Here are detailed notes for your MBA second-semester Makaut exam, covering the topics of

E-commerce/E-business, ERP, CRM, SCM, and Data Communication & Networking.

MB205: Management Information System - Module-I

Notes
1. E-commerce / E-business
Overview: E-commerce and E-business are two related but distinct concepts that have
revolutionized how businesses operate. They involve the use of electronic networks, primarily
the internet, to conduct business activities.
Definitions:
●​ E-commerce (Electronic Commerce): Refers specifically to the buying and selling of
goods and services over electronic networks, mainly the internet. It focuses on external
commercial transactions that involve the exchange of money.
○​ Examples: Online retail stores (Amazon, Flipkart), online ticketing (MakeMyTrip),
online banking, online stock trading.
●​ E-business (Electronic Business): A broader concept that encompasses all aspects of
operating an online business. It includes e-commerce but also extends to internal
business processes, such as managing production, inventory, human resources, and
customer relationships, using internet technologies.
○​ Examples: Supply chain management systems, enterprise resource planning
(ERP), customer relationship management (CRM) systems, online collaboration
tools, internal communication via intranets.
Advantages of E-commerce/E-business:
●​ Global Reach: Businesses can reach customers worldwide, expanding their market
significantly.
●​ Reduced Costs: Lower overheads (no physical storefront, less staff), reduced marketing
costs, streamlined operations.
●​ 24/7 Availability: Businesses can operate around the clock, allowing customers to shop
or conduct transactions anytime, anywhere.
●​ Improved Customer Service: Automated support, personalized recommendations,
faster response times through online channels.
●​ Increased Efficiency: Automation of processes, reduced paperwork, faster transaction
processing.
●​ Enhanced Information Access: Customers have access to vast product information,
reviews, and comparisons.
●​ Personalization: Ability to tailor products, services, and marketing messages to
individual customer preferences.
●​ Niche Markets: Easier to serve specialized markets that might not be viable with
traditional brick-and-mortar stores.
●​ Better Inventory Management: Real-time tracking of stock levels and automated
reordering.
Disadvantages of E-commerce/E-business:
●​ Lack of Personal Touch: Absence of face-to-face interaction can be a barrier for some
customers.
 ●​ Security Concerns: Risks of cyberattacks, data breaches, credit card fraud.
●​ Dependence on Technology: System failures, internet connectivity issues can halt
operations.
●​ Logistics and Fulfillment: Challenges in shipping, delivery, and returns management.
●​ Intense Competition: Low barriers to entry lead to a crowded marketplace.
●​ Customer Trust Issues: Difficulty in building trust when customers cannot physically
examine products.
●​ Returns and Refunds: Managing returns can be complex and costly.
●​ Technological Literacy: Requires users to have basic computer and internet skills.
●​ Privacy Concerns: Collection and use of personal data raise privacy issues.
Business Models of E-commerce:
Models Based on Transaction Party:
●​ B2B (Business-to-Business): Transactions between two businesses. Focuses on
efficiency, bulk purchases, and long-term relationships.
○​ Examples: Alibaba, Salesforce, manufacturers selling to retailers, software
companies selling to other businesses.
●​ B2C (Business-to-Consumer): Transactions between businesses and individual
consumers. Most common and visible form of e-commerce.
○​ Examples: Amazon, Flipkart, Myntra, Zomato.
●​ B2G (Business-to-Government): Transactions between businesses and government
agencies. Often involves procurement of goods and services for public projects.
○​ Examples: Companies bidding for government contracts online, e-procurement
portals for government.
●​ C2B (Consumer-to-Business): Individual consumers offer products or services to
businesses.
○​ Examples: Freelancers offering services on platforms like Upwork or Fiverr,
photographers selling stock photos to companies, individuals selling their cars to
dealerships online.
●​ C2C (Consumer-to-Consumer): Transactions between individual consumers. Often
facilitated by third-party platforms.
○​ Examples: eBay, OLX, Quikr, Etsy (for handmade goods).
●​ E-Governance (Government-to-Citizen, Government-to-Business,
Government-to-Government): Use of IT by government agencies to provide services to
citizens, businesses, and other government bodies.
○​ G2C (Government-to-Citizen): Online tax filing, passport applications, utility bill
payments.
○​ G2B (Government-to-Business): Online business registration, license applications,
tender submissions.
○​ G2G (Government-to-Government): Data exchange between government
departments, inter-agency communication.
Models Based on Revenue Models:
●​ Sales/Retail Model (E-tailer): Selling goods directly to consumers.
