, C.N. Society in India, S. Chand & Co. New Delhi.
2) Madan, T.N. Religion in India, OUP, New Delhi.
3) Madan, T.N.India’s Religion, OUP, New Delhi.
4) Robinson, Rowena Sociology of Religion in India, Sage Publication.
128 Rural and Urban Sociology

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 Rural Religion Unit 8

8.13 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Ans to Q No 1: a) religion b) spiritual

Ans to Q No 2: a) True b) True c) True
Ans to Q No 3: Religion maintains group identity and serve as means of
social control
Ans to Q No 4: Reducing of the dominance of religion on social life and
politicisation of religion.

8.14 MODEL QUESTIONS

Short Questions (Answer each question in about 150 words)

Q 1: What are the characteristics of rural religion in India?
Q 2: Define religion. Discuss the basic aspects of religion.
Long Questions (Answer each question in about 300-500 words)
Q 1: Explain the social functions of religion. Discuss the significance of
the study of rural religion.
Q 2: Discuss the changing scenario of rural religion in India.

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