d

REPUBLIC
O F K E N YA

Ministry
Ministry of
of Higher
Higher Education,
Education,
Science and Technology
Science and Technology

TECHNICAL,
TECHNICAL, INDUSTRIAL,
INDUSTRIAL,
VOCATIONAL,
VOCATIONAL,
AND
AND ENTREPRENEURSHIP
ENTREPRENEURSHIP
TRAINING
TRAINING

Diploma
Diploma in
in Catering
Catering and
and
Accommodation
Accommodation Management
Management

TRAINEE’S
TRAINEE’S MANUAL
MANUAL

KENYA
KENYAINSTITUTE
INSTITUTE OF
OF EDUCATION
EDUCATION

PPO
O BOX
BOX 30231
30231 00100
00100

TEL
TEL014
014 –
– 3749900-9
3749900-9

NAIROBI
NAIROBI
October
October
2009
2009
Kenya Institute of Education
P.O. Box 30231-00100
Nairobi
Email: info@kie.com
Off Murang’a Road

First published in 2009

© Kenya Institute of Education

All rights are reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system
or transcribed, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording
or otherwise, without prior written permission of the publisher.

ISBN
 T A B L E O F C O N T E N T
FOREWORD.............................................................................................................................. I
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT............................................................................................................. II

1.0 GENERAL INTRODUCTION........................................................................................... III

NATIONAL GOALS OF EDUCATION.................................................................................................. III
1.2 NATIONAL AIMS OF TECHNICAL TRAINING PROGRAMMES....................................................... IV
1.3 OBJECTIVES OF THE TECHNICAL TRAINING PROGRAMMES....................................................... IV
2.0 INTRODUCTION TO THE COURSE................................................................................ IV
2.1 COURSE DESCRIPTION....................................................................................................... V
2.2 GENERAL OBJECTIVES OF THE COURSE................................................................................. V
2.3 GENERAL REGULATIONS.................................................................................................... V
2.5 EXAMINATIONS AND AWARD OF CERTIFICATES.................................................................... VIII
3.0 COURSE SUMMARY AND TIME ALLOCATION.......................................................................... X

MODULE I............................................................................................................................... 1
3.1.0 COMMUNICATION SKILLS...........................................................................................4
4.1.0 LIFE SKILLS...................................................................................................................5
5.1.0 INFORMATION COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY (ICT)..............................................6
6.1.0 ENTREPRENEURSHIP ..................................................................................................7
7.1.0 FOOD AND BEVERAGE PRODUCTION..........................................................................8
8.1.0 FOOD AND BEVERAGE SERVICE AND SALES............................................................156
9.1.0 HOUSEKEEPING, FRONT OFFICE LAUNDRY AND HOME NURSING..........................192
10.1.0 CATERING AND ACCOMMODATION CONTROL I.....................................................348
11.1.0 CATERING AND ACCOMMODATION PREMISE........................................................371
12.1.0 MATHEMATICS.......................................................................................................417

MODULE II...........................................................................................................................418
13.2.0 ACCOMMODATION MANAGEMENT 1.....................................................................420
14.2.0 CATERING AND ACCOMMODATION CONTROL II....................................................439
15.2.0 DIET THERAPY......................................................................................................... 460
16.2.0 HOSPITALITY ACCOUNTING.....................................................................................567
17.2.0 LAW RELATED TO HOSPITALITY INDUSTRY.............................................................593
18.2.0 BUSINESS PLAN....................................................................................................... 613

MODULE III..........................................................................................................................614
19.3.0 ACCOMMODATION OPERATIONS MANAGEMENT II..............................................616
20.3.0 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICES OF MANAGEMENT....................................................638
21.3.0 SALES AND MARKETING FOR HOSPITALITY INDUSTRY...........................................638
22.3.0 HUMAN RELATIONS...............................................................................................638
23.3.0 RESEARCH METHODSELECTIVE MODULES FOR MODULE II AND III........................638

ELECTIVE MODULES FOR MODULE II AND III......................................................................639

24.4.0 FOOD AND BEVERAGE PRODUCTION MANAGEMENT............................................640
25.4.0 FOOD AND BEVERAGE SERVICE AND SALES MANAGEMENT..................................684

APPENDIX I: HOUSEKEEPING TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT .................................................................717

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APPENDIX II: KITCHEN EQUIPMENT AND TOOLS...........................................................................719
APPENDIX III: LAUNDRY TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT .........................................................................721
APPENDIX IV: RESTRAURANT.....................................................................................................722

FOREWORD

Technical, Industrial, Vocational, and Entrepreneurship Training (TIVET) Division has been
revising the old syllabuses. In the revision of the syllabus the new emerging issues and
trends have been incorporated, some units removed from the syllabus, outdated information
deleted and new content developed to make the syllabus meet the industry needs.

This syllabus is designed to assist lecturers on the depth of teaching on each unit. The
syllabus outlines the objectives, content, learning activities and the suggested evaluation
methods to be adopted in assessing a trainee’s progress and achievement.
It is hoped that this syllabus will greatly assist the lecturers in delivering quality education to
trainees in the TIVET training institutions.
I am grateful to the staff of TIVET in Kenya Institute of Education, subject panel members,
TIVET course panel members, the KIE Academic Board and all who participated in the
development and production of this syllabus.

DIRECTOR OF TECHNICAL EDUCATION

MINISTRY OF HIGHER EDUCATION, SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

2
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

In developing this syllabus, considerable involvement and support was received from various
persons to make this syllabus all-inclusive in terms of content and context for the benefit of
all who will make use of it. To all of you, we say thank you for making this a reality.

The KIE wishes to sincerely thank the Academic board members, Course panel members and
syllabus writers for the development of this syllabus.

L. N. NZOMO OGW (MRS.)

DIRECTOR KENYA INSTITUTE OF EDUCATION

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1.0 GENERAL INTRODUCTION

National Goals of Education

The overall education policy goal of the Government of Kenya is to achieve the
Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) and Education for all (EFA) goals by 2015
in tandem with the national and international commitments. The vision of the
Ministry of Education, is “to have a globally competitive education, training and
research for Kenya’s sustainable development” while the mission is “to provide,
promote, coordinate the provision of quality education, training and research for the
empowerment of individuals to become responsible and competent citizens
who value education as a lifelong process” as envisaged by Kenya Vision
2030. The national goals of education are given below:

i) Foster nationalism, patriotism and promote national unity

Kenya’s people belong to different ethnic groups, races and religions, but
these differences need not divide them. They must be able to live and
interact as Kenyans. It is a paramount duty of education to help the youth
acquire this sense of nationhood, by removing conflicts and by promoting
positive attitudes of mutual respect, which enable them to live together in
harmony, and foster patriotism in order to make a positive contribution to
the life of the Nation.
ii) Promote the social economic, technological and industrial needs for
national development
Education should prepare the youth of the country to play an effective and
productive role in the life of the nation.
 Social Needs
Education in Kenya must prepare children for the changes in attitudes and
relationships, which are necessary for the smooth process of a rapidly
developing modern economy. There is bound to be a silent social revolution
following in the wake of rapid modernization. Education should assist our
youth to adapt to this change.

 Economic Needs
Education in Kenya should produce citizens with skills, knowledge, expertise
and personal qualities that are required to support a growing economy. Kenya
is building up a modern and independent economy, which is in need of
adequate domestic manpower.

 Technological and Industrial Needs

Education in Kenya should provide the learners with the necessary skills and
attitudes for Industrial development. Kenya recognizes the rapid industrial
and technological changes taking place, especially in the developed world. We
can only be part of this development if our education system deliberately
focused on knowledge, skills and attitudes that will prepare the youth for these
changing global trends.
iii) Promote individual development and self-fulfilment

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 Education should provide opportunities for the fullest development of
individual talents and personality. It should help children to develop their
potential, interests and abilities. A vital aspect of individual development is
character building.
iv) Promote sound moral and religious values
Education should provide for the development of knowledge, skills and
attitudes that will enhance acquisition of sound moral values and help children
to grow up into self-disciplined, self-reliant and integrated citizens.

v) Promote social equality and responsibility

Education should promote social equality and foster a sense of social
responsibility within an education system, which provides equal education
opportunities for all. It should give all children varied and challenging
opportunities for collective activities and corporate social service, irrespective
of gender, ability or geographical environment.

vi) Promote respect for and development of Kenya’s rich and varied
cultures
Education should instill in the youth of Kenya an understanding of past and
present cultures and their valid place in contemporary society. The children
should be able to blend the best of traditional values with the changed
requirements that must follow rapid development in order to build a stable and
modern society.

vii) Promote international consciousness and foster positive attitudes towards

other nations
Kenya is part of the international community. It is part of the complicated and
interdependent network of peoples and nations. Education should, therefore,
lead the youth of the country to accept membership in this international
community with all the obligations and responsibilities, rights and benefits
that this membership entails.

viii) Promote positive attitudes towards good health and environmental

protection
Education should inculcate in the youth the value for good health in order to
avoid indulging in activities that will lead to physical or mental ill health. It
should foster positive attitudes towards environmental development and
conservation. It should lead the youth to appreciate the need for a healthy
environment.

1.2 National Aims of Technical Training Programmes

The aims of the technical training at both post primary and post secondary levels
should be to:
a) provide training opportunities for the increasing number of school leavers to enable
them to be self-supporting

5
 b) develop practical skills and attitudes which will lead to income generating
activities in the urban and rural areas through self-employment
c) provide practical education and training skills which are responsive and relevant
to
d) Kenya’s agricultural, industrial, commercial and economic needs
e) provide the technical knowledge and vocational skills necessary to enhance the
pace of this nation’s development
f) encourage self-employment while at the same time producing skilled artisans,
technicians and technologists for both formal and informal sectors at the ratio of
one technologist to five technicians to 30 craftsmen/artisans (1:5:30).

1.3 Objectives of the Technical Training Programmes

The general objectives of the technical training programmes are to:
a) develop skills which will be responsive and relevant to the country’s human
resources required at the middle level:
b) prepare the trainees so that they can enter the world of work with confidence for
either salaried employment or self-employment:
c) impart adequate skills which will enable the trainee to perform middle supervisory
functions.

2.0 INTRODUCTION TO THE COURSE

The Diploma in a Catering and Accommodation Management course is deigned to

equip the trainee with the knowledge, skills and attitude that will enable him/her to
perform managerial duties in a catering and accommodation establishment.

The course is designed in modular form where the trainee can enter and leave for the
world of work at the end of each module. There are three modules. Each module
prepares the trainee to perform a particular task, whose total value is combined to
produce the required graduate at the end of the third module (Module III).

The trainee leaving module I is equipped with the knowledge, skills and attitudes to
prepare, produce and serve meals as well as carry out accommodation operations in a
catering and accommodation establishment.

Module II equips the trainee with the knowledge, skills and attitudes necessary for
performing supervisory duties in a food and beverage production, sales and service
and in catering and accommodation establishment.

Module III is designed to equip the trainee with knowledge, skills and attitudes
required by for managerial duties in a catering and accommodation establishment.

Module II and III has two elective module units, Food and Beverage Production
Management and Food and Beverage Sales and Service Management. A trainee is
required to choose one of the two elective module units at Module II and take the
other at module III. The two module units cannot be taken simultaneously.

6
 One will have to complete all the three modules to be awarded The Diploma in
Catering and Accommodation Management

2.1 Course Description

2.2 General Objectives of the Course

At the end of this course, the trainee should be able to:
a) Develop and produce different types of foods and beverage to the required
standards of catering and accommodation establishment
b) Develop management skills to manage a catering and accommodation
establishment
c) Appreciate hygiene and safety principles required in a catering and
accommodation establishment and apply them in his or her day to day work,
d) Demonstrate ability to use and care for tools and equipment used in the catering
and accommodation establishment
e) Appreciate the role of food science and nutrition in the catering industry,
f) Ensure good maintenance of premises and equipment,
g) Appreciate the value of cost control in order to minimize cost and maximize
profit,
h) Appreciate the need for good of cost communication skills and the impact of
information and communication technology in a catering and accommodation
establishment
i) Apply entrepreneurship, marketing and management skills to start and run a
catering and accommodation business

2.3 General Regulations

2.3.1 Approval of the Training Institutions

Institutions offering this course should be recognized and approved by the Ministry
responsible for Training.

2.3.2 Duration of the Course

The course is designed to have 2970 hours. 2310 hours will be spent in the institution
while 660 hours will be used for industrial attachment. The course is structured in
three Modules as outlined below

Institution Time Industrial Total Time

(Hours) Attachment (Hours)
Time (hours)
MODULE I 660 330 990
MODULE II 825 165 990
MODULE III 825 165 990
TOTAL 2310 660 2970

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2.3.3 Entry requirements
Trainees entering this course should have any of the following minimum
Requirements:
a) Passed relevant Craft Course
OR
b) Passed Kenya Certificate of Secondary Education (KCSE) with an average grade
of C (C plain)
OR
c) Equivalent qualifications as determined by Kenya National Examinations Council.

2.3.4 Examinable units

All module units are examinable. The examination (paper) may constitute of one or
more than one units as guided below.

External Examinations

Module 1
Theory Examinations

1. Food and Beverage Production with Food Science and nutrition

2. Food and Beverage Service and Sales and First Aid
3. Housekeeping, Front office, Laundry and Home Nursing, Catering and
accommodation premises
4. Catering and accommodation control I, Mathematics
5. Information communication Technology, Communication Skills
6. Entrepreneurship

Practical examinations

7. Food and Beverage Production , Service and Sales

8. Housekeeping and Laundry operations

Module II
Theory Examinations

1. Food and beverage production management

OR
2. Food and beverage Sales and Service Management
3. Diet therapy
4. Accommodation operations management I, Law related to hospitality
5. Catering and accommodation control II
6. Hospitality accounting
7. Business plan

Practical Examinations

1. Food and beverage production Management

OR

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 2. Food and beverage Sales and Service Management
3. Accommodation operations management
Module III
Theory Examinations

1. Food and beverage sales and service management

OR
2. Food and beverage production Management
3. Accommodation operations management II
4. Principles and practices of management, Human relations
5. Sales and marketing
6. Research project

Practical Examinations

1. Food and beverage production Management

OR
2. Food and beverage Sales and Service Management

3. Accommodation operations management

2.4 Attendance and course work requirements

The candidates are expected to be attending an institution approved for the courses for
the theoretical and practical studies.

2.4.1 Coursework marks

Continuous assessment marks for course work must be kept by the institution
and details must be submitted to the Kenya National Examinations Council in
respect of each candidate entered for the examinations at least two weeks
before the external examinations are taken.

2.4.2 Coursework Assessment

Continuous assessment will be given a weighting of 30% and the external
examinations by KNEC will be given a weighting of 70% in the determination
of the final grade.

2.4.3 Compulsory Industrial Attachment/Internship for Trainees

Before the end of the course, every trainee shall undergo an industrial
attachment/internship of 660 hours. Industrial attachment shall be an integral
part of training and its assessment shall form part of the final grade and
certification.
The training institutions in collaboration with the organisation where the
trainee is attached shall supervise the trainee during the Industrial Attachment.
The examining body shall provide the modalities of industrial attachment
assessment.

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 2.4.4 Project Work
Project work encompass of both Business plan and Research Methods
i) Business Plan
The business plan comprise of business-related research aimed at
generating a comprehensive business proposal in the field of catering
and accommodation management and other related industries. The
business plan is aimed at inculcating entrepreneurial culture in the
trainees, which should result in the development of income generating
projects and business incubators leading to increased self-employment
opportunities in view of vision 2030. KNEC or other legal body and the
training institutions shall determine the management and assessment
methods.
ii) Research Methods
A research method project means a research carried out by an individual
trainee or maximum of two (2) where circumstances dictate. The
research should be problem solving with industrial orientation. It may be
evaluative and descriptive or research based project. The research must
have well defined objectives and designed to exhibit creativeness and
innovativeness. KNEC or other legal body and the training institutions
shall determine the management and the assessment methods of the
project.

2.5 Examinations and Award of Certificates

2.5.1 Assessment
The assessment of all the modules shall be competency based.

2.5.2 Internal Examinations

The training institutions will conduct course work and/or project work
assessments based on the competences acquired during the training. The
institutions will offer internal examinations at the end of each module and
keep these records to determine the final grade by the end of the course. The
course work or project work and/or assessments shall also be used during the
re-entry to the course or for the award of credit transfer.

2.5.3 External Examinations

The Kenya National Examinations Council (KNEC) will offer external
examinations to trainees in all modules covered during the training.

2.5.4 Eligibility for Candidates Entering Into External Examinations

Candidates for external examinations must at the time of entry to the
examinations, have successfully completed the required competencies in each
course modules.

2.5.5 Coursework/continuous Assessment

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 Coursework/continuous Assessment will be prepared and marked by the
institutions.
The institutions will issue statement of results while the examining body will
award a certificate after completion of the relevant modules.
2.5.6 Examination Results
In order to qualify for the award of the Diploma, the candidate must pass all
the modules of the course. Results of the examination as a whole will be
issued in five classes and for the individual papers will be in eight grades.
Each candidate will receive all records of performance, giving the result in
terms of class and grade.

The relationship between classes and grades is:

- Pass with distinction Grade 1 and 2

- Pass with credit Grade 3 and 4
- Pass Grade 5 and 6
- Referred Grade 7
- Fail Grade 8

Candidates, who fail any paper (module unit) in a particular module, will be
REFERRED in the failed paper and will be allowed to re-sit three (3) times
and pass within a period of five (5) years after the date of the first sitting.
Thereafter the candidate will be discontinued from further re-sitting the
paper(s).

2.5.7 Award of Certificate

The KNEC will issue the candidates with result slips for Modules passed and a
final certificate in Diploma in Catering and Accommodation Management

2.5.8 General Examination Regulation

In the event of any inconsistency arising between the regulations as set out in
this syllabus and the General Regulations published by the examining body,
the General Regulations of the KNEC shall prevail. Candidates do not have to
take all the papers of a module at the same sitting.

11
3.0 Course Summary and Time Allocation

Code Module unit Sub-Module Unit Time

(hrs)

Module I
3.1.0 Communication Skills  Introduction to communication 80
 Communication process
 Classification of communication
 Channels of communications
 Forms of communication
 Office etiquette, protocol and diplomacy
 Writing skills
 Summary writing
 Report writing skills
 Conducting meetings and minute writing
 Interviews
 Public relations and customer care
 Emerging issues and trends
4.1.0 Life Skills  Introduction to life skills 80
 Knowing and living with oneself: self
awareness
 Self esteem
 Stress management
 Coping with emotion
 Empathy
 Assertiveness
 Negotiation
 Non-violent conflict resolution
 Effective decision making
 Critical thinking
 Creative thinking
 Problem solving
 Leisure
 Time management
 Gender education
 Drug and substance abuse
 HIV and Aids
 Child labour
 Child rights
 Relationships
5.1.0 Information  Introduction to ICT 80
Communication  Computer structures
Technology  Computer care
 Software and hardware
 Computer installation
 Operating system
 Directory and file management

12
  Storage media
 Data management
 Basic computer networking
 Computer security
 Office automation
 Internet
 Electronic mail (e-mail)
 Other networks
 Emerging trends in ICT
6.1.0 Entrepreneurship  Introduction to entrepreneurship 65
 Evolution of entrepreneurship
 The entrepreneur
 Creativity and innovation
 Entrepreneurial culture
 Entrepreneurial opportunities
 Entrepreneurial motivation
 Entrepreneurial competences
 Starting a small business
 Business enterprise management
 Financial management
 Marketing
 Enterprise social responsibility
 Business plan
 Information communication technology
 Emerging issues and trends in
entrepreneurship
7.1.0 Food and Beverage  Kitchen organisation 190
Production with Food  Kitchen equipment
Science and Nutrition  Hygiene
 Safety
 Fuel and other sources of energy
 Recipes
 Cooking methods
 Herbs spices and condiments
 Stocks, soups and sauces
 Horsd’voures and other starters
 Proteins
 Starches
 Vegetables
 Salads and salads dressing
 Fruits
 Pastry and pastry products
 Cakes and cake decoration
 Yeast products
 Desserts
 Sandwiches
 Garnishes
 Beverages
 Menu planning

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  Meal production procedures
 Function menus
 Local dishes
 International dishes
 Introduction to food and nutrition
 Acids, bases and salts
 Physical and chemical aspects of nutrients
 Nutritional diseases and disorders
 Enzymes
 Digestion
 Food additives
 Food contamination
 Food spoilage
 Micro organisms
 Food poisoning
 Food preservation
 HIV/Aids nutrition
 Emerging trends
8.1.0 Food and Beverage  Introduction to food and beverage service 190
Service, Sales and and sales
First Aid  Staff organisation
 Food and beverage service equipment
 Food and beverage service area and
ancillary departments
 Safety
 Hygiene
 Table covering and linen
 Furniture fittings and fixtures
 Menu knowledge
 Non-alcoholic beverages
 Alcoholic beverages
 Food and beverage service procedures
 Service to persons with disabilities
 Interior decorations
 Introduction to first aid
 First aid supplies
 Common accidents and their causes
 Emerging trends
9.1.0 Housekeeping, Front  Introduction to accommodation operation 160
Office, Laundry and  Hygiene and safety during operations
Home Nursing  Safety During Operations
 Cleaning equipment and materials
 Cleaning and special treatment agents
 Cleaning process
 Cleaning of surface finishes used in
buildings
 Methods and procedure for cleaning
different areas
 Interior decoration

14
  Furnishings
 Security in house keeping
 House keeping services for persons with
disabilities
 Introduction to front office
 Front office equipment and supplies
 Security in front office
 Front office procedures
 Communication
 Front office services to persons with
disabilities
 Work control
 Introduction to laundry
 Hygiene and safety
 Laundry tools and equipment
 Laundry agents
 Fibres and fabrics
 Laundry processes
 Stains and stain removal processes
 Special laundry processes
 Linen room
 Handling infected linen
 Introduction to home nursing
 Understanding the sick and the infirm
 The sickroom
 Emerging trends
10.1.0 Catering and  Introduction to control 70
Accommodation  Equipment and materials in cost control
Control I  Purchasing
 Receiving
 Storing and issuing
 Portion control
 Costing and pricing
 Catering cost control
 Accommodation cost control
 Control sales
 Emerging trends
11.1.0 Catering and  Introduction to catering and 70
Accommodation accommodation premises
Premise  Premises location and layout
 Building fabrics
 Main services
 Environmental hygiene
 Safety and security
 Maintenance
 Tenancy of premises
 Emerging trends
12.1.0 Mathematics  Fundamentals of mathematics 60
 Ratio and proportions

15
  Geometrical calculations
 Graphs
 Elements of probability
 Commercial calculations
 Data collection and presentation
 Measures of central tendency
 Measures of dispersion
 Sampling
 Emerging trends

Industrial Attachment 330

MODULE II
13.2.0 Accommodation  Introduction to accommodation 150
Operations management
Management I  Work plan organisation and control
 Introduction to supervision in
accommodation management
 Cleaning standards
 Report writing
 Fabric finishes
 Planning organising and controlling
laundry work
 Staff organisation in different types of
laundries
 Operations control in laundry
 Reception functions
 Reservations and legislation
 Departmental liaison
 Emerging issues and trends
14.2.0 Catering and  Budgets and budgetary control
Accommodation  Catering and accommodation production
Control II planning and control
 Costing and pricing
 Revenue control systems
 Labor cost control
 Catering and accommodation reports
 Staff organization in different types of
laundries

 Emerging trends
15.2.0 Diet Therapy  Introduction to diet therapy 70
 Importance of diet therapy
 Therapeutic diets
 Hospitalization and the nutritional team
 Feeding methods
 Drug nutrient interaction
 The role of the digestive system in diet
therapy and health

16
  Disorders of the upper gastro-intestinal
tract (G.I.T.)
 Disorders of the stomach
 Disorders of the lower gastro-intestinal
tract
 Disorders of the liver and the pancrease
 Diabetes
 Gall bladder and renal disorders
 Cardiovascular disorders
 Surgical and burn therapy
 HIV/Aids
 Emerging trends
16.2.0 Hospitality  Nature and purpose of bookkeeping 70
Accounting  Accounting equation and the balance sheet
 Double entry system and the ledger
 Balancing the accounts and extracting a
trial balance
 Final accounts
 Banking system
 Books of original entry
 Bad debts and provision for doubtful debts
 Depreciation of fixed assets
 Year end adjustment
 Bank reconciliation statement
 Control accounts
 Correction of errors
 Accounts for non-profit making
organisation
 Partnership accounts
 Company accounts
 Emerging trends
17.2.0 Law Related to  Sources of Kenya law 60
Hospitality  Organization of judiciary
 The law of tort
 Law of contract
 Contract of employment
 Business enterprise
 Sale of foods
 Public health, environment and safety
legislation
 Law of insurance
 Intellectual property law
 Administrative authorities and licensing
law
 Emerging trends
18.2.0 Business Plan  Introduction to business planning 50
 Business description
 Marketing plan
 Organization and management plan

17
  Operational/production plan
 Financial plan
 Presentation
 Emerging trends
Industrial Attachment 165

MODULE III
Accommodation  Introduction to accommodation 150
19.3.0 Operations management
Management II  Introduction to supervision in
accommodation management
 Work study
 Special functions
 Internal environment
 Linen and laundry systems
 Contract services
 Emerging issues and trends
20.3.0 Principles and  Introduction 70
Practices of  Evolution of management thought
Management  The context of organisation and
social responsibility
 Planning
 Organizing
 Controlling
 Directing
 Staffing
 International management
 Business policy
 Emerging trends
21.3.0 Sales and Marketing  Introduction 70
 The marketing environment
 Consumer behaviour
 Market segmentation
 Marketing mix
 Product
 Pricing
 Promotion
 Distribution channels
 Qualities of salesman
 Functions of sales and marketing
departments
 Process of selling
 Evaluation of sales performance
 Emerging trends
22.3.0 Human Relations  Introduction to human relations 70
 Social organisation
 Mobilization and employee morale
 Personality

18
  Attitudes
 Frustration
 Group development
 Leadership
 Stress
 Conflict
 Employee participation in
management
 Emerging trends
23.3.0 Research Project  Introduction to research
 Research process
 Research proposal
 Data collection
 Presentation, analysis and
interpretation
 Report wring
 Emerging issues and trends in
research methods

Industrial Attachment 165

Elective Module Units for Modules II and III

24.4.0 Food and Beverage  Introduction to the catering industry 200
Production  Kitchen organisation
Management  Recipes
 Menu planning
 Kitchen supervision
 Production evaluation
 Eggs
 Meat and meat products
 Poultry
 Game
 Fish and sea foods
 Pulses
 Cereals and cereal products
 Milk and milk product
 Vegetables
 Fruits
 Fats and oils
 Convenience foods
 Rechauffe dishes
 Catering systems
 Local dishes
 International dishes
 Function catering
 Emerging trends
25.4.0 Food and Beverage  Supervisory aspects of food and 200
Service Management beverage service
 Beverage knowledge

19
  Food and beverage service
procedures
 The bar
 Specialized forms of service
 Function catering
 Sales promotion
 Emerging trends

Total 400

20
MODULE I

Introduction
The Module I course is designed to provide the trainee with skills, knowledge and attitudes
required to prepare, produce and serve meals as well as carry out accommodation procedures
in a catering and accommodation establishment.

General Objectives of the Course

At the end of this module, the trainee should be able to:
a) Apply knowledge and skills to produce, serve food and beverage products to the required
catering standards
b) Apply knowledge, skills and attitudes to perform tasks in house keeping, front office and
laundry in a catering and accommodation establishment
c) Appreciate importance of first aid and home nursing skills in a catering and
accommodation establishment
d) Demonstrate ability to use, care and maintain catering accommodation premises
e) Appreciate importance of the knowledge of food science and nutrition in healthy feeding
f) Appreciate the value of control in catering and accommodation in order to minimise cost
and maximise profit.
g) Appreciate the need for good communication skills and the impact of information and
communication technology in a catering and accommodation establishment
h) Apply entrepreneurship skills to start and run a business

Entry Requirements

Trainees entering this course should have any of the following minimum requirements

a) Passed Craft Certificate in Food and Beverage Production Sales and Service

OR

b) Passed Craft Certificate in House Keeping and Laundry

OR

c) Passed KCSE with a minimum of C Plain

OR

d) Equivalent qualification

1
MODULE UNITS AND TIME ALLOCATION

CODE MODULE UNITS TIME

(HRS)
3.1.0 Communication Skills 80
4.1.0 Life skills 80
5.1.0 Information Communication Technology (ICT) 80
6.1.0 Entrepreneurship 65
7.1.0 Food and Beverage Production, Science and Nutrition 190
8.1.0 Food and Beverage Service, Sales and First Aid 190
9.1.0 Housekeeping, Laundry and Home Nursing 200
10.1.0 Catering and Accommodation Control 70
12.1.0 Catering and Accommodation Premise 70
13.1.0 Mathematics 60
Industrial attachment 990
Total 1320
3.1.0 COMMUNICATION SKILLS

3.1.4 Communication

Definition
Broadly speaking communication can be defined as a process of transferring information
from one entity to another. It is an everyday occurrence that people are involved in and takes
many forms from the oral to non-verbal forms of communication that take the forms of sign
language.