○​ Revenue Source: Product sales.
●​ Advertising Model: Generating revenue by displaying advertisements on a website.
○​ Revenue Source: Ad impressions, clicks, affiliate marketing.
●​ Subscription Model: Users pay a recurring fee for access to content or services.
○​ Revenue Source: Subscription fees (e.g., Netflix, Spotify, news websites).
●​ Transaction Fee Model: Company receives a fee for every transaction conducted
 through its platform.
○​ Revenue Source: Transaction commissions (e.g., eBay, payment gateways).
●​ Affiliate Model: Website drives traffic to another website, earning a commission on sales
or leads generated.
○​ Revenue Source: Commission on referred sales.
●​ Freemium Model: Offering basic services for free while charging for premium features.
○​ Revenue Source: Premium feature subscriptions.
●​ Brokerage Model: Bringing buyers and sellers together and facilitating transactions.
○​ Revenue Source: Commission on facilitated transactions (e.g., real estate portals,
stockbrokers).
●​ Community Model: Platforms built around user communities, monetized through
advertising or premium features.
○​ Revenue Source: Advertising, premium memberships.
Implementation of E-commerce Business:
1.​ Business Planning: Define target audience, products/services, unique selling
proposition, revenue model, and legal aspects.
2.​ Domain Name Registration: Choose and register a suitable domain name.
3.​ Website Development:
○​ Platform Selection: Choose an e-commerce platform (e.g., Shopify,
WooCommerce, Magento) or build a custom solution.
○​ Design & User Experience (UX): Create an intuitive, aesthetically pleasing, and
mobile-responsive website.
○​ Product Catalog: Upload product information, images, descriptions, pricing.
○​ Shopping Cart & Checkout: Implement a secure and easy-to-use shopping cart
and checkout process.
○​ Payment Gateway Integration: Integrate secure online payment options (credit
cards, net banking, UPI, digital wallets).
4.​ Logistics & Fulfillment:
○​ Inventory Management: Decide on own warehousing or dropshipping.
○​ Shipping & Delivery: Partner with logistics providers, define shipping policies and
costs.
○​ Returns Management: Establish clear return and refund policies and processes.
5.​ Marketing & Promotion:
○​ SEO (Search Engine Optimization): Optimize website for search engines.
○​ SEM (Search Engine Marketing): Paid advertising on search engines (Google
Ads).
○​ Social Media Marketing: Engage with customers on social media platforms.
○​ Email Marketing: Build an email list and send promotional offers, newsletters.
○​ Content Marketing: Create valuable content (blogs, videos) to attract and engage
customers.
○​ Affiliate Marketing: Partner with affiliates to promote products.
6.​ Customer Service: Implement live chat, email support, phone support, FAQs.
7.​ Security Measures: SSL certificates, firewalls, fraud detection, regular security audits.
8.​ Legal & Regulatory Compliance: Adhere to consumer protection laws, data privacy
regulations (GDPR, CCPA, etc.), taxation rules.
Online and Offline Marketing:
●​ Online Marketing (Digital Marketing):
○​ Search Engine Marketing (SEM): Includes SEO and Paid Search (PPC -
 Pay-Per-Click).
○​ Social Media Marketing (SMM): Using platforms like Facebook, Instagram, Twitter,
LinkedIn to build brand awareness, engage with customers, and drive sales.
○​ Content Marketing: Creating and distributing valuable, relevant, and consistent
content (blogs, articles, videos, infographics) to attract and retain a clearly defined
audience.
○​ Email Marketing: Building subscriber lists and sending targeted emails for
promotions, newsletters, and customer engagement.
○​ Affiliate Marketing: Partnering with individuals or other businesses (affiliates) to
promote products and earn a commission on sales.
○​ Display Advertising: Banner ads and other visual ads on websites and apps.
○​ Influencer Marketing: Collaborating with social media influencers to promote
products.
○​ Online Public Relations (PR): Managing online reputation, getting mentions on
news sites, blogs.
○​ Mobile Marketing: Optimizing for mobile devices, using SMS, app marketing.
●​ Offline Marketing (Traditional Marketing):
○​ Print Media: Advertisements in newspapers, magazines, brochures, flyers.
○​ Broadcast Media: Television and radio commercials.
○​ Direct Mail: Sending physical mailers, catalogs, coupons to potential customers.
○​ Outdoor Advertising: Billboards, posters, bus stop ads.
○​ Event Marketing: Sponsoring or participating in trade shows, conferences, local
events.
○​ Public Relations (PR): Traditional media outreach, press conferences, community
engagement.
○​ Word-of-Mouth: Encouraging satisfied customers to spread positive messages.
○​ Telemarketing: Direct phone calls to potential customers.
The most effective strategy often involves an integrated approach, combining both online and
offline marketing efforts to reach a wider audience and create a consistent brand experience.

