1: given notes

2: Explain the purpose of embedded systems in detail.

Ans:

1. Data Collection/Storage/Representation:

o Collects, stores, analyzes, and transmits analog or digital data.

o Used in applications ranging from satellite communications to home networks.

2. Data Transmission:

o Achieved via wire-line mediums (e.g., USB, TCP/IP) or wireless modules (e.g., Wi-Fi,
Bluetooth).

3. Data Processing:

o Processes data like voice, video, and electrical signals for tasks like speech coding,
audio/video codecs, and multimedia transmission.

4. Monitoring:

o Observes variables without control, as in medical devices (e.g., ECG machines) and
measuring instruments (e.g., digital CROs).

5. Control Systems:

o Uses sensors and actuators to adjust variables, ensuring controlled outputs in

applications like automation and robotics.

6. Signal Integration:

o Combines data collection, processing, and control for complex functionalities in systems
like communication networks.

7. Application-Specific Interfaces:

o Includes user interfaces like keypads, displays, and switches for tailored interaction.

8. Medical Applications:

o Prominent in monitoring devices for healthcare, such as heart rate monitors and
diagnostic tools.

9. Industrial Automation: o Implements control functions to optimize industrial processes

and ensure precision.

10. Consumer Electronics:

 • Found in everyday devices like mobile phones, leveraging interfaces like graphic displays and
vibration alerts.

3: Explain how embedded systems are classified.

4. List and explain the classification of embedded systems.(same as question 3)

Ans:

Embedded systems can be classified based on:

1. Generation:

o First Generation: 8-bit microprocessors, simple hardware (e.g., digital keypads). o

Second Generation: 16-bit microprocessors, embedded OS (e.g., SCADA systems).

o Third Generation: 32-bit processors, DSPs, instruction pipelining (e.g., robotics,

networking). o Fourth Generation: SoC, multicore processors, high-performance RTOS
(e.g., smartphones).

o Next Generation: Dynamic, advanced systems for market demands.

2. Complexity and Performance:

o Small-Scale: Low-cost 8-bit systems (e.g., electronic toys). o Medium-Scale: 16/32-

bit systems with embedded OS.

o Large-Scale: High-performance RISC or multicore systems with RTOS.

3. Deterministic Behavior:

o Hard Real-Time: Strict timing constraints.

o Soft Real-Time: Less critical timing.

4. Triggering:

o Event-Triggered: Activated by events.

o Time-Triggered: Activated at specific intervals.

5 Differentiate between microprocessors and microcontrollers.

Ans:

Differences Between Microprocessors and Microcontrollers

Aspect Microprocessor Microcontroller

A CPU used for general-purpose A complete system with CPU, memory, and
Definition
processing. peripherals on a single chip.

Aspect Microprocessor Microcontroller

Requires external components like Contains built-in memory, I/O ports,
Components
memory and I/O ports. and peripherals.

Higher due to external component Lower due to integration of

Cost
requirements. components.

Used in computers, servers, and Used in embedded systems like

Application
highperformance systems. appliances and automobiles.

Focused on computational speed Optimized for control and specific

Performance
and flexibility. tasks.

Power
Consumes more power. Low power consumption.
Consumption

General-purpose software Firmware development tailored to

Programming
development. specific applications.
Examples Intel Core i7, AMD Ryzen. Arduino, PIC, ARM Cortex-M.

6: Differentiate between RISC and CISC Controllers.

7. Compare RISC & CISC controllers? .(same as
question 6)

Ans:
Differences Between RISC and CISC Controllers
 RISC (Reduced Instruction Set
CISC (Complex Instruction Set
Aspect
Computing)
Computing)
Complex, with a large number of
Instruction Set Simplified, with fewer instructions. instructions.
Faster, as instructions execute in one or Slower, as instructions may take
Execution Speed
few cycles. multiple cycles.

Variable length, increasing

decoding Instruction Length Fixed length, simplifying decoding. complexity.

Hardware
Simpler hardware design. More complex hardware design.
Complexity

Power
Lower, due to simpler architecture. Higher, due to complex operations.
Consumption

RISC (Reduced Instruction Set

Aspect
Computing)
CISC (Complex Instruction Set
Computing)
Memory Usage Higher, as more instructions are Lower, as single instructions
needed for tasks. perform complex tasks.
Optimized for speed with pipelining Optimized for functionality and
Performance
techniques. minimizing code size.

