BOOK COMPUTER

COMPUTER NETWORK

Definition:- It is collection of autonomous computers which are connected through

communication channel, so that they can share their resources and information. On the basis size
computer network is of following type;

1) LAN(Local Area Network):- It is small network covering building and campus. Cover 5 to 10 Km
a) PAN (Personal Area Network)
b) CAN(Campus Area Network)
2) MAN(Metropolitan Area Network):- Cover Whole city. It range is up to 50 Km.
3) WAN(Wide Area Network): Large computer network . Connect computer located in different
Geographical location that cover different cities or countries
a) GAN(Global Area Network)

Topology:- It is physical connection of computer in the network . There are different topology which are
use in different application:

1) Bus topology:- All computers are connected through common communication channel.

Node Node Node

Node Node Node

Advantage:-

1) Required less wires and hardware

2) Easy to install.

Disadvantage:-

1) Error Detection is difficult.

2) Not very reliable.
 2 Star Topology:- All computers are connect through central hub.

Node
Node

Hub

Node
Node

Advantage:- 1) Reliable

3) Error Detection is easy

Disadvantage:- Required more hardware and wires;

Not expandable

3) Ring topology:- All computers are connected in ring like structure:

Node

Node
Node

Node

Advantage:- Reliable and fast

No required Server

Disadvantage: Unidirectional
 Failure of any link will bring the entire network down.

3 Tree Topology: It is combination of bus and star topology

HUB

Node Node Node Node Node

Advantage: Extensible
Error detection is easy
If any segment is damage other Segment is not effected
Division Of network is easy
Disadvantage:- Relies on main cable
Maintenance Become difficult If large

Mesh Topology:- All computers are directly Connected. Total number of link in the network

N*(n-1)/2 Where n is Total number of Node.

Node Node

Node Node

Advantage: Fast and reliable:

Error Detection is easy
Disadvantage: Costly and required More Wires and hardware
 Cellular Topology:- It is use for wireless network. Or mobile network.

Protocol:- It is a set of rules and guide line which help for data communication. It define
1) Packet format
2) Address format
3) Error detection method
4) Flow control method.

Network Architecture:- It define the way computer are connected in the network. Following are the
different architecture of computer

1) Client Server:- Client-server architecture (client/server) is a network architecture in which each

computer or process on the network is either a client or a server. Servers are powerful computers or
processes dedicated to managing disk drives (file servers), printers (print servers), or network traffic
(network servers). It is best architecture for large network. It is expandable computer network
where network resources can be easily distributed.

Client1

sever
Client2
2) Peer To peer(P2P):- It is simplest for of network. It does not required server computer it ,two or
more computer are directly connected. It required less resources and more reliable than client and
server but it is not expandable. Access right are govern by setting sharing permission on individual
computer.

Node Node

Node Node
 Reference Model

The two most common network models for network design are

1) TCP/IP:- It was developed in 1979 on the basis of ARPANET(Advance Research Project agency
network) of DoD(Department of Defense of USA). ARPANET was first Large Global Network. It
consist of four layers
(1) Application layer
(2) Transport Layer
(3) Network or Internet Layer
(4) Network interface Layer

Each layer contain different protocols which perform different function.

Telnet FTP SMTP DSN Application Layer

TCP UDP Transport Layer

IP ARP RARP ICMP Internet Layer

ARPANET LAN Network Interface Layer

2) OSI(Open System Interconnection) Reference Model: This model was develop in 1980. It consist
of seven layer each layer perform define function. This model was approved by ISO(International
standard Organisation). It si open to all type of network. Following are the layer:-

7
Application
6
Presentation
5
Session
4
Transport
3
Network
2
Data Link
1
Physical
Comparison between TCP/IP and OSI Model

TCP/IP OSI

1) Four Layer Seven Layer

2) Protocol come first Model come first and
And model later protocol implemented later
3) TCP/IP model has not a OSI model has a separate Presentation layer and Session layer.
Separate Presentation
layer and Session layer.