2. ERP, CRM, SCM

These three systems are critical for modern business operations, focusing on integrating
processes, managing customer relationships, and optimizing the supply chain.

ERP (Enterprise Resource Planning)

Concepts of ERP: ERP is a suite of integrated software applications that an organization can
use to manage and integrate the core business processes of the entire enterprise. It aims to
integrate all functions across departments into a single, unified system, sharing a common
database.
●​ Integration: Centralizes data from various departments (finance, HR, manufacturing,
supply chain, sales) into a single system, eliminating data silos and improving data
consistency.
●​ Real-time Information: Provides up-to-date information across the organization, enabling
better decision-making.
●​ Automation: Automates many routine business processes, reducing manual effort and
errors.
 ●​ Standardization: Enforces standardized processes across different departments and
locations.
Architecture of ERP: Most modern ERP systems follow a client-server architecture or
web-based architecture.
●​ Layered Architecture: Typically involves a presentation layer (user interface), application
layer (business logic), and database layer (data storage).
●​ Modular Design: ERP systems are composed of various modules (e.g., Finance, HR,
Manufacturing, Sales) that can be implemented individually or as a complete suite.
●​ Centralized Database: A single, shared database underpins all modules, ensuring data
consistency and integrity.
●​ Open Architecture: Modern ERP systems often offer APIs (Application Programming
Interfaces) to allow integration with other third-party applications.
●​ Cloud-based vs. On-premise: ERP can be deployed on the organization's own servers
(on-premise) or accessed as a service over the internet (cloud-based/SaaS ERP).
Generic Modules of ERP:
●​ Financial Management: General ledger, accounts payable, accounts receivable,
budgeting, financial reporting, asset management.
●​ Human Resources (HRM): Payroll, recruitment, employee information, benefits
administration, performance management, training.
●​ Manufacturing/Production Planning: Production scheduling, material requirements
planning (MRP), shop floor control, quality control.
●​ Supply Chain Management (SCM): Procurement, inventory management, warehouse
management, logistics, order fulfillment.
●​ Sales and Marketing: Order management, sales forecasting, pricing, customer master
data.
●​ Project Management: Project planning, resource allocation, cost tracking, billing.
●​ Customer Relationship Management (CRM): Sales force automation, customer service,
marketing automation (often integrated or a separate module).
●​ Purchasing/Procurement: Supplier management, purchase order processing, invoicing.
Applications of ERP:
●​ Improved Efficiency: Streamlines operations, reduces manual tasks, and accelerates
workflows.
●​ Better Decision-Making: Provides real-time data and comprehensive reports for
informed strategic and operational decisions.
●​ Cost Reduction: Optimizes resource utilization, reduces inventory holding costs,
eliminates redundant processes.
●​ Enhanced Customer Service: Faster order processing, improved delivery times,
accurate information availability.
●​ Compliance & Risk Management: Helps organizations adhere to regulatory
requirements and mitigate operational risks.
●​ Scalability: Supports business growth by easily accommodating new users, processes,
and functionalities.
●​ Global Operations: Facilitates management of multi-national operations with
multi-currency and multi-language support.
Concept of XRP (Extended ERP): XRP refers to the extension of traditional ERP systems to
integrate with external entities beyond the organization's four walls. It focuses on collaborating
with customers, suppliers, and partners in the value chain.
●​ Key Components of XRP:
 ○​ CRM (Customer Relationship Management): Integrates customer-facing
processes.
○​ SCM (Supply Chain Management): Integrates with suppliers and logistics
partners.
○​ Business Intelligence (BI): Advanced analytics for better insights.
○​ E-commerce: Integration with online sales channels.
○​ Knowledge Management: Systems for sharing and managing organizational
knowledge.