Purpose of communication
There are many reasons why we need to communicate but basically we communicate so that
we can;
 Be heard.
 To be understood
 To be accepted and
 Have the necessary action taken for our needs
The key to effective communication is to make sure you are understood without any
ambiguity.

Why should you communicate effectively?

Today we are living in what is being referred to as the global village interconnected with the
world wide web or internet, so we are communicating across cultures and we need to
communicate in a way that leaves no ambiguity and not cause offence, meaning we need to
be sensitive of other peoples sensibilities.

Good and effective communication means we;

- Get more productivity in our work
- Get our desired goals
- Professionally get ahead though promotion
- Social interactions are enhanced
- Smooth operations within organisations
- Achieving the jobs applied for.

ii
Exercise
Think of other ways that good communication does for you as an individual or society at
large.

Essential of effective communication

For information to be effective we must have a subject. This is what we are communicating
about.
1. How to say what you have is very important. Do I have to say it all? In other words,
what does my audience need to know?
2. There is the receiver of the message. You need to know who they are. This will
include, age gender level of education, cultural orientation etc.

Channels of communication
Will you need to orally communicate, write or make a telephone call? In other words choice
of the most convenient, cost effective and speed is paramount in what to use. Other factors to
consider will include;
- Clarity. That whatever we choose to say must be said in a clear way.
- Simplicity. Most people are not good at decoding complex instructions so you must
break your communication in a way that is understandable by;
- Being concise
- Having courtesy/etiquette.
- Being sensitive to other peoples’ feelings, whether your supervisor or juniors,
validate others by complementing their work.
- Being a good listener. If you are going to be understood you too must be a good
listener so as to get the right feedback and know that whatever you aim to achieve is
understood.
- Face to face communication. Try and face those you are communicating with. It is
better written than discussed. Telephone, E-mail and other mode form of
communication are great but remember they should not take away the element of face
to face communication.

3.1.01 Role of ICT in communication

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Today we are living in the electronic age where speed is essential, the computer age has
revolutionalised the way we socialise and do business, thus the following means of
communication are very central in order for us to be at the cutting edge of innovation and the
general trends in the world, thus ;
- The mobile phone
- Internet
- Fax
- Emails

3.1.02 Process
Channels of communication
They can be broadly broken down to
i. Top down communication
ii. Up ward communication
iii. Horizontal communication

Top down communication

In this communication, information is from the top. That is from the CEO to the managers,
supervisors, and juniors to the lowest members in an organisation.
Those in authority send messages to those directly below them who in turn pass on the
message to the intended recipients.
This takes the forms of oral or writer communication in an organisation.

Oral communication will include;

- Telephone
- Messages
- Intercom
- Face to face discussions
- Presentations
- Meetings
- Conferences.

Written communication would be through,

iv
 - Notices
- Letters
- E-mail
- Forms/questionnaires
- News letter
- Reports
- Graphics/charts
- Memos etc.

In an external set-up
The same channels would still apply, but here we have;
- Telephone conversation
- Teleconference
- Video conference
- Conferences /workshops /seminars

Written communication will be through

-Internet
-Brochures
-E-mail
-Invitations
-Notices
-Reports
-Advertisements
-Fax
-Letters

Task
There are many other forms of written communication, discuss them in groups and list as
many as possible.

Upward communication

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This is the information that is gleaned from those of lower ranks to those in management.
This will be in form of reports, and grievances and is important in helping the management
make informed decisions to steer their organisation towards their stated goals.

Horizontal information
This could be the information that flow, for example across the departments, e.g. the human
resource department will request all the departments for their recruitment needs so that is
advertises its requirements. All this will depend on the interdependence or independence of
the departments in an organisation.

The choice of channels of communication will depend on;

1. Cost
2. Confidentiality
3. Safety and security
4. Influence
5. Urgency
6. Distance
7. Time of the day
8. Resources
9. Written records
10. Recipients
Obviously depending on the channels chosen we have various advantages and
disadvantage for each, e.g;

Oral communication demands the physical presence of the interlocutors and thus they
may not apply to a large and diversified audience if they are not in the same room. They
require liable response and their emotional factor are necessary for them to be effective.
Written channels on the other hand are detailed and needs care so that there is no room
for ambiguity as they are present records. They are ideal on the other hand when you have
a wide audience to disseminate the message to. They are also good when you do not need
any emotional factors.

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 Stages in communication process

1. Conception of the message

Here the sender conceives the message in the brain and formulates the idea is due to
certain stimuli either internal or external.

2. Encoding of the message

This involves giving the message a verbal or non-verbal language.

The appropriateness of the message will be defined on the use of the intended message.

3. Selecting the appropriate channel

Depending on the message one can then decide whether to use verbal/non verbal
methods, electronic, writer or other modes to send the message.

4. The recepient
Here the recipient gets the message though reception.

Reception
The physical act of receiving the message though any of the six serving senses.

5. Decoding the message

This involves the recipients assigning meaning to the message received and using their
language and then relates the language to his knowledge of terms and vocabulary.

6. Comprehension
When the recipient has had time to decode the message he/she absorbs the message and
understand the words used by the sender.

7. Interpretation
The receiver tries to get any nuances or extra meaning to the message or what is termed as the
hidden message.

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 8. feed back
The receiver respond to the message by encoding his response in a language that the sender
can understand and sends it back to the originator of the message. The sender will then go
through the same process or encoding the message. It is only then that we can say that
communication has taken place.

3.1.02T4. Barriers to effective communication

There are many barriers that hinder effective communication whether in business or in
personal relationships, this occurs when the intended message is not decoded or
interpreted as intended. There are several factors that causes these as shown below.

Age difference
This could be due to generation gap between those communicating who end up interpreting
messages differently out of ignorance or out of other circumstance due to age.

Social economic factors

People of different social economic extraction may have different ways of interpreting the
same messages, some could be cultural and their ethnic extraction may interfere with the
way they interpret message due to their socialisation.

Language
The choice of language we use is vital as words can carry different meanings. Our knowledge
and background matters, it will determine how we communicate; this includes such aspects of
speaking like dialects and accents which affect our speech and the way we are understood by
those we are communicating with. How we say what we say, including tone and body
language will interfere with the communication process.

Noise

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Any type of interference can be termed as noise, be it the actual wise in a room or outside a
room poor telephone connection, static. An object is a room causing distraction can also be
described as noise.

Environment
There are many things in the environment that can cause miscommunication right from poor
lighting, uncomfortable seats, and poor relationships with superiors, etc.

Attitude of sender/receiver and others

These could be prejudgment as what is understood is after conditioned by what we
already know, what we know or what are want to know vis-a-viz visualize what has
actually been said.

Task.
Think of other barriers of communication and explain them.

3.1.02T5
Strategies of overcoming barriers to effective communicative.
1. Set clear objections by planning before you speak or write. All should be clearly set
out so that you know exactly what you want.
2. Listen. Communication is a two way process; that means that you pay attention to
the feedback, if you are writing, try and see whether what you have written makes
the right impression by re-reading it before sending it.
3. Be open-minded. Do not think you are the only expert and be willing to adopt new
methods and procedures.
4. Select the appropriate media. The media you use should be tailored to suit the desired
outcomes.
5. Brevity. Do not be over verbose; the best way to communicate is by trying use the
most effective words using the least number of words possible.
6. Use appropriate language. Is the language you are using appropriate to the topic at
hand and will it be understood by the recipient?

ix
 7. Be professional in communicating. Set high standard for yourself in language and
delivery of your message.
8. Feedback. Make sure you get feedback to be sure that your recipients are getting the
appropriate communication intended.

Ethical issues in communication

88888888888888888
Internal organisation
These take the form of written or verbal communication.

Written communications involve.

Reports newsletters graphics e-mail notices
Memo minutes charts fax etc

Verbal communication takes the forms of; telephone, messages, face-to-face interaction,
meetings, and intercom.

External communication
Here the organisations communicate with other organisation or individuals externally. Just
like the internal communication, it takes the form of oral and written form.

Oral communication could be;

Telephone – conversations, meetings, conferences, teleconferences, videoconference,
presentations, and seminars.

Written communication
Those could be in form of letters, internet, e-mail, notices, newsletters, fliers, fax, press
release, invitations, brochures, advertisements, reports, etc.

Interpersonal communication
These are all aspects of personal communication contract of a group. Effective interpersonal
communication depends on a variety of interpersonal studies including listening,

x
asserting, influencing personality and empathizing sensitivity and diplomacy. This
includes body language and other non-verbal communication.

Intrapersonal communication
This is language use or thought internal to the communication. This could be psychological
decoding, processing, storing and encoding of messages that happens within individuals to
conscious and unconscious levels whenever they communicate with themselves or others
for the purpose of defining, maintaining , or developing their social, psychological, or
physical selves.

3.1.03 P1
Usage of various types of communication
without communication there would be nothing, only mere existence.

3.1.03T
CLASSIFICATION OF COMMUNICATION
Types of communication
These can be classified as follows:
 Formal
 Informal
 Internal
 External
 Interpersonal
 Intra personal

Formal communication
This takes the written form of communication and involves set formats of writing like letters,
memos, notices, etc. This is important in all organisation and all forms of correspondence
including academic writings, business materials including publicity materials will fall
under this category.

Informal communication

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This takes the form of oral communication where people pass messages unofficially.
Rumours or what in referred to as the grapevine falls in this category. It distorts the truth
and can cause a lot of damage in an organisation. Organisations need to be aware of the kind
of informal communication being used. Good managers sometimes leak information to
gauge how some policies would be received before they are implemented and act on
them. However this needs care as they can cause damage to an organisation. Undesirable as
they may be, some organisations seem to have found a way of utilising them as the above
example illustrates.

3.1.04
Forms of communication
These can be broken down into
 Oral
 Written
 Visual
 Audio-visual

Oral communication
These are the ones that rely on the word of mouth; they are verbal and include;
 Face -to-face communication
 Telephone conversation
 Teleconference
 Video conferencing

Written communication
Despite all the technological advancement, written communication is still the most dominant
from of communication. This is the way people pass on information or messages to others
through use of symbols, numbers, and words. It is the most effective and can be used by
nearly everyone. It has stood the test of time and is one that will likely be practiced always

xii
and perhaps the only one people can share messages with others because everyone has the
ability to use the form of writing in one or the other

Visual communication
This takes the form of communication through visual aid and is a method of conveying a
message through media that can be read or looked at. It relies on vision and primarily
presented through two dimensional images. It includes signs, drawings, graphics designs
topography, illustration, colour and electronic sources. It has the power to educate.

Audio-visual
This incorporates sound to the visual message. It is a bit advantageous over the visual as it
makes more use of sensory perception.

Advantages of oral communication

It is immediate, face to face or phone
One can get different nuances and emotions from the voice

Disadvantages

include

******

Written communication
 It is the most common is the world and therefore most understood
 It offers permanent records and so can be referred to at a latter date
 Because of its records it is more reliable as one can be used by many people.

Disadvantages of written communication

 It needs one to know the writing symbols
 Unlike the electronic system it require paper and therefore is expensive and even
where recorded, it still takes time to be typed.

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Visual communication
Advantages
 It is practical and therefore easy to understand
 Sight is instant and tends to be remembered faster and is more permanent than
hearing.

Disadvantages
 Due to lack of sound it is limiting especially to those with sight impairment
 Requires one to be present to use unlike a radio where out can listen and gather
formation from a distance.

Audio visual communication

Advantages
 It is far more superior in the others and that it uses more senses
 It is more memorable

Disadvantages
 It is expensive as it requires that they require equipment to be seen and other items
like batteries where there is no ready power supply.

Channels of communication
Meaning of channel of communication
There are formal and informal lines of communication in any organisation. These are
a) Formal channels of organisation
b) Informal organisation

a) Informal channel of communication

These are the unofficial word of mouth channel of communication otherwise called rumours
or grapevine. This type of communication has the obvious drawback that the word of
mouth is open to distortion and management needs to control information as much as
possible for it not to be detrimental to companies goals. The management needs to create
clear communication channels so that information is given freely. Some organisations

xiv
sometime initiate rumours in order to weigh public opinion and thus guide policy
implementation.

Formal communication channels

In these, there are well established rules and regulations, on how communication should be
carried out. The channels can be downward, upward and horizontal.

Downward communication
This is from management to those in the lower echelons in an organisation and there are the
usual established channels like, letters memorandum, circulars, notices, reports, etc.

Upward communication
This emanates from the juniors to the bosses and takes the form of reports and grievances.
This enables the management to make informed decisions that guide in policy formulation.

Horizontal communication
This takes the form of colleagues working in the same departments or across departments.
This is important as there is always the need to communicate and cooperate and share. This
is done through face-to-face interaction, discussions telephone or even through
correspondence.

Diagonal communication
Sometimes the will be jobs that will demand people who work in different level to
communicate and at this time there may be no direct top-down line of command. These
will be committees, teams or task forces. They require goodwill and respect between parties
to succeed.

Channels of communication will use the following

 Board
 Charts
 Language laboratory
 Telephone fax
 E-mail

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  Internet
 Lecturers and resource persons
 Library
 Textbooks

Study the list above and critically assess the advantages and disadvantages of each of the
items over the others.

3.1.05 Official etiquette, protocol and diplomacy

Etiquette refers to the accepted code of behavior guided by cultural norms in a society.
While protocol refers to the formal etiquette and code of behavior, precedence and procedure
for state and diplomatic ceremonies. Diplomacy on the other hand means the art and practice
of conducting negotiations between representatives of group of states.

Importance of official etiquette

 Etiquette is about presenting yourself with the kind of polish that says you can be
taken seriously. It is also about being comfortable around people and making them
comfortable around you.
 Some etiquette could be written and others are unwritten. The most important one is
to be courteous and thoughtful to the people around you, regardless of the
situation, consider the other peoples feelings, stick to your convictions as
diplomatically as possible.
 Address conflict as situation related rather with person related
 Apologise when you step on toes.
 Avoid raising your voice, using harsh or derogatory language towards anyone present
or absent or interrupting.
 Talk and visit people, show appreciation even to the juniors.
 Make it a point to arrive early (15-20min) and make it a point of visiting people who
work near you.
 Introduce yourself to other people or participate in a meeting.
 Keep notes on people, everyone is important
 Do not surprise your boss let them know what you are doing.

xvi
Communication skills
Part 3
Conducting meetings
Meeting definition
When two or more people come together for the purpose of discussing a predetermined topic
this is referred to as a meeting, however this is not the only time people meet, a we shall see
some meetings are not predetermined. Since there are very many circumstances that
determine meetings, it is important to rule the different types of meetings. These include:

Status meetings
These are leadership meetings that involve head of states or large corporations. They are
more or less status symbols meetings and are supposed to guide policy and nurture political
as well as international relations. Executive meetings also fall in this category.

Work meetings
There is work related and or necessary so that people plan projects that they could be writing
on.

Staff meeting
These are called by head of departments, schools, colleges by principal and their job is to set
goals to be achieved within a stipulated time.

Managerial meetings
Those in managerial positions occasionally need to come together to guide policy and initiate
policy that defines the direction an organisation is to take, they therefore come together
and from their deliberations set out the course of action to be taken.
`
Team meeting.
A team can be formed within an organisation and this will need a meeting. This will be
necessary because all teams will need to work to achieve a common a goal. Annual

General Meetings (AGM)

xvii
These are held once in the year, the shareholder are given a notice of at least 21days
notice to attend the meeting.

Statutory meeting
These are mandatory by law for companies. The directions and stakeholders are supposed to
meet so as to prepare special reports. So their purpose is to communicate and consider special
reports.

Board meetings
These are attended by members of the board in an organisation and are held as often as is
necessary by the organisation. They are normally chaired by the chair of the board.

Informal meetings
Unlike the other meetings, these are not restricted by the formalities of normal meetings,
minutes may not be necessary. They are what are called brainstorming sessions. They are
not strict and agenda may not be kept though it is good practice to give an agenda so
that members can prepare adequately.

3.1.10.12: Role of meetings in an organisation

Meetings are important in that they enable face to face interaction, sharing information,
suggestions and proposals. They also provide feedback.

Meetings’ roles therefore can be summarised as follows

1. They coordinate or arrange activities
2. Give of information to a group of people
3. Report on certain activities
4. Offer a platform for venting grievances
5. Obtain help on difficult areas
6. Creates involvement and interest.
3.1.10.15. Planning for the meeting

xviii
For a successful meeting, planning is very important and it is important to remember that
it is in a meeting that an organisation culture perpetuates itself, so you should do the
following;
Define the objectives and desired outcomes from the onset.
i. Determine the topics to over and how best to cover it
ii. Estimate the length of the meeting so that people know how long it will take.
iii. Create an agenda that is clear and have it delivered to the participants well in
advance.
For the participants- know the purpose of the meeting
i. Gather all the data you need for the meeting
ii. Know your role
iii. Be prepared to participant fully for the meeting

Conducting meetings
For a meeting to be successful it is important to set a physical setting that is comfortable and
adequate to serve the purpose.
- The atmosphere should also be warm and friendly
- Provide appropriate refreshments
- Provide appropriate visual aids and learning aids on hand
- Assign a minutes taker who is conversant with the appropriate format of minute
writing. see report writing skills - minutes
- Assign specific tasks to individual and explain what is needed, start and end date
of what is exactly needed.

During the meeting

- Communicate the purpose and desired outcomes
- Set the ground rules on what is expected and when the meeting will end
- Show that you value the peoples’ ideas, opinions and questions
- Take time to hear and tell your experiences and listen too
- Classify and paraphrase key ideas
- Record ideas on a flip chart
- Stay focused on the agenda topics

xix
 - Do not wander or get distracted
- Periodically summarize key parts
- Pay attention to body language and listen to different views
- Help the group reach a consensus and reach conclusion.

3.1.11 Interviews
Interview
Definition
An interview is a type of meeting that is interpersonal between one or two people and largely
consists of question and answer session. One person or group will be providing the answers
while the interventions also the questions of is an important stage in recruitment process.

Purposes of an interview in an organisation

In an organisation the purposes of interviews are dynamic as situations keep or changing. The
reason why organisations carry out interview is to:
i. Recruit staff
ii. Gather information in departments
iii. Performance appraisal
iv. Disciplinary actions

3.1.11.13 Types of interview

Employment interview
To recruit employees, organisations seek out the best personnel and they interview people to
get the best people for the job.

Selection interview
After an application, a few people whom the company feel meet the qualifications they
RIare looking for are short listed, these are then interviewed by senior members of an
organisation who will need to know all about the interviewee, from academic
qualifications, work experience, ambitions, interests, and their predisposition that make
them suitable for the job advertised.

xx
Promotion interviews
These are carried out in an organisations internal structure where there is upward mobility
while still in the same organisation. The management will try to find out if there are any
qualification that the employee gained to qualify him/her to give him seniority in the
company.

Appraisals
Appraisals are meant to judge whether the employees have attained their set goals within
a time frame, this could be half year appraisals or full year appraisals. These are done
interdependently by the supervisor or section heads giving appraisal of the people involved.
The appraisals give data from which the interview will be rated for future prospects in the
company like promotions.
Disciplinary
They are carried out in cases of misdemeanors and are meant to gauge the degree of
misconduct and take the necessary action depending on the gravity of the situation.
Impartiality is called upon so as to give fair judgment.

Task
There are others type of interviews not included here. Discuss them in groups.

3.1.11.14 Preparation for an interview

This involves both the interviewer and he interviewee.

Interviewer
While the job in question is for the interviewee, the interviewer is obligated to make it easier
for him and the organisation to get the best man power for the job at hand. The interviewer
should therefore then;
i. Be professional and start by greeting the interviewee
ii. Introduce yourself and if in a group, the panel of interviewers.
iii. Make the interviewee comfortable
iv. Break the ice by small talk to make the interviewee feel at ease

xxi
 v. Guide the interviewee by letting them know you will precede, i.e. the step from the
beginning to the end.
vi. Ask opened questions
vii. Avoid Yes/No questions
viii. Avoid extremely general question unless they are to test for general knowledge.
ix. End by telling the interview what to expect next, and a time frame which to expect a
response from you.

Interviewee
The interviewee should;
- Try and find out as much as possible about the organisation, work culture, mission,
dressing code so that you appear genuinely acquainted to the organisation.
- Find out what kind of questions are expected
- Be up to date with current affairs including the news of the day
- Make sure you have carried your certificates (original) and testimonials and make
sure you collect them at the end of the interview.
- Grooming is very important, do some research the dress code of the organisation
before hand so that you dress the part on the day of the interview.
- It is important to have some questions that you can ask if
told to do so. Write them down so that you are not caught off guard.

During the interview

- Keep time; plan your time so that you arrive at least 15 minute before time so as to
compose yourself.
- Let the interviewer take the lead so that you know what to do, don’t give yourself a
seat before you are given one.
- Walk in a dignified manner and be calm
- Listen carefully to the questions being asked
- Try and owners questions fully without being pompous or overbearing
- Avoid bad mannerism such as placing your elbows on the table, chewing gum or
overstretching on the chair.

3.1.11.14 Design and Grooming

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Dress professionally and conservatively, some companies though today are relaxing this but
a little research on the interviewees part will reveal whether one needs to be in suits,
smooth casuals and so on and when this is expected. Nowadays it is common to see bank
employees dressed on Fridays in smart casuals and casuals on Saturday, so it is
imperative on you to find out about the dress culture of the organisation. Do not be sloppy
in any case. Any accessories should be worn conservatively. No loud and garish accessories.
This includes hair shortly cropped especially for men, no plaits especially if you are direct
from college. This goes to shoes, these should be official.

Interviewing skills
Briefing skills
It is important to let the interviewee what is expect before the interview. What to present, the
time they will expect to be interviewed and so on. Introduce the interviewee to the panel
and let them be comfortable by having small talk.

Debriefing skills
Debriefing interviews are actually not interviews at all and are held at the time employees
especially those of the lower levels are leaving the organisation. They are useful in
assisting the management find out why the employees want to leave the organisation. They
should be held face to face when the interviewer has the chance of asking probing questions.
They are also important to let those left in the organisation be aware of what to expect to find
in the vacant position.

3.1.11 Public relations and customer care

Public relations refer to the planned and organised effort by an organisations or institutions to
establish mutually beneficial relationship with the public. This is done through the mass
media, and the job of the PR person is to use it to benefit the organisations.

Role of the public relations and customer care in an organisation

- The main purpose of the public relation for create a favoruable public awareness
of the organisation

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 - Influence the public through mass media like television, radio, corporation services,
exhibitions, sponsorships etc,
- Be on the look out for opportunities that can be turned positively for the benefit of
the organisation
- Conduct damage control in case of bad publicity

Interpersonal and human relations skills

- Interpersonal and human relation skills call for understanding and empathy to those
under you and also;
- Building trust and confidence
- Etiquette and good manners
- Handling difficult clients
- Valuing diversity and
- Knowing how to handle office politics

Challenges faced in public relations and customer care

- Dealing with different clients
- Keeping the existing clients from being poached by the competition

3.1.12 Emerging issues and trends in communication

The development of information communication technology in the recent past has
dramatically revolutionalised the way the world communicates today does business and even
socializes. Some of the technology has to do with the internet and mobile phones.

3.1.13 Challenge is posed by emerging issues and trade in communication

- The biggest challenge faced by the emerging issues has to do with rigidity. Many
people are being left behind and losing out due to their refusal to adopt and learn
how to use the modern forms of communication.
- Fraudsters. There are many people who are taking advantage of the anonymity that is
presented by internet to commit what is referred to as cyber crime like conning
people.
- Malicious damage and hacking of data crucial to organisations. These could be key
installations like power, hospitals etc.

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 - Social vice like pornography and human trafficking is carried out through this
medium.
- Lack of etiquette people keep on forgetting basic rules of etiquette because of speed
and thereby causing unnecessary ill will.

Ways of coping with challenges posed by the emerging trends

 One of the ways of dealing with it is by showing sensitivity towards those that
we are communicating with. Basically we should observe common etiquette
so that we are not misunderstood.
 Learn and adapt so that you are capable of dealing with the new operation
technology and learn to cope with it.
 New laws and guidelines should be put in place so that those likely to misuse
the technology are not only deterred but also punished.

3.1.13
Suggest ways and laws that could be put in place so as to protect minors from being exposed
to vices like pornography and child trafficking.

3.1.13 p
Suggested teaching/learning resources
 Charts
 Library
 Textbooks
 Newspapers
 Journals
 Internet

xxv
References
Bovee, C. L, and Thill, J.V. ( 1992). Business Communication Today, McGraw Hill. New
York.
Eyre, E.C. Effective communication made simple, London.

Gartside L Ed. Taylor S. (1998) Modern Business Letter of ad other business documents
financial times professional Ltd.
Maujura H.B. (2009). Optimal English Hillman Publishers Nairobi.

Tailors S. (1991). Communication for Business A Tactical approach Pearson Longman.

London
Nichotts A (2011). Master Public Speaking Jaice publishing House Mumbai.

Okombo Okoth D. A student’s guide to writing and study skills Nairobi University Press.

KTTC Principles and Practise of Communication Unpublished reference materials.

Nairobi.

xxvi
4.1.0 LIFE SKILLS

xxvii
5.1.0 INFORMATION COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY (ICT)

MODULE UNIT – INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY

(ICT)

Module Description:

This module is intended to equip the trainee with knowledge, skills and attitudes that would
enable him/her to understand and use Information and Communication Technology.

General Objectives

By the end of this module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) Appreciate the role of ICT in a business environment
b) Appreciate various components of a computer system
c) Acquire basic computer operation skills
d) Appreciate computer software
e) Understand data processing and data security
f) Appreciate computer networks
g) Understand the Internet and web related applications
h) Appreciate emerging trends in ICT
i) Apply the acquired knowledge and skills in ICT at the place of work

INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTERS

Specific Objectives:
By the end of this topic, the trainee should be able to:
a) Define terms
b) Explain historical development of computers
c) Explain classification of computers
d) Explain the roles of ICT in a business environment
e) Explain the role of computers in business
f) Identify the parts of a computer system
g) Start up a computer
h) Manipulate the keyboard
i) Use the mouse

Unit tasks

Task 1: Defining terms used in computing

i) Computer
A computer is an electronic device that processes data into information at a
very high speed and under the control of stored programs, called software, storing
the result of that processing for future use.

ii) Data

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 Data are raw, unprocessed facts and figures that are relatively meaningless to the
user. e.g., number of hours worked by an employee.

iii) Information
Information is derived from data. Information is processed data or meaningful
data that is organized in a manner that humans can understand. (e.g., multiplying
the hours worked by the hourly rate to get each employee’s gross earnings).
Information is an important component in decision making.

iv) Information Communication Technology (ICT)

ICT (information and communications technology - or technologies) is an

umbrella term that includes any communication device or application,
encompassing: radio, television, cellular phones, computer and network hardware
and software, satellite systems and so on, as well as the various services and
applications associated with them, such as videoconferencing and distance
learning. ICTs are often spoken of in a particular context, such as ICTs in
business, education, health care, or libraries.
For our study, we are concerned with computer (hardware and software) and
telecommunications technology (data, image, and voice networks).

v) Information System (IS)

An information system (IS) is an arrangement of people, data, processes,
communications, and information technology that interact to support and improve
day-to-day operations in a business, as well as support the problem-solving and
decision-making needs of management and users.

Advantages of using Computers:

 Speed – Computers have higher processing speeds than other means of processing,
measured as number of instructions executed per second.
 Accuracy – Computers are not prone to errors. So long as the programs are correct,
they will always give correct output. A computer is designed in such a way that many
of the inaccuracies, which could arise due to the malfunctioning of the equipment,
are detected and their consequences avoided in a way, which is completely
transparent to the user.
 Consistency – Given the same data and the same instructions computers will
produce exactly the same answer every time that particular process is repeated.
 Reliability – Computer systems are built with fault tolerance features, meaning that
failure of one of the components does not necessarily lead to failure of the whole
system.
 Memory capability – A computer has the ability to store and access large volumes of
data.
 Processing capability – A computer has the ability to execute millions of
instructions per second.

Task 2: Historical development of computers (generations)

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The first electronic computers were produced in the 1940s. Since then, a series of
breakthroughs in electronics have occurred leading to great improvements in the capacity,
processing speed and quality of computer resources.

The evolution of computerization in business may be summarised as:

 1870s: Development of the typewriter allows speedier communication and less copying.

 1920s: Invention of the telephone enables both Wide Area Networks (WAN) and Local
Area Networks (LAN) communication in real time. This marks the beginning of
telecommunication.

 1930s: Use of scientific management is made available to analyse and rationalise.

 1940s: Mathematical techniques developed in World War II (operations research) are

applied to the decision making process.

 1950s: Introduction of copying facilitates cheap and faster document production, and the
(limited) introduction of Electronic Data Processing (EDP) speeds up large scale
transaction processing.

 1960s: Emergence of Management Information Systems (MIS) provides background

within which office automation can develop.

 1970s: Setting up of telecommunication networks to allow for distant communication

between computer systems. There is widespread use of word processors in text editing
and formatting, advancement in personal computing- emergence of PCs. Use of
spreadsheets.

 1980s: Development of office automation technologies that combine data, text, graphics
and voice. Development of DSS, EIS and widespread use of personal productivity
software.

 1990s: Advanced groupware; integrated packages, combining most of the office work-
clerical, operational as well as management.