Used in embedded systems, mobile Used in desktops, servers (e.g.,

Applications
devices (e.g., ARM). Intel x86).
Intel x86, Motorola 68000.
Examples ARM Cortex, MIPS.

8. Explain ASIC and PLDs in detail?

Ans:

ASIC (Application Specific Integrated Circuit):

1. Definition:

o ASIC is a microchip designed for a specific application or task, unlike general-purpose

chips that can be used for various functions.

o It is customized to perform a unique function, making it highly efficient for its intended
purpose.

2. Key Features:

o Customization: Tailored to meet the exact requirements of a specific application.

o Integration: Combines multiple functions into a single chip, reducing the need for
additional components.

o Size and Efficiency: Occupies less space and consumes less power compared to general-
purpose chips.

o High Performance: Optimized for specific tasks, offering superior performance for its
intended use.

3. Design and Fabrication:

o ASICs require a significant initial investment known as Non-Recurring Engineering

(NRE) charges, which cover the costs of design, testing, and fabrication.

o Once fabricated, the design cannot be altered, making ASICs ideal for high-volume
production where the NRE cost can be amortized.
 4. Types of ASICs:

o Full-Custom ASIC: Every part of the chip is custom-designed for maximum optimization.

o Semi-Custom ASIC: Uses pre-designed blocks (IP cores) to reduce design time and cost.

o ASSP (Application Specific Standard Product): A type of ASIC where the NRE is covered
by a third party, and the chip is sold openly in the market for a specific application (e.g.,
ADE7760 Energy Meter ASIC).

5. Applications:

o Used in industries like telecommunications, automotive, consumer electronics, and

energy management where specific, high-performance tasks are required.

PLDs (Programmable Logic Devices):

1. Definition:

o PLDs are integrated circuits that can be programmed or reprogrammed to perform

various logic functions.

o Unlike fixed logic devices, PLDs offer flexibility in design and functionality.

2. Key Features:

o Reconfigurability: Can be reprogrammed multiple times, allowing designers to modify

the logic as needed.

o No NRE Costs: Unlike ASICs, PLDs do not require expensive NRE charges, making them
cost-effective for prototyping and low-to-medium volume production.

o Fast Design Cycle: Designers can quickly develop, simulate, and test designs using
software tools, and then program the PLD for immediate testing.

o Flexibility: Designers can change the circuitry during the design phase until the desired
functionality is achieved.

3. Types of PLDs:

o SPLDs (Simple Programmable Logic Devices): Basic devices with limited logic capacity.

o CPLDs (Complex Programmable Logic Devices): Offer higher logic capacity and more
complex functionality than SPLDs.

o FPGAs (Field Programmable Gate Arrays): Highly flexible and scalable, capable of
implementing complex digital circuits. FPGAs are widely used in applications requiring
high performance and reconfigurability.
 4. Design Process:

o Designers use software tools to create and simulate the logic design.

o The design is then programmed into the PLD using a hardware description language
(HDL) like VHDL or Verilog.

o Once programmed, the PLD can be tested in a live circuit, and the design can be
modified as needed.

5. Applications:

o Used in prototyping, digital signal processing, telecommunications, automotive systems,

and any application where flexibility and adaptability are required.

9: Differentiate between Harvard and Von Neumann architecture.

Ans.

Difference Between Harvard and Von Neumann Architecture

Von Neumann Architecture (Princeton

Feature Harvard Architecture
Architecture)

Separate buses for instructions and

Bus Structure Single shared bus for instructions and data
data

Data & Instruction Can fetch data and instructions Fetches data and instructions sequentially,
Fetching simultaneously slowing execution

Higher performance due to Lower performance due to sequential

Performance
parallelism fetching

Memory Separate program (code) and data Common memory for both program and
Organization memory data

Execution Speed Faster due to instruction pre-fetching Slower compared to Harvard architecture

More expensive due to separate Cheaper as it requires fewer hardware

Cost
memory and buses resources
 Von Neumann Architecture (Princeton
Feature Harvard Architecture
Architecture)

Easier to implement, improving

Pipelining Difficult to pipeline efficiently
efficiency

No accidental corruption of program Possible accidental corruption of program

Memory Corruption
memory memory

Not supported due to separate

Self-Modifying Code Supports self-modifying code
memory

In summary, Harvard architecture is faster and more efficient but costly, while Von Neumann
architecture is simpler, cost-effective, but slower due to shared bus constraints.