○​ Product Lifecycle Management (PLM): Managing a product's entire lifecycle from
design to disposal.
●​ Objective: To create a more agile and responsive enterprise by extending the reach and
capabilities of the core ERP system to the entire business ecosystem.
Features of Commercial Software like SAP, Oracle Apps, MS Dynamics NAV: These are
leading commercial ERP software providers, each with distinct features:
●​ SAP (Systems, Applications, and Products in Data Processing):
○​ Dominant Market Share: Widely used by large enterprises globally.
○​ Industry-Specific Solutions: Offers tailored solutions for various industries (e.g.,
manufacturing, retail, public sector).
○​ Comprehensive Modules: Covers almost all business functions.
○​ High Customization: Highly customizable but can be complex to implement.
○​ Newer Versions: SAP S/4HANA (in-memory computing) offers real-time analytics
and simplified data models.
●​ Oracle E-Business Suite (Oracle Apps):
○​ Integrated Suite: Comprehensive suite covering ERP, CRM, SCM, HCM (Human
Capital Management).
○​ Database Strength: Leverages Oracle's powerful database technology.
○​ Scalability: Suitable for large and complex organizations.
○​ Cloud Offerings: Strong presence in cloud ERP with Oracle Cloud ERP.
●​ Microsoft Dynamics NAV (now Dynamics 365 Business Central):
○​ Mid-Market Focus: Popular among small to medium-sized businesses (SMBs).
○​ Integration with Microsoft Ecosystem: Seamless integration with other Microsoft
products (Office 365, Power BI).
○​ User-Friendly Interface: Generally considered easier to use and implement than
SAP or Oracle for SMBs.
○​ Flexibility: Adaptable to various business needs and industries.

CRM (Customer Relationship Management)

Concepts of CRM: CRM is a strategy and a set of technologies used by businesses to manage
and analyze customer interactions and data throughout the customer lifecycle. The goal is to
improve business relationships with customers, assist in customer retention, and drive sales
growth.
●​ Customer-Centric Approach: Focuses on understanding and serving the customer's
needs.
●​ Data Consolidation: Gathers customer information from various touchpoints (website,
phone, email, social media) into a single database.
●​ Relationship Building: Aims to build long-term, profitable relationships with customers.
Features of CRM:
 ●​ Contact Management: Storing and organizing customer contact information,
communication history, and preferences.
●​ Lead Management: Tracking and nurturing potential customers (leads) through the sales
funnel.
●​ Sales Force Automation (SFA): Automating sales tasks, managing sales pipelines,
forecasting sales, and tracking sales performance.
●​ Marketing Automation: Automating marketing campaigns, segmenting customers, and
personalizing marketing messages.
●​ Customer Service & Support: Managing customer inquiries, complaints, and service
requests (e.g., ticketing systems, knowledge bases).
●​ Analytics & Reporting: Generating reports on sales performance, customer behavior,
marketing campaign effectiveness.
●​ Workflow Automation: Automating routine customer-related tasks.
●​ Integration: Often integrates with email, calendars, social media, and ERP systems.
●​ Mobile Access: Allows sales and service teams to access CRM data on the go.
Application of CRM - Sales Force Automation (SFA): SFA is a core component of operational
CRM that automates and streamlines sales activities.
●​ Contact & Account Management: Centralized database for managing customer and
prospect details.
●​ Lead Tracking & Qualification: Systematically tracking leads from various sources and
qualifying them based on predefined criteria.
●​ Opportunity Management: Managing sales opportunities through different stages,
tracking progress, and associated activities.
●​ Sales Forecasting: Using historical data and current pipeline information to predict future
sales.
●​ Quote & Order Management: Generating quotes, processing orders, and managing
order status.
●​ Activity Management: Scheduling and tracking sales activities like calls, meetings, and
emails.
●​ Performance Monitoring: Tracking individual and team sales performance against
targets.
●​ Benefits of SFA: Increased sales productivity, improved sales cycle efficiency, better
sales forecasting accuracy, enhanced customer satisfaction.

