Power Devices & Circuits

Unit No.: 3: DC – AC CONVERTERS

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Syllabus: Single phase half and full bridge square wave inverter for R and R-L load using
MOSFET / IGBT and its performance analysis and numerical, Cross conduction in inverter, need
of voltage control and strategies in inverters, classifications of voltage control techniques, control
of voltage using various PWM techniques and their advantages, concept and need of harmonic
elimination / reduction in inverters, Three Phase voltage source inverter for balanced star R load
with 120 and 180 degree mode of operation
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3.1:Introduction:
An inverter is a circuit which converts DC into AC. It consists of either
two or four power devices which are turned on & turned off at desired frequency to convert DC
into AC. If power devices are BJT, MOSFET or IGBT then forced commutation circuit is not
required, but if SCR is the power device, separate forced commutation circuit is required. The
different inverter configurations are discussed as follow:

3.2:Classification:
1) Current Source Inverters: (CSI)
- Inverter is fed by a “current source” with high internal impedance.
(i.e. current limiting inductor in series with a dc source.
- Load voltage depends on load impedance but load current is independent
on load.
- CSI are used at very high power ac drives.

2) Voltage Source Inverters: (VSI)

- Inverter is fed by a “dc voltage source” of small internal impedance.
- Load current depends on load impedance but load voltage is independent on load.
The Voltage Source Inverters are further classified as:
i) 3-ø Inverters
ii) 1-ø Inverters: Further it is classified as:
a) 1-ø half / full bridge inverters (R / R-L loads)
b) Square wave inverters
c) PWM Inverters

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3.3: Single phase Half bridge inverter for R load:
Single phase Half bridge inverter for R load is shown below:

Mode 1 (when switch Q1 is ON and S2 is OFF):

When gate voltage Vg1 is applied, switch Q1 is ON from a time period of 0 to t1 (T/2),
and Q2 switch is OFF.
So output is Vorms = +Vs/2 (positive)

Mode 2 (when switch Q2 is ON and S1 is OFF):

When gate voltage Vg2 is applied, switch Q2 is ON from a time period of t1 to t2,
and Q1 switch is OFF.
So output is Vorms = -Vs/2 (negative)
The waveforms are shown below:

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3.4: Single phase Half bridge inverter for R-L load:
Single phase Half bridge inverter for R-L load is shown below:

(i) Mode I (t1 to t2):

In this duration Q1 is ON so +_ve o/p voltage (+Vs/2) appears across load and current
rises to +Imax from zero.
Due to this current, load inductance stores the energy.
(ii) Mode II (t2 to t3):
In this duration, the switch Q1 is off and diode D2 becomes forward biased and it
conducts because the inductor releases its energy in reverse mode.
Due to this, o/p voltage becomes -ve (-Vs/2) and current decreases to zero from +Imax
(iii) Mode III (t3 to t4):
In this duration, In this duration Q2 is ON so -ve o/p voltage (-Vs/2) appears across load
due to reverse load current hence current rises to from zero to -Imax.
Due to this current, load inductance stores the energy in reverse direction.
(iv) Mode IV (o to t1):
In this duration, the switch Q1 & Q2 are OFF and diode D1 becomes forward biased and
it conducts because the inductor releases its energy in reverse mode.
Due to this, o/p voltage becomes +ve (+Vs/2) and current increases from -Imax to zero.

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3.6: 1-Φ bridge inverter for ‘R’ load:
1-Φ bridge inverter for ‘R’ load is shown in fig.1.

S1 D1 S3 D3

+ R - load
Vs
_

S4 D4 S2 D2

Fig.1: 1-Φ bridge inverter for ‘R’ load

1-Φ bridge inverter for ‘R’ load using MOSFET

i) Mode -1: At t = 0, power devices S1 & S2 are turned on for a time period t1, current will
flow through S1-R-S2 as shown in fig.2(a). So during t1 a positive o/p voltage will appear across
R load.

S1 S3

+ Io
R - load
Vs
_

S4 S2

Fig.2(a): Mode-1: Conduction during t = 0 to t1

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ii) Mode -2: At t = t1 S1&S2 made turned off and a new pair S3&S4 turned on for same period
up to time t2 and current will flow through S3-R-S4 in reverse direction through R as shown in
fig.2(a). Due to this conduction by S3&S4, a reverse voltage will appear across load.

S1 S3

+ R - load
Io
Vs
_

S4 S2

Fig.2(b): Mode-2: Conduction during t = t1 to t2

In this way by the conduction of one pair S1&S2, a positive half cycle of o/p is
generated and by the conduction of another pair S3&S4, a negative half cycle of o/p is generated.
Hence inverter converts DC into AC. The o/p waveforms are shown in fig.3.