4) X.25:- It was developed during 1970 by CCITT(Comitte Consultatif International Telegrahique et

Telephonique) to provide interface between public packet switch network and their customer. It
is connection oriented protocol. It work at speed of 64kbps which make then obsolete for many
purposes. It was older than OSI. IT is a packet switch network. X.25 protocols work at the
physical, data link and network layers of the network. Each X.25 packet contains 128 bytes of
data
5) Frame Ray:- Frame relay is a packet-switching telecommunication service designed for cost-
efficient data transmission for intermittent traffic between local area networks (LANs) and
between endpoints in wide area networks (WANs).Its speed is 1.5 Mbps . Frame relay puts data
in a variable-size unit called a frame and leaves any necessary error correction (retransmission
of data) up to the endpoints, which speeds up overall data transmission. For most services, the
network provides a permanent virtual circuit (PVC), which means that the customer sees a
continuous, dedicated connection without having to pay for a full-time leased line, while the
service provider figures out the route each frame travels to its destination and can charge based
on usage. Switched virtual circuits (SVC), by contrast, are temporary connections that are
destroyed after a specific data transfer is completed.
 Physical Layer

It deal with raw bit and mechanical and electrical requirement of computer network. It also deal
with the signal ,communication channel and switches used in data communication. Two type of
signals are used for data communication.
1) Analog Signal
2) Digital Signal.
Analog:- It is continues with time. It can take any value in the given range of values. Most of the signal
generated in nature are analog. Human voice is an example of analog signal. It is easily effected
unwanted noise or signal. Analog signal is represented by sine wave

Digital:- It is discrete in nature. It can take only two values 0 or one. Signal generated by computer is an
example of digital signal. It is represented by square wave. It is not effected by noise or un wanted
signal.

Some term related to signal

1) Frequency:- Number of signal per unit time is call frequency. Its unit is Hertz.
2) Wavelength:- Distance between two consecutive pick is call wavelength.
Wave length

Wavelength

3) Amplitude:- It is maximum distance from the mean position. The intensity of wave depend on
amplitude. It is directly propositional to it.
4) Time period: It is time required to complete one wave. Relation between Time period and
frequency is
T=1/F
5) Phase : It is position of wave at particular time.
6) Transmission Rate:- There are two unit for measuring the transmission rate of data through
different channel:
a) Bps(bit per second):- It is number of bit transmitted per unit time.
b) Baud:- Number of changes per second is measure in baud.

R = baud rate x log2S = baud rate x 3.32 log10S

 If the baud rate is 4800 and there are two bits per symbol, the number of symbols is 22 = 4. The bit
rate is:

R = 4800 x 3.32 log(4) = 4800 x 2 = 9600 bits/s

7) Bandwidth:- Range of frequency transmitted through the given channel is called bandwidth .It unit
is Hertz. Maximum Frequency maximum capacity of channel. Maximum rate of channel depend on
bandwidth. For noiseless channel and according to Nyquist Theorem

Maximum Rate= 2Hlog2 V bits/sec;

Where H is band width and V is discrete level for digital data it is 2;

For example 3kHz it is 6000 bps;

For Noisy Channel maximum rate is given by:

Maximum Rate=Hlog2(1+S/N)

S/N Signal and Noise ratio;

Max Rate R = H * log2(1+ S/N)

where R is the achievable channel capacity, H is the bandwidth of the line, S is the average signal power
and N is the average noise power.

The signal-to-noise ratio (S/N) is usually expressed in decibels (dB) given by the formula:

10 * log10(S/N)

so for example a signal-to-noise ratio of 1000 is commonly expressed as

10 * log10(1000) = 30 dB.

Example

For a typical telephone line with a signal-to-noise ratio of 30dB and an audio bandwidth of 3kHz, we get
a maximum data rate of:

R = 3000 * log2(1001)

which is a little less than 30 kbps.

Satellite TV Channel
For a satellite TV channel with a signal-to noise ratio of 20 dB and a video bandwidth of 10MHz, we get
a maximum data rate of:

R=10000000 * log2(101)

which is about 66 Mbps.

Transmission Media Or Channel:- It is medium through which data is transmitted through source ad
destination. There are two type of media:-

1) Guided:- Data is transmitted through fixed path.

a) Twisted pair wires
b) Coaxial cable
c) Optical fiber
2) Un guided Media:-
a) Radio wave
b) Microwave
c) Infrared Rays
d) Satellite Channel

Guided Media

Twisted Pair Wire:- It consist of two copper wire twisted together. It is one of the most cheapest
transmission media.

It has following characteristic:-

1) Thickness of copper wire is about 1mm.