SCM (Supply Chain Management)

Concepts of SCM: SCM is the management of the flow of goods and services, and includes all
processes that transform raw materials into final products. It involves actively streamlining a
business's supply-side activities to maximize customer value and gain a competitive advantage.
●​ End-to-End Process: Covers everything from sourcing raw materials to delivering the
final product to the consumer.
●​ Integration & Coordination: Requires close coordination and integration among all
parties involved in the supply chain (suppliers, manufacturers, distributors, retailers,
customers).
●​ Efficiency & Responsiveness: Aims to make the supply chain as efficient and
responsive as possible.
Drivers of SCM:
●​ Facilities: Locations where production or inventory is stored (factories, warehouses).
 ●​ Inventory: Raw materials, work-in-progress, and finished goods held in the supply chain.
●​ Transportation: The movement of products from one location to another (trucks, ships,
planes).
●​ Information: Data and analysis concerning facilities, inventory, and transportation,
enabling effective decision-making. (Crucial driver, as it connects all other drivers).
●​ Sourcing: Decisions about who will perform specific supply chain activities (in-house vs.
outsourcing).
●​ Pricing: How products and services are priced, influencing customer demand and supply
chain profitability.
Inbound & Outbound Definition:
●​ Inbound Logistics: Deals with the movement of raw materials, components, and
supplies into the production facility from suppliers. It includes procurement, material
handling, warehousing of raw materials, and inventory control.
●​ Outbound Logistics: Deals with the movement of finished goods from the production
facility to the customers. It includes order fulfillment, packaging, transportation,
warehousing of finished goods, and delivery to customers.
Brief description and applicability of:
●​ eProcurement: The electronic acquisition of goods and services. It automates and
streamlines the purchasing process, from requisition to payment, often through online
platforms.
○​ Applicability: Reduces procurement costs, improves transparency, speeds up
purchasing cycles, enables better supplier management. Used by businesses of all
sizes to purchase everything from office supplies to raw materials.
●​ e-Tailing: The online selling of retail goods directly to consumers. It is essentially B2C
e-commerce for retail products.
○​ Applicability: Broadens market reach, allows 24/7 sales, offers greater product
variety, often lower operating costs for retailers. Applies to any business selling
physical goods directly to consumers online.
●​ e-Logistics: The application of information and communication technologies to logistics
processes. It encompasses everything from order management and inventory tracking to
transportation planning and warehouse automation.
○​ Applicability: Improves efficiency and visibility in the supply chain, reduces delivery
times, optimizes routes, enhances warehouse operations. Used by logistics
companies, manufacturers, and retailers for better supply chain execution.
●​ e-Collaboration: The use of electronic technologies to facilitate collaboration and
communication among individuals or groups, often across geographical boundaries.
○​ Applicability: Enhances teamwork, speeds up decision-making, improves project
management, fosters knowledge sharing. Applicable in almost any business context
where multiple stakeholders need to work together (e.g., product development,
marketing campaigns, virtual teams).
●​ eIntegration: The seamless integration of various disparate information systems and
applications within an organization and with its external partners (suppliers, customers).
○​ Applicability: Eliminates data silos, ensures data consistency, automates data flow,
improves overall efficiency and responsiveness of business processes. Crucial for
successful ERP, CRM, and SCM implementations, enabling them to work as a
unified system.
Case studies for ERP, CRM, and SCM: (While specific case studies are not provided,
understanding the types of benefits and challenges in real-world scenarios is important.)
 ●​ ERP Case Study (e.g., a Manufacturing Company):
○​ Problem: Disparate systems for production, finance, and inventory led to manual
data entry, inconsistencies, and delayed reporting. Difficulty in getting a holistic view
of operations.
○​ Solution: Implemented SAP ERP.
○​ Outcome: Centralized data, automated production scheduling, real-time financial
reporting, improved inventory accuracy, reduced production lead times. Challenges
included significant upfront investment and employee resistance to change.
●​ CRM Case Study (e.g., a Software Company):
○​ Problem: Sales team struggled to track leads, manage customer interactions, and
provide consistent support. Customer churn was high due to poor service.
○​ Solution: Implemented Salesforce CRM.
○​ Outcome: Improved lead conversion rates, better customer segmentation for
targeted marketing, streamlined customer service processes, leading to increased
customer satisfaction and retention. Required extensive training for sales and
support teams.
●​ SCM Case Study (e.g., a Retail Chain):
○​ Problem: Inefficient inventory management across multiple stores, frequent
stockouts, and high transportation costs. Lack of visibility into supplier performance.
○​ Solution: Implemented an integrated SCM solution (e.g., Oracle SCM Cloud).
○​ Outcome: Optimized inventory levels, reduced warehousing costs, improved
delivery performance, enhanced supplier collaboration, better demand forecasting.
Challenges involved integrating with diverse supplier systems.