 2000s: Wide spread use of Internet and related technology in many spheres of
organisations including electronic commerce (e-commerce), e-learning, e-health

Landmark Inventions
 ~500 B.C - counting table with beads
 ~1150 in China - ABACUS - beads on wires
 1642 Adding machine - Pascal
 1822 Difference machine/Analytic Engine - design by Babbage
 1890 Hollerith punched card machine - for U.S. census
 1944 Mark I (Harvard) - first stored program computer
 1947 ENIAC (Penn)- first electronic stored program computer
 1951 UNIVAC - first commercial computer; 1954 first installation

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  1964 IBM - first all-purpose computer (business + scientific)
 1973 HP-65, hand-held, programmable ‘calculator’
 ~1975 Altair, Intel - first Micro-computer; CPU on a “chip”
Computer Generations
The view of computers into generations is based on the fundamental technology employed.
Each new generation is characterized by greater speed, larger memory capacity and smaller
overall size than the previous one.

i. First Generation Computers (1946 – 1957)

 Used vacuum tubes to construct computers.
 These computers were large in size and writing programs on them was
difficult.
 The following are major drawbacks of First generation computers.
o The operating speed was quite slow.
o Power consumption was very high.
o It required large space for installation.
o The programming capability was quite low.
o Cumbersome to operate – switching between programs, input and
output

ii. Second Generation Computers (1958 - 1964)

 Replaced vacuum tubes with transistors.
 The transistor is smaller, cheaper and dissipates less heat than a vacuum tube.
 The second generation also saw the introduction of more complex arithmetic
and logic units, the use of high – level programming languages and the
provision of system software with the computer.
 They have transistors which are smaller than electric tubes and have higher
operating speed. They have no filament and require no heating.
Manufacturing cost was also lower. Thus the size of the computer got reduced
considerably.
 It is in the second generation that the concept of Central Processing Unit
(CPU), memory, programming language and input and output units were
developed. The programming languages such as COBOL, FORTRAN were
developed during this period.

iii. Third Generation Computers (1965 - 1971)

 Had an integrated circuit.
 Although the transistor technology was a major improvement over vacuum
tubes, problems remained. The transistors were individually mounted in
separate packages and interconnected on printed circuit boards by separate
wires. This was a complex, time consuming and error-prone process.
 The early integrated circuits are referred to as small-scale integration (SSI).
Computers of this generation were smaller in size, lower cost, larger memory
and processing speed was much higher.

iv. Fourth Generation Computers (1972 - Present)

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  Employ Large Scale Integrated (LSI) and Very Large Scale Integrated (VLSI)
circuit technology to construct computers. Over 1,000 components can be
placed on a single integrated-circuit chip.

v. Fifth Generation Computers

 These are computers of 1990s
 Use Very Large Scale Integrated (VLSI) circuit technology to build
computers. Over 10,000 components can be incorporated on a single
integrated chip.
 The speed is extremely high in fifth generation computer. Apart from this it
can perform parallel processing. The concept of Artificial intelligence has
been introduced to allow the computer to take its own decision.

Task 3 Explaining classification of computers

Computers can be classified in different ways as shown below:

Classification by size and capability

a) Supercomputers. The largest and most powerful. Used to process large amounts of
data very quickly. Useful for meteorological or astronomical applications. Examples
include Cray and Fujitsu.

b) Mainframe computers. Large computers in terms of price, power and size. Require a
carefully controlled environment and specialist staff to operate them used for
centralized processing for large commercial organizations. Manufacturers include
International Business Machine (IBM).

c) Minicomputers. Their size, speed and capabilities lie somewhere between mainframes
and microcomputers. Used as departmental computers in large organizations or as the
main computer in medium-sized organizations. Manufacturers of minicomputers
include IBM and International Computer Limited (ICL).

d) Microcomputers. These are the personal computers commonly used for office and
leisure activities. Examples include Hewlett Packard (HP), Compaq and Dell. They
include desktops, laptops, palmtops and notebooks.

Classification by way of processing data

This is by how the computer represents and processes the data.

a) Digital computers are computers which process data that is represented in the form
of discrete values by operating on it in steps. Digital computers process data
represented in the form of discrete values like 0, 1, 2. They are used for both business
data processing and scientific purposes since digital computation results in greater
accuracy.

b) Analog computers are used for scientific, engineering, and process-controlled

purposes. Outputs are represented in the form of graphs. Analogue computers process

xxxii
 data represented by physical variables and output physical magnitudes in the form of
smooth graphs.

c) Hybrid computers are computers that have the combined features of digital and
analog computers. They offer an efficient and economical method of working out
special problems in science and various areas of engineering.

Classification by purpose
This is a classification by the use to which the computer is put.

a) Special purpose computers are used for a certain specific function e.g. in medicine,
engineering, manufacturing.

b) General-purpose computers can be used for a wide variety of tasks e.g. accounting,
word processing etc.

Task 4. Explaining the role of ICT in a business environment

The use of ICT and technology has affected every aspect of business, transforming not only
the way that business is conducted but also creating new business sectors and jobs. Examples
are companies like Google and e-Bay.
Some examples of the nature of this change include:

Marketing: The use of websites has allowed companies to develop new and cheaper
ways of reaching new markets, offering customers the opportunity of buying goods
and services whenever they want and often at reduced cost, while also enhancing the
level of customer service.

Finance: Practically all companies now use software programmes e.g. Sage or Excel
to manage their accounts. This has allowed them to look at financial information
when required, monitor and respond to their customers purchasing patterns by e.g.
offering discounts and overall improve the management of their finances. The result
of this has been for many companies a reduction in their accountancy fees.

Out of office working: For many businesses the need for staff to be away from the
office attending meetings or to be based in another geographical location has grown
alongside employee demands for more flexible working patterns. However effective
communication and ability to access information remains critical to the productivity
of these staff members. Therefore through the use of technology many companies
now use a range of technologies to enable this. These include mobile phones, e-mail,
broadband, laptops, etc, thus ensuring that companies are able to be flexible and
adaptive depending on their business needs.

Networks: Virtually all businesses now have or have access to a computer. The
existence of two or more computers in an office almost always leads to the creation of
a network. The main advantage of doing so is that resources can be shared e.g.
printers, internet access, files/information can be managed and shared amongst
workstations and the security of information can be better managed through a
network. Increasingly, networks are not just confined to the office but are being

xxxiii
 adopted so that they allow home/remote working that supports changing business
needs.

Task 5 The role of computers in business

i) Computer "clerk." - Computers handle large amounts of repetitive clerical
work. Computers are used as an information system. These computers try to
gather, predict, and store data.
ii) Computers are used for designing. They are able to show how an object will
look like before it is produced
iii) Computers are also used as "controllers." They are fed with information
which responds with programs that are already installed. The programs help
a computer decide on raising or maintaining certain information such as
investing in stocks.

Task 6 Parts of a computer system

Adapted from - http://windows.microsoft.com/en-US/windows-vista/Parts-of-a-

computer

System unit

The system unit is the core of a computer system. Usually it's a rectangular box placed on or
underneath your desk. Inside this box are many electronic components that process

xxxiv
information. The most important of these components is the central processing unit (CPU),
or microprocessor, which acts as the "brain" of your computer. Another component is
random access memory (RAM), which temporarily stores information that the CPU uses
while the computer is on. The information stored in RAM is erased when the computer is
turned off.

Almost every other part of your computer connects to the system unit using cables. The
cables plug into specific ports (openings), typically on the back of the system unit. Hardware
that is not part of the system unit is sometimes called a peripheral device or device.

Monitor

A monitor displays information in visual form, using text and graphics. The portion of the
monitor that displays the information is called the screen. Like a television screen, a
computer screen can show still or moving pictures.

The monitor forms images from tiny dots, called pixels. Pixels are arranged in a rectangular
form. The sharpness of image (screen resolution) depends upon the number of pixels.

There are two basic types of monitors: CRT (cathode ray tube) monitors and LCD (liquid
crystal display) monitors. Both types produce sharp images, but LCD monitors have the
advantage of being much thinner and lighter. CRT monitors, however, are generally more
affordable.

Keyboard

Keyboard (similar to a typewriter) is the main input device of a computer (refer to figure 2.2).
It contains three types of keys-- alphanumeric keys, special keys and function keys.
Alphanumeric keys are used to type all alphabets, numbers and special symbols like $, %, @,
A etc. Special keys such as <Shift>, <Ctrl>, <Alt>, <Home>, <Scroll Lock> etc. are used for
special functions. Function keys such as <Fl>, <F2>, <F3> etc. are used to give special
commands depending upon the software used. The function of each and every key can be
well understood only after working on a PC. When any key is pressed, an electronic signal is
produced. This signal is detected by a keyboard encoder that sends a binary code
corresponding to the key pressed to the CPU. There are many types of keyboards but 101
keys keyboard is the most popular one.

xxxv
Mouse
A mouse is a small device used to point to and select items on your computer screen.
Although mice come in many shapes, the typical mouse does look a bit like an actual mouse.
It's small, oblong, and connected to the system unit by a long wire that resembles a tail. Some
newer mice are wireless.

A mouse usually has two buttons: a primary button (usually the left button) and a secondary
button. Many mice also have a wheel between the two buttons, which allows you to scroll
smoothly through screens of information.
When you move the mouse with your hand, a pointer on your screen moves in
the same direction. (The pointer's appearance might change depending on
where it's positioned on your screen.) When you want to select an item, you
point to the item and then click (press and release) the primary button. Pointing
and clicking with your mouse is the main way to interact with your computer.

Task 7 Starting and restarting a computer

Starting up a computer
When you press your computer’s power button to boot up, the PC needs to get oriented. The
computer reads several files to remind itself what it should be doing and to perform a
complex series of tests to make sure all its hardware components are working properly.
1. When the computer is booted up, an electrical current travels to the microprocessor
and resets the chip to clear its memory. During the reset, the microprocessor sends a
command to the computer’s read-only memory (ROM) chips to run the computer’s
basic input/output system (BIOS) boot program.
2. The boot program connects the hard drive, loading Operating system’s core system
files through the microprocessor and loading the device driver software needed to
allow communication between the operating system and the PC’s hardware.
3. Windows follows by again contacting the hard drive and loading the graphics, files
and font files needed to properly display the system’s desktop.
4. After communicating with the video card to create the desktop environment Windows
opens the Startup folder. Any programs that may have been placed in the folder are
immediately accessed from the hard drive and loaded through the microprocessor into
RAM. Windows is then ready for use.

Cold booting
Starting the computer by turning power on. Turning power off and then back on again clears
memory and many internal settings. Some program failures will lock up the computer and
require a cold boot to use the computer again. In other cases, only a warm boot is required.

xxxvi
If you're "cold booting", you are starting your computer from a powered down state. So,
anytime you turn your computer on after it's been turned off, you're doing a cold boot.

Warm booting
When attempting to close a stuck program on a Microsoft or based PC, the most convenient
way is to perform a reset operation. This is done by pressing CTRL+ALT+DEL simultaneously.
The Windows Task Manager will open, allowing the user to click on "Applications" tab and
end the program that is causing the computer to freeze up. Performing the reset operation
twice will cause the computer, not just the program, to restart and return to the initial state
it was in before the program was opened.
Another method in which to perform a warm boot on a Microsoft based PC is to click on the
"Start" button. From here, the user would click on the "Shut Down" menu and select
"Restart." This will cause the computer to shut down and reset temporarily, without ever
turning off. The computer will restart in the initial state it was in, before the application
froze up.

Task 8 Manipulating the keyboard

Using your keyboard

Whether you're writing a letter or entering numerical data, your keyboard is the main way
to enter information into your computer. But did you know you can also use your keyboard
to control your computer? Learning just a few simple keyboard commands (instructions to
your computer) can help you work more efficiently. These are some basics of keyboard
operations.

How the keys are organized

The keys on your keyboard can be divided into several groups based on function:

 Typing (alphanumeric) keys. These keys include the same letter, number,
punctuation, and symbol keys found on a traditional typewriter.
 Special (Control) keys. These keys are used alone or in combination with other keys
to perform certain actions. The most frequently used control keys are CTRL, ALT, the
Windows logo key , and ESC.

 Function keys. The function keys are used to perform specific tasks. They are
labelled as F1, F2, F3, and so on, up to F12. The functionality of these keys differs
from program to program.

 Cursor Movement (Navigation) keys. These keys are used for moving around in
documents or WebPages and editing text. They include the arrow keys, HOME, END,
PAGE UP, PAGE DOWN, DELETE, and INSERT.

 Numeric keypad. The numeric keypad is handy for entering numbers quickly. The
A C
keys are grouped together in a block like a conventional calculator or adding
machine.
B D E
C C xxxvii
D
Key names
A – Function keys
B – Alphanumeric keys
C – Control keys
D – Navigation keys
E – Numeric keypad

The above illustration shows how these keys are arranged on a typical keyboard. Your
keyboard layout may differ.

Exercise: With the help of your tutor, identify all the keys in each of the categories
listed above and their general tasks.

Task 9 Using the mouse

Just as you would use your hands to interact with objects in the physical world, you can use
your mouse to interact with items on your computer screen. You can move objects, open
them, change them, throw them away, and perform other actions, all by pointing and
clicking with your mouse.

Basic parts

A mouse typically has two buttons: a primary button (usually the left button) and a
secondary button (usually the right button). The primary button is the one you will use most
often. Most mice also include a scroll wheel between the buttons to help you scroll through
documents and WebPages more easily. On some mice, the scroll wheel can be pressed to
act as a third button. Advanced mice might have additional buttons that can perform other
functions.

xxxviii
Holding and moving the mouse

Place your mouse beside your keyboard on a clean, smooth surface, such as a mouse pad.
Hold the mouse gently with your index finger resting on the primary button and you thumb
resting on the side. To move the mouse, slide it slowly in any direction. Don't twist it—keep
the front of the mouse aimed away from you. As you move the mouse, a pointer (see
picture) on your screen moves in the same direction. If you run out of room to move your
mouse on your desk or mouse pad, just pick up the mouse and bring it back closer to you.

Hold the mouse lightly, keeping your wrist straight.

Pointing, clicking, and dragging

Pointing to an item on the screen means moving your mouse so the pointer appears to be
touching the item. When you point to something, a small box often appears that describes
the item. For example, when you point to the Recycle Bin on the desktop, a box appears
with this information: "Contains the files and folders that you have deleted."

Pointing to an object often reveals a descriptive message about it

xxxix
The pointer can change depending on what you're pointing at. For example, when you point
to a link in your web browser, the pointer changes from an arrow to a hand with a
pointing finger .

Most mouse actions combine pointing with pressing one of the mouse buttons. There are
four basic ways to use your mouse buttons: clicking, double-clicking, right-clicking, and
dragging.

Clicking (single-clicking)

To click an item, point to the item on the screen, and then press and release the primary
button (usually the left button).

Clicking is most often used to select (mark) an item or open a menu. This is sometimes
called single-clicking or left-clicking.

Double-clicking

To double-click an item, point to the item on the screen, and then click twice quickly. If the
two clicks are spaced too far apart, they might be interpreted as two individual clicks rather
than as one double-click.

Double-clicking is most often used to open items on your desktop. For example, you can
start a program or open a folder by double-clicking its icon on the desktop.

Right-clicking

To right-click an item, point to the item on the screen, and then press and release the
secondary button (usually the right button).

Right-clicking an item usually displays a list of things you can do with the item. For example,
when you right-click the Recycle Bin on your desktop, Windows displays a menu allowing
you to open it, empty it, delete it, or see its properties. If you are unsure of what to do with
something, right-click it.

xl
Right-clicking the Recycle Bin opens a menu of related commands

Dragging

You can move items around your screen by dragging them. To drag an object, point to the
object on the screen, press and hold the primary button, move the object to a new location,
and then release the primary button.

Dragging (sometimes called dragging and dropping) is most often used to move files and
folders to a different location and to move windows and icons around on your screen.

Using the scroll wheel

If your mouse has a scroll wheel, you can use it to scroll through documents and WebPages.
To scroll down, roll the wheel backward (toward you). To scroll up, roll the wheel forward
(away from you).

COMPUTER SYSTEM COMPONENTS

Specific Objectives:
By the end of this topic, the trainee should be able to:
a) Identify computer hardware
b) Discuss computer hardware selection criteria
c) Identify computer software
d) Describe functions of various computer software

Task 1 Identifying computer hardware

Functional/Logical parts of a digital computer

The system unit houses the processing components of the computer system. All other
computer system devices are called peripherals, and are connected directly or indirectly into
the system unit.
Computer system
Co
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System Unit
C uniArit
I Regist
o catihm O
n etic xli
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CPUn Lo
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  Input devices – Enters program and data into computer system.
 Central Processing Unit (CPU) – This is the part of the computer that processes
data. Consists of main memory, the control unit and the arithmetic and logic unit.
 Main Memory – Temporary storage to hold programs and data during execution/
processing.
 Control Unit – Controls execution of programs.
 Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) – Performs actual processing of data using program
instructions.
 Output devices – Displays information processed by the computer system.
 Storage devices – Permanent storage of data and programs before and after it is
processed by the computer system.
 Communication devices – Enable communication with other computers.

Hardware
Refers to the physical, tangible computer equipment and devices, which provide support for
major functions such as input, processing (internal storage, computation and control), output,
secondary storage (for data and programs), and communication.

Hardware categories
A computer system is a set of integrated devices that input, output, process, and store data
and information. Computer systems are currently built around at least one digital processing
device. There are five main hardware components in a computer system: the central
processing unit (CPU); primary storage (main memory); secondary storage; and input and
output devices.

Basic elements of hardware

The basic elements that make up a computer system are as follows:

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 a) Input
Most computers cannot accept data in forms customary to human communication such as
speech or hand-written documents. It is necessary, therefore, to present data to the computer
in a way that provides easy conversion into its own electronic pulse-based forms. This is
commonly achieved by typing data using the keyboard or using an electronic mouse or any
other input device.

 Keyboard can be connected to a computer system through a terminal. A

terminal is a form of input and output device. A terminal can be connected to a
mainframe or other types of computers called a host computer or server. There
are four types of terminals namely dumb, intelligent, network and Internet.

 Dumb Terminal
- Used to input and receive data only.
- It cannot process data independently.
- A terminal used by an airline reservation clerk to access a mainframe
computer for flight information is an example of a dumb terminal
 Intelligent Terminal
- Includes a processing unit, memory, and secondary storage.
- It uses communications software and a telephone hookup or other
communications link.
- A microcomputer connected to a larger computer by a modem or
network link is an example of an intelligent terminal.
 Network Terminal
- Also known as a thin client or network computer.
- It is a low cost alternative to an intelligent terminal.
- Most network terminals do not have a hard drive.
- This type of terminal relies on a host computer or server for application
or system software.
 Internet Terminal
- It is also known as a web terminal.
- It provides access to the Internet and displays web pages on a standard
television set.
- It is used almost exclusively in the home.

 Direct data entry devices –

Direct entry creates machine-readable data that can go directly to the
CPU. It reduces human error that may occur during keyboard entry. Direct
entry devices include pointing, scanning and voice-input devices.

 Pen input devices e.g. Light pen

Pen input devices are used to select or input items by touching the screen with the pen.
Light pens accomplish this by using a white cell at the tip of the pen. When the light pen is
placed against the monitor, it closes a photoelectric circuit. The photoelectric circuit
identifies the spot for entering or modifying data. Engineers who design microprocessor
chips or airplane parts use light pens.

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Touch sensitive screen inputs
Touch sensitive screens, or touch screens, allow the user to execute programs or select menu
items by touching a portion of a special screen. Behind the plastic layer of the touch screen
are crisscrossed invisible beams of infrared light. Touching the screen with a finger can
activate actions or commands. Touch screens are often used in ATMs, information centres,
restaurants, and or stores. They are popularly used at gas stations for customers to select the
grade of gas or request a receipt at the pump (in developed countries), as well as in fast-food
restaurants to allow clerks to easily enter orders.
ii. Scanning Devices
Scanning devices, or scanners, can be used to input images and character data
directly into a computer. The scanner digitises the data into machine-readable
form.
iii. The scanning devices used in direct-entry include the following:
 Image Scanner – converts images on a page to electronic signals.
 Fax Machine – converts light and dark areas of an image into format that
can be sent over telephone lines.
 Bar-Code Readers – photoelectric scanner that reads vertical striped marks
printed on items.
 Character and Mark Recognition Devices – scanning devices used to read
marks on documents.

Character and Mark Recognition Device Features

 Can be used by mainframe computers or powerful microcomputers.
 There are three kinds of character and mark recognition devices:
- Magnetic-ink character recognition (MICR)
Magnetic ink character recognition, or MICR, readers are used to read the
numbers printed at the bottom of checks in special magnetic ink. These numbers
are an example of data that is both machine readable and human readable. The
use of MICR readers increases the speed and accuracy of processing checks.

- Optical-character recognition (OCR)

Read special preprinted characters, such as those on utility and telephone bills.

- Optical-mark recognition (OMR)

Reads marks on tests – also called mark sensing. Optical mark recognition
readers are often used for test scoring since they can read the location of marks
on what is sometimes called a mark sense document. This is how, for instance,
standardized tests, such as the KCPE, SAT or GMAT are scored.

iv. Voice–input devices

Voice-Input Devices can also be used for direct input into a computer. Speech
recognition can be used for data input when it is necessary to keep your hands free. For
example, a doctor may use voice recognition software to dictate medical notes while
examining a patient. Voice recognition can also be used for security purposes to allow
only authorized people into certain areas or to use certain devices.

 Voice-input devices convert speech into a digital code.

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  The most widely used voice-input device is the microphone.
 A microphone, sound card, and software form a voice recognition system.

Note:

Point-of-sale (POS) terminals (electronic cash registers) use both keyboard and direct
entry.
 Keyboard Entry can be used to type in information.
 Direct Entry can be used to read special characters on price tags.

Point-of-sale terminals can use wand readers or platform scanners as direct entry devices.
 Wand readers or scanners reflect light on the characters.
 Reflection is changed by photoelectric cells to machine-readable code.
 Encoded information on the product’s barcode e.g. price appear on terminal’s
digital display.

b) Storage
Data and instructions enter main storage, and are held until needed to be worked on. The
instructions dictate action to be taken on the data. Results of the action will be held until they
are required for output.

c) Control
Each computer has a control unit that fetches instructions from main storage, interprets them,
and issues the necessary signals to the components making up the system. It directs all
hardware operations necessary in obeying instructions.

d) Processing
Instructions are obeyed and the necessary arithmetic and logic operations are carried out on
the data. The part that does this is called the Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU).

Processing devices
(i) The CPU (Central Processing Unit)
The CPU (Central Processing Unit) controls the processing of instructions. The CPU
produces electronic pulses at a predetermined and constant rate. This is called the clock
speed. Clock speed is generally measured in megahertz, that is, millions of cycles per
second.

It consists of:

o Control Unit (CU) – The electronic circuitry of the control unit accesses
program instructions, decodes them and coordinates instruction execution in
the CPU.
o Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU) – Performs mathematical calculations and
logical comparisons.
o Registers – These are high-speed storage circuitry that holds the instruction
and the data while the processor is executing the instruction.

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 o Bus – This is a highway connecting internal components to each other.

(ii) Main Memory

Primary storage, also called main memory, although not a part of the CPU, is closely related
to the CPU. Main memory holds program instructions and data before and after execution
by the CPU. All instructions and data pass through main memory locations. Memory is
located physically close to the CPU to decrease access time, that is, the time it takes the CPU
to retrieve data from memory. Although the overall trend has been increased memory access
time, memory has not advanced as quickly as processors. Memory access time is often
measured in milliseconds, or one thousandths of a second.

e) Output
Results are taken from main storage and fed to an output device. This may be a printer, in
which case the information is automatically converted to a printed form called hard copy or
to a monitor screen for a soft copy of data or information.

Output devices
Output is human-readable information. Input (data) is processed inside the computer’s CPU
into meaningful output (information). Output devices translate the machine-readable
information into human-readable information.
 Punched cards: characters are coded onto an 80-column card in columns by
combining punches in different locations; a special card reader reads the cards and
translates them into transactions for the computer. These are now used only for older
applications.
 Paper tape punch

Printers
– Outputs printout on paper often referred to as hard-copy output.
Categorized according to:

(I) Printing capacity

o Character printers – Print one character at a time.

o Line printers – Print one line at a time.
o Page printers – Print a whole page at a time.

(ii) Mode of printing

o Dot matrix printers

Form images via pins striking aribbon against apaper. The print head typically have 9 or 24
pins. The images are relatively of poor quality since dots are visible upon close inspection.
Though inexpensive compared to other types, they are noisy and low-end models are slow
(speed varies with price).

o Ink jet printers

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Form images by “shooting” tiny droplets of ink on paper. They offer relatively good image
quality with so many small dots that they are not noticeable, even upon close inspection.
They are relatively quiet compared to dot matrix and most can print colour images.

o Laser jet printers

They form images using copier technology. Alaser/LED (Light Emitting Diode) lights up
dots to be blackened and toner sticks to these dot positions on the paper. They have excellent
image quality – so many small dots that they are not noticeable, even upon close inspection.
They are quieter than ink jet printers.

o Thermal Printers

Form images using heat elements and heat – sensitive paper. It is very quiet and not widely
used by home PC users. Some very expensive colour models are available. “Ink” in these
computers is wax crayons.

Plotters
Plotters are typically used for design output. They are special-purpose output devices used
to produce charts, maps, architectural drawings and three-dimensional representations. They
can produce high-quality multi-colour documents or larger size documents. Plotters produce
documents such as blueprints or schematics.

Monitors
Output device for soft-copy output (temporal screen display of output which lasts as long as
the monitor’s power is on). They are the most frequently used output devices. Some are
used on the desktop; others are portable. Two important characteristics of the monitor are
size and clarity.

Voice-output devices
 Voice-output devices make sounds that resemble human speech.
 Voice-output devices use pre-recorded vocalized sounds to produce output.
 The computer “speaks” synthesized words.
 Voice output is not as difficult to create as voice input.
 Most widely used voice-output devices are stereo speakers and headphones.
 Devices are connected to a sound card in the system unit.
 Sound card is used to capture sound as well as play it back.

Examples of voice output uses:

 Soft-drink machines, the telephone, and in cars.
 Voice output can be used as a tool for learning.
 Can help students study a foreign language.
 Used in supermarkets at the checkout counter to confirm purchases.
 Most powerful capability is to assist the physically challenged.

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Auxiliary/Secondary Storage devices
Secondary storage devices store a larger amount of data or instructions than main memory
does, on a more permanent basis. On a per megabyte basis, secondary storage is also
cheaper than primary storage. Secondary storage is also infinitely extendable, unlike main
memory, which is finite. Secondary storage is not volatile. Secondary storage is also more
portable than primary storage – that is, it is possible to remove it from a computer and use
the device and its contents in another.

Types of secondary storage devices

 Magnetic disks – Stores bits as magnetic spots. Magnetic disks are similar to
magnetic tapes in that areas are magnetized to represent bits. However the disks’
read/write head can go directly to the desired record, allowing fast data retrieval.
Magnetic disks can range from small and portable, such as diskettes with 1.44MB of
storage capacity, to large capacity fixed hard disks, which are more expensive and
less portable.
o Floppy disks (diskettes)

 5 ¼ floppy disks
 3 ½ floppy disks – The most common size with a capacity of 1.44
MB. They are not very fast and durable.

o Hard disks/Fixed disks – Also called hard drives. Their capacity range
from 20 to 120 GB. They are fast and durable though not foolproof. Most
are internal, but disks that use removable cartridge are available. Disk
compression can be used to increase capacity but slows performance.

 Optical Disks – Store bits as “pits” and “lands” on surface of disk that
can be detected (read) by a laser beam.

o CD-ROM (Compact-Disk Read Only Memory) – Only read and

cannot be erased for rewriting. Has a capacity of 650 MB
o CD-R (Compact-Disk Recordable) / WORM (Write Once, Read
Many) – Usually blank at first and can be written only once. Has a
capacity of 650 MB
o CD-RW (Compact Disk Rewritable) – Can written and read more
than once. Has a capacity of 650 MB.
o DVD-ROM (Digital Video Disks) – They are similar to CDs except
that it has high quality sound and high-resolution video. Has a normal
capacity of 4.7 GB and up to 17 GB if double-sided with double
layering. Uses laser technology. They are a relatively new technology
usually used in the entertainment industry.
 Magnetic Tapes – Magnetic tape is similar in composition to the kind of
tape found in videotapes and audiotapes. A plastic film is coated with iron
oxide, which is magnetized to represent bits.
o Tape cartridges – Used in personal computers. Has up to 20 GB per
tape (probably even more).
o Tape reels – Used in minicomputers and mainframes.

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  Other Backup Options

o Zip drive/disk – Uses special diskettes that hold 100 MB, 250 MB or
750 MB
o SyQuest drive – Uses special cartridges that hold 200 MB
 RAID - RAID stands for redundant arrays of independent or inexpensive
disks. RAID technology is fault tolerant; that is, it allows data to be stored so
that no data or transactions are lost in the event of disk failure. RAID involves
using multiple hard disks in a special controller unit and storing data across
all the disks in conjunction with extra reconstruction information that allows
data to be recovered if a hard disk fails.

 Storage Area Network (SAN) – A storage area network connects servers

and storage devices in a network to store large volumes of data. Data stored in
a storage area network can be quickly retrieved and backed up. The use of
storage area networks is likely to increase in the near future.