2) Twisting is done to minimize interference.
3) Minimum range and bandwidth
4) There are two type of UTP(unshielded Twisted pair wire) and STP(shielded twisted Pair)
5) Twist pair can also be divided on the basis of number of twist as Cat-3(less twist) or Cat-5(more
twist)
6) Use in telephone line and small line

Coaxial Cable:- Consist thick copper wire sounded by insulator and consist of braided conductor. Most
common use in TV transmission. Basic characteristic of coaxial cable

1) Bandwidth 750MHz .
2) Maximum transmission rate 100Mbps
3) There are two type of coaxial cable (1 )Base band(single signal at a time) (2) Broad band (multiple
signal at a time
4) Maximum range 500m
5) Uesd in establishing LAN and TV
Optical Fiber:- In optical fiber we use light signal for data transmission. Optical fiber consist of three
components.

a) Light source LED(light emitting diode )

b) Transmission Medium total Internal reflection
c) Detector

LED convert the electric signal into light signal. Transmission medium is ultra thin fiber
glass. Detector generate electric signal when light is incident on it. Principle of total Internal
Reflection is used for transmission of light through fiber glass. Optical fiber operate in two
mode

a) Multimode:- Each ray has different mode. Its quality is not as good as single mode.
b) Single mode: Each ray has same mode. It can propagate in single line. Better quality
than multimode.

Characteristic of optical fiber:-

1) Large bandwidth and range.

2) Not effected by noise
3) Costly than copper wire
4) Mostly used for long range
5) Difficult to layout.
6) Transmit data in the form of photon
7) Very thin and light easy to transport
8) Not effected by weather

Unguided Media :- Signal is transmitted in the form of electro magnetic wave.

Radio Wave:-It is Omni directional ie it move in all direction. Generally used for radio transmission.They have

frequencies from 300 GHz to as low as 3 kHz, and corresponding wavelengths from 1 millimeter to 100
kilometers. Low radio wave intensity decrease with distance rapidly. It has following characteristic:-

1) Its properties are frequency dependent

2) Low frequency radio wave can easily pass through obstacle
3) Its power decrease rapidly with distance ie power α 1/r where r is the radius
4) It can be reflected by ozone layers
 Microwave:- with frequencies between 300 MHz (100 cm) and 300 GHz. It propagate in line of sight.
We have to use repeater or tower to increase the range of microwave. Higher the tower further apart they
can be. The distance between the towers goes very roughly with square root of the tower height. For 100
m high tower repeater can be spaced 80 km a part. It can not pass through the building. Characteristic
microwave.

1) It is effected by weather
2) Microwave communication is widely used for long distance telephone communication, cellular
telephone and television distribution.
3) It has larger bandwidth than radio wave

Infrared Rays:- It is also known as millimeter wave and commonly use for short range communication.
Infrared (IR) light is electromagnetic radiation with a wavelength longer than that of visible light, but
shorter than that of microwaves. ...Infrared communication is therefore a realistic alternative for indoor
wireless LANs. It can not pass through solid. It is commonly use in VCR and TV remote Control.
Characteristic of infrared rays

a) Low cost
b) Easy to generate
c) Can only be use for in house communication
d) Can not pass through solid object.

Satellite Communication:- It is use for long distance communication. Satellite work as repeater. It
contain number of transponder which received signal coming from earth and amplify it and retransmit it
to earth. Communication satellite is put in geostationary orbit which is 36000 km from the earth . Total
number of satellite which can be put in this orbit is 180. At earth there is micro station know as
VSAT(Very small Aperture terminal)

Characteristic:-

o High latency
o Significant jitter
o Limited & shared bandwidth
o Variable service level
o Non-trivial setup
o Many different failure modes
o Use for long distance communication.
 Modulation

Modulation means changing data signal to transmission signal. Data signal is combine with carrier
Signal so that it can be transmitted to a long distance. There are different type of modulation

a) Analog data signal to analog transmission signal

i) AM(Amplitude modulation)
j) FM(Frequency modulation)
k) PM(Phase Modulation)

b) Analog data signal to digital data signal

a) PCM(Pulse code modulation)

b) Delta Modulation

c) Digital data signal to analog transmision signal

i) ASK(Amplitude shift key)

ii) FSK(Frequency shift key)

ii) PSK(Phase shift key)

iii) QAM(Quadrature Amplitude Modulation)

D ) Digital data to Digital Signal

a) Unipolar
b) Polat

i) NRZ(Non return to Zero)

ii) RZ(Return to Zero)
iii) Menchester Encoding
iv) Differential Menchester Encoding

Analog data signal to analog transmission signal

a) AM(Amplitude modulation):- In this modulation, the amplitude of the carrier signal varies in
accordance with the message signal, and other factors like phase and frequency remain constant.