3. Data Communication & Networking

Need for Computer Networking: Computer networking is essential in modern business and
personal life due to several needs:
●​ Resource Sharing: Allows multiple users to share hardware (printers, scanners, servers)
and software (applications, databases).
●​ Information Sharing: Facilitates quick and efficient exchange of data and information
among users and systems (e.g., email, file transfer).
●​ Communication: Enables various forms of communication (email, instant messaging,
video conferencing) across distances.
●​ Centralized Data Management: Allows data to be stored and managed centrally,
improving data integrity and security.
●​ Increased Productivity: Collaboration tools and shared resources boost overall
productivity.
●​ Cost Reduction: Sharing resources reduces the need for individual purchases of
hardware and software licenses.
●​ Reliability: Data can be backed up on multiple servers, increasing reliability and
availability.
●​ Scalability: Networks can be easily expanded to accommodate more users and devices.
●​ Access to Remote Information: Users can access information and resources from
anywhere with network connectivity.
Components of a Data Communication System: A data communication system consists of
five fundamental components:
1.​ Message: The actual information or data to be communicated (text, numbers, images,
 audio, video).
2.​ Sender: The device that originates and sends the data message (e.g., computer,
smartphone, sensor).
3.​ Receiver: The device that receives the message (e.g., computer, printer, another
smartphone).
4.​ Transmission Medium: The physical path or channel over which the message travels
from sender to receiver (e.g., twisted-pair cable, fiber optic cable, radio waves, satellite
link).
5.​ Protocol: A set of rules that govern data communication. It defines how data is formatted,
transmitted, received, and interpreted. (e.g., TCP/IP, HTTP, FTP).
Network Topology: Network topology refers to the physical or logical arrangement of
connections (nodes and links) in a network.
●​ Physical Topology: How devices are physically connected.
○​ Bus Topology: All devices are connected to a single central cable (backbone).
Simple and inexpensive but susceptible to single point of failure.
○​ Star Topology: All devices are connected to a central hub, switch, or server. Easy
to manage and fault isolation is simple, but central device failure brings down the
entire network.
○​ Ring Topology: Devices are connected in a closed loop, with data flowing in one
direction. Each device acts as a repeater. Less common today due to complexity
and difficulty in adding/removing nodes.
○​ Mesh Topology: Every device is connected directly to every other device. Highly
redundant and reliable but very expensive to implement for large networks.
○​ Tree Topology (Hierarchical): A combination of bus and star topologies,
resembling a tree structure. Offers scalability and easy fault isolation.
○​ Hybrid Topology: Any combination of two or more basic network topologies.
Types of Networks: Networks are categorized by their geographical scope:
●​ LAN (Local Area Network): Connects devices within a limited geographical area, such
as a home, office building, or campus. Typically owned and managed by a single
organization. High data transfer rates.
○​ Examples: Ethernet network in an office, Wi-Fi network at home.
●​ MAN (Metropolitan Area Network): Covers a larger area than a LAN, typically a city or a
large campus. Connects multiple LANs within a metropolitan area.
○​ Examples: Cable TV networks, university campus networks spanning multiple
buildings across a city.
●​ WAN (Wide Area Network): Spans a large geographical area, such as states, countries,
or even continents. Connects multiple LANs and MANs. Often uses public