 Computer Output Microfilm (COM) -Companies that must store

significant numbers of paper documents often use computer output microfilm.
These devices transfer data directly from the computer onto the microfilm,
thus eliminating the intermediate step of printing the document on paper.
Newspapers and journals typically archive old issues in this manner, although
some are now using optical storage devices.

Storage capacity abbreviations

 KB - kilobyte - 1000 (thousand)
 MB - megabyte - 1,000,000 (million)
 GB - gigabyte - 1,000,000,000 (billion)
 TB - terabyte - 1,000,000,000,000 (trillion)

Communication devices
 Modem - Modems allow computers (digital devices) to communicate via the phone
system (based on analog technology). It turns the computers digital data into analog,
sends it over the phone line, and then another modem at the other end of the line
turns the analog signal back into digital data.
 Fax/modem - basic digital/analog modem enhanced with fax transmission hardware
that enables faxing of information from computer to another fax/modem or a fax
machine (NOTE: a separate scanner must be connected to the computer in order to
use the fax/modem to transfer external documents)

Computer Memory
Memory capability is one of the features that distinguish a computer from other electronic
devices. Like the CPU, memory is made of silicon chips containing circuits holding data
represented by on or off electrical states, or bits. Eight bits together form a byte. Memory is
usually measured in megabytes or gigabytes.

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A kilobyte is roughly 1,000 bytes. Specialized memories, such as cache memories, are
typically measured in kilobytes. Often both primary memory and secondary storage
capacities today contain megabytes, or millions of bytes, of space.

Types of Memory
Volatile
Me Non Volatile

R mo R
A ry O
D S
M Etyp P M E
R D Des R P
A R O O R
M A M O
M M

1. RAM (Random Access Memory) /RWM (Read Write Memory) – Also referred to as
main memory, primary storage or internal memory. Its content can be read and can
be changed and is the working area for the user. It is used to hold programmes and
data during processing. RAM chips are volatile, that is, they loose their contents if
power is disrupted.
Typical sizes of RAM include 32MB, 64MB, 128MB, 256MB and 512MB.
a. EDO – Extended Data Out
b. DRAM – Dynamic RAM
c. SDRAM – Synchronous

2. ROM (Read Only Memory) – Its contents can only be read and cannot be changed.
ROM chips is non-volatile, so the contents aren’t lost if the power is disrupted.
ROM provides permanent storage for unchanging data & instructions, such as data
from the computer maker. It is used to hold instructions for starting the computer
called the bootstrap program.

ROM: chips, the contents, or combination of electrical circuit states, are set by the
manufacturer and cannot be changed. States are permanently manufactured into the
chip.

PROM: the settings must be programmed into the chip. After they are programmed,
PROM behaves like ROM – the circuit states can’t be changed. PROM is used
when instructions will be permanent, but they aren’t produced in large enough
quantities to make custom chip production (as in ROM) cost effective. PROM chips
are, for example, used to store video game instructions.

Instructions are also programmed into erasable programmable read-only memory.

However, the contents of the chip can be erased and the chip can be reprogrammed.
EPROM chips are used where data and instructions don’t change often, but non-
volatility and quickness are needed. The controller for a robot arm on an assembly
line is an example of EPROM use.

l
 a. PROM (Programmable Read Only Memory) – It is written onto only once
using special devices. Used mostly in electronic devices such as alarm
systems.
b. EPROM (Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory) –Can be written onto
more than once.

3. Cache Memory - Cache memory is high-speed memory that a processor can access more
quickly than RAM. Frequently used instructions are stored in cache since they can be
retrieved more quickly, improving the overall performance of the computer. Level 1 (L1)
cache is located on the processor; Level 2 (L2) cache is located between the processor and
RAM.
Task 2 Discussing computer hardware selection criteria

The following factors are considered when selecting hardware for use:
i) Compatibility and Industry Standards:
 Is the hardware compatible and futuristic in regard to other pieces of hardware in
your technology plan;
 Are there industry standards for similar hardware components;
 Is transfer of operating knowledge from other technologies applicable?
ii) Ease of Operation:
 Can hardware be installed and maintained by local staff persons;
 Are adult and student users able to access/use hardware with minimal additional
technology competencies;
 Can hardware be serviced, maintained, and upgraded locally?
iii) Support:
 Is technical support provided by vendor at minimal cost and available in a variety of
mediums;
 Are printed and electronic manuals written and understandable;
 Does the vendor have a strong Research and Development Department;
 Does the vendor have a strong commitment to the Educational Community?
iv) Cost:
 Is the cost competitive within the market place for like specifications;
 Are the required/requested components included in the purchase price;
 Are detailed and renewal warranties available?
v) Specific Considerations:
 Is there capability for and ease of using multimedia;
 Is the equipment networkable;
 Does the hardware includes sound utilities, video input/output, etc;
 Is the built in memory sufficient and expandable;
 Is the hard drive storage adequate and expandable;
 Are computers and printers compatible;
 Are there adequate electronic devices available for backup and storage of data;
 Are printers adequate to handle current and future job loads;
 Are monitors ad projection devices adequate for small and large groups;
 Do presentation systems have quality sound in and out capabilities
vi) Ordering Suggestions:
 Occasionally group purchases/bundles are available; investigate current or pending
offers

li
  Hardware packages may not provide adequate memory for necessary program
functions; consideration should be given to the savings of the package vs. the cost of
additional memory upgrades.
 Consideration must be given to whether a line of equipment is being discontinued;
what implications does the
 Discontinuance have on issues such as maintenance.
 Review the type of warranty which is provided on the hardware.
 Maintain copies of all warranties.
 When purchasing software, it is recommended that companies offering 30 day
preview of software be used whenever possible.

Task 3 Identifying and describing functions of various computer software

Computer Software
A computer software/program is a sequence of instructions that tell the computer hardware
what to do. Programs are written in programming languages, which consists of a set of
symbols combined according to a given syntax.
A program must be in main memory (RAM) to be executed.

Software is classified into two major types: system and application software.

System software
Systems software consists of programs that coordinates the activities of hardware and
other programs. System software is designed for a specific CPU and hardware class. The
combination of a particular hardware configuration and operating system is called a
computer platform. These programs manage the "behind the scenes" operation of the
computer.
Examples
 Operating systems
 Utility Programs - Utility programs often come installed on computer systems or
packaged with operating systems. Utilities can also be purchased individually.
Utility programs perform useful tasks, such as virus detection, tracking computer
jobs, and compressing data. Language processors – Compilers and interpreters
Operating systems
The functions of an operating system include:
 Perform common hardware functions
- Accept input and store data on disks and send data to output devices
 Provide a user interface
 Provide hardware independence
 Manage system memory
 Manage processing
 Control access to system resources
- Protection against unauthorized access
- Logins and passwords
 Manage files
- Physical storage location
- File permissions

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 - File access
Examples of operating systems include:
 DOS – Disk operating system Windows 3.1, 95, 98, NT, 2000, ME, XPLinux, Unix,
MAC OS, System/7Application software
Applications software includes programs designed to help end users solve particular
problems using the computer or to perform specific tasks.
Sources of application software

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Advantages of proprietary software

 You can get exactly what you need in terms of reports, features etc.
 Being involved in development offers a further level in control over results.
 There is more flexibility in making modifications that may be required to counteract
a new initiative by a competitor or to meet new supplier or customer requirements. A
merger with another firm or an acquisition will also necessitate software changes to
meet new business needs.

Disadvantages of proprietary software

 It can take a long time and significant resources to develop required features.
 In house system development staff may become hard pressed to provide the required
level of ongoing support and maintenance because of pressure to get on to other new
projects.
 There is more risk concerning the features and performance of the software that has
yet to be developed.

Advantages of off-the-shelf software

 The initial cost is lower since the software firm is able to spread the development
costs over a large number of customers.
 There is lower risk that the software will fail to meet the basic business needs

liii
 – you can analyse existing features and performance of the package
 Package is likely to be of high quality since many customer firms have tested the
software and helped identify many of its bugs.

Disadvantages of off-the-shelf software

 An organization may have to pay for features that are not required and never used.
 The software may lack important features, thus requiring future modifications or
customisation. This can be very expensive because users must adopt future releases
of the software.
 Software may not match current work processes and data standards.

Application software is further classified into general-purpose software and applications.

Functions of various General-purpose software

 Word processing – Create, edit and print text documents. E.g. MS Word, Word
Perfect.
 Spreadsheets – Provide a wide range of built-in functions for statistical, logical,
financial, database, graphics, data and time calculations. E.g. Lotus 1-2-3, Excel,
Quattro Pro.
 Database management systems (DBMS) – Store, manipulate and retrieve data. E.g.
Access, FoxPro, dBase.
 Online Information Services – Obtain a broad range of information from commercial
services. E.g. America Online, CompuServe
 Communications- Ms Outlook for email
 Browsers e.g Internet Explorer, Eudora
 Graphics – Develop graphs, illustrations and drawings. E.g. PaintShop, FreeHand,
Corel
 Project Management – Plan, schedule, allocate and control people and resources
needed to complete a project according to schedule. E.g. Project for Windows, Time
Line.
 Financial Management – Provide income and expense tracking and reporting to
monitor and plan budgets. E.g. Quicken
 Desktop publishing - Used to create high-quality printed output including text and
graphics; various styles of pages can be laid out; art and text from other programs can
also be integrated into published pages. E.g. PageMaker, Publisher.
 Presentation packages like MS PowerPoint

Note: A software suite, such as Microsoft Office, offers a collection of powerful

programs including word processing, spreadsheet, database, graphics and other
programs. The programs in a software suite are designed to be used together. In addition,
the commands, the icons and procedures are the same for all programs in the suite.

Programming Languages
Programming languages are collections of commands, statements and words that are
combined using a particular syntax, or rules, to write both systems and application software.
This results in meaningful instructions to the CPU.
Generations of programming languages

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Machine Language (1st Generation Languages)
A machine language consists of binary digit, that is, zeroes and ones. Instructions and
addresses are written in binary (0, 1) code. Binary is the only “language” a CPU can
understand. The CPU directly interprets and executes this language, therefore making it fast
in execution of its instructions. Machine language programs directly instructed the computer
hardware, so they were not portable. That is, a program written for computer model A could
not be run on computer model B without being rewritten. All software in other languages
must ultimately be translated down to machine language form. The translation process
makes the other languages slower.

Advantage
 The only advantage is that program of machine language run very fast because no
translation program is required for the CPU.

Disadvantages
 It is very difficult to program in machine language. The programmer has to know
details of hardware to write a program.
 The programmer has to remember a lot of codes to write a program, which results in
program errors.
 It is difficult to debug the program.
Assembly Language (2nd Generation languages)
It uses symbols and codes instead of binary digits to represent program instructions. It is a
symbolic language meaning that instructions and addresses are written using alphanumeric
labels, meaningful to the programmer.

The resulting programs still directly instructed the computer hardware. For example, an
assembly language instruction might move a piece of data stored at a particular location in
RAM into a particular location on the CPU. Therefore, like their first generation
counterparts, second generation programs were not easily portable.

Assembly languages were designed to run in a small amount of RAM. Furthermore, they are
low-level languages; that is the instructions directly manipulates the hardware. Therefore,
programs written in assembly language execute efficiently and quickly. As a result, more
systems software is still written using assembly languages.
The language has a one to one mapping with machine instructions but has macros added to
it. A macro is a group of multiple machine instructions, which are considered as one
instruction in assembly language. A macro performs a specific task, for example adding,
subtracting etc. A one to one mapping means that for every assembly instruction there is a
corresponding single or multiple instructions in machine language.
An assembler is used to translate the assembly language statements into machine language.

Advantages:
 The symbolic programming of Assembly Language is easier to understand and saves
a lot of time and effort of the programmer.

lv
  It is easier to correct errors and modify program instructions.
 Assembly Language has the same efficiency of execution as the machine level
language. Because this is one-to-one translator between assembly language program
and its corresponding machine language program.

Disadvantages:
 One of the major disadvantages is that assembly language is machine dependent. A
program written for one computer might not run in other computers with different
hardware configuration.
High-level languages (3rd generation languages)
Third generation languages are easier to learn and use than were earlier generations. Thus
programmers are more productive when using third generation languages. For most
applications, this increased productivity compensates for the decrease in speed and
efficiency of the resulting programs. Furthermore, programs written in third generation
languages are portable; that is, a program written to run on a particular type of computer can
be run with little or no modification on another type of computer. Portability is possible
because third generation languages are “high-level languages”; that is instructions do not
directly manipulate the computer hardware.

Third generation languages are sometimes referred to as “procedural” languages since

program instructions, must still the computer detailed instructions of how to reach the
desired result.

High-level languages incorporated greater use of symbolic code. Its statements are more
English –like, for example print, get, while. They are easier to learn but the resulting
program is slower in execution. Examples include Basic, Cobol, C and Fortran. They have
first to be compiled (translated into corresponding machine language statements) through
the use of compilers.
Advantages of High Level Languages
 Higher-level languages have a major advantage over machine and assembly
languages that higher-level languages are easy to learn and use.
 Are portable

Fourth Generation Languages (4GLs)

Fourth generation languages are even easier to use, and more English-like, than are third
generation languages. Fourth generation languages are sometimes referred to as “non-
procedural”, since programs tell the computer what it needs to accomplish, but do not
provide detailed instructions as to how it should accomplish it. Since fourth generation
languages concentrate on the output, not procedural details, they are more easily used by
people who are not computer specialists, that is, by end users.

Many of the first fourth generation languages were connected with particular database
management systems. These languages were called query languages since they allow people
to retrieve information from databases. Structured query language, SQL, is a current fourth

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generation language used to access many databases. There are also some statistical fourth
generation languages, such as SAS or SPSS.

Some fourth generation languages, such as Visual C++, Visual Basic, or PowerBuilder are
targeted to more knowledgeable users, since they are more complex to use. Visual
programming languages, such as visual basic, use windows, icons, and pull down menus to
make programming easier and more intuitive.

Object Oriented Programming

First, second, third and fourth generation programming languages were used to construct
programs that contained procedures to perform operations, such as draw or display, on data
elements defined in a file.

Object oriented programs consist of objects, such as a time card, that include descriptions of
the data relevant to the object, as well as the operations that can be done on that data. For
example, included in the time card object, would be descriptions of such data such as
employee name, hourly rate, start time, end time, and so on. The time card object would
also contain descriptions of such operations as calculate total hours worked or calculate total
pay.

Language translators
Although machine language is the only language the CPU understands, it is rarely used
anymore since it is so difficult to use. Every program that is not written in machine
language must be translated into machine language before it can be executed. This is done
by a category of system software called language translation software. These are programs
that convert the code originally written by the programmer, called source code, into its
equivalent machine language program, called object code.
There are two main types of language translators: interpreters and compilers.

Interpreters
While a program is running, interpreters read, translate, and execute one statement of the
program at a time. The interpreter displays any errors immediately on the monitor.
Interpreters are very useful for people learning how to program or debugging a program.
However, the line-by-line translation adds significant overhead to the program execution
time leading to slow execution.

Compilers
A compiler uses a language translation program that converts the entire source program into
object code, known as an object module, at one time. The object module is stored and it is
the object module that executes when the program runs. The program does not have to be
compiled again until changes are made in the source code.
Software trends and issues
Open source software coming to the scene. This is software that is freely available to anyone
and can be easily modified. The use of open source software has increased dramatically due
to the World Wide Web. Users can download the source code from web sites. Open source
software is often more reliable than commercial software because there are many users

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collaborating to fix problems. The biggest problem with open source software is the lack of
formal technical support. However, some companies that package open source software with
various add-ons and sell it with support are addressing this. An example of this is Red Hat
Linux operating system.

OPERATING SYSTEM AND COMPUTER APPLICATION SOFTWARE

Specific Objectives:
By the end of this topic, the trainee should be able to:
a) Describe features of an operating system
b) Describe features of application software
c) Choose appropriate computer software
d) Use an operating system

Task 1 Describing features of an operating system

An operating system (OS) is a software program that manages the hardware and software
resources of a computer. The OS performs basic tasks, such as controlling and allocating
memory, prioritizing the processing of instructions, controlling input and output devices,
facilitating networking, and managing files.

Every general-purpose computer must have an operating system to run other programs.
Operating systems can be classified as follows:
 Multi-user: Allows two or more users to run programs at the same time. Some
operating systems permit hundreds or even thousands of concurrent users.
 Multiprocessing: Supports running a program on more than one CPU.
 Multitasking: Allows more than one program to run concurrently.
 Multithreading: Allows different parts of a single program to run concurrently.
 Real time: Responds to input instantly. General-purpose operating systems, such as
DOS and UNIX, are not real-time.

Features of an Operating System

The main features of an operating system can be thought of as functions of the operating
systems. They are the qualities that an operating system should strive to achieve.
i) Managing Resources – These programs coordinate all the
computer’s resources including keyboard, mouse, printer, monitor,
storage devices and memory.
An operating system creates a file structure on the computer hard
drive where user data can be stored and retrieved. When a file is saved,
the operating system saves it, attaches a name to it, and remembers
where it put the file for future use. The way an operating system
organizes information into files is called the file system. Most operating
systems use a hierarchical file system, which organizes files into
directories (folders) under a tree structure. The beginning of the directory

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system is called the root directory. The figure below shows a screenshot
of tree structure when using Windows Explorer.

An example of a screenshot of tree structure when using Windows

Explorer.

ii) Providing a user interface – Users interact with application

programs and computer hardware through a user interface. Almost
all operating systems today provide a windows-like Graphical User
Interface (GUI) in which graphic objects called icons are used to
represent commonly used features.

iii) Running applications – These programs load and run applications

such as word processors and spreadsheets. Most operating systems
support multitasking, or the ability to run more than one application
at a time. When a user requests a program, the operating system
locates the application and loads it into the primary memory or RAM
of the computer. As more programs are loaded, the operating
system must allocate the computer resources.

iv) Support for built-in utility programs –The operating system

uses utility programs for maintenance and repairs. Utility programs
help identify problems, locate lost files, repair damaged files, and
backup data. The figure here shows the progress of the Disk
Defragmenter, which is found in Programs > Accessories > System
Tools.

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v) Control to the computer hardware – The operating system sits
between the programs and the Basic Input Output System (BIOS).
The BIOS controls the hardware. All programs that need hardware
resources must go through the operating system. The operating
system can either access the hardware through the BIOS or through
the device drivers.

Task 2 Describing features of application software

Application Software

Software that is required for general and special purpose applications like database
management; word processing, accounting etc. are called “application software.” Some of
the examples of application software are DataBase, Word Star, Tally etc. Application
software is developed using system software by application programmers. Application
software can be further classified into the following two types:

• General purpose application software (Database management packages, Word

processors, spreadsheets etc.)
• Special purpose application software (accounting, inventory, production
management etc.)

Some of the most common application software are:

i) Word processors - A word processor is a computer application used for the

composition, editing, formatting, and printing of any sort of text material.

The following are standard features of word processors:

 Word wrap: automatic arrangement of text in lines of specified length without
the necessity of touching the return key.
 Discretionary Hyphenation: option of inserting a hyphen to break a word that
ends a line: the hyphen does not print if later editing moves the word to the
middle of a line.
 Justification: automatic alignment of text to both the left and right margins.
 Adjustment: realignment of text to new margin and tab settings.

lx
  Alignment: positioning text or numbers to specified margin and tab settings.
 Decimal Alignment: positioning columns of numbers with the decimal points
vertically aligned.
 Indents: the setting of temporary margins within a document differing from
the primary margins used.
 Centering text on a line.
 Insertion: the entry of new text within previously typed material without
erasing the existing material.
 Over striking: the substitution of new text for old by typing over the old text.
 Deletion: erasure of text from the screen, or of whole documents from the
disk.
 Search and Replace: moving directly to specified words or parts of words
within a document and replacing them with different words or word portions.
 Copying or Cutting: the duplication or moving of blocks of text within a
document.
 Boilerplate: the separate storage and retrieval of blocks of text from which
standard documents can be built.
 Pagination: automatic division of a document into pages of specified numbers
of lines.
 Page Numbering: automatic sequential numbering of pages.
 Headers and Footers: option of creating standard blocks of text that will
automatically appear at the top or bottom of each page in a document.
 Footnoting: automatic sequential numbering of footnotes and positioning of
the footnotes at the bottom of their appropriate pages during pagination.
 Table of Contents and Index Generators. Programs that create these based on
the text of a document.
 Form Letter Merging: automatic combining of a form letter with a mailing list
to generate multiple copies of the letter with the different addresses and other
variable information filled in.
 Automatic Spelling Checker and Corrector. Program that compares words in
the text against an on-line dictionary, flagging items not found in the
dictionary and offering alternative spellings and a means of correcting the
errors.
ii) Spreadsheets - A spreadsheet is a computer application that simulates a paper,
accounting worksheet. It displays multiple cells that together make up a grid
consisting of rows and columns, each cell containing either alphanumeric text or
numeric values. A spreadsheet cell may alternatively contain a formula that
defines how the content of that cell is to be calculated from the contents of any
other cell (or combination of cells) each time any cell is updated. Spreadsheets are
frequently used for financial information because of their ability to re-calculate
the entire sheet automatically after a change to a single cell is made.

The following are standard features of spreadsheets:

Columns and Rows

 A spreadsheet is a grid consisting of columns and rows. Rows are labeled with
numbers, and columns are labeled with letters, giving each cell a unique address

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 consisting of a number and a letter. If you are familiar with the old game "Battleship",
you'll be quite comfortable with cell addressing.
 A cell may contain labels or values. A label is a text entry, such as TOTAL, that can
not be manipulated by the spreadsheet. A value can be a number, a date, a formula, or
the answer of a formula.
 A single "grid", or page, is usually referred to as a worksheet.

Formulas
 Formulas are used to express mathematical relationships between cells. For example,
C1=A1+B1 would calculate and display the sum of cells A1 and B1 into cell C1. It
could also be a simple mathematical formula, such as (100 * 3) / 40. Formulas are not
displayed on spreadsheets. What you see in the cell is the result of the formula.
 Don't forget about order of operations; anything inside parenthesis happens first,
followed by multiplication and division, followed by addition and subtraction. When
in doubt, use parenthesis to say exactly what you mean.

Functions - Functions are used as shortcuts when performing mathematical calculations. They
are pre-programmed formulae that give power and flexibility to spreadsheet calculations.
They prevent the user from having to continually enter long and cumbersome expressions.
Some examples are SUM, AVERAGE, MAX, and MIN. Ranges A range is a block of cells.
Formulas can act on single cells or be directed to act on a range of cells. For example, the
range A1:D1 includes the cell A1, B1, C1 and D1. Any calculation performed in A1 will also
be performed in B1, C1 and D1. Graphs and charts
 Data in spreadsheets can be displayed in a graphic form. Spreadsheets allow theÊ
numerical data in the cells to be displayed as a graph or chart. These graphics, which
illustrate the meaning of the numbers in the spreadsheet in different ways, can be used
to stimulate interest and help make a point.
 There are several different types of graphs that can be made. Area graphs, bar and
column graphs, line graphs, pie charts, scatter plot diagrams and 3-D graphs are some
examples.
iii) Database programs

A database is an integrated collection of logically-related records or files consolidated

into a common pool that provides data for one or more multiple uses.
A database management system (DBMS) consists of software that organizes the storage
of data. A DBMS controls the creation, maintenance, and use of the database storage
structures of social organizations and of their users. It allows organizations to place
control of organization wide database development in the hands of Database
Administrators (DBAs) and other specialists. In large systems, a DBMS allows users and
other software to store and retrieve data in a structured way.

The following are the main features of database management systems:

Tables - A table is a collection of data about a specific topic, such as products or suppliers. In
a DBMS, tables are used to store data.
Query - There are two types of query: Select and Action. A select query gathers, collates and
presents information in usable forms. An action query makes changes in specified records of

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 an existing table, or creates a new table. In this course, we will concentrate on select
queries only.
Forms - A form is a type of a database object that is primarily used to enter or display data
in a database. You can also use a form as a switchboard that opens other forms and reports
in the database, or as a custom dialog box that accepts user input and carries out an action
based on the input.
Report - A report is an effective way to present your data in a printed format. Because you
have control over the size and appearance of everything on a report, you can display the
information the way you want to see it. Most reports are bound to one or more table and
query in the database. A report's record source refers to the fields in the underlying tables
and queries.
iv) Presentation programs
A presentation program is a computer software package used to display information,
normally in the form of a slide show. It typically includes three major functions: an editor
that allows text to be inserted and formatted, a method for inserting and manipulating graphic
images and a slide-show system to display the content.

Task 3 Choosing appropriate computer software

There are six key software evaluation criteria that should be considered in an organization's
software decision.
(i) Functionality - Software should have the right functionality to fit your industry specific
requirements. Just because the software is well known, does not mean the vendor has
the specific functionality you need to run your business.
(ii) Technology - The technology that the software vendor runs their software must be a
match for the platform and database that you are running and the expertise of the IT
staff that you have in-house.
(iii) Software Vendor - The software vendor is a critical part of the software selection
process. You are not just buying a static software solution; you are actually buying a
relationship with that software vendor. You will be paying annual maintenance so that
they will continue to develop, enhance, and improve the product.
(iv) Implementation Vendor/ Value Added Reseller (VAR) - Getting the right
implementation vendor/Value Added Reseller is just as critical as finding the right
software solution. You will work closely with them as you go through the difficult task
of implementation. They need to have experience with the software product that you
are implementing and the industry that you are in. You have many
VAR/Implementation Partner options available to you. Make sure you get one that has
a focus in your industry.
(v) Maintenance & Support - You can expect to pay between 18-25% of the license cost
for maintenance. This entitles you to upgrades and some level of support. You should
make sure that this investment will be making on an annual basis will be appropriate.
(vi) Total Cost of Ownership - You need to consider the total cost of ownership of the
software solution and not just the big discount that the vendor may be offering for the
up-front license cost. There are 3 main components of out-of-pocket cost that should
be considered. These components include the software license, software maintenance,

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 and implementation services. You should look at the cost for the next 5-7 years in
order to get a good idea of the long term cost to your organization.

Task 4 Using an operating system

Starting to Use Windows XP

Start Button

A single click of left-hand mouse button on the Start button will invoke the Start menu. The
Start button allows a user to access his/her work or application with the least amount of fuss
in a way that is “discoverable” to the first time user. Actions such as double clicking are not
discoverable.
A single click of the right-hand mouse button will invoke a small, powerful and object
control menu containing the options Open, Explore, Search and properties.

Their functions are described as follows:

Item Function
Open Here, the contents of the Start menu can be viewed. Folders and icons can
be deleted, copied and moved using drag and drop techniques.

Explore It will invoke the powerful Windows XP Explorer. The Explorer displays
a hierarchical representation of the entire system and permits further
manipulation and configuration of Desktop.

Search It will invoke Windows XP file searching utility. It helps in searching a

file either by its name or by its actual content.

Properties Opens the taskbar and start menu properties. It is important in customizing
the start menu and setting the appearance of taskbar.

The Start Menu

The Start menu contains the various categories where various applications and work are
stored. You can move further into various sub-categories by positioning mouse over the
category you are interested in. It will automatically open the next sub-category. You do not
even have to click the mouse.

Tip: If you drag an object either from Desktop or from Windows Explorer and drop it
directly onto the Start button, a link to that object will automatically appear in Start menu.

To display Start menu using a mouse, click on the Start button located at the bottom left of a
screen.

Windows XP compatible keyboards have two extra keys. To display the Start menu using this
keyboard, press the key with the symbol on it. It will open the Start menu.

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To close the Start menu using a mouse, point the mouse at the Desktop (not at the start menu)
and click the left mouse button.
To close the Start menu using a key, press the Esc key.

The following are the sub-menus of the Start menu:

1. All Programs

The All Programs allows one to access all sub-groups that one has created, or which may
be created automatically by application installation routines.

Note

Sub-categories can easily be added to the Programs category by initially clicking the
Start button with the right-hand mouse button and selecting the Open command. The
view will now expand to display the contents of each category as a window. The
creation of additional folders and program icons can be performed easily whilst in this
view.

Finally, when complete, close the windows and click on the Start button with the left
hand mouse button. Your newly created folders and icons will now appear within the
Start menu itself.

2. My Recent Documents

This section in the Start menu contains a list of the last 15 documents that were opened from
your Computer. Simply select the document you wish to continue working on and Windows
XP will automatically launch the associated application and open the file. By allowing a user
to select the actual document to be worked on rather than selecting an application, Windows
XP directly mirrors the way in which people naturally work.

To clear the contents of My recent Documents menu, follow the following process:

• Right Click on the Start button and select properties

• Select Start Menu then customize.
• Click on the Advanced tab then clear list.
• Click OK

3. Classic menu

By right clicking on start then properties, from the start menu tab, one can choose the
classic start menu.

4. Settings

By selecting Settings from the Start menu, one can directly access the Control Panel and
Printers folders. Being able to access the core system configuration utilities in this way is
particularly useful when an application is already in the foreground and you want to make a

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quick change. In this case, simply press “Ctrl+Esc” to invoke the Start menu over the top of
your application and click on “Settings.”