This type of modulation requires more power and greater bandwidth; filtering is very difficult.
Amplitude modulation is used in computer modems, VHF aircraft radio, and in portable two-
way radio. It is effected by noise but can be use for long distance. AM circuit is simple and less
complex. Can be easily demodulated using diode
 b) FM(Frequency Modulation):- In this type of modulation, the frequency of the carrier signal
varies in accordance with the message signal, and other parameters like amplitude and phase
remain constant. Frequency modulation is used in different applications like radar, radio and
telemetry, seismic prospecting and monitoring newborns for seizures via EEG, etc. It is not
effected by noise but cannot be use for long distance

c) Phase Modulation:- In this type of modulation, the phase of the carrier signal varies in
accordance with the message signal. When the phase of the signal is changed, then it affects the
frequency. So, for this reason, this modulation is also comes under the frequency modulation. It
characteristic is very similar to FM.

c) Analog data signal to digital data signal

PCM(Pulse Code modulation):- Pulse code modulation (PCM) is a digital representation of an

analog signal that takes samples of the amplitude of the analog signal at regular intervals. The
sampled analog data is changed to, and then represented by, binary data. PCM requires a very
accurate clock. The number of samples per second, ranging from 8,000 to 192,000, is usually
several times the maximum frequency of the analog waveform in Hertz (Hz), or cycles per second,
which ranges from 8 to 192 KHz. The sampling rate of PCM is govern by Nyquest Theorem. Ei maximum rate of sampling is

2Hlog2V
Delta Modulation:- It is more simple technique than PCM. Delta modulation form changes from
previous sample.

d) Digital data to analog signal

i)ASK(Amplitude shift key):- In this method zero and one has different key. In amplitude shift keying,
the amplitude of the carrier signal is varied to create signal elements. Both frequency and phase
remain constant while the amplitude changes. It si simple to implement but effected by noise
ii) FSK:- Frequency of carrier wave vary according to zero and one. It is less effected by noise.
FSK spectrum is 2×ASK

PSK:- phase of carrier signal is varied to represent binary 1 or 0.while

peak amplitude & freq. remain constant during each bit interval

Advantage : PSK is less susceptible to errors than ASK, while it requires/occupies the same bandwidth
as ASK more efficient use of bandwidth (higher data-rate) are possible, compared to FSK .
• Disadvantage: more complex signal detection / recovery process,than in ASK and FSK
QAM(Quadrature Amplitude Modulation):- It is combination of ASK and PSK. It has better performance
than simple ASK and PSK. It can be represented by Constellation diagram.

In QAM various combinations of amplitude and phase are employed to achieve higher digital data rates.

Digital data to digital Signal:-

Unipolar:- In a unipolar scheme, all the signal levels are on one side of the time axis, either above
or below ie either negative or positive current will be use to represent 1 and no current will represent 0.
Traditionally, a unipolar scheme was designed as a non-return-to-zero (NRZ) scheme in which the
positive voltage defines bit I and the zero voltage defines bit O. It is called NRZ because the signal does
not return to zero at the middle of the bit. It is difficult to sychronise at receiver end

1 0 1 1 0

Polar Scheme:- In polar schemes, the voltages are on the both sides of the time axis. For example, the
voltage level for 0 can be positive and the voltage level for I can be negative.ie both negative and positive
current can be use to represent 1 and 0. It has two version:-
NRZ(None return to zero):- It is further divided into two part:-
a) NRZ-L
b) NRZ-I
In NRZ-L the level of the voltage determines the value of the bit. In NRZ-I the inversion or the lack
of inversion determines the value of the bit.

Return to Zero (RZ):- In RZ, the signal changes not between bits but during the bit. In Figure 4.7 we
see that the signal goes to 0 in the middleof each bit. It remains there until the beginning of the next
bit.

Biphase:-( Manchester and Differential Manchester):- It is combination of NRZ and RZ.

In Manchester encoding, the duration of the bit is divided into two halves. The voltage
remains at one level during the first half and moves to the other level in the second half.
The transition at the middle of the bit provides synchronization.
Differential Manchester, on the other hand, combines the ideas of RZ and NRZ-I. There is always
a transition at the middle of the bit, but the bit values are determined at the beginning of the bit. If
the next bit is 0, there is a transition; if the next bit is 1
Multiplexing: - It means mixing the signal from different source to single channel. It is done for
economical reason. There are different type of multiplexing:-
FDM(Frequency Division multiplexing):- In this method channel is divided into different
segment s each segment has different frequency. Signal from different sources are end through
different segment on single channel. It is generally use for analog data

Advantage:- 1) User can be add easily

2) Support full duplex communication

Disdavantage :- Initial cost is high

Problem with one user may effect the other user.
Each user require precise carrier frequency.