telecommunication networks.
○​ Examples: The Internet, company networks connecting offices in different cities.
Concepts of Internet, Intranet, Extranet, and WWW:
●​ Internet: A global system of interconnected computer networks that uses the standard
Internet Protocol Suite (TCP/IP) to serve billions of users worldwide. It is a public, global
network of networks.
●​ Intranet: A private network accessible only to an organization's employees. It uses
Internet technologies (TCP/IP, HTTP) but is restricted to internal use, typically for sharing
company information, documents, and collaboration tools.
●​ Extranet: An extension of an intranet that allows controlled access to authorized external
users (e.g., suppliers, customers, partners). It provides secure access to specific parts of
 an organization's intranet over the Internet.
●​ WWW (World Wide Web): A system of interlinked hypertext documents and other web
resources accessed via the Internet. It is an application built on top of the Internet, using
HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol). The Web is just one of many services available on
the Internet.
Network Protocols: Protocols are sets of rules that govern communication between network
devices. They define the format, timing, sequencing, and error control of data exchange.
●​ TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol): The foundational suite of
protocols for the Internet.
○​ TCP: Ensures reliable, ordered, and error-checked delivery of a stream of bytes
between applications.
○​ IP: Responsible for addressing and routing packets of data across networks.
●​ HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol): Used for transmitting web pages over the Internet.
●​ HTTPS (Hypertext Transfer Protocol Secure): Secure version of HTTP, using SSL/TLS
for encryption.
●​ FTP (File Transfer Protocol): Used for transferring files between computers on a
network.
●​ SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol): Used for sending email messages.
●​ POP3 (Post Office Protocol version 3) / IMAP (Internet Message Access Protocol):
Used for retrieving email messages.
●​ DNS (Domain Name System): Translates human-readable domain names (e.g.,
https://www.google.com/search?q=google.com) into numerical IP addresses.
●​ DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol): Automatically assigns IP addresses to
devices on a network.
●​ Ethernet: A family of computer networking technologies for local area networks (LANs).
Defines physical and data link layers.
Network Architecture: Network architecture refers to the design and structure of a computer
network, including the logical and physical layout, protocols, and how components interact.
●​ Peer-to-Peer Architecture: All devices in the network have equal capabilities and
responsibilities. Each device can act as both a client and a server. Suitable for small
networks.
○​ Advantages: Easy to set up, inexpensive.
○​ Disadvantages: Less secure, difficult to manage in large networks, performance can
degrade as more devices are added.
●​ Client-Server Architecture: A central server provides resources and services to client
devices. Clients request services from the server, and the server fulfills those requests.
○​ Advantages: Centralized control, enhanced security, easier management,
scalability.
○​ Disadvantages: Server can be a single point of failure, higher setup and
maintenance costs.
●​ Cloud-based Architecture: Network services and resources are provided over the
internet by a cloud provider. Users access these resources on-demand.
○​ Advantages: High scalability, flexibility, reduced upfront costs, global accessibility.
○​ Disadvantages: Dependence on internet connectivity, security concerns with data in
the cloud, vendor lock-in.