5. Search

The Search utility permits searching of all system resources. Within this category, you can
perform searches for distinct types of search which are described as follows:

i) Files or Folders

Here, you may perform a highly powerful file name and actual file content
search. By using the search program, it is possible to specify a text string that
will occur within a file even if the file is a binary file. This kind of search has
always been useful for users of the UNIX operating system and is more
commonly referred to as a GREP search. You may also search for a particular
type of file, such as searching for all wave sound files (ending in an extension
of .WAV).
To find the location of a file, follow the following procedure:
• Click on the Start button
• Click on the Search command
From the sub-menu displayed, select For Files or Folders (refer to
figure 5.1)

Figure 5.1-- Search: All Files dialog box

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Make sure that the Name and Location tab is selected. Follow the following
procedure:

• In the Named section, enter the name of the file you wish to
locate. In this example, we have entered “wordpad.exe”
• Ensure that the correct drive to be searched is selected, in this
case it is
Drive C
• To search the whole disk, make sure “Include subfolders” box is ticked
• To start the search, click on the “Search” button. In this case, the results will be
displayed

Figure 5.2-- Search: Files named

wordpad.exe dialog box

To open the file that has been found, double click on it.

ii) On the Internet

This command will start Internet Explorer and will display a page
enabling you to search the Internet.

iii) People

This command will display the “Find People” dialog box (refer to figure 5.4). You can use
this command to search your personal address book or you can search for someone on
Internet by selecting one of the directory services from the “Look in” drop down list.
Figure 5.3 – Search on the internet

Figure 5.4—Search for People dialog box

6. Run

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 Figure 5.5 Run dialog box

The Run option provides a text entry box for you to type the name and location of the file you
wish to run. Clicking on Browse will allow you to search all local and network drives for
files. This is particularly useful if you are unsure of the exact filename or path. You can also
run executable files.

Running document files will run the associated program and then display the document
within the correct program. In some cases, you may try running a document file and see the
following message. (Refer to figure 5.6)

Figure 5.6—

This indicates that Windows XP does not understand the file extension and no association has
been set up between a file name extension and a particular program.

To use the keyboard to open the Run dialog box, follow the following procedure:

• Press the “Ctrl+Esc” keys

• Release the keys and then press R

To open folders using the Run command, follow the following procedure:
a. The Run command is normally used to run programs, or to open documents
within programs. However, you can also use it to open folders. For instance, to
open the “\WINDOWS” folder and display its contents, you would enter
“C:\WINDOWS” in the Run dialog box and then click the OK button.

7. Turn off
The Turn off option allows a user to close the Windows XP operating system. It also
ensures that all running processes can halt cleanly and are given a chance to flush any
data that may be in cache memory out to the disk.

Several options are available when shutting the system down. These are summarized as
follows:

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 Figure 5.7—Turn off Windows
It places your computer in power saving stand by mode. To re-awaken your
computer, simply press a key or move the mouse. It should be noted that all PCs
support this feature.

a) Turn off

It flushes all unwritten data to disk and close a system.

b) Restart

It flushes all data from memory and totally restarts a system.

Creating a New File Directly From the Desktop

To create a new document icon on your Desktop, follow the following procedure:

• Right-click on an empty part of the Desktop to display the Desktop popup

menu
• Select the New command
• From the sub-menu displayed, select the type of new file you wish to
Create.
• The list will vary depending on what is installed on your PC
• In the case illustrated, clicking on “New Microsoft Document” will create
the above icon on your Desktop.
Double clicking on this icon will either switch to Microsoft Word (if it is
already running) or start Microsoft Word or create a new document
within the program.

Folder Creation

To create a new folder within the Windows XP Explorer, follow the following procedure:

• Open the Explorer by right clicking on my computer icon.

• Click on Explorer
• Click on the portion of the directory tree where you would like to create a
Subordinate folder (refer to figure 5.8).

Figure 5.8-- Creating a sub-ordinate folder

• Click on the File drop down menu and move the

mouse pointer to New
• In the sub-menu displayed, click on Folder
• The folders will appear, being given a name
determined by Windows XP
• In figure 5.9, the folder names are New Folder, New Folder (2) and New Folder

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 (3)
-
New
Fold

Figure 5.9-- Names of folders

To create a folder directly from the Desktop with the help of pop-up menu, follow the
following procedure:

• Click the right-hand mouse button anywhere on an empty part of the desktop
surface
• The Desktop pop-up menu will be displayed
• Move the mouse pointer to New and from the sub-menu, select Folder (refer to
Figure 5.10)

Figure 5.10-- Creating a folder form desktop

This folder can now be used to help organize your Desktop and keep it free from clutter.
There is no limit to the number of folders you create on either the Desktop or within a file
system. Every folder may contain additional folders.

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Renaming Files or Folders

To rename files or folders using the Explorer, follow the following

procedure:
• Select the file or folder to be renamed
• From the File drop down menu, select the Rename command, or click once using
the right-hand mouse button to display the pop-up menu and click on the Rename
command,
• Enter the new name and press Enter key to confirm the change

Figure 5.11-- Renaming files or

folders

Another way to rename files or folders is as follows:

• Within the Explorer, click once on the file or folder to select it

• Wait a few moments and then single click on the file or folder (using the left-
hand mouse button)
• A box will appear around the file or folder allowing you to directly edit the
name.

It should be noted that there is no need to make the second click too soon after the first click
as Windows XP may interpret this as a “run this file command.”

Deleting Files or Folders

Files or folders can easily be deleted from the Windows Explorer. Many files that you can see
using the Explorer are vital to the correct functioning of Windows XP.

It should be remembered that the Explorer program in common with many Windows XP
programs has an “Undo Delete” command located under the “Edit” drop down menu.
Unlike
Word for Windows, however, this is limited to one level of undo, not 100 levels.

To delete a file or folder, follow the following procedure:

• Click on the Start button and move the mouse pointer to Programs
• From the sub-menu displayed, click on “Windows Explorer”
• Select the file or folder that you wish to delete
• Click on the right-hand mouse button to display the pop-up menu
• From the pop-up menu, click on Delete which displays the dialog box (refer to

lxxi
 Figure 5.12)

Figure 5.12-- Confirm file delete dialog box

• Confirm your deletion

It should be noted that all files deleted via the Windows Explorer move to the Recycle Bin
before being finally purged and so remain salvageable for quite a long time.

To physically delete a file without first being sent to the Recycle Bin, follow the following
procedure:
• Select the file you wish to completely delete from your computer system
• Press Shift+Del which will display a warning dialog box (refer to figure 5.13)

Figure 5.13-- Confirm file delete dialog box

 Click on the “Yes” button and the file will be physically removed from your
hard disk It should be noted that this dialog box does not send the file to the
Recycle Bin. It deletes the file from disk.

The Windows XP Accessories

The Accessories are a collection of useful utilities and applications included in Windows XP.
Following are some of the accessories:

1. WordPad

The WordPad accessory is the Windows XP equivalent to the Write program found in
Windows 3.x. This new accessory offers some new features for text manipulation and

lxxii
formatting which are not found in the older program as shown in Figure 5.14 in the following
page.

Figure 5.14—WordPad

The Following are some of the text manipulation features:

• The ability to change the color of a given font as well as the usual font attributes
• Full paragraph manipulation and indentation control
• The ability to define tabs
• An “insert today’s date” feature
• Full print preview
• A case-sensitive “find”

To start WordPad, follow the following procedure:

• Click on the Start button

• Move the mouse pointer to Programs and select Accessories from the sub-menu;
• Click on WordPad

2. Paint

Paint is the Windows XP version of the Paintbrush program found in Windows 3.x. The Paint
program offers an ability to generate and manipulate graphics and pictures and store them in
a “.BMP” format (refer to figure 5.15). The program offers a rich tool selection and all
standard graphical functions, such as airbrush, freehand line draw, shapes and the ability to
zoom. Paint no longer supports “.PCX” files.

The Paint application notably differs from the older version in its following features:

• Four different levels of zooming

• Support for 24 bit (true color) encoded files
• A palette capable of accessing a 24-bit color spectrum

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 Figure 5.15—Paint

It should be noted that if you use a 24-bit color format to store your pictures, you can end up
with very large files on your disk.

To start the Paint program, follow the following procedure:

• Click on the Start button

• Move the mouse pointer to Programs and then from the sub-menu select
Accessories
• Click on Paint

3. Calculator

The Calculator program is very useful for adding your expenses, or other vital activities. It
has a Scientific mode which, inter alia, allows you to convert from Decimal to Hexadecimal
and Binary. (Refer to figure 5.16)

There was a famous error in the Microsoft Windows 3.1 Calculator. 2.11 - 2.1 = 0.

To start the Calculator, follow the following procedure:

• Click on the Start button

• Move the mouse pointer to Program and then from the sub-menu select
Accessories
• Click on Calculator

To see what a key does in the Calculator, follow the following procedure:

• Right-click on a button within the Calculator and a “What’s This?” button is

displayed
• Click on this button and the function of the button is explained

To switch to Scientific mode, follow the following procedure:

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 • Click on the View drop down menu and click on the Scientific command

Figure 5.16—Calculator

4. The Clock

The Clock program is not located in the Start menu.

To view the Clock, simply look at the right-hand bottom of the Windows XP Taskbar.

To view the Date, move the mouse pointer to the Clock, as displayed in the taskbar. After
a few moments, the date would be displayed.

To change the date or time, double click on the Clock which displays the Date/Time
Properties dialog box and modify the time or date.

Object Linking and Embedding (OLE)

Object Linking and Embedding (OLE) is the mechanism whereby an application can hold a
link to a piece of data or object within another application.

As an example of OLE, a spreadsheet may hold a graph containing weekly sales figures, each
week new figures are input and the graph changes.

With the help of OLE, it is possible to place a link to the graph from a word processing
application which contains a weekly status report. As the figures changes, the linked graph
automatically updates itself with the new values. (Refer to figure 5.17)

lxxv
 Figure 5.17-- OLE link

Linking vs. Embedding

To Link Data

To create an OLE link, select “Paste Special” from the Edit drop down menu. From the
dialog box, choose which data type you want to use for the object you are pasting.

When a data item is linked into an application, there is only one true copy of that piece of
data, each time it is updated. The information can be discovered via the link.

OLE links can be highly “processor intensive” as the link constantly needs to check for
updates. It is recommended that fast machines with a powerful processor be used if many
OLE links are present. Alternatively, the link may be maintained, so that updates can be made
on manual instruction only. The mechanism to do this may differ from one application to
another but is often contained under the Edit drop down menu in a command called Links.

To Embed Data

To embed an object, simply select Paste from the Edit drop down menu. If an item is
embedded, it is merely copied and then pasted in its entirety into the target application (such
as a graphic being pasted into a word processing document). If the original data item is
updated, the update is not replicated to the embedded data item. Embedding does not have the
high performance overhead associated with linking.

Benefits of Using OLE

By using OLE, you start to move away from application-based computing and more toward
data (or document)-based computing. Most of the PC users have an interest in data not in the
individual applications used to create data in the first place.

By using OLE, you can combine the best elements from each application to produce a desired
effect. For instance, you may want to produce a report in Word for Windows and incorporate
graphs produced in Excel. (Excel has far better graph handling facilities than Word) If an
Excel graph is embedded, it can easily be manipulated and edited in Word.

You can save disk space by linking objects. It should be noted that one can use an object in a
document while it is stored in another document. This saves one’s time in duplicating the
storage space for an object.

lxxvi
By using OLE, you can print or transmit data without having an application that originally
created the data installed on your particular PC. You can update linked objects dynamically.

New Features of OLE

1. In-place Activation

This allows direct activation of embedded objects within an application without a

need to switch to a different application window for facilities such as editing,
displaying, recording, or playing.

2. Adaptable Links

This enables the maintenance of links between objects during certain types of move or
copy operations.

3. Drag and Drop

Objects may be dragged from one application window and drop to another.

4. Improved Disk and Memory Usage

Objects may be stored on disk and only loaded into memory when actually required
and not simply when the object is opened.

5. Logical Pagination of Objects

Unlike OLE, if an embedded object (such as an Excel spreadsheet embedded in

Word) is larger than a page, the embedded object will break at the end of the page just
as normal data would.

6. Nested Object Support

This allows direct manipulation of nested objects. Also, links may be established to
nested objects.

7. Object Conversion

This allows an object to be converted from one object type to another.

8. Storage Independent Links

This is a feature that allows a link among embedded objects that are not stored as files
on disk.

lxxvii
 9. Version Management

Embedded objects contain information about an application that is used to create it

and its version.

Adding New Hardware Devices

To install a new hardware, follow the following procedure:

• Go to Control Panel
• Click on the Add New Hardware icon
• Add New Hardware Wizard will be launched
• The Wizard can automatically detect new hardware or you may enter the
new device from a hardware selection list

Note

When a new device is installed, Windows XP will decide how settings, such as IRQ
(interrupts), Memory regions and DMA (Direct Memory Access) etc., should be configured.
Although the values that Windows XP chooses may be different from the current
configuration yet you should use these settings as they will be the optimum ones.

Installing New Application Programs

To add or remove programs, follow the following procedure:

• Go to Control Panel
• Click on the Add/Remove Programs

Installing an application this way has an added benefit to install an application directly from a
floppy diskette or CD-ROM. The Installer application tracks the entire installation process
and places the newly installed application into an installed program list. (Refer to figure
5.18).From this list, applications can be removed as easily as they were added.

lxxviii
 Figure 5.18-- Add/Remove Programs Properties dialog box

At present, many set-up and installation programs can be tracked via an installer. After
installing an application, it is possible that the program may not appear in list. As more set-up
and installation programs are written with Windows XP, the situation will change.

Notes

1. Following are the sub-menus of the Start menu:

• Programs
• Documents
• Settings
• Search
• Help and Support
• Run
• Turn off

2. Object Linking and Embedding (OLE) is the mechanism whereby an application can hold
a link to a piece of data or object within another application.

WORD PROCESSING
Specific objectives
By the end of this topic, the trainee should be able to:
a) describe how to open a word processor
b) explain how to create a document
c) discuss how to edit a document
d) describe how to format a document
e) describe how to create columns/rows
f) describe how to create tables
g) describe how to use graphics
h) explain how to use mail merge
i) explain how to print a document

lxxix
Unit tasks
Task 1: describing how to open a word processor
Definition of Word processing
Word processing is the creation, input, editing and formatting of documents and other text
using some application software (Word processor) on a computer system. Examples of Word
processors in the market include Word perfect, OpenOffice.org Writer and Microsoft Word.
Microsoft Word is the most popularly used and therefore will be adopted in this manual.
You can use a Word processor to type letters, reports, and other documents.

Opening a Word processor

Open Microsoft Word 2007 by clicking on the sections labeled 1 to 4 found on your
computer desktop.

The Microsoft Word window (2007) appears and your screen looks similar to the one shown
here.

lxxx
The Microsoft Office Button

In the upper-left corner of the Word 2007 window is the Microsoft Office button. When you
click the button, a menu appears. You can use the menu to create a new file, open an existing
file, save a file, and perform many other tasks.

The Quick Access Toolbar

Next to the Microsoft Office button is the Quick Access toolbar. The Quick Access toolbar
provides you with access to commands you frequently use. By default Save, Undo, and Redo
appear on the Quick Access toolbar. You can use Save to save your file, Undo to rollback an
action you have taken, and Redo to reapply an action you have rolled back.

The Title Bar

Next to the Quick Access toolbar is the Title bar. The Title bar displays the title of the
document on which you are currently working. Word names the first new document you open
Document1. As you open additional new documents, Word names them sequentially. When
you save your document, you assign the document a new name.

lxxxi
The Ribbon

You use commands to tell Microsoft Word what to do. In Microsoft Word 2007, you use the
Ribbon to issue commands. The Ribbon is located near the top of the screen, below the Quick
Access toolbar. At the top of the Ribbon are several tabs; clicking a tab displays several
related command groups. Within each group are related command buttons. You click buttons
to issue commands or to access menus and dialog boxes. You may also find a dialog box
launcher in the bottom-right corner of a group. Clicking the dialog box launcher gives you
access to additional commands via a dialog box.

The Ruler

The ruler is found below the Ribbon.

You can use the ruler to change the format of your document quickly. If your ruler is not
visible, follow the steps listed here:

1. Click the View tab to choose it.

2. Click the check box next to Ruler in the Show/Hide group. The ruler appears below
the Ribbon.

The Text Area

Just below the ruler is a large area called the text area. You type your document in the text
area. The blinking vertical line in the upper-left corner of the text area is the cursor. It marks
the insertion point. As you type, your text displays at the cursor location. The horizontal line
next to the cursor marks the end of the document.

lxxxii
The Vertical and Horizontal and Vertical Scroll Bars

The vertical and horizontal scroll bars enable you to move up, down, and across your window
simply by dragging the icon located on the scroll bar. The vertical scroll bar is located along
the right side of the screen. The horizontal scroll bar is located just above the status bar. To
move up and down your document, click and drag the vertical scroll bar up and down. To
move back and forth across your document, click and drag the horizontal scroll bar back and
forth. You won't see a horizontal scroll bar if the width of your document fits on your screen.

The Status Bar

The Status bar appears at the very bottom of your window and provides such information as
the current page and the number of words in your document. You can change what displays
on the Status bar by right-clicking on the Status bar and selecting the options you want from
the Customize Status Bar menu. You click a menu item to select it. You click it again to
deselect it. A check mark next to an item means it is selected.

lxxxiii
Document Views

Document views are found on the right side of the status bar. In Word 2007, you can display
your document in one of five views: Draft, Web Layout, Print Layout, Full Screen Reading,
or Online Layout.

Draft View
Draft view is the most frequently used view. You use Draft view to quickly edit your
document.
Web Layout
Web Layout view enables you to see your document as it would appear in a browser
such as Internet Explorer.

Print Layout
The Print Layout view shows the document as it will look when it is printed.
Reading Layout
Reading Layout view formats your screen to make reading your document more
comfortable.
Outline View
Outline view displays the document in outline form. You can display headings
without the text. If you move a heading, the accompanying text moves with it.

Nonprinting Characters

Nonprinting characters do not print and will not appear in your printed document but do
affect your document layout. You can decide to see these characters on the screen as you type
or you can decide to have them remain invisible. The table describes most of them:

lxxxiv
 Character Denotes

A tab

. A space

¶ The end of a paragraph

Hidden text

To view nonprinting characters:

1. Choose the Home tab.

2. Click the Show/Hide button in the Paragraph group . The Show/Hide button
appears in a contrasting color, when it is selected.

Task 2: explaining how to create a document

How to Create Sample Data

If you type =rand() in your Word document and then press Enter, Word creates three
paragraphs.

1. Type =rand().
2. Press Enter. Three paragraphs appear in your document.

What is a word paragraph?

Continuous typing of text before pressing the enter key is referred as word paragraph. The
end of a paragraph is indicated by the symbol

Typing, Backspace, and Delete operations

lxxxv
In Microsoft Word, you create documents by typing them. For example, if you want to create
a report, you open Microsoft Word and then begin typing. You do not have to do anything
when your text reaches the end of a line and you want to move to a new line—Microsoft
Word automatically moves your text to a new line. If you want to start a new paragraph,
press Enter. Microsoft word creates a blank line to indicate the start of a new paragraph. To
capitalize, hold down the Shift key while typing the letter you want to capitalize. If you
make a mistake, you can delete what you typed and then type your correction.

You can use the Backspace key to delete. Each time you press the Backspace key, Microsoft
Word deletes the character that precedes the insertion point. The insertion point is the point at
which your mouse pointer is located. You can also delete text by using the Delete key. First,
you select the text you want to delete; then you press the Delete key.

Insert and Overtype

While creating your document, you may find you need to insert text—place new text between
existing texts. Suppose, you type the sentence, "Zuriel bought a car." After typing it, you
decide you want to change the sentence to "Zuriel bought a blue car." With Microsoft Word,
inserting a word, phrase, or even several paragraphs is easy.

Alternatively, you may want to overtype text—replace old text with new text. For example,
suppose you type the sentence, "Zuriel bought a blue car." After typing it, you decide you
want to change the sentence to "Zuriel bought a black car." With Microsoft Word,
overtyping the word blue with the word shining is also easy. Before you attempt to insert or
overtype, you should check the mode you are in—Insert or Overtype. You right-click the
Status bar and then use the Customize Status Bar menu to place the Insert/Overtype button on
the Status bar. You can then use the Insert/Overtype button to switch between Insert and
Overtype mode. When you are in Insert mode, you can insert text. When you are in Overtype
mode, you can overtype text. By default, Microsoft Word is in the Insert mode.

Note: You can overtype text without changing to Overtype mode by selecting the text you
want to overtype and then typing.

Exit Word

The following two steps indicate how to exit from word processing.

lxxxvi
 1. Click the Microsoft Office button. A menu appears.
2. Click Exit Word, which you can find in the bottom-right corner.

3. You are prompted: "Do you want to save changes to Document1?" To save your
changes, click Yes. Otherwise, click No. If you click Yes, the Save As dialog box
appears.

4. Move to the correct folder.

5. Name your file by typing Task 1.docx in the File Name field.
6. Click Save. Word saves your file.

Task 3: discussing how to edit a document

lxxxvii
When you enter your text, you are likely to make typographical mistakes. Typographical
errors include error of omission, addition and transposition. The correction of these mistakes
is called editing. Editing involves cutting, copying, pasting, use of AutoText, use of spell
checking and use of Finding and Replacing.

Opening a Word File

After saving a file, you can later open it to revise or finish it. To open a word file:

1. Open Word 2007.

2. Click the Microsoft Office button. A menu appears.
3. Click Open. The Open dialog box appears.
4. Use the Look in field to move to the folder in which you saved the file. The file is
named Task 1.docx.
5. Click Lesson Two.docx.
6. Click Open. The file you created during the previous lesson appears.

Cutting and Pasting

You can use Word's Cut feature to remove information from a document. Then you can use
the Paste feature to place the information you cut anywhere in the same or another
document. In other words, you can move information from one place in a document to
another place in the same or different document by using the Cut and Paste features. The
Office Clipboard is a storage area. When you cut, Word stores the data you cut on the
Clipboard. You can paste the information that is stored on the Clipboard as often as you like.

Copy and Paste

In Microsoft Word, you can copy information from one area of a document and place the
information you copied anywhere in the same or another document. In other words, after you
type information into a document, if you want to place the same information somewhere else,
you do not have to retype the information. You simply copy it and then paste it in the new
location. As with cut data, Word stores copied data on the Clipboard.

Use the Clipboard

As you cut or copy, Word can store the information you have cut or copied on the Clipboard
in a hierarchy. Then each time you cut or copy, the data you just cut or copied moves to the
top of the Clipboard hierarchy and the data previously at the top moves down one level.
When you choose Paste, the item at the top of the hierarchy is the item Word pastes into your
document. The Clipboard can store up to 24 items. You can paste any item on the Clipboard
into your document by placing your cursor at the insertion point, displaying the Clipboard
pane, and then clicking the item.

The Clipboard pane includes an Options button. You can click the Options button to set the
Clipboard options described in the following table.

lxxxviii
 Option Description

Show Office Clipboard Shows the Clipboard automatically when

Automatically you copy items.

Show Office Clipboard When Shows the Clipboard when you press Ctrl+c
Ctrl+c Pressed Twice twice.

Collect Without Showing Office Copies to the Clipboard without displaying

Clipboard the Clipboard pane.

Show Office Clipboard Icon on Displays the Clipboard icon on your system
Taskbar taskbar.

Show Status Near Taskbar When Displays the number of items copied on the
Copying taskbar when copying.

1. Place the cursor at the point at which you want to insert your text.
2. Choose the Home tab.
3. Click the Clipboard dialog box launcher to open the Clipboard.
4. Click the item on the clipboard you want to insert into your document. Word pastes
the Clipboard item into your document at the insertion point.

Create AutoText

Cut and Copy both store information on the Clipboard. Information you store on the
Clipboard is eventually lost. If you want to store information permanently for reuse, use
AutoText. AutoText permanently stores information for future use.

lxxxix
=

1. Type the following:

AutoText information is stored permanently. AutoText information is stored
permanently.
2. Select "AutoText information is stored permanently."
3. Choose the Insert tab.
4. Click Quick Parts in the Text group. A menu appears.
5. Click Save Selection to Quick Part Gallery. The Create New Building Block dialog
box appears.

6. Microsoft Word suggests a name. Change the name by typing AT in the Name field.
7. Click OK. The dialog box closes.
8. Click anywhere in the text area to remove the highlighting.
9. Place the cursor between the period in the sentence you just typed and the paragraph
marker (¶).
10. Press the spacebar to leave a blank space.
11. Type AT.
12. Press F3. Your text should now read:
"AutoText information is stored permanently. AutoText information is stored
permanently."

Use Spell Check

Word checks your spelling and grammar as you type. Spelling errors display with a red wavy
line under the word. Grammar errors display with a green wavy line under the error. In Word

xc
2007, you can use the Review tab's Spelling & Grammar button to initiate a spell and
grammar check of your document.

1. Type the following exactly as shown. Include all errors.

Open thr door for Mwanamali. She is a teacher from the town of Kisii.
2. Select: "Open thr door for Mwanamali. She is a teacher from the town of Kisii."
3. Choose the Review tab.
4. Click the Spelling & Grammar button. The Spelling and Grammar dialog box appears.

6. "The" is misspelled, so it is highlighted on the screen and noted in the Not in

Dictionary box. Word suggests correct spellings. These suggestions are found in the
Suggestions box.
7. Click "the" in the Suggestions box.
8. Click Change.
Note: If the word is misspelled in several places, click Change All to correct all
misspellings.
9. The name " Mwanamali " is not in the dictionary, but it is correct. Click Ignore Once
to leave " Mwanamali " in the document with its current spelling.
Note: If a word appears in several places in the document, click “Ignore All” so you
are not prompted to correct the spelling for each occurrence.

xci
 10. " Kisii " is not found in the dictionary. If you frequently use a word not found in the
dictionary, you might want to add that word to the dictionary by clicking the “Add to
Dictionary” button. Word will then recognize the word the next time it appears. Click
Add to Dictionary.
11. The following should appear on your screen: "Word finished checking the selection.
Do you want to continue checking the remainder of the document?"
12. Click No. If you wanted Word to spell-check the entire document, you would have
clicked Yes.

Note: You can also press F7 to initiate a spelling and grammar check. If you don't have
anything selected, Word checks the entire document.

Find and Replace

If you need to find a particular word or phrase in your document, you can use the Find
command. This command is especially useful when you are working with large files. If you
want to search the entire document, simply execute the Find command. If you want to limit
your search to a selected area, select that area and then execute the Find command.

After you find the word or phrase you are searching for, you can replace it with new text by
executing the Replace command.

1. Type the following:

Monica is from Easton. She lives on the east side of town. Her daughter attends
Eastern High School.
2. Select: "Monica is from Easton. She lives on the east side of town. Her daughter
attends Eastern High School."
3. Choose the Home tab.
4. Click Find in the Editing group. A menu appears.

5. Click the Find option on the menu. The Find and Replace dialog box appears.

xcii
 6. Type east in the Find What field.
7. Click Find Next.
Note that the "East" in Easton is highlighted.
8. Click Find Next again.
Note that "east" is highlighted.
9. Click Find Next again.
Note that the "East" in Eastern is highlighted.
10. Click Find Next. The following message should appear: "Word has finished searching
the selection. Do you want to search the remainder of the document?"
11. Click No.
12. Click Cancel.

Task 4: describing how to format a document

Formatting is changing the physical appearance of the document. You can format a
document in various levels; character, word, paragraph and document formatting.

a) Character and word formatting

Changing the Font Size

A font is a set of characters (text) represented in a

single typeface. Each character within a font is created by
using the same basic style. In Microsoft Word, you can
change the size of your font.

1. Type the following:

I can be any size you want me to be.
2. Select "I can be any size you want me to be."
3. Choose the Home tab.

xciii
 4. In the Font group, click the down arrow next to the Font Size box. A menu of
font sizes appears.
5. Move your cursor over the menu of font sizes. As you do, Word 2007 provides
a live preview of the effect of applying each font size.
6. Click 36 to select it as your font size.

Note: If you know the font size you want, you can type it in the Font Size field.

Alternate Method—Changing the Font Size with Grow Font and Shrink Font

You can also change the size of your font by clicking the Grow Font and Shrink Font
buttons. Selecting text and then clicking the Grow Font button makes your font larger.
Selecting text and then clicking the Shrink Font button makes your font smaller.

1. Type the following:

Grow Shrink
2. Select "Grow"
3. Choose the Home tab.
4. Click the Grow Font button several times. You font becomes larger.
5. Select Shrink.
6. Click the Shrink Font button several times. Your font becomes smaller.

Changing the Font

In Microsoft Word, you can change the font (the "family" of type you use for your
text).

xciv
 1. Type the following:
Changing fonts
2. Select "Changing fonts."
3. Choose the Home tab.
4. Click the down arrow next to the Font field. A menu of fonts appears.
5. Move the cursor over the list of fonts. Word 2007 provides a live preview of
what the font will look like if you select it.

6. Click the font name to select the font you want.

Alternate Method—Changing the Font with the Mini bar

xcv
 1. Select "Changing fonts."
2. Right-click. The Mini toolbar and a menu appears.
3. Move to the Mini toolbar.
4. Click the down arrow next to the Font field. A menu of fonts appears.
5. Click the name of the font you want.