TDM(Time division Multiplexing):- In this method each user can use the whole channel for
fixed period of time. This is best suited for digital signal.There are two type of TDM
1) Synchronous
2) Statistical or Asynchronous
Synchronous:- In synchronous TDM, each input connection has an allotment in the output even if it is
not sending data. In synchronous TDM, the data flow of each input connection is divided into units,
where each input occupies one input time slot. A unit can be 1 bit, one character, or one block of data.
Each input unit becomes one output unit and occupies one output time slot. However, the duration of an
output time slot is n times shorter than the duration of an input time slot. It is not very efficient, there is
wastage of bandwidth if input is not sending signal.
 3) Statistical or Asynchronous:- In statistical time-division multiplexing, slots are dynamically
allocated to improve bandwidth efficiency. Only when an input line has a slot's worth of data
to send is it given a slot in the output frame. In statistical multiplexing, the number of slots in
each frame is less than the number of input lines. The multiplexer checks each input line in
round robin fashion; it allocates a slot for an input line if the line has data to send; otherwise,
it skips the line and checks the next line.

Wavelength Division Multiplexing:- WDM is conceptually the same as FDM, except that the
multiplexing and demultiplexing involve optical signals transmitted through fiber-optic channels.
The idea is the same: Here we take wavelength of source signal to multiplex the data. Although
WDM technology is very complex, the basic idea is very simple. We want to combine multiple
light sources into one single light at the multiplexer and do the reverse at the demultiplexer. The
combining and splitting of light sources are easily handled by a prism.

Switches In computer Network:-

Objective question:-
1) Which signal is generated by human voice
A analog
B Digital
C Both A and B
D None
2) Which is the unit of transmission rate
A bps
B baud
C hertz
D both A and B
3) Which transmission Media you will prefer for wireless in house Transmission
A Radio wave
B Microwave
C Light source
D Infra Red
4 ) Which is not dis advantage optical fiber:
A Costly
B Difficult to layout
C To optical fiber can not be easily join
D Low range
 DATA LINK LAYER

It is the second layer of OSI reference model. Its main objective is to perform host to host communication
through the use of frame. This layer is divided into two sub layer
1) LLC(Logical link control):- It perform three function
A ) Framing
B) Error control
C) Flow control
2) MAC(Medium access control ):- It define the protocol to access common channel.

Framing:- Framing means dividing the data into logical segment. There are different framing method
a) Character count.
b) Character stuffing
c) Bit stuffing

Character count:-In this method we use field in the header to specify the number of character in the
frame. When the data link at the destination sees character count. It know how many characters follow
and hence where the end of frame is. The main problem with is method is that if header field has error all
the frame beyond the error frame will disturb.
Frame1 Frame2 Frame3 Frame4
5 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 8 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 8 7 8 9 0 1 2 3

Character count

a) Character stuffing:- In this method we add special ASCII character at the start and end of Frame
like STX(start of text ) and ETX(End of text). This will solve the problem of Character count.
The problem occur if these special character is send as a data. To remove this problem we add
extra special character with data to remove this confusion.

Data to be send A DLE B

E

Transmitt STX DLE A DLE DLE B ETX ET

ed data E E X

Received A DLE B
data E
Main disadvantage of Character stuffing is that it required more bits

2) Bit stuffing:- In this method special bit pattern is use at the end and start of he frame call flags.
Generally flag has following pattern:
01111110
When data bit contain continuous five one then extra 0 is added to data bit, so that data bit is not
confuse with data bit extra 0 bit
Data bit 010101111110101010
Transmitted bit 0101011111001010
Received 010101111110101010
Bit stuffing is more cost effective than character stuffing.

Error Detection method

When data is transmitted from source to destination some bits may change or have error. Different
type of error may occur during transmission. Like
1) One bit error
2) Burst error
3) Lost of message
To remove these error we use different type of methods
Parity Bit :- It is use to detect one bit error. Parity bit is an extra bit add to data bit to detect transmission
error. Parity bit may be odd or even it will depend on number of 1 s in data bit if number of 1 s is odd it is
call odd parity. We have to decide before sending data to take odd parity or even parity. Let us consider 7
bit data. Parity bit if we consider even parity its value will be 1 and if we consider odd parity its
value will 0
0000111
Merit:- It is easy to implement. Required only one bit to detect error.
Demarit:- It can not detect double bit error. It can only detect error ,it can not correct error.
Checksum:-It can detect burst error i.e more than one bit error. In this method data bit is divided into
equal part and each part is combine using modular arithmetic.
Example 1010100100001010
10101001 XOR Operation
00001010
10100011