Analysis:
1) RMS output voltage: VRMS
P UL
T LL
VRMS = (Vin ) 2 dT

where P ⎯⎯
→ no.of outputpulses during one complete input cycle
T ⎯⎯
→ total time period of complete input cycle
LL ⎯⎯
→ lower limit where conduction starts
UL ⎯⎯
→ upper limit where conduction ends
From the waveform here P =2, T= T , LL= 0, UL=T/2
2 T /2
VRMS =
T 0
(VS ) 2 dT

2 T /2
T 0
VRMS = VS dT

 VRMS = VS

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2) RMS o/p current: IRMS
IRMS = VRMS / R

IRMS = VS / R

3.7: 1-Φ bridge inverter for ‘R-L’ load:

1-Φ bridge inverter for ‘R-L’ load is shown in fig.4.

S1 D1 S3 D3

R - L load
+
Vs
_

S4 D4 S2 D2

Fig.4: 1-Φ bridge inverter for ‘R-L’ load

1-Φ bridge inverter for ‘R-L’ load using MOSFET

i) Mode:1: ( t = t1 to t2)
At t = t1, power switches S1&S2are turned on and current flows through
S1-R-L-S2 as shown in fig.5(a) and a +ve load voltage Vo = +Vs appears across load. During
this mode energy is stored in R-L load.

S1

Io
+ + _
Vs
_ R - L load
S2

Fig.5(a): Conduction during ( t = t1 to t2)

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ii) Mode:2: (t = t2 to t3)
At t = t2, power switches S1&S2are turned off, so that stored energy in inductance
is released with reverse polarity i.e. load voltage becomes negative Vo = -Vs.
Due to this, stored energy in load returned back to supply by diodes D3 & D4 as shown in fig.
5(b) i.e. diodes conduct during this mode.

D3

+ _ +
Vs
_ R - L load
D4

Io

Fig.5(b): Conduction during ( t = t2 to t3)

In this mode as diodes D3 & D4 return energy from load to supply, these diodes are
called as ‘feedback diodes’.
iii) Mode:3: ( t = t3 to t4)
At t = t3, power switches S3&S4are turned on and reverse current flows through
S3-R-L-S4 as shown in fig. 5.(c) and a -ve load voltage Vo = -Vs appears across load. During
this mode energy is stored in R-L load with reverse polarity.

Io
S3

+ _ +
Vs
_ R - L load

S4

Fig.5(c): Conduction during ( t = t3 to t4)

iv) Mode:4: (t = t4 to t5) or (0 to t1)
At t = t4 / t0 , power switches S3 & S4 are turned off, so that stored reverse energy
in inductance is released with reverse polarity i.e. load voltage becomes +ve
Vo = Vs. Due to this, stored energy in load returned back to supply by diodes D1 & D2 as shown
in fig.5.(d) i.e. diodes conduct during this mode.

D1

+ Io
Vs + _
_ R - L load

D2

Fig.5(d): Conduction during (t = t4 to t5)

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 In this mode also as diodes D1 & D2 return energy from load to supply, these
diodes are called as ‘feedback diodes’.
All the input & output waveforms (Vs, VG1,2 , VG3,4 ,Vorms, Iorms) are shown in fig.6.

3.8: 3-Φ bridge inverter for balanced star R load

A basic three phase inverter for balanced star R load is shown in fig.—which consists of 6
power devices i.e. switches. The switch may be either MOSFET or IGBT.

A specific three phase inverter using IGBT for balanced star R load is shown in fig.
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3.8.1: 1800 mode of operation:
The basic gate signals for this 1800 conduction mode are shown in fig

Operation for phase voltage o/p:

Mode – I: 0  t  
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In this mode S1, S5 & S6 are turned on so current i1 flows as shown below

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The all phase voltages in this mode are calculated as:
R 3R
Req = R +=
2 2
V 2V
i1 = S = S
Req 3R
i1 R VS
VRN = VBN = =
2 3
−2VS
VYN = −i1 R =
3

Mode-II:
In this mode S1, S2 & S6 are turned on so current i2 flows as shown below

The all phase voltages in this mode are calculated as:

R 3R
Req = R +=
2 2
V 2V
i2 = S = S
Req 3R

2VS
VRN = i2 R =
3
−i R −V
VYN = VBN = 2 = S
2 3

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Mode-III:
In this mode S1, S2 & S3 are turned on so current i3 flows as shown below

The all phase voltages in this mode are calculated as:

R 3R
Req = R + =
2 2
VS 2VS
i3 = =
Req 3R
i3 R V
VRN = VYN = = S
2 3
−2VS
VBN = i3 R =
3
In this way the process repeats and all phase voltages become reverse for the period
(π to 2π).

These phase voltages are shown below:

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3.8.2: 1200 mode of operation:
The basic gate signals for this 1200 conduction mode are shown in fig

In this mode of conduction, each power device (IGBT) conducts for 120°. It means, every
power switch remains ON for 120-degree and OFF for the next 240-degree.
The shape of phase voltage is a quasi-square wave and the shape of the line voltage is three-
stepped waveform.
It is most suitable for a delta connection in a load because it results in a six-step type of
waveform across any of its phases. Its mode wise operation & analysis is as below:

Mode – I:

0  t 
3 & S6 are turned on so current i1 flows as shown below
In this mode S1

The all phase voltages in this mode are calculated as:

VS
VRN =
2
−VS
VBN =
2 12
VYN =0
Mode-II:
In this mode S1 & S2 are turned on so current i2 flows as shown below

The all phase voltages in this mode are calculated as:

VS
VRN =
2
VBN =0
−VS
VYN =
2

Mode-III:
In this mode S2 & S3 are turned on so current i3 flows as shown below

The all phase voltages in this mode are calculated as:

VRN = 0
VS
VBN =
2
−V
VYN = S
2
In this way the process repeats and all phase voltages become reverse for the period (π to
2π).