Changing Bolding, underlining, or italicizing, other character formatting features

When creating a document, you may need to emphasize particular words or phrases
by bolding, underlining, or italicizing, other character formatting would include font
color, text highlight and many others. All are applied to the document in a similar
manner. This manual will use the basic formatting tools of bolding, underlining or
italicizing to demonstrate these.

Type the following exactly as shown. Remember, pressing the Enter key starts a new
paragraph. Press the Enter key at the end of each of the following lines to start a new
paragraph.

“Launcher: Bold Italicize Underline these words. All three Regular

Ribbon: Bold Italicize Underline these words. All three Regular

Mini Toolbar: Bold Italicize Regular

Keys: Bold Italicize Underline these words. All three Regular”

Your screen should look similar to the one shown here.

Formatting with the Dialog Box Launcher

xcvi
1. On the line that begins with Launcher, select the word "Bold." You can place
the cursor before the letter "B" in "Bold." Press the Shift key; then press the
right arrow key until the entire word is highlighted.
2. Choose the Home tab.
3. Click the dialog box launcher in the Font group. The Font dialog box appears.

4. Click Bold in the Font Style box.

Note: You can see the effect of your action in the Preview window. To
remove the bold, click Regular.
5. Click OK to close the dialog box.
6. Click anywhere in the text area to remove the highlighting. You have
bolded the word bold.

xcvii
 Formatting with the Ribbon

1. On the line that begins with "Ribbon," select the word "Bold." You
can place the cursor before the letter "B" in "Bold." Press the Shift key;
then press the right arrow key until the entire word is highlighted.
2. Choose the Home tab.
3. Click the Bold button in the Font group. You have bolded the word
bold.
Note: To remove the bold, you can select the text and then click the
Bold button again.

Click anywhere in the text area to remove the highlighting.

Formatting with Keys

1. On the line that begins with "Keys," select the words "Underline these
words."
2. Press Ctrl+u (hold down the Ctrl key while pressing u).
Note: To remove the underlining, press Ctrl+u again.
3. Click anywhere in the text area to remove the highlighting.

b) Paragraph formatting

Paragraph formatting includes spacing, indentation and alignment. To be able to

practice paragraph formatting, we shall require to type or add a few paragraphs on a
blank document. By default, in Word, when you type the rand function, Word returns
three paragraphs. When working with functions, you use arguments to be specific
about what you want the function to return. There are two arguments you can use with
the rand function. The first one tells Word how many paragraphs you want, and the
second one tells Word how many sentences you want in a paragraph. You place
arguments between the parentheses and you separate them with a comma. For
example, if you type =rand() and then press Enter, word returns three paragraphs. To
tell Word you want two paragraphs with three sentences in each paragraph, you type
=rand(2,3).

xcviii
 1. Type =rand ().
2. Press the Enter key. The following text appears:

On the Insert tab, the galleries include items that are designed to coordinate with
the overall look of your document. You can use these galleries to insert tables,
headers, footers, lists, cover pages, and other document building blocks. When you
create pictures, charts, or diagrams, they also coordinate with your current
document look. ¶

You can easily change the formatting of selected text in the document text by
choosing a look for the selected text from the Quick Styles gallery on the Home
tab. You can also format text directly by using the other controls on the Home tab.
Most controls offer a choice of using the look from the current theme or using a
format that you specify directly. ¶

To change the overall look of your document, choose new Theme elements on the
Page Layout tab. To change the looks available in the Quick Style gallery, use the
Change Current Quick Style Set command. Both the Themes gallery and the
Quick Styles gallery provide reset commands so that you can always restore the
look of your document to the original contained in your current template. ¶

Adding Space Before or After Paragraphs

When creating a document, space is often used to clearly identify where each
paragraph begins and ends. By default, Word may place slightly more space between
paragraphs than it does between lines in a paragraph. You can increase or decrease the
amount of space that appears before and after paragraphs by entering amounts in the
Before and After fields in the Paragraph section of the Page Layout tab. Use the up
arrows next to the Before and After fields to increase the amount of space before or
after each paragraph; use the down arrows to decrease the amount of space before or
after each paragraph. The following illustrates:

xcix
 1. Place your cursor anywhere in the second paragraph of the sample text you
created in Exercise 2.
2. Choose the Page Layout tab. The default spacing appears in the Spacing
Before field.
3. Click the up arrow next to the Spacing Before field to increase the space
before the paragraph.
4. Click the up arrow next to the Spacing After field to increase the amount of
space after the paragraph.

Note: You can click the down arrows next to the Spacing Before and the Spacing
After fields to decrease the amount of space before or after a paragraph. You can also
type the amount of space you want to use directly into the fields. Space is measured in
points. There are 72 points to an inch.

Changing Line Spacing

Line spacing sets the amount of space between lines within a paragraph. The spacing
for each line is set to accommodate the largest font on that line. If the lines include
smaller fonts, there will appear to be extra space between lines where the smaller
fonts are located. At 1.5, the line spacing is set to one-and-a-half times the single-
space amount. At 2.0, the line spacing is set to two times the single-space amount
(double space).

c
 1. Place your cursor anywhere in the first paragraph of the sample text you
created in Exercise 2.
2. Choose the Home tab.
3. Click the Line Spacing button in the Paragraph group. A menu of options
appears.
4. Click 2.0 to double-space the first paragraph.

Creating a First-Line Indent

Some people and organizations delineate the start of a new paragraph by indenting the
first line. If you want to indent the first line of your paragraphs, you can use the
Paragraph dialog box to set the amount by which you want to indent. In the Special
Field of the Paragraph dialog box, you tell Word you want to indent the first line by
choosing First Line from the menu options. In the By field, you tell Word the amount,
in inches by which you want to indent.

First-line Indent
On the Insert tab, the galleries include items that are designed to
coordinate with the overall look of your document. You can use these galleries to
insert tables, headers, footers, lists, cover pages, and other document building
blocks. When you create pictures, charts, or diagrams, they also coordinate with
your current document look.

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 1. Place your cursor anywhere within the first paragraph of the sample text you
created in Exercise 2.
2. Choose the Home tab.
3. In the Paragraphs group, click the launcher. The Paragraph dialog box appears.

4. Choose the Indents and Spacing tab.

5. Click to open the drop-down menu on the Special field.
6. Click First Line.
7. Enter 0.5" in the By field.
8. Click OK. The first line of your paragraph is now indented half an inch.

Special Note: To remove the first line indent:

1. Place the cursor anywhere in the paragraph.

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 2. Choose the Home tab.
3. In the Paragraphs group, click the launcher. The Paragraph dialog box opens.
4. Choose the Indents and Spacing tab.
5. Click the down arrow next to the Special field and then click None.
6. Click OK.

Indent Paragraphs

Indentation allows you to indent your paragraph from the left and/or right margin.
You may find this necessary when you are quoting a large block of text. The
following exercise shows you how to indent a paragraph 1 inch from each side.

Indentation

On the Insert tab, the galleries include items that are designed to coordinate with
the overall look of your document. You can use these galleries to insert tables,
headers, footers, lists, cover pages, and other document building blocks. When you
create pictures, charts, or diagrams, they also coordinate with your current
document look.

You can easily change the formatting of selected text in

the document text by choosing a look for the selected
text from the Quick Styles gallery on the Home tab.
You can also format text directly by using the other
controls on the Home tab. Most controls offer a choice
of using the look from the current theme or using a
format that you specify directly.

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 1. Place your cursor anywhere in the second paragraph of the sample text you
created in Exercise 2.
2. Choose the Page Layout tab.
3. Type 1" in the Indent Left field or use the up or down arrows to set the field
value to 1".
4. Type 1" in the Indent Right field or use the up or down arrows to set the field
value to 1". Your paragraph is now indented one inch from both the left and
right margins, as in the example.

Aligning Paragraphs

Microsoft Word gives you a choice of several types of alignments. Left-aligned text is
flush with the left margin of your document and is the default setting. Right-aligned
text is flush with the right margin of your document, centered text is centered between
the left and right margins, and Justified text is flush with both the left and right
margins.

Left-Aligned

Sample Paragraph

On the Insert tab, the galleries include items that are designed to coordinate
with the overall look of your document. You can use these galleries to insert
tables, headers, footers, lists, cover pages, and other document building

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 blocks. When you create pictures, charts, or diagrams, they also coordinate
with your current document look.

Right-aligned

Sample Paragraph

On the Insert tab, the galleries include items that are designed to coordinate
with the overall look of your document. You can use these galleries to insert
tables, headers, footers, lists, cover pages, and other document building
blocks. When you create pictures, charts, or diagrams, they also coordinate
with your current document look.

Centered

Sample Paragraph

On the Insert tab, the galleries include items that are designed to coordinate
with the overall look of your document. You can use these galleries to insert
tables, headers, footers, lists, cover pages, and other document building
blocks. When you create pictures, charts, or diagrams, they also coordinate
with your current document look.

Justified

Sample Paragraph

On the Insert tab, the galleries include items that are designed to coordinate
with the overall look of your document. You can use these galleries to insert
tables, headers, footers, lists, cover pages, and other document building
blocks. When you create pictures, charts, or diagrams, they also coordinate
with your current document look.

1. Type Sample Paragraph.

2. Press Enter.
3. Type =rand(1) to create a paragraph.
4. Press Enter.

Right-align

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 1. Select the paragraphs you created.
2. Choose the Home tab.
3. Click the Align-right button in the Paragraph group. Word right-aligns your
paragraphs.

Left-align

1. Select the paragraphs you created.

2. Choose the Home tab.
3. Click the Align-left button in the Paragraph group. Word left-aligns your
paragraph.

Center

1. Selected the paragraphs you created.

2. Choose the Home tab.
3. Click the Center button in the Paragraph group. Word centers your
paragraph.

Justify

1. Select the paragraphs you created.

2. Choose the Home tab.
3. Click the Justify button in the Paragraph group. Word justifies your
paragraph.

Create a Hanging Indent

The hanging indent feature indents each line except the first line by the amount
specified in the By field, as shown in the example.

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Hanging Indent
Hanging Indent: The hanging indent feature indents the first line
of the paragraph from the margin by the amount
specified in the Left field. The amount in the
Left field plus the amount specified in the By
field indent all subsequent lines.

1. Type the following:

Hanging Indent: The hanging indent feature indents the first line by the
amount specified in the Left field. Subsequent lines are indented by the
amount specified in the Left field plus the amount specified in the By field.
2. Select the paragraph you just typed.
3. Choose the Home tab.
4. Click the launcher in the Paragraph group. The Paragraph dialog box appears.

cvii
 5. Choose the Indents and Spacing tab.
6. In the Special field, click to open the pull-down menu.
7. Click Hanging.
8. In the By box, type 2".
9. Click OK.
10. Place the cursor after the colon following "Hanging Indent."
11. Press the Tab key. Notice that the indentation changes.

Choose a Style Set

When working with Word, you can use styles to quickly format your documents. A
style is a set of formats consisting of such things as fonts, font colors, font sizes, and
paragraph formats. Word 2007 supplies you with predesigned style sets that contain
styles for titles, subtitles, quotes, headings, lists and more. The sections that follow all
show you how to work with styles.

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 1. Choose the Home tab.
2. Click Change Styles in the Styles group. A menu appears.
3. Click Style Set. A menu appears. You can choose from any of the styles listed
on the menu.
4. Click Simple. Word 2007 reformats all of the paragraphs into the Simple style
by applying the Normal format to each paragraph.

Apply a Style

You can see of all the styles available to you in the style set by clicking the launcher
in the Styles group and opening the Styles pane. You can leave the Styles pane open
and available for use by docking it. To dock the Styles pane, click the top of the pane
and drag it to the left or right edge of the Word window.

You do not need to select an entire paragraph to apply a style. If the cursor is
anywhere in the paragraph, when you click on the style, Word formats the entire
paragraph.

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 1. Choose the Home tab.
2. Click the launcher in the Styles Group. The Styles pane appears. You can drag
it to the side of the Word window to dock it. To close the Styles pane, click
the Close button in the upper right corner of the pane.
3. Click anywhere in the paragraph "Single-Parent Family—Career Help."
4. Click Title in the Styles pane. Word 2007 applies the Title style to the
paragraph.

Headings and subheadings mark major topics within your document. With Word
2007, you can easily format the headings and subheadings in your document.

Applying Headings and subheadings

1. Click anywhere in the paragraph.

2. In the Style box, click Heading 1 or Heading 2. Word reformats the paragraph.
3. Repeat steps 1 and 2 in the following paragraphs:

Change Style Sets

Once you have applied styles, changing to another style set is easy. You simply open
the Style Set gallery. As you move your cursor down the menu, Word 2007 provides
you with a live preview of the effect of applying the style set. To choose a style set,
you click it.

1. Click Change Styles in the Styles group. A menu appears.

2. Click Style Set. A menu appears. As you move your cursor down the menu
Word 2007 provides you with a live preview of the effect of applying the Style
set to your document.

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 3. Click Formal. Word 2007 reformats all of the paragraphs into the Formal style
applying the appropriate format to each paragraph.

Adding Bullets and Numbers

In Microsoft Word, you can easily create bulleted or numbered lists of items. Several
bulleting and numbering styles are available, as shown in the examples. You can
select the one you wish to use.

Numbering

Bulleting

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 1. Type the following list as shown:
Apple
Orange
Grape
Mango
Cherry
2. Select the words you just typed.
3. Choose the Home tab.
4. In the Paragraph group, click the down arrow next to the Bullets button .
The Bullet Library appears.
5. Click to select the type of bullet you want to use. Word adds bullets to your
list.
Note: As you move your cursor over the various bullet styles, Word displays
the bullet style onscreen.

To remove the bulleting:

1. Select the list again.

2. Choose the Home tab.
3. In the Paragraph group, click the down arrow next to the Bullets icon. The
Bullet dialog box appears.
4. Click None. Word removes the bullets from your list.

Numbers

1. Type the following list as shown:

Apple
Orange
Grape
Mango
Cherry
2. Select the words you just typed.
3. Choose the Home tab.

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 4. In the Paragraph group, click the down arrow next to the Numbering button
. The Numbering Library appears.
5. Click to select the type of numbering you want to use. Word numbers your
list.
Note: As you move your cursor over the various number styles, Word displays
the number style onscreen.

To remove the numbering:

1. Select the list again.

2. Choose the Home tab.
3. In the Paragraph group, click the down arrow next yo the Numbering icon.
The Number dialog box appears.
4. Click None. Word removes the numbering from your list.

c) Document formatting

Set the Orientation

Before you print your document, you may want to change the orientation of your
pages. There are two orientations you can use: portrait and landscape.

Portrait

Landscape

1. Choose the Page Layout tab.

2. Click Orientation in the Page Setup group. A menu appears.
3. Click Portrait. Word sets your page orientation to Portrait.

Set the Page Size

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Paper comes in a variety of sizes. Most business correspondence uses A4, the deafult
page size in Word is the letter. If you are not using letter, you can use the Size option
in the Page Setup group of the Page Layout tab to change the Size setting.

1. Choose the Page Layout tab.

2. Click Size in the Page Setup group. A menu appears.
3. Click A4. Word sets your page size.

Set the Margins

Margins define the amount of white space that appears at the top, bottom, left, and
right edges of your document. The Margin option in the Page Setup group of the Page
Layout tab provides several standard margin sizes from which you can choose.

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 1. Choose the Page Layout tab.
2. Click Margins in the Page Setup group. A menu appears.
3. Click Moderate. Word sets your margins to the Moderate settings.

Add Page Numbers

Page numbers help you keep your document organized and enable readers to find
information quickly. You can add page numbers to the top, bottom, or margins of
your pages, and you can choose where the numbers appear. For example, numbers can
appear at the top of the page, on the left, right, or center of the page. Word also offers
several number styles from which you can choose.

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 1. Choose the Insert tab.
2. Click the Page Number button in the Header & Footer group. A menu appears.
3. Click Bottom of Page.
4. Click the right-side option.

Insert Page Breaks

You can display your document in any of five views: Draft, Web Layout, Print
Layout, Full Screen Reading, or Online Layout. In Print Layout view you see your
document as it will appear when you print it. You can clearly see where each page
ends and a new page begins.

As you review your document, you may find that you want to change the point at
which a new page begins. You do this by inserting a page break. For example, if a
page heading appears on one page and the first paragraph under the heading appears
on the next page, you may want to insert a page break before the heading to keep the
heading and the first paragraph together.

1. Choose the View tab.

2. Click Print Layout in the Document Views group. Your document changes to
the Print Layout view.

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 1. Place your cursor before the D in "Displaced Homemakers"
2. Choose the Insert tab.
3. Click Page Break. Word places a page break in your document.

To delete a page break, you select the page break and then press the Delete key.

Task 5: describing how to create columns/rows

With columns, you can pack more text on the page, also text
looks great when it is laid out in columns.

Word 2007 lets you divide your document into columns. This
can enhance the formatting of your document. It is
particularly useful if you’re creating a newsletter or
similarly formatted document. Use the Page Layout Ribbon to activate the columns
window.

To insert column in your Word document, follow these steps:

1. Position your cursor where you would like to insert the columns

2. Open the Page Layout ribbon

3. In the Page Setup section, click Columns

4. From the dropdown menu, select the number of columns you’d like to insert

5. Word will automatically insert the columns in your document.

cxvii
 Additionally, you may decide that you’d like to make one column shorter than the
other. This can be done easily by inserting a column break.

To insert a column break, follow these steps:

1. Position your cursor where you would like to insert the column break

2. Open the Page Layout ribbon

3. In the Page Setup section, click Breaks

4. From the dropdown menu, select column

5. Any text typed will begin in the next column. If there is already text following the
cursor, it will be moved to the next column

You may not want the entire page to contain columns. In that case, you can simply
insert a continuous break in your document. You can insert one before and one after
the section that contains columns. This can add a dramatic effect to your document.

To insert a continuous break, follow these steps:

1. Position your cursor where you would like to insert the first break

2. Open the Page Layout ribbon

3. In the Page Setup section, click Breaks

4. From the dropdown menu, select continuous

5. You can apply separate page setup formatting to different sections as you desire.

Task 6: describing how to create tables

Tables are used to display data in a tabular format, this means that tables are used to
display information which can be displayed in rows and columns.

Creating a Table

To create a table:
 Place the cursor on the page where you want the new table
 Click the Insert Tab of the Ribbon
 Click the Tables Button on the Tables Group. You can create a table one of
four ways:

 Highlight the number of row and columns

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  Click Insert Table and enter the number of rows and columns
 Click the Draw Table, create your table by clicking and entering the
rows and columns
 Click Quick Tables and choose a table

Enter Data in a Table

Place the cursor in the cell where you wish to enter the information. Begin typing.

Modify the Table Structure and Format a Table

To modify the structure of a table:

 Click the table and notice that you have two new tabs on the Ribbon: Design
and Layout. These pertain to the table design and layout.

On the Design Tab, you can choose:

 Table Style Options

 Table Styles
 Draw Borders

cxix
 To format a table, click the table and then click the Layout Tab on the Ribbon. This
Layout tab allows you to:

 View Gridlines and Properties (from the Table Group)

 Insert Rows and Columns (from the Rows & Columns Group)
 Delete the Table, Rows and/or Columns (from the Rows & Columns Group)
 Merge or Split Cells (from the Merge Group)
 Increase and Decrease cell size (Cell Size Group)
 Align text within the cells and change text directions (Alignment Group)

Task 7: describing how to use graphics

Word 2007 allows you to insert special characters, symbols, pictures, illustrations,
and watermarks.

Symbols and Special Characters

Special characters are punctuation, spacing, or typographical characters that are not
generally available on the standard keyboard. To insert symbols and special
characters:
 Place your cursor in the document where you want the symbol
 Click the Insert Tab on the Ribbon
 Click the Symbol button on the Symbols Group
 Choose the appropriate symbol.

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Equations

Word 2007 also allows you to insert mathematical

equations. To access the mathematical equations
tool:
 Place your cursor in the document where you want
the symbol
 Click the Insert Tab on the Ribbon
 Click the Equation Button on the Symbols Group
 Choose the appropriate equation and structure or click Insert New Equation

 To edit the equation click the equation and the Design Tab will be available in
the Ribbon

Illustrations, Pictures, and Smart Art

Word 2007 allows you to insert illustrations and pictures into a document. To insert
illustrations:
 Place your cursor in the document where you want the illustration/picture
 Click the Insert Tab on the Ribbon
 Click the Clip Art Button
 The dialog box will open on the screen and you can search for clip art.
 Choose the illustration you wish to include

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To insert a picture:

 Place your cursor in the document where you want the illustration/picture
 Click the Insert Tab on the Ribbon
 Click the Picture Button
 Browse to the picture you wish to include
 Click the Picture
 Click Insert

Smart Art is a collection of graphics you can utilize to organize information within
your document. It includes timelines, processes, or workflow. To insert Smart Art

 Place your cursor in the document where you want the illustration/picture
 Click the Insert Tab on the Ribbon

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  Click the Smart Art button
 Click the Smart Art you wish to include in your document
 Click the arrow on the left side of the graphic to insert text or type the text in
the graphic.

Resize Graphics

All graphics can be resized by selecting the image and clicking one corner of the
image and dragging the cursor to the size you want the picture.

Watermarks

A watermark is a translucent image that appears behind the primary text in a

document. To insert a watermark:

cxxiii
  Click the Page Layout Tab in the Ribbon
 Click the Watermark Button in the Page Background Group
 Click the Watermark you want for the document or click Custom Watermark
and create your own watermark
 To remove a watermark, follow the steps above, but click Remove Watermark

Task 8: explain how to use mail merge

When you want to send personalized letters to recipients in your address list, you can
use mail merge to create the personalized letters. Each message has the same kind of
information, yet the content of each message is unique. For example, in letters to your
customers, each message can be personalized to address each customer by name. The
unique information in each message comes from entries in a data file.

The mail merge process entails the following overall steps:

1. Set up the form letter also known as standard document. The main document
contains the text and graphics that are the same for each standard document.
For example, your company logo or the body of the message.
2. Connect the document to your address list. Your address list is the data
source that Word uses in the mail merge. It is a file that contains the individual
addresses where the messages will be sent.
3. Refine the list of recipients or items. Word generates a message for each
contact address in address list. If you want to generate messages for only
certain addresses in your address list, you can choose which addresses, or
records, to include.
4. Add placeholders, called mail merge fields, to the standard document. When
you perform the mail merge, the mail merge fields are filled with information
from your address list.

cxxiv
 5. Preview and complete the merge. You can preview each message before you
send the whole set.

You use commands on the Mailings tab to perform a mail merge.

To use the task pane, in the Start Mail Merge group, on the Mailings tab, click
Start Mail Merge, and then click Step by Step Mail Merge Wizard. In Step 1
of the process, under Select document type, click E-mail messages.

Set up the main document

1. Start Word.

Type the standard document for example letter that contains the standard
information.

2. On the Mailings tab, in the Start Mail Merge group, click Start Mail Merge.

3. Click normal word document.

4. Click on select recipient button and select type new list. The following
window will appear. Use this window to customize the fields and add the
mailing list details

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5. Click on merge fields button to place the merge fields on the main document.
By doing this, you indicate that you want certain category of information,
such as name or address to appear in that location as illustrated in the diagram
below. Click on preview to see the mail merge results. Finally click on
Finish & Merge and select Edit Individual document to complete the mail
merge process.

cxxvi
 NOTE When you insert a mail merge field into the main document, the field name
is always surrounded by chevrons (« »). These chevrons do not show up in the final
document. They just help you distinguish the fields in the main document from
regular text.

What happens when you merge

When you merge, information from the first row in the data file replaces the fields in
your main document to create the first merged document. Information from the
second row in the data file replaces the fields to create the second merged document,
and so on.

Save the main document

The merged document that you send are separate from the main document. It's a good
idea to save the main document itself if you plan to use it for another mail merge.

Task 9: explaining how to print a document

Previewing and Printing Documents

In Word, You can preview your document before you print. In the Preview mode, you
can review each page, view multiple pages at the same time, zoom in on a page, and
access the Size, Orientation, and Margin options.

If you press the Zoom button while you are in Preview mode, the Zoom dialog box
appears. In the Zoom dialog box you can set the sizes of the pages that display as well
as the number of pages that display.

cxxvii
 When you are ready to print, you use the Print dialog box. In the Print Range area,
choose All to print every page of your document, choose Current Page to print the
page you are currently on, or choose Pages to enter the specific pages you want to
print. Type the pages you want to print in the Pages field. Separate individual pages
with commas (1,3, 13); specify a range by using a dash (4-9).

1. Click the Microsoft Office button. A menu appears.

2. Highlight the Print option. The Preview and Print the Document menu
appears.
3. Click Print Preview. The Preview window appears, with your document in the
window.
4. Click One Page to view one page at a time. Click Two Pages to view two
pages at a time.
5. To view your document in normal size, click 100%.
6. Click the Zoom Button. The Zoom dialog box appears.
7. Select an option and then click OK. Perform this task for each option and note
the results.

Print

1. Click the Print button. The Print dialog box appears.

2. Click the down arrow next to the Name field and select the printer to which
you want to print.
3. Choose all as the page range.
4. Click OK. Word prints your document.

SPREAD SHEETS
Specific objectives
By the end of this topic, the trainee should be able to:
j) define spreadsheet
k) discuss areas where spreadsheets are used
l) demonstrate worksheet layout
m) open a spreadsheet package
n) create a worksheet
o) edit a worksheet
p) format a worksheet
q) perform calculations
r) create charts
s) print worksheets

Unit tasks
Task 1: defining spreadsheet

A spreadsheet is a document that stores data in a grid of horizontal rows and vertical
columns. Rows are typically labeled using numbers (1, 2, 3, etc.), while columns are
labeled with letters (A, B, C, etc). Individual row/column locations, such as C3 or
B12, are referred to as cells. Each cell can each store a unique instance of data. By

cxxviii
 entering data into a spreadsheet, information can be stored in a more structured way
than using plain text. The row/column structure also allows the data to be analyzed
using formulas and calculations.

Typical spreadsheet packages in the market include Lotus 123, Open Office,
Microsoft Excel (MS Excel) and several packages not mentioned here. The
application package used in the instruction is MS Excel 2007.

Task 2: discussing areas where spreadsheets are used

Spreadsheets are commonly used to automate financial statements, business forecasts,
transaction registers, inventory control, and preparation of accounts. The package
provides statistical, analytical and scientific functions. In engineering environments, it
is used to analyze numerical data and present findings.

cxxix
Task 3: demonstrating worksheet layout

The Microsoft Office Button

In the upper-left corner of the Excel 2007 window is the Microsoft Office button.
When you click the button, a menu appears. You can use the menu to create a new
file, open an existing file, save a file, and perform many other tasks.

The Quick Access Toolbar

Next to the Microsoft Office button is the Quick Access toolbar. The Quick Access
toolbar gives you with access to commands you frequently use. By default, Save,
Undo, and Redo appear on the Quick Access toolbar. You can use Save to save your
file, Undo to roll back an action you have taken, and Redo to reapply an action you
have rolled back.

The Title Bar

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Next to the Quick Access toolbar is the Title bar. On the Title bar, Microsoft Excel
displays the name of the workbook you are currently using. At the top of the Excel
window, you should see "Microsoft Excel - Book1" or a similar name.

The Ribbon

You use commands to tell Microsoft Excel what to do. In Microsoft Excel 2007, you
use the Ribbon to issue commands. The Ribbon is located near the top of the Excel
window, below the Quick Access toolbar. At the top of the Ribbon are several tabs;
clicking a tab displays several related command groups. Within each group are related
command buttons. You click buttons to issue commands or to access menus and
dialog boxes. You may also find a dialog box launcher in the bottom-right corner of a
group. When you click the dialog box launcher, a dialog box makes additional
commands available.

Worksheets

Microsoft Excel consists of worksheets. Each

worksheet contains columns and rows. The columns
are lettered A to Z and then continuing with AA,
AB, AC and so on; the rows are numbered 1 to
1,048,576. The number of columns and rows you
can have in a worksheet is limited by your computer
memory and your system resources.

The combination of a column coordinate and a row coordinate make up a cell address.
For example, the cell located in the upper-left corner of the worksheet is cell A1,
meaning column A, row 1. Cell E10 is located under column E on row 10. You enter
your data into the cells on the worksheet.

The Formula Bar

Formula Bar

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 If the Formula bar is turned on, the cell address of the cell you are in displays in the
Name box which is located on the left side of the Formula bar. Cell entries display on
the right side of the Formula bar. If you do not see the Formula bar in your window,
perform the following steps:

1. Choose the View tab.

2. Click Formula Bar in the Show/Hide group. The Formula bar appears.

Note: The current cell address displays on the left side of the Formula bar.

The Status Bar

The Status bar appears at the very bottom of the

Excel window and provides such information as the
sum, average, minimum, and maximum value of
selected numbers. You can change what displays on
the Status bar by right-clicking on the Status bar and
selecting the options you want from the Customize
Status Bar menu. You click a menu item to select it.
You click it again to deselect it. A check mark next to an item means the item is
selected.