Bit to be transmitted 1010100100001010 10100011

At receiver side 10101001

00001010
10100011
00000000 It means no error if there is one at any point there will be
error
CRC(cyclic redundancy check):- This method is also use for Detecting burst error it can not correct
error. We can represent any binary number into polynomial form
Example 101010 it can be written in polynomial form as
1×x 5+ 0×x 4+ 1×x3+ 0×x2+ 1×x 1 + 0× x 0

Degree of above polynomial is 5 i.e maximum power

Here we consider generator polynomial and its degree. Following is the algorithm
1) Let r be the degree of generator polynomial. Append r zero bits to the low order end of the bit
frame i.e if frame is consist of m bit to total number of bit is m+r.
2) Divide the resultant frame with generator polynomial using Modular division
3) If there is remainder subtract the remainder with resultant frame
4) Transmit the final resultant frame
5) Receiver will again divide the received frame by generator polynomial , It there is no remainder
there is no error. If there is remainder there will be error.
Example:
Frame: 1101011011
Generator: 10011 degree 4
Message after appending 4 zero 11010110110000

10011 11010110110000
10011
010011
10011
000001
00000
000010
00000
00010 1
00000
01011
00000
010110
10011
001010
00000
010100
10011 Remainder
001110
00000
1110

11010110110000 XOR operation

1110
11010110111110
Transmitted frame :11010110111110
Receiver will perform modular division and if there is no remainder there is no error
Hamming error correction code:- It is also know as SEC(Single error correction code) Code. It can
correct single bit error. Let us consider 4 bit data. 1100. Draw circle so that they intersect with each
other.

Source, add even parity to each circle where there is no intersection part

code at source 001

Let bit at the point where three circle meet become 0 . Destination, add even parity to each circle
where there is no intersection part

code at destination 110

Compare the code at source and destination i.e perform XOR operation

001
110
111 Decimal value 7 this will give the position where error will occur.
Let there i code bit then total number of binary combination 2i.
Then total number of error position 2 i – 1. Let there be N data bit. To detect error at all position
2i-1>= N+i
Example
If N=7 then minimum i=4 the above condition will be satisfied if i=4. There for total number of bit
7+4=11 Let data bit be 1101100 . We don,t know where data bit is place in the 11 bit position
11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0
d7 d6 d5 r4 d4 d3 d2 r3 d1 r2 r1

r1=1,3,5,7,9,11=0,0,1,0,1=0(for even parity)

r2=2,3,6,7,10,11=0,1,1,1,1=0(for even parity)
r3=4,5,6,7=0,1,1=0(for even parity)
r4=8,9,10,11=0,1,1=0(for even parity)

code at source =0000

Let after transmission data bit become 1111100

11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
1 1 1 1 1 0 0 1
 r1=1,3,5,7,9,11=0,0,1,1,1=1
r2=2,3,6,7,10,11=0,1,1,1,1,0=0
r3=4,5,6,7=0,1,1=0
r4=8,9,10,11=1,1,1=1
code at Destination=1001
Comparing code at src and dest
0000
1001
1001 9 th bit has error( 5th bit)
Bit Binary value in 4
position bit
1 0001
2 0010
3 0011
4 0100
5 0101
6 0110
7 0111
8 1000
9 1001
10 1010
11 1011

There are four redundant bit r1,r2,r3,r4.

There are four value where there is single one 1(0001),2(0010),4(0100),8(1000) There fore redundant
bit will be place at
r1-1
r2-2
r3-4
r4-8
To put the value at r1 we inspect the first position bit for 1
r1=1,3,5,7,9,11
To put the value at r2 we inspect the second position bit for 1
r2=2,3,6,7,10,11
To put the value at r3 we inspect the third position bit for 1
r3=4,5,6,7
To put the value at r4 we inspect the fourth position bit for 1
r4=8,9,10,11

Flow control
It is not necessary that all computer in the network has same speed . Some are fast and some may are
slow. Therefore for proper data transmission we required some flow control method. There are
different flow control method.
a) Stop and wait(ARQ Automatic repeat request)
b) Sliding Window
i) Go back N
ii) Selective repeat
c) Piggy backing
a) Stop and Wait :- In this method sender will send frame and wait for positive
ACK(Acknowledgement) before sending next frame.

Sender Receiver