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The o/p voltage waveforms are shown below:

3.9: Harmonics in inverters:

Harmonics are voltages and/or currents present in an inverter at some multiple of the
fundamental frequency.
Harmonics are any frequency that exists in the system except the fundamental frequency.
In other words, harmonics appear as the distortion on the desirable sinusoidal waveform on
power line.

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Effects of Harmonics:
Harmonics in systems can cause the following effects:
1) Heating Effect: Harmonics current causes heating of equipment’s like power transformers,
switchgears, cables, motors, generators etc.
2) Overvoltage: Harmonic voltage generated by harmonic current owing against impedance led
to significant over voltages.
This causes the equipment failure. whereby a given harmonic current may generate a large
harmonic voltage.
3) Resonance: When a harmonic current ow in an inductive-capacitive-resistive circuit, it can
give rise to series & parallel resonance.
This result to a high harmonic current of the appropriate frequency and this can cause increased
harmonic voltage.

Reduction of Harmonics:
1) Harmonic reduction by using Filters:
High frequency harmonics can be reduced to a reasonable limit by using filters. The following
are the normally used filters:
i) LC Filter
The L offers a high impedance which reduces harmonics.
ii) OTT Filter
It performs three important functions . It provides a sine wave output thus leads elimination of
harmonic
2) Harmonic Reduction By PWM:
In the case of single pulse width modulation, the pulse width is adjusted to reduce the harmonics.
It has one of the disadvantages of additional commutation per cycle and this leads to more
switching losses in the thyristor.
3) Harmonic Reduction By Transformer Connection:
The harmonic content of output voltage can be reduced by the output voltage from two or more
inverters, can be combined by mean of transformer.
4) Using Stepped Wave Inverter :
This method of reduction of harmonic is also known as stepped wave inverter, in which pulses of
different widths and heights are added to produce a resultant stepped wave with reduced
harmonic content.

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3.10: PWM inverters:
The technique of PWM in an inverter comprises of two signals. One signal is for the
reference and the other will be the carrier. The pulse required for switching the mode of the
inverter can be generated by the comparison among those two signals.
The advantages of the PWM control scheme are:
a) The output voltage control can be obtained without addition of any external components.
b) PWM minimizes the lower order harmonics, while the higher order harmonics can be
eliminated using a filter.
There are various PWM techniques:
1. Single-pulse-width modulation
2. Multiple-pulse-width modulation
3. Sinusoidal pulse-width modulation
4. Modified sinusoidal pulse-width modulation
5. Phase-displacement control

1) Single Pulse Width Modulation (SPWM)

For every half cycle, there is only one pulse available to control the technique. The square
wave signal will be for reference and a triangular wave will be the carrier. The gate pulse
generated will be the result of the comparison of the carrier and the reference signals.
Higher harmonics is the major drawback of this technique.

2) Multiple Pulse Width Modulation (MPWM)

MPWM technique is used to overcome the drawback of SPWM.
Instead of a single pulse, multiple pulses are used for every half cycle of the voltage at the
output. The frequency at the output is controlled by controlling the frequency of the carrier.

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 Several pulses in each half-cycle of the output voltage are generally produced to reduce
the harmonic contents and to increase harmonic frequencies for reducing the size and costs of
filtering.
The generation of gating signals are shown in fig. for turning on and off transistors is by
comparing a reference signal with a triangular carrier wave.
The frequency of reference signal sets the output frequency fo, and the carrier frequency
fc determines the number of pulses per half-cycle p.

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1) Comparison of “1800 mode with 1200 mode” in three phase inverters:

Sr. Parameter / factor 1800 mode 1200 mode

No.
1 Conduction period Each power device Each power device
conducts for 180 degree conducts for 120 degree
2 No. of power Three power devices Two power devices
devices conducted conduct in one interval conduct in one interval
per interval
3 Cross conduction Cross conduction is Cross conduction is not
possible possible
4 Phase voltage Phase voltage is quasi Phase voltage has
square wave in nature stepping structure (6
steps)
5 Line voltage Line voltage has stepping Line voltage is quasi
structure (6 steps) square wave in nature

2) Comparison of “Feedback diode with Freewheeling diode”:

Sr. Parameter / Feedback Diode Freewheeling Diode

No. factor
1 Current path Current path is from inductive Current is flowing from inductive
load to source. (i.e. from output load & through freewheeling diode.
to input)
2 Connection: It is connected always across a It is connected always across an
power device i.e. MOSFET, etc. inductive load.
3 Effect on o/p It does not affect on rms o/p It affects on average o/p voltage.
voltage.
3 Application: Inverters with R-L load Controlled rectifiers with R-L load

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