Task 4: opening a spreadsheet package

Click on the Start -> (All) Programs -> Microsoft Office -> Microsoft Office Excel

Task 5: creating a worksheet

Moving around a Worksheet

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By using the arrow keys, you can move around your worksheet. You can use the
down arrow key to move downward one cell at a time. You can use the up arrow key
to move upward one cell at a time. You can use the Tab key to move across the page
to the right, one cell at a time. You can hold down the Shift key and then press the
Tab key to move to the left, one cell at a time. You can use the right and left arrow
keys to move right or left one cell at a time. The Page Up and Page Down keys move
up and down one page at a time. If you hold down the Ctrl key and then press the
Home key, you move to the beginning of the worksheet.

Go to cells quickly

The following are shortcuts for moving quickly from one cell in a worksheet to a cell
in a different part of the worksheet.

Go to -- F5

The F5 function key is the "Go To" key. If you press the F5 key, you are prompted for
the cell to which you wish to go. Enter the cell address, and the cursor jumps to that
cell.

1. Press F5. The Go To dialog box opens.

2. Type J3 in the Reference field.
3. Press Enter. Excel moves to cell J3.

Go to -- Ctrl+G

You can also use Ctrl+G to go to a specific cell.

1. Hold down the Ctrl key while you press "g" (Ctrl+g). The Go To dialog box
opens.
2. Type C4 in the Reference field.
3. Press Enter. Excel moves to cell C4.

The Name Box

You can also use the Name box to go to a specific cell. Just type the cell you want to
go to in the Name box and then press Enter.

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 1. Type B10 in the Name box.
2. Press Enter. Excel moves to cell B10.

Select Cells

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If you wish to perform a function on a group of cells, you must first select those cells
by highlighting them.

To select cells A1 to E1:

1. Go to cell A1.
2. Press the F8 key. This anchors the cursor.
3. Note that "Extend Selection" appears on the Status bar in the lower-left corner
of the window. You are in the Extend mode.
4. Click in cell E7. Excel highlights cells A1 to E7.
5. Press Esc and click anywhere on the worksheet to clear the highlighting.

Alternative Method: Select Cells by Dragging

You can also select an area by holding down the left mouse button and dragging the
mouse over the area. In addition, you can select noncontiguous areas of the worksheet
by doing the following:

1. Go to cell A1.
2. Hold down the Ctrl key. You won't release it until step 9. Holding down the
Ctrl key enables you to select noncontiguous areas of the worksheet.
3. Press the left mouse button.
4. While holding down the left mouse button, use the mouse to move from cell
A1 to C5.
5. Continue to hold down the Ctrl key, but release the left mouse button.
6. Using the mouse, place the cursor in cell D7.
7. Press the left mouse button.

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 8. While holding down the left mouse button, move to cell F10. Release the left
mouse button.
9. Release the Ctrl key. Cells A1 to C5 and cells D7 to F10 are selected.
10. Press Esc and click anywhere on the worksheet to remove the highlighting.

Enter Data

First, place the cursor in the cell in which you want to start entering data. Type some
data, and then press Enter. If you need to delete, press the Backspace key to delete
one character at a time.

1. Place the cursor in cell A1.

2. Type John Jordan. Do not press Enter at this time.

Delete Data

The Backspace key erases one character at a time.

1. Press the Backspace key until Jordan is erased.

2. Press Enter. The name "John" appears in cell A1.

Edit a Cell

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After you enter data into a cell, you can edit the data by pressing F2 while you are in
the cell you wish to edit.

Change "John" to "Jones."

1. Move to cell A1.

2. Press F2.
3. Use the Backspace key to delete the "n" and the "h."
4. Type nes.
5. Press Enter.

Alternate Method: Editing a Cell by Using the Formula Bar

You can also edit the cell by using the Formula bar. You change "Jones" to "Joker"

1. Move the cursor to cell A1.

2. Click in the formula area of the Formula bar.

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 3. Use the backspace key to erase the "s," "e," and "n."
4. Type ker.
5. Press Enter.

Alternate Method: Edit a Cell by Double-Clicking in the Cell

You can change "Joker" to "Johnson" as follows:

1. Move to cell A1.

2. Double-click in cell A1.
3. Press the End key. Your cursor is now at the end of your text.

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 3. Use the Backspace key to erase "r," "e," and "k."
4. Type hnson.
5. Press Enter.

Change a Cell Entry

Typing in a cell replaces the old cell entry with the new information you type.

1. Move the cursor to cell A1.

2. Type Cathy.
3. Press Enter. The name "Cathy" replaces "Johnson."

Wrap Text

When you type text that is too long to fit in the cell, the text overlaps the next cell. If
you do not want it to overlap the next cell, you can wrap the text.

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 1. Move to cell A2.
2. Type Text too long to fit.
3. Press Enter.

4. Return to cell A2.

5. Choose the Home tab.
6. Click the Wrap Text button . Excel wraps the text in the cell.

Delete a Cell Entry

To delete an entry in a cell or a group of cells, you place the cursor in the cell or select
the group of cells and press Delete.

1. Select cells A1 to A2.

2. Press the Delete key.

Data entry into cells

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a) Entering Text

Text entries can be numbers, letters or symbols. Numbers can also be treated
as text, especially in cases where calculations are not required; for example,
telephone numbers, record numbers, zip codes, roll numbers, and so on.
 Excel studies the entered data to determine its type. If you type an
address which is alphanumeric in nature, it is automatically taken as a
text entry; For example, 110 Downing Street, 86th Avenue.
 Numeric entries that are to be treated as text should be preceded with
an apostrophe; for example, ’34. It is then considered as text entry.
 Enter your full name and trade area cell B8

b) Entering Numbers
Numeric entries are constants and can be integers, decimal fractions, integer
fractions and scientific notations. For example, (3.334E+0.04).
 Enter your current mobile phone number on G 11

c) Entering Date and Time

Date and time entries can also be made in Excel worksheets. Excel allows
calculation on dates because it converts the entry to a serial date number; for
example, you can find out the age of a person by reducing the current date
from his date of birth. Excel recognizes dates and time only when they are
specified in the right formats. The valid formats for the date and time are:
Valid Date Format Valid Time Format
6/10/97, 6-OCT-97, 6-OCT, OCT-6 12:30, 12:30:20, 2:30 AM,
2:30:20 PM
 Insert your date of birth in cell D9

d) Entering Formulas
Expressions can be calculated by typing the formula in the appropriate cell; for
example, =B4+C5 is a formula that adds the cell contents of cell B4 to the cell
contents of cell C5. The formula specified must be preceded by a equal to (=)
sign. Listed below are some examples of formulas:
=35 * 44
=23 ^ 2
=C5 - C3
=C1+C2+C3+C4+C5
=S3 - D6 * 44 / 3

 Enter the numbers 234 and 551 in cells B4 and C4 respectively, determine
the sum, product in cells D4 and E4 respectively
a) Inserting Data

To insert data into a cell simply select it (i.e. make it active) and enter your
information. Excel has a useful auto entry function that enables you to simply drag
from the bottom right-hand corner of a cell to populate cells in any direction.
After a few entries, Excel is often capable of deciphering the pattern that you are
creating and can fill in remaining cells based on the pattern. To test this feature,

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 start by typing a sequence of numbers and then highlight those cells and drag
downward from the bottom right-hand corner of the last cell you entered data into.

b) Inserting Formulas and Functions

Functions always begin with an = sign. You can insert functions just like you are
entering text or numbers and when you press enter, the result of your function will
appear.

c) Inserting Columns

Columns can be inserted into a worksheet by:

 Right clicking, and

 Selecting Insert from the menu.

OR by:

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  Clicking on the Insert tab, and
 Selecting Columns

d) Inserting Rows

Rows can be inserted into a worksheet by:

 Right clicking, and

 Selecting Insert from the menu.

Or by:

 Clicking on the Insert tab, and

 Selecting Rows

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To copy data in cells

 Select one or more cells

 Select Edit in the menu
 Select Copy

Save a File

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This is the end of Lesson1. To save your file:

1. Click the Office button. A menu appears.

2. Click Save. The Save As dialog box appears.
3. Go to the directory in which you want to save your file.
4. Type FileName in the File Name field.
5. Click Save. Excel saves your file.

Close Excel

Close Microsoft Excel.

1. Click the Office button. A menu appears.

2. Click Close. Excel closes.

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Task 6: editing a worksheet
Selecting Columns
 To select a column, click the column header D
 To select more than one column, click column header C and hold the mouse down.
While the mouse is still down, move it right until column F is selected, then release the
mouse

 To select columns in another range, click column header B

 Press and hold Shift, then click column header E, Release Shift
 To select columns at random, click column header H, Press and hold
Ctrl
 Click column headers B, E, and C, Release Ctrl
 Click any box under column header G
 To select a column with the keyboard, for example column G, press
Ctrl + Space, Press Ctrl + Home
Automatically resizing columns

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 If one of the boxes under a column header displays the required width, the column can
be resized to the content of that box. To do this, click the box that has the desired
width. Then:
 Double-click the short line that separates the column header from the column on its
right (if you are on the most right column, that will be the line that serves as the
column's right border)
 On the Ribbon, click Home. In the Cells section, click Format and click AutoFit
Column Width

In the same way, to set the widths of columns based on some boxes under their
columns headers, select those boxes and
 Double-click the short line on one side of the column headers
 On the Ribbon, click Home. In the Cells section, click Format and click AutoFit
Column Width
To undo any of these actions:

On the Quick Access toolbar, click the Undo button

Press Ctrl + Z
Hiding and revealing Columns
Columns can be hidden or displayed when working on lists depending on the need

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 To hide one column:
 Right-click the column and click Hide
 Click the column header. On the Ribbon, click Home. In the Cells section, click
Format, position the mouse on Hide & Unhide, and click Hide Columns

When a column has been hidden, its letter disappears from the sequence and the line
between the previous neighbors is thicker than the other dividing lines:

To hide many columns, select the columns. Then:

 Right-click one of the column headers or inside the selection and click Hide
 On the Ribbon, click Home. In the Cells section, click Format, position the mouse
on Hide & Unhide, and click Hide Columns

To reveal the hidden columns:

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  Right-click any column header and click Unhide
 On the Ribbon, click Home. In the Cells section, click Format, position the mouse
on Hide & Unhide, and click Unhide Columns

Settings of Rows
a) Like the columns, each row is labeled. The rows are labeled from Row 1 to Row
1048576 for Excel 2007. Rows can be hidden or displayed as required. To hide a
row:
 Right-click the row and click Hide
 Click the row header. On the Ribbon, click Home. In the Cells section, click
Format, position the mouse on Hide & Unhide, and click Hide Rows
b) To freeze and unfreeze a row, click the row header of the row that will lead the
moving rows. On the Ribbon, click View. In the Window section, click
Freeze Panes, and click Freeze Panes. To split the rows in two groups, click a row
header. On the ribbon, click View. In the Window section, click Split. As
mentioned for the columns, the similarities between the freezing and splitting are
as follows:
 The rows are divided in two groups
 The user can scroll the rows from the bottom side of the divider
The differences between the freezing and splitting are as follows:
 If you freeze a row, you can scroll the rows below the frozen line but you
cannot scroll the rows above the frozen line. If you split the rows, you can
scroll the rows from either the top or the bottom side of the splitting bar
 If you freeze a row, you cannot move the freezing line to another row (you
would have to unfreeze the row, then re-freeze). If you split the rows, you can
move the splitting bar up or down
 If you freeze a row, to remove the frozen line, you use the Ribbon. If you split
the rows, to remove the splitting line, you can double-click it or, in the Window
section of the View tab of the Ribbon, you can click the Split button
c) Heights of rows: To manually change the height of a row, position the mouse on
the lower border that separates it from the next row.
Click, then drag up or down until you get the desired height, then release the
mouse. To size a group of rows: select the rows, position the mouse on the
bottom border of one of the selected rows. Click and drag up or down in a chosen
direction until the desired height.
d) Height of rows can also be automatically adjusted
 Double-click the bottom border of the row
 Click the row header or a box on that row. On the Ribbon, click Home. In the
Cells section, click Format and click AutoFit Row Height

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Task 7: formatting a worksheet

Create Borders

You can use borders to make entries in your Excel worksheet stand out. You can
choose from several types of borders. When you press the down arrow next to the
Border button , a menu appears. By making the proper selection from the menu,
you can place a border on the top, bottom, left, or right side of the selected cells; on
all sides; or around the outside border. You can have a thick outside border or a
border with a single-line top and a double-line bottom. Accountants usually place a
single underline above a final number and a double underline below. The following
illustrates:

cl
1. Select cells B6 to E6.

2. Choose the Home tab.

3. Click the down arrow next to the Borders button . A menu appears.
4. Click Top and Double Bottom Border. Excel adds the border you chose to the
selected cells.

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Merge and Center

Sometimes, particularly when you give a title to a section of your worksheet, you will
want to center a piece of text over several columns or rows. The following example
shows you how.

1. Go to cell B2.
2. Type Sample Worksheet.
3. Click the check mark on the Formula bar.
4. Select cells B2 to E2.
5. Choose the Home tab.
6. Click the Merge and Center button in the Alignment group. Excel merges
cells B2, C2, D2, and E2 and then centers the content.

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Note: To unmerge cells:

1. Select the cell you want to unmerge.

2. Choose the Home tab.
3. Click the down arrow next to the Merge and Center button. A menu
appears.
4. Click Unmerge Cells. Excel unmerges the cells.

Add Background Color

To make a section of your worksheet stand out, you can add background color to a
cell or group of cells.

1. Select cells B2 to E3.

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 2. Choose the Home tab.
3. Click the down arrow next to the Fill Color button .
4. Click the color dark blue. Excel places a dark blue background in the cells you
selected.

Change the Font, Font Size, and Font Color

A font is a set of characters represented in a single typeface. Each character within a

font is created by using the same basic style. Excel provides many different fonts
from which you can choose. The size of a font is measured in points. There are 72
points to an inch. The number of points assigned to a font is based on the distance
from the top to the bottom of its longest character. You can change the Font, Font
Size, and Font Color of the data you enter into Excel.

1. Select cells B2 to E3.

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 2. Choose the Home tab.
3. Click the down arrow next to the Font box. A list of fonts appears. As you
scroll down the list of fonts, Excel provides a preview of the font in the cell
you selected.
4. Find and click Times New Roman in the Font box. Note: If Times New
Roman is your default font, click another font. Excel changes the font in the
selected cells.

Change the Font Size

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 1. Select cell B2.
2. Choose the Home tab.
3. Click the down arrow next to the Font Size box. A list of font sizes appears.
As you scroll up or down the list of font sizes, Excel provides a preview of the
font size in the cell you selected.
4. Click 26. Excel changes the font size in cell B2 to 26.

Changing the Font Color

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 1. Select cells B2 to E3.
2. Choose the Home tab.
3. Click the down arrow next to the Font Color button .
4. Click on the color white. Your font color changes to white.

Your worksheet should look like the one shown here.

Moving to a New Worksheet

In Microsoft Excel, each workbook is made up of several worksheets. Each worksheet

has a tab. By default, a workbook has three sheets and they are named sequentially,
starting with Sheet1.

 Click Sheet2 in the lower-left corner of the screen. Excel moves to Sheet2.

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Bold, Italicize, and Underline

When creating an Excel worksheet, you may want to emphasize the contents of cells
by bolding, italicizing, and/or underlining. You can easily bold, italicize, or underline
text with Microsoft Excel. You can also combine these features—in other words, you
can bold, italicize, and underline a single piece of text.

1. Type Bold in cell A1.

2. Click the check mark located on the Formula bar.
3. Choose the Home tab.
4. Click the Bold button . Excel bolds the contents of the cell.
5. Click the Bold button again if you wish to remove the bold.

Italicize with the Ribbon

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 1. Type Italic in cell B1.
2. Click the check mark located on the Formula bar.
3. Choose the Home tab.
4. Click the Italic button . Excel italicizes the contents of the cell.
5. Click the Italic button again if you wish to remove the italic.

Underline with the Ribbon

Microsoft Excel provides two types of underlines. The exercises that follow illustrate
them.

Single Underline:

1. Type Underline in cell C1.

2. Click the check mark located on the Formula bar.
3. Choose the Home tab.
4. Click the Underline button . Excel underlines the contents of the cell.
5. Click the Underline button again if you wish to remove the underline.

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Double Underline

1. Type Underline in cell D1.

2. Click the check mark located on the Formula bar.
3. Choose the Home tab.
4. Click the down arrow next to the Underline button and then click Double
Underline. Excel double-underlines the contents of the cell. Note that the
Underline button changes to the button shown here , a D with a double
underline under it. Then next time you click the Underline button, you will get
a double underline. If you want a single underline, click the down arrow next
to the Double Underline button and then choose Underline.
5. Click the double underline button again if you wish to remove the double
underline.

Bold, Underline, and Italicize

1. Type all three in cell E1.

2. Click the check mark located on the Formula bar.
3. Choose the Home tab.
4. Click the Bold button . Excel bolds the cell contents.
5. Click the Italic button . Excel italicizes the cell contents.
6. Click the Underline button . Excel underlines the cell contents.

Bold with Shortcut Keys

1. Type Bold in cell A2.

2. Click the check mark located on the Formula bar.
3. Hold down the Ctrl key while pressing "b" (Ctrl+b). Excel bolds the contents
of the cell.
4. Press Ctrl+b again if you wish to remove the bolding.

Italicize with Shortcut Keys

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 1. Type Italic in cell B2. Note: Because you previously entered the word Italic in
column B, Excel may enter the word in the cell automatically after you type
the letter I. Excel does this to speed up your data entry.
2. Click the check mark located on the Formula bar.
3. Hold down the Ctrl key while pressing "i" (Ctrl+i). Excel italicizes the
contents of the cell.
4. Press Ctrl+i again if you wish to remove the italic formatting.

Underline with Shortcut Keys

1. Type Underline in cell C2.

2. Click the check mark located on the Formula bar.
3. Hold down the Ctrl key while pressing "u" (Ctrl+u). Excel applies a single
underline to the cell contents.
4. Press Ctrl+u again if you wish to remove the underline.

Bold, Italicize, and Underline with Shortcut Keys

1. Type all three in cell D2.

2. Click the check mark located on the Formula bar.
3. Hold down the Ctrl key while pressing "b" (Ctrl+b). Excel bolds the cell
contents.
4. Hold down the Ctrl key while pressing "i" (Ctrl+i). Excel italicizes the cell
contents.
5. Hold down the Ctrl key while pressing "u" (Ctrl+u). Excel applies a single
underline to the cell contents.

Work with Long Text

Whenever you type text that is too long to fit into a cell, Microsoft Excel attempts to
display all the text. It left-aligns the text regardless of the alignment you have
assigned to it, and it borrows space from the blank cells to the right. However, a long
text entry will never write over cells that already contain entries—instead, the cells
that contain entries cut off the long text. The following illustrates this.

1. Move to cell A6.

2. Type “Now is the time for all good men to go to the aid of their army.”
3. Press Enter. Everything that does not fit into cell A6 spills over into the
adjacent cell.

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 4. Move to cell B6.
5. Type Test.
6. Press Enter. Excel cuts off the entry in cell A6.

7. Move to cell A6.

8. Look at the Formula bar. The text is still in the cell.

Format Numbers

You can format the numbers you enter into Microsoft Excel. For example, you can
add commas to separate thousands, specify the number of decimal places, place a
dollar sign in front of a number, or display a number as a percent.

1. Move to cell B8.

2. Type 1234567.
3. Click the check mark on the Formula bar.

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4. Choose the Home tab.
5. Click the down arrow next to the Number Format box. A menu appears.
6. Click Number. Excel adds two decimal places to the number you typed.

7. Click the Comma Style button . Excel separates thousands with a comma.
8. Click the Accounting Number Format button . Excel adds a dollar sign to
your number.
9. Click twice on the Increase Decimal button to change the number format
to four decimal places.

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 10. Click the Decrease Decimal button if you wish to decrease the number of
decimal places.

Change a decimal to a percent.

1. Move to cell B9.

2. Type .35 (note the decimal point).
3. Click the check mark on the formula bar.

4. Choose the Home tab.

5. Click the Percent Style button . Excel turns the decimal to a percent.

Task 8: performing calculations

Perform Mathematical Calculations

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In Microsoft Excel, you can enter numbers and mathematical formulas into cells.
Whether you enter a number or a formula, you can reference the cell when you
perform mathematical calculations such as addition, subtraction, multiplication, or
division. When entering a mathematical formula, precede the formula with an equal
sign. Use the following to indicate the type of calculation you wish to perform:

+ Addition

- Subtraction

* Multiplication

/ Division

^ Exponential

1. Type Add in cell A1.

2. Press Enter. Excel moves down one cell.
3. Type 1 in cell A2.
4. Press Enter. Excel moves down one cell.
5. Type 1 in cell A3.
6. Press Enter. Excel moves down one cell.
7. Type =A2+A3 in cell A4.
8. Click the check mark on the Formula bar. Excel adds cell A1 to cell A2 and
displays the result in cell A4. The formula displays on the Formula bar.

Subtraction

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 1. Press F5. The Go To dialog box appears.
2. Type B1 in the Reference field.
3. Press Enter. Excel moves to cell B1.

4. Type Subtract.
5. Press Enter. Excel moves down one cell.
6. Type 6 in cell B2.
7. Press Enter. Excel moves down one cell.
8. Type 3 in cell B3.
9. Press Enter. Excel moves down one cell.
10. Type =B2-B3 in cell B4.
11. Click the check mark on the Formula bar. Excel subtracts cell B3 from cell B2
and the result displays in cell B4. The formula displays on the Formula bar.

Multiplication

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 1. Hold down the Ctrl key while you press "g" (Ctrl+g). The Go To dialog box
appears.
2. Type C1 in the Reference field.
3. Press Enter. Excel moves to cell C1
4. Type Multiply.
5. Press Enter. Excel moves down one cell.
6. Type 2 in cell C2.
7. Press Enter. Excel moves down one cell.
8. Type 3 in cell C3.
9. Press Enter. Excel moves down one cell.
10. Type =C2*C3 in cell C4.
11. Click the check mark on the Formula bar. Excel multiplies C1 by cell C2 and
displays the result in cell C3. The formula displays on the Formula bar.

Division

1. Press F5.
2. Type D1 in the Reference field.
3. Press Enter. Excel moves to cell D1.
4. Type Divide.
5. Press Enter. Excel moves down one cell.
6. Type 6 in cell D2.
7. Press Enter. Excel moves down one cell.
8. Type 3 in cell D3.
9. Press Enter. Excel moves down one cell.
10. Type =D2/D3 in cell D4.
11. Click the check mark on the Formula bar. Excel divides cell D2 by cell D3 and
displays the result in cell D4. The formula displays on the Formula bar.

When creating formulas, you can reference cells and include numbers. All of the
following formulas are valid:

=A2/B2

=A1+12-B3

=A2*B2+12

=24+53

AutoSum

You can use the AutoSum button on the Home tab to automatically add a column
or row of numbers. When you press the AutoSum button , Excel selects the
numbers it thinks you want to add. If you then click the check mark on the Formula
bar or press the Enter key, Excel adds the numbers. If Excel's guess as to which
numbers you want to add is wrong, you can select the cells you want.

The following diagram illustrates AutoSum:

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 1. Go to cell F1.
2. Type 3.
3. Press Enter. Excel moves down one cell.
4. Type 3.
5. Press Enter. Excel moves down one cell.
6. Type 3.
7. Press Enter. Excel moves down one cell to cell F4.
8. Choose the Home tab.
9. Click the AutoSum button in the Editing group. Excel selects cells F1
through F3 and enters a formula in cell F4.

10. Press Enter. Excel adds cells F1 through F3 and displays the result in cell F4.

Perform Automatic Calculations

By default, Microsoft Excel recalculates the worksheet as you change cell entries.
This makes it easy for you to correct mistakes and analyze a variety of scenarios.

clxviii
Make the changes described below and note how Microsoft Excel automatically
recalculates.

1. Move to cell A2.

2. Type 2.
3. Press the right arrow key. Excel changes the result in cell A4. Excel adds cell
A2 to cell A3 and the new result appears in cell A4.
4. Move to cell B2.
5. Type 8.
6. Press the right arrow key. Excel subtracts cell B3 from cell B3 and the new
result appears in cell B4.
7. Move to cell C2.
8. Type 4.
9. Press the right arrow key. Excel multiplies cell C2 by cell C3 and the new
result appears in cell C4.
10. Move to cell D2.
11. Type 12.
12. Press the Enter key. Excel divides cell D2 by cell D3 and the new result
appears in cell D4.

Align Cell Entries

When you type text into a cell, by default your entry aligns with the left side of the
cell. When you type numbers into a cell, by default your entry aligns with the right
side of the cell. You can change the cell alignment. You can center, left-align, or
right-align any cell entry. Look at cells A1 to D1. Note that they are aligned with the
left side of the cell.

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Centering

To center cells A1 to D1:

1. Select cells A1 to D1.

2. Choose the Home tab.
3. Click the Center button in the Alignment group. Excel centers each cell's
content.

Left-Align

To left-align cells A1 to D1:

1. Select cells A1 to D1.

2. Choose the Home tab.
3. Click the Align Text Left button in the Alignment group. Excel left-aligns
each cell's content.

Right-Align

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To right-align cells A1 to D1:

1. Select cells A1 to D1. Click in cell A1.

2. Choose the Home tab.
3. Click the Align Text Right button. Excel right-aligns the cell's content.
4. Click anywhere on your worksheet to clear the highlighting.

Perform Advanced Mathematical Calculations

When you perform mathematical calculations in Excel, be careful of precedence.

Calculations are performed from left to right, with multiplication and division
performed before addition and subtraction.

1. Move to cell A7.

2. Type =3+3+12/2*4.
3. Press Enter.

Note: Microsoft Excel divides 12 by 2, multiplies the answer by 4, adds 3, and then
adds another 3. The answer, 30, displays in cell A7.

To change the order of calculation, use parentheses. Microsoft Excel calculates the
information in parentheses first.

1. Double-click in cell A7.

2. Edit the cell to read =(3+3+12)/2*4.
3. Press Enter.

Note: Microsoft Excel adds 3 plus 3 plus 12, divides the answer by 2, and then
multiplies the result by 4. The answer, 36, displays in cell A7.

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Copy, Cut, Paste, and Cell Addressing

In Excel, you can copy data from one area of a worksheet and place the data you
copied anywhere in the same or another worksheet. In other words, after you type
information into a worksheet, if you want to place the same information somewhere
else, you do not have to retype the information. You simply copy it and then paste it
in the new location.

You can use Excel's Cut feature to remove information from a worksheet. Then you
can use the Paste feature to place the information you cut anywhere in the same or
another worksheet. In other words, you can move information from one place in a
worksheet to another place in the same or different worksheet by using the Cut and
Paste features.

Microsoft Excel records cell addresses in formulas in three different ways, called
absolute, relative, and mixed. The way a formula is recorded is important when you
copy it. With relative cell addressing, when you copy a formula from one area of the
worksheet to another, Excel records the position of the cell relative to the cell that
originally contained the formula. With absolute cell addressing, when you copy a
formula from one area of the worksheet to another, Excel references the same cells,
no matter where you copy the formula. You can use mixed cell addressing to keep the
row constant while the column changes, or vice versa.

1. Move to cell A9.

2. Type 1. Press Enter. Excel moves down one cell.
3. Type 1. Press Enter. Excel moves down one cell.
4. Type 1. Press Enter. Excel moves down one cell.
5. Move to cell B9.
6. Type 2. Press Enter. Excel moves down one cell.
7. Type 2. Press Enter. Excel moves down one cell.
8. Type 2. Press Enter. Excel moves down one cell.

Enter a formula either by clicking on a cell or by using the arrow keys.

1. Move to cell A12.

2. Type =.
3. Use the up arrow key to move to cell A9.
4. Type +.
5. Use the up arrow key to move to cell A10.
6. Type +.
7. Use the up arrow key to move to cell A11.
8. Click the check mark on the Formula bar. Look at the Formula bar. Note that
the formula you entered is displayed there.

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Copy with the Ribbon

To copy the formula you just entered, follow these steps:

1. You should be in cell A12.

2. Choose the Home tab.

3. Click the Copy button in the Clipboard group.
Excel copies the formula in cell A12.

4. Press the right arrow key once to move to cell B12.

5. Click the Paste button in the Clipboard group.
Excel pastes the formula in cell A12 into cell B12.
6. Press the Esc key to exit the Copy mode.

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Compare the formula in cell A12 with the formula in cell B12 (while in the respective
cell, look at the Formula bar). The formulas are the same except that the formula in
cell A12 sums the entries in column A and the formula in cell B12 sums the entries in
column B. The formula was copied in a relative fashion.

Before proceeding with the next part of the exercise, you must copy the information
in cells A7 to B9 to cells C7 to D9. This time you will copy by using the Mini toolbar.

Copy with the Mini Toolbar

1. Select cells A9 to B11. Move to cell A9. Press the Shift key. While holding
down the Shift key, press the down arrow key twice. Press the right arrow key
once. Excel highlights A9 to B11.
2. Right-click. A context menu and a Mini toolbar appear.
3. Click Copy, which is located on the context menu. Excel copies the
information in cells A9 to B11.

4. Move to cell C9.

5. Right-click. A context menu appears.

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 6. Click Paste. Excel copies the contents of cells A9 to B11 to cells C9 to C11.

