Networking Models
Two networking models describe the communication and transfer of data from one host to another,
called ISO/OSI model and the TCP/IP model. This is a simplified representation of the so-
called layers representing transferred Bits in readable contents for us.
The OSI Model
The OSI model, often referred to as ISO/OSI layer model, is a reference model that can be used to
describe and define the communication between systems. The reference model has seven
individual layers, each with clearly separated tasks.
The term OSI stands for Open Systems Interconnection model, published by the
International Telecommunication Union (ITU) and the International
Organization for Standardization (ISO). Therefore, the OSI model is often referred
to as the ISO/OSI layer model.
The TCP/IP Model
TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol) is a generic term
for many network protocols. The protocols are responsible for the switching and transport of data
packets on the Internet. The Internet is entirely based on the TCP/IP protocol family. However,
TCP/IP does not only refer to these two protocols but is usually used as a generic term for an
entire protocol family.
For example, ICMP (Internet Control Message Protocol) or UDP (User Datagram
Protocol) belongs to the protocol family. The protocol family provides the necessary functions
for transporting and switching data packets in a private or public network.
ISO/OSI vs. TCP/IP
TCP/IP is a communication protocol that allows hosts to connect to the Internet. It refers to the
Transmission Control Protocol used in and by applications on the Internet. In contrast
to OSI, it allows a lightening of the rules that must be followed, provided that general guidelines
are followed.
OSI, on the other hand, is a communication gateway between the network and end-users. The OSI
model is usually referred to as the reference model because it is older. It is also known for its strict
protocol and limitations.
Packet Transfers
In a layered system, devices in a layer exchange data in a different format called a protocol
data unit (PDU). For example, when we want to browse a website on the computer, the remote
server software first passes the requested data to the application layer. It is processed layer by layer,
each layer performing its assigned functions. The data is then transferred through the network's
physical layer until the destination server or another device receives it. The data is routed through
the layers again, with each layer performing its assigned operations until the receiving software uses
the data.
During the transmission, each layer adds a header to the PDU from the upper layer, which
controls and identifies the packet. This process is called encapsulation. The header and the
data together form the PDU for the next layer. The process continues to the Physical Layer or
Network Layer, where the data is transmitted to the receiver. The receiver reverses the process
and unpacks the data on each layer with the header information. After that, the application finally
uses the data. This process continues until all data has been sent and received.
With TCP/IP, we can quickly understand how the entire connection is established, and with ISO,
we can take it apart piece by piece and analyze it in detail. This often happens when we can listen to
and intercept specific network traffic. We then have to analyze this traffic accordingly, going into
more detail in the Network Traffic Analysis module. Therefore, we should familiarize
ourselves with both reference models and understand and internalize them in the best possible way.
The OSI Model
The goal in defining the ISO/OSI standard was to create a reference model that enables the
communication of different technical systems via various devices and technologies and provides
compatibility. The OSI model uses seven different layers, which are hierarchically based on each
other to achieve this goal. These layers represent phases in the establishment of each connection
through which the sent packets pass. In this way, the standard was created to trace how a connection
is structured and established visually.
Layer Function
7.Application Among other things, this layer controls the input and output of data and
provides the application functions.
6.Presentation The presentation layer's task is to transfer the system-dependent presentation
of data into a form independent of the application.
5.Session The session layer controls the logical connection between two systems and
prevents, for example, connection breakdowns or other problems.
4.Transport Layer 4 is used for end-to-end control of the transferred data. The Transport
Layer can detect and avoid congestion situations and segment data streams.
On the networking layer, connections are established in circuit-switched
3.Network networks, and data packets are forwarded in packet-switched networks. Data
is transmitted over the entire network from the sender to the receiver.
The central task of layer 2 is to enable reliable and error-free transmissions
2.Data Link on the respective medium. For this purpose, the bitstreams from layer 1 are
divided into blocks or frames.
Layer Function
The transmission techniques used are, for example, electrical signals, optical
1.Physical signals, or electromagnetic waves. Through layer 1, the transmission takes
place on wired or wireless transmission lines.
The layers 2-4 are transport oriented, and the layers 5-7areapplication
oriented` layers. In each layer, precisely defined tasks are performed, and the interfaces to the
neighbouring layers are precisely described. Each layer offers services for use to the layer directly
above it. To make these services available, the layer uses the services of the layer below it and
performs the tasks of its layer.
If two systems communicate, all seven layers of the OSI model are run through at least twice,
since both the sender and the receiver must take the layer model into account. Therefore, a large
number of different tasks must be performed in the individual layers to ensure the communication's
security, reliability, and performance.
When an application sends a packet to the other system, the system works the layers shown above
from layer 7 down to layer 1, and the receiving system unpacks the received packet from layer 1 up
to layer 7.
The TCP/IP Model
The TCP/IP model is also a layered reference model, often referred to as the Internet
Protocol Suite. The term TCP/IP stands for the two protocols Transmission Control
Protocol (TCP) and Internet Protocol (IP). IP is located within the network layer
(Layer 3) and TCP is located within the transport layer (Layer 4) of the OSI layer
model.
Layer Function
4.Application The Application Layer allows applications to access the other layers' services
and defines the protocols applications use to exchange data.
3.Transport The Transport Layer is responsible for providing (TCP) session and (UDP)
datagram services for the Application Layer.
2.Internet The Internet Layer is responsible for host addressing, packaging, and routing
functions.
The Link layer is responsible for placing the TCP/IP packets on the network
1.Link medium and receiving corresponding packets from the network medium.
TCP/IP is designed to work independently of the network access method,
frame format, and medium.
With TCP/IP, every application can transfer and exchange data over any network, and it does not
matter where the receiver is located. IP ensures that the data packet reaches its destination, and
TCP controls the data transfer and ensures the connection between data stream and application. The
main difference between TCP/IP and OSI is the number of layers, some of which have been
combined.
The most important tasks of TCP/IP are:
Task Protocol Description
Due to many hosts in different networks, there is a need to structure
the network topology and logical addressing. Within TCP/IP, IP takes
Logical
IP over the logical addressing of networks and nodes. Data packets only
Addressing
reach the network where they are supposed to be. The methods to do
so are network classes, subnetting, and CIDR.
For each data packet, the next node is determined in each node on the
Routing IP way from the sender to the receiver. This way, a data packet is routed
to its receiver, even if its location is unknown to the sender.
Error & The sender and receiver are frequently in touch with each other via a
TCP virtual connection. Therefore control messages are sent continuously
Control Flow
to check if the connection is still established.
Application TCP and UDP ports form a software abstraction to distinguish
TCP
Support specific applications and their communication links.
Name DNS provides name resolution through Fully Qualified Domain
DNS Names (FQDN) in IP addresses, enabling us to reach the desired host
Resolution
with the specified name on the internet.