7. Press Esc to exit Copy mode.

Absolute Cell Addressing

You make a cell address an absolute cell address by placing a dollar sign in front of
the row and column identifiers. You can do this automatically by using the F4 key. To
illustrate:

1. Move to cell C12.

2. Type =.
3. Click cell C9.
4. Press F4. Dollar signs appear before the C and the 9.
5. Type +.
6. Click cell C10.
7. Press F4. Dollar signs appear before the C and the 10.
8. Type +.
9. Click cell C11.
10. Press F4. Dollar signs appear before the C and the 11.
11. Click the check mark on the formula bar. Excel records the formula in cell
C12.

Mixed Cell Addressing

You use mixed cell addressing to reference a cell when you want to copy part of it
absolute and part relative. For example, the row can be absolute and the column
relative. You can use the F4 key to create a mixed cell reference.

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 1. Move to cell E1.
2. Type =.
3. Press the up arrow key once.
4. Press F4.
5. Press F4 again. Note that the column is relative and the row is absolute.
6. Press F4 again. Note that the column is absolute and the row is relative.
7. Press Esc.

Cut and Paste

You can move data from one area of a worksheet to another.

1. Select cells D9 to D12

2. Choose the Home tab.
3. Click the Cut button.
4. Move to cell G1.

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 5. Click the Paste button . Excel moves the contents of cells D9 to D12 to
cells G1 to G4.

Worksheet Functions.

What is a Function?
1. You can perform calculations with your data using formulas or
functions.
A worksheet function is a special in-built formula that performs an
operation on the values you provide.
2. Microsoft Excel has hundreds of worksheet functions that you can
use in formulas including automatic functions like AutoSum that
totals data in rows or columns.
For example, the formula “SUM (D1:D7)” uses a function to add
the values in the range D1:D7. It gives you the same result as the
formula “=D1+D2+D3+D4+D5+D6+D7”.
3. Many functions, however, simplify work by performing complex
calculations; for example, FV calculates the future value of a fixed
investment earning a fixed interest over a specified period.

Let us say you want to plan for your retirement in 20 years and decide
to invest Kshs 20,000 each year. If the investment pays 20% interest
compounded annually, the formula would then be “=FV (20%, 20, -
20000)” and you would collect KShs 3,733,760 after 20 years.
4. All functions require you to supply data to work on. This data is
called argument. In the function SUM (D1:D7), the range address
enclosed in parentheses (brackets) is the argument. The arguments
can be either cell references or values or both.

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 For example, the Arg
AutoSum ume
Fun nt
function =SUM
ctio
However certain
(*) (C25:C28)
n
functions are complete on their own; you do not
need to include any cell references or other information for them to
work. For example, the TODAY function enters the current system
date into a cell.
Note: Whenever you use functions you must have parentheses, even
if you do not need any arguments, e.g. when you enter the TODAY
function, =TODAY().
5. Sometimes you may work with a function that requires arguments,
and it can become difficult to keep track of the information you
need. Microsoft Excel has a Paste Function facility that helps you
add any arguments that are required to complete a formula.

Function Categories.
Functions are grouped into broad categories by some common
features particular to the function.
Some of these categories are listed below:
1. Financial:
Analyze investments, annuities, and securities; determine
depreciation; and calculate cash flows and loans, e.g. PMT
2. Date & Time:
Calculate values that represent dates and times. For example,
TODAY is used to return the current date according to the
computer’s internal clock.
3. Math & Trig:
Simplify various mathematical operations, such as calculating
square roots (SQRT), and replace complex trigonometric
calculations like sine (SIN), cosine (COS), etc.
4. Statistical:
Perform calculations on lists of values. For example, AVERAGE
calculates the average value of a series of values in a range.
5. Lookup & Reference:
Finds or refers to the contents of a cell. For example, the
VLOOKUP function.
6. Database:
Perform statistical calculations and queries on database tables. For
instance, DSUM will find the total of values in a particular field
(column).
7. Logical:
Calculate the results of logical formulas. For example, the IF
Function.
8. Information:
Return information about cells, ranges, the operating system, and
some Excel tools; or mark places where information is missing or
incorrect. For example, CELL returns information about the
formatting, location or contents of a cell.
1. Select the cell where you want to enter the function.

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 2. From the Insert Menu select Function
3. The Paste Function dialog box opens.

4. Select the category of the function from the arrow next to Select a
category.
5. Select the function you want from the Select a Function list
clicking on it. When you select a function, a description of the
function appears.
6. Click OK.

A
r
g
u R
m
e
nt
s

7. In the dialog box that follows, the function name, argument names
and spaces for the arguments (both required and optional), are
displayed.
8. Type in the arguments in the spaces corresponding to each
argument name.

Click on OK.

Using Common Functions.

The AVERAGE Function.

Returns the average (arithmetic mean) of the arguments provided. The
arguments must be numbers or names, arrays, or references that contain
numbers.

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For instance, you may want to calculate the average marks for students
for all the subjects they have done.

1. Position your cell pointer where the average is to be inserted.

2. Click the Paste Function button.
3. In the Function category select Statistical and then choose
AVERAGE under Function name.

4. Select the range of figures to be averaged by clicking on to

temporarily hide the dialog box, select the range and then click on
To get back to the dialog box.
5. Click OK.

Notes
1. Using the AVERAGE function, you can find the average for upto 30
numeric arguments.
2. When averaging cells, keep in mind the difference between empty
cells and those containing the value zero.
Empty cells are not counted, but zero values are.

The MIN Function.

This function finds the smallest number in a selected range.
1. Select the cell where you want to enter the function.
2. Click the Paste Function button.
3. Select the Statistical category and then select MIN function.
The MIN function requires that you specify the arguments that are
numbers, empty cells, logical values, or text that can be translated
into numbers.
Arguments that are error values or text that cannot be translated into
numbers cause errors.
4. Select the range of figures to represent the argument by clicking on
to temporarily hide the dialog box, select the range and then
click on again.
If an argument is an array or reference, only numbers in that array
or reference are used. Empty cells, logical values, or text in the
array or reference are ignored. If the arguments contain no
numbers, MIN returns 0.
5. Click on OK in the next screen.
6. You can use the MIN function for upto 30 numbers.

The MAX Function.

This function finds the maximum value in a selected range. It is similar
to MIN.

1. Select the cell where you want to enter the function.

2. Click the Paste Function button.
3. Select the Statistical category and then select MAX function.

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 The MAX function requires that you specify the arguments that are
numbers, empty cells, logical values, or text that can be translated
into numbers.
Arguments that are error values or text that cannot be translated into
numbers cause errors.
4. Select the range of figures to represent the argument by clicking on
to temporarily hide the dialog box, select the range and then
click on again.
If an argument is an array or reference, only numbers in that array
or reference are used. Empty cells, logical values, or text in the
array or reference are ignored. If the arguments contain no
numbers, MAX returns 0 (zero).
5. Click on OK in the next screen.
6. You can use the MAX function for upto 30 numbers.

The IF Function.
1. IF evaluates a condition and returns one of two values, depending
on the result of the evaluation. If the condition is true, IF returns one
value, if the condition is false, it returns the other value. The IF
function has the following format: =IF(Condition, Action-to-be-
taken-when-condition-is-true, Action-to-be-taken-when-condition-
is-false).
2. The condition is usually a logical formula. However, you can use
any formula, number, or address of a cell as a condition. Excel
evaluates any condition that does not equal zero as true and any
condition that is equal to zero as false.
3. The arguments can be values, text enclosed in quotation marks, or
the addresses or names of cells that contain values or labels.
Example:
Suppose the formula =IF(Balance>=0,Balance,"Overdrawn") is
entered in cell B5. Then B5 will contain the value in the cell named
Balance when the value in Balance is 0 or positive; Otherwise, it will
contain the text “Overdrawn” (when the value in Balance is
negative).

The PMT Function.

PMT calculates the payment on a loan (principal) at a given interest
rate for a specified number of payment periods (term). Principal and
term are values. Interest is a decimal or percentage value greater than
-1.
The PMT function has the following format: =PMT(Principal-Amount,
Interest-Rate, Term).
Example:
You are considering taking out a KShs. 800,000 loan for 4 years at an
annual Interest Rate of 26%, compounded monthly. Payments are due
on the last day of each month and you would like to determine your
monthly payment.

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 PMT(800000,0.26/12,48) = 26973.85 is the monthly installment.

Note: The Interest is divided by 12 in order to get the monthly rate,

and term in years is also multiplied by 12 to convert it into months.
The LOWER, UPPER, PROPER Functions
Converts text to lower, UPPER and Title Case respectively.
Example:
=LOWER(A1:A23) converts the contents of the range A1 to A23 to
lower case
=UPPER(A1:A23) converts the contents of the range A1 to A23 to
upper case
=PROPER(A1:A23) Capitalizes the first letter in each word of text
value in the range A1 to A23

Task 9: creating charts

In Microsoft Excel, you can represent numbers in a chart. On the Insert tab, you can
choose from a variety of chart types, including column, line, pie, bar, area, and
scatter. The basic procedure for creating a chart is the same no matter what type of
chart you choose. As you change your data, your chart will automatically update.

You select a chart type by choosing an option from the Insert tab's Chart group. After
you choose a chart type, such as column, line, or bar, you choose a chart sub-type. For
example, after you choose Column Chart, you can choose to have your chart
represented as a two-dimensional chart, a three-dimensional chart, a cylinder chart, a
cone chart, or a pyramid chart. There are further sub-types within each of these
categories. As you roll your mouse pointer over each option, Excel supplies a brief
description of each chart sub-type.

To create the column chart shown above, start by creating the worksheet below
exactly as shown.

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 .

1. Select cells A3 to D6. You must select all the cells containing the data you
want in your chart. You should also include the data labels.
2. Choose the Insert tab.
3. Click the Column button in the Charts group. A list of column chart sub-types
types appears.
4. Click the Clustered Column chart sub-type. Excel creates a Clustered Column
chart and the Chart Tools context tabs appear.

Apply a Chart Layout

Context tabs are tabs that only appear when you need them. Called Chart Tools, there
are three chart context tabs: Design, Layout, and Format. The tabs become available
when you create a new chart or when you click on a chart. You can use these tabs to
customize your chart.

You can determine what your chart displays by choosing a layout. For example, the
layout you choose determines whether your chart displays a title, where the title
displays, whether your chart has a legend, where the legend displays, whether the
chart has axis labels and so on. Excel provides several layouts from which you can
choose.

clxxxiii
 1. Click your chart. The Chart Tools become available.
2. Choose the Design tab.
3. Click the Quick Layout button in the Chart Layout group. A list of chart
layouts appears.
4. Click Layout 5. Excel applies the layout to your chart.

Adding Labels

When you apply a layout, Excel may create areas where you can insert labels. You
use labels to give your chart a title or to label your axes. When you applied layout 5,
Excel created label areas for a title and for the vertical axis.

Before After
1. Select Chart Title. Click on Chart Title and then place your cursor before the
C in Chart and hold down the Shift key while you use the right arrow key to
highlight the words Chart Title.
2. Type Toy Sales. Excel adds your title.
3. Select Axis Title. Click on Axis Title. Place your cursor before the A in Axis.
Hold down the Shift key while you use the right arrow key to highlight the
words Axis Title.
4. Type Sales. Excel labels the axis.
5. Click anywhere on the chart to end your entry.

Switching Data

clxxxiv
If you want to change what displays in your chart, you can switch from row data to
column data and vice versa.

Before After
1. Click your chart. The Chart Tools become available.
2. Choose the Design tab.
3. Click the Switch Row/Column button in the Data group. Excel changes the
data in your chart.

Changing the Style of a Chart

A style is a set of formatting options. You can use a style to change the color and
format of your chart. Excel 2007 has several predefined styles that you can use. They
are numbered from left to right, starting with 1, which is located in the upper-left
corner.

1. Click your chart. The Chart Tools become available.

2. Choose the Design tab.
3. Click the More buttons in the Chart Styles group. The chart styles appear.

clxxxv
 4. Click Style 42. Excel applies the style to your chart.

Changing the Size and Position of a Chart

When you click a chart, handles appear on the right and left sides, the top and bottom,
and the corners of the chart. You can drag the handles on the top and bottom of the
chart to increase or decrease the height of the chart. You can drag the handles on the
left and right sides to increase or decrease the width of the chart. You can drag the
handles on the corners to increase or decrease the size of the chart proportionally. You
can change the position of a chart by clicking on an unused area of the chart and
dragging.

1. Use the handles to adjust the size of your chart.

2. Click an unused portion of the chart and drag to position the chart beside the
data.

Move a Chart to a Chart Sheet

clxxxvi
By default, when you create a chart, Excel embeds the chart in the active worksheet.
However, you can move a chart to another worksheet or to a chart sheet. A chart sheet
is a sheet dedicated to a particular chart. By default Excel names each chart sheet
sequentially, starting with Chart1. You can change the name.

1. Click your chart. The Chart Tools become available.

2. Choose the Design tab.
3. Click the Move Chart button in the Location group. The Move Chart dialog
box appears.

4. Click the New Sheet radio button.

5. Type Toy Sales to name the chart sheet. Excel creates a chart sheet named Toy
Sales and places your chart on it.

Change the Chart Type

Any change you can make to a chart that is embedded in a worksheet, you can also
make to a chart sheet. For example, you can change the chart type from a column
chart to a bar chart.

clxxxvii
 1. Click your chart. The Chart Tools become available.
2. Choose the Design tab.
3. Click Change Chart Type in the Type group. The Chart Type dialog box
appears.
4. Click Bar.
5. Click Clustered Horizontal Cylinder.
6. Click OK. Excel changes your chart type.

Task 10: printing worksheets

clxxxviii
The simplest way to print is to click the Office button, highlight Print on the menu
that appears, and then click Quick Print in the Preview and Print the Document pane.
Dotted lines appear on your screen, and your document prints. The dotted lines
indicate the right, left, top, and bottom edges of your printed pages.

You can also use the Print Preview option to print. When using Print Preview, you
can see onscreen how your printed document will look when you print it. If you click
the Page Setup button while in Print Preview mode, you can set page settings such as
centering your data on the page.

If your document is several pages long, you can use the Next Page and Previous Page
buttons to move forward and backward through your document. If you check the
Show Margins check box, you will see margin lines on your document. You can click
and drag the margin markers to increase or decrease the size of your margins. To
return to Excel, click the Close Print Preview button.

You click the Print button when you are ready to print. The Print dialog box appears.
You can choose to print the entire worksheet or specific pages. If you want to print
specific pages, enter the page numbers in the From and To fields. You can enter the
number of copies you want to print in the Number of Copies field.

1. Click the Office button. A menu appears.

2. Highlight Print. The Preview and Print The Document pane appears.
3. Click Print Preview. The Print Preview window appears, with your document
in the center.

clxxxix
 Center Your Document

1. Click the Page Setup button in the Print group. The Page
Setup dialog box appears.
2. Choose the Margins tab.
3. Click the Horizontally check box. Excel centers your data horizontally.
4. Click the vertically check box. Excel centers your data vertically.
5. Click OK. The Page Setup dialog box closes.

Print

1. Click the Print button. The Print dialog box appears.

2. Click the down arrow next to the name field and select the printer to which
you want to print.
3. Click OK. Excel sends your worksheet to the printer.

DATA PROCESSING AND DATA SECURITY

Specific objectives
By the end of this topic, the trainee should be able to:
t) define data and data processing
u) describe the data processing cycle
v) describe the data processing modes
w) explain the elements of data hierarchy
x) describe file organization and access methods
y) explain database and related terminologies
z) describe threats and hazards to data
aa) explain methods of securing data
bb) explain health and safety issues in a computer environment (ergonomics)

cxc
Unit tasks
Task 1: defining data and data processing

Data are facts, routines, techniques, procedures, transactions relating to business activity.
Data by itself has no meaning until when related data are brought together. Example is the no
of items sold, name of individual and many others.

Information is obtained by assembling data items into meaningful form. For example the
payroll, an invoice, financial statement, or a report.

Data processing is the process of collecting and manipulating data items to produce
meaningful information.

Task 2: describing the data processing cycle

The data processing cycle is the order in which data is processed. There are four stages;

1. Data collection
2. Data input
3. Data processing and storage
4. Data output

1. Data collection

Data collection is a term used to describe a process of preparing and

collecting data.

Data-collection techniques allow us to systematically collect data and include

the following:

 Using available information

Usually there is a large amount of data that has already been collected by
others, although it may not necessarily have been analysed or published.
Locating these sources and retrieving the information is a good starting
point in any data collection effort.

 Observing

This is being part of the system where the person collecting data
systematically selects, watches and records specific situation or type of
situations.

 Interviewing (face-to-face)

cxci
 An interview is a data-collection technique that involves oral questioning
of respondents, either individually or as a group.

Answers to the questions posed during an interview can be recorded by

writing them down (either during the interview itself or immediately after
the interview) or by recording the responses, or by a combination of both.

 Administering written questionnaires

A written questionnaire (also referred to as self-administered

questionnaire) is a data collection tool in which written questions are
presented that are to be answered by the respondents in written form.

A written questionnaire can be administered in different ways, such as by:

 Sending questionnaires by mail with clear instructions on how to

answer the questions and asking for mailed responses;
 Gathering all or part of the respondents in one place at one time,
giving oral or written instructions, and letting the respondents fill
out the questionnaires; or
 Hand-delivering questionnaires to respondents and collecting them
later.

The questions can be either open-ended or closed (with pre-categorised

answers).

 Focus group discussions

A focus group discussion allows a group of 8 - 12 informants to freely

discuss a certain subject with the guidance of a facilitator or reporter.

2. Data input
It is the process through which collected data is transformed into a form that
computer can understand. It is very important step because correct output
result totally depends on the input data. In input step, following activities can
be performed.
i) Verification
The collected data is verified to determine whether it is correct as required.
For example, the collected data of all Diploma In Tourism students that
appeared in final examination of the institute is verified. If errors occur in
collected data, data is corrected or it is collected again.

ii) Coding
The verified data is coded or converted into machine readable form so that it
can be processed through computer.

cxcii
 iii) Storing
The data is stored on the secondary storage into a file. The stored data on the
storage media will be given to the program as input for processing.
3. Data processing and storage
After completing the processing step, output is generated. The main purpose
of data processing is to get the required result. Mostly, the output is stored
on the storage media for later use. In output step, following activities can be
performed in a systematic manner. Some of the important activities are:
i) Classification
The data is classified into different groups and subgroups, so that each group
or sub-group of data can be handled separately.
ii) Storing
The data is arranged into an order so that it can be accessed very quickly as
and when required.
iii) Calculations
The arithmetic operations are performed on the numeric data to get the
required results. For example, total marks of each student are calculated.
iv) Summarising
The data is processed to represent it in a summarized form. ft means that the
summary of data is prepared for top management. For example, the
summary of the data of student is prepared to show the percentage of pass
and fail student examination etc.

4. Data output
After completing the processing step, output is generated. The main purpose
of data processing is to get the required result. Mostly, the output is stored
on the storage media for later user. In output step, following activities can be
performed.
i) Retrieval
Output stored on the storage media can be retrieved at any time. For
example, result of students is prepared and stored on the disk. This result can
be retrieved when required for different purposes.
ii) Conversion
The generated output can be converted into different forms. For example, it
can be represented into graphical form.
iii) Communication
The generated output is sent to different places. For example, weather
forecast is prepared and sent to different agencies and newspapers etc.
where it is required.

cxciii
Task 3: describing the data processing modes

Task 4: explaining the elements of data hierarchy

Task 5: describing file organization and access methods

Task 6: explaining database and related terminologies

Task 7: describing threats and hazards to data

Task 8: explaining methods of securing data

Task 9: explaining health and safety issues in a computer environment (ergonomics)

COMPUTER NETWORKS
Specific objectives
By the end of this topic, the trainee should be able to:
cc) define a computer network
dd) identify network components
ee) identify types of networks
ff) describe network topologies
gg) explain the need for network security
hh) discuss the impact of network

Unit tasks
Task 1: defining a computer network
A group of two or more computers linked together for purposes of sharing resources, such as
files, programs, or printers.
A protocol defines a common set of rules and signals that computers on the network use to
communicate. TCP/IP is not only the protocol of the Internet, but it has also become the
dominant protocol for computer networks of virtually all types.
Task 2: identifying network components

cxciv
(a) Networking Cables
The two most popular types of network cabling are twisted-pair (also known as
10BaseT) and thin coax (also known as 10Base2). 10BaseT cabling looks like ordinary
telephone wire, except that it has 8 wires inside instead of 4. Thin coax looks like the
copper coaxial cabling that's often used to connect a VCR to a TV set. The
10baseT/Cat5 cables have connectors that resemble a phone cord connector, only
larger. These are called RJ-45 connectors.

(b) Network Adapter Card

A network computer is connected to the network cabling with a network interface
card, (also called a "NIC", "nick", or network adapter). Some NICs are installed inside
of a computer: the PC is opened up and a network card is plugged directly into one
of the computer's internal expansion slots. If a PC lacks expansion slots (which is
true with portable PCs), special network adapters are used. A PCMCIA(Personal
Computer Memory Card International Association) network adapter connects a PC to
a network if the PC has a PCMCIA expansion slot, while a pocket adapter connects a
PC to a network through the its printer port.

(c) Hub
The central connecting device is called a hub. A switch/ hub is a box that is used to
gather groups of PCs together at a central location with 10BaseT cabling. If you're
networking a small group of computers together, you may be able to get by with a
hub, some 10BaseT cables, and a handful of network adapters

cxcv
 (d) SWITCH
The Switch is a more advanced unit over the basic hub. In a basic hub, all the
computers connect to it and the speed of the network is defined by the slowest
computer network card connected. If you have 10 100Mbps cards on the network
and just on 10Mbps card, the system cannot run faster than that one 10Mbps card.
There in comes the Switch. However a switch treats each network card
independently and in the matter of the 10 100Mbps network with the one 10Mbps
network card, the Switch allows all of the faster connections to remain at the higher
speed and still interact with the 10Mbps system.

(e) Servers
is a computer system that provides essential services across a network, to private
users inside a large organization or to public users in the internet.

Task 3: Identifying types of networks

Local Area Networks (LANs)
The smallest and simplest networks are called local area networks (LANs), which
extend over only a small area, typically within a single building or a part thereof. A
home network is a type of LAN that is contained within a user's residence.
Wide Area Networks (WANs)
Wide area networks (WANs) can extend over a large geographic area and are
connected via the telephone network or radio waves.
Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) / Campus Area Network (CAN)
A metropolitan area network (MAN) is designed to serve a town or city, and a
campus area network is designed to serve a university or other educational
institution.
Intranet
An intranet is a private network within an organization that uses the same
communications protocols as the Internet.
Extranet
When part of an intranet is made accessible to suppliers, customers or others
outside the organization, that part becomes an extranet.
internet
An internet (spelled with a lower case i) is a network that is composed of a number
of smaller computer networks.
The Internet
The Internet (spelled with an upper case I) is the world-wide network of
interconnected internets that operates using a standardized set of communications
protocols called TCP/IP (transmission control protocol/Internet protocol), or the
Internet protocol suite. This ultimate internet is vastly larger than any other internet
and connects thousands of networks and hundreds of millions of computers
throughout the world.

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Task 4: Describing network topologies
The devices on a network are referred to as nodes. Nodes can be connected using
any of the various types of media, including twisted pair copper wire cable, optical
fiber cable, coaxial cable and radio waves. And they can be arranged according to
several basic topologies (i.e., layouts), including:

Bus Topology

Bus topology uses a common backbone to connect all the network devices in a
network in a linear shape. A single cable functions as the shared communication
medium for all the devices attached with this cable with an interface connector. The
device, which wants to communicate send the broadcast message to all the devices
attached with the shared cable but only the intended recipient actually accepts and
process that message
Bus topologies are easy to install and do not require much cabling and only a may
not require much cabling and only a main shared cable is used for network
communication. 10Base-2 and 10BaseT are two popular types of the Ethernet cables
used in the Bus topology. Also, Bus network works with very limited devices.
Performance issues are likely to occur in the Bus topology if more than 12-15
computers are added in a Bus Network. Additionally, if the Backbone cable fails then
all network becomes useless and no communication fails among all the computers.

Star Topology

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The most commonly used topology in LAN is the star topology. Star topologies can
be implemented in home, offices or even in a building. All the computers in the star
topologies are connected to central devices like hub, switch or router. As compared
to the bus topology, a star network requires more devices & cables to complete a
network. The failure of each node or cable in a star network, will not take down the
entire network as compared to the Bus topology.
However if the central connecting devices such as hub, switch or router fails due to
any reason, then ultimately all the network can come down or collapse.

Tree Topology

Tree topologies are comprised of the multiple star topologies on a bus. Only the hub
devices can connect directly with the tree bus and each Hub functions as a root of a
tree of the network devices. This bus/star/hybrid combination supports future
expandability of the computer networks, much better than a bus or star.

Mesh Topology

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 Mesh topology work on the concept of routes. In Mesh topology, message sent to
the destination can take any possible shortest, easiest route to reach its destination.
In the previous topologies star and bus, messages are usually broadcasted to every
computer, especially in bus topology. Internet employs the Mesh topology and the
message finds its route for its destination. Router works in finding the routes for the
messages and in reaching them to their destinations. The topology in which every
device connects to every other device is called a full Mesh topology unlike in the
partial mesh in which every device is indirectly connected to the other devices.

Task 5: explaining the need for network security

Although computer networks, facilitates the sharing of resources, it is not always
desirable to share all of the information with everyone. Security mechanism must be
available to exclude unauthorized users from the system and to restrict access by
authorized users to the particular files and processes with which they are properly
concerned.
Security is also concerned with preventing data loss, so provision must exist for the
backing-up files.
Another problem of sharing of files is that several users may attempt to update the
same data at the same time, presenting the possibility of data corruption. To
combat this problem, network software usually provides a facility for locking records
while they are in use.
Task 6: discussing the impact of network
 Facilitating communications. Using a network, people can communicate
efficiently and easily via e-mail, instant messaging, chat rooms, telephony, video
telephone calls, and videoconferencing.
 Sharing hardware. In a networked environment, each computer on a network can
access and use hardware on the network. Suppose several personal computers on a
network each require the use of a laser printer. If the personal computers and a
laser printer are connected to a network, each user can then access the laser printer
on the network, as they need it.
 Sharing files, data, and information. In a network environment, any authorized
user can access data and information stored on other computers on the network.
The capability of providing access to data and information on shared storage
devices is an important feature of many networks.
 Sharing software. Users connected to a network can access application programs
on the network.

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PRESENTATION PACKAGES
Specific objectives
By the end of this topic, the trainee should be able to:
ii) discuss various types of presentation packages
jj) explain how to create slides
kk) explain how to format slides
ll) explain how to run slides
mm) describe how to edit slides
nn) describe how to print slides and handouts

Unit tasks
Task 1: discussing various types of presentation packages
With a Presentation Package, you can easily create slide shows. Trainers and other
presenters use slide shows to illustrate their presentations. The presentation packages
in the market today include:
 Microsoft PowerPoint (MS PowerPoint)

Ms PowerPoint is the most popular and therefore will be used for illustrations in this
manual.

The PowerPoint Window

Open PowerPoint 2007. The following window appears and your screen looks similar
to the one shown here.

The Microsoft Office Button

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In the upper-left corner is the Microsoft Office button. When you click the button, a
menu appears. You can use the menu to create a new file, open an existing file, save
a file, and perform many other tasks.

The Quick Access Toolbar

Next to the Microsoft Office button is the Quick Access toolbar. The Quick Access
toolbar provides you with access to commands you frequently use. By default, Save,
Undo, and Redo appear on the Quick Access toolbar. You use Save to save your file,
Undo to rollback an action you have taken, and Redo to reapply an action you have
rolled back.

The Title Bar

The Title bar is located at the top in the centre of the PowerPoint window. The Title
bar displays the name of the presentation on which you are currently working. By
default, PowerPoint names presentations sequentially, starting with Presentation1.
When you save your file, you can change the name of your presentation.

The Ribbon

1 Tabs
2 Command Group
3 Command Buttons
4 Launcher

You use commands to tell PowerPoint what to do. In PowerPoint 2007, you use the
Ribbon to issue commands. The Ribbon is located near the top of the PowerPoint
window, below the Quick Access toolbar. At the top of the Ribbon are several tabs;
clicking a tab displays several related command groups. Within each group are
related command buttons. You click buttons to issue commands or to access menus
and dialog boxes. You may also find a dialog box launcher in the bottom-right corner
of a group. When you click the dialog box launcher, a dialog box makes additional
commands available.

Rulers

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Rulers are vertical and horizontal guides. You use them to determine where you
want to place an object. If the rulers do not display in your PowerPoint window:
1. Click the View tab.
2. Click Ruler in the Show/Hide group. The rulers
appear.

Slides, Placeholders, and Notes

1 Slide
2 Placeholders
3 Notes
Slides appear in the centre of the window. You create your presentation on slides.
Placeholders hold the objects in your slide. You can use placeholders to hold text,
clip art, charts, and more.
You can use the notes area to create notes to yourself. You can refer to these notes
as you give your presentation.

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Status Bar, Tabs, View Buttons, and More

Status Bar 6 Vertical & Horizontal

1
Splitter Bars
2 Outline Tab 7 Minimize Button
3 Slides Tab 8 Maximize/Restore Button
4 View Buttons 9 Close Button
5 Zoom
The Status bar generally appears at the bottom of the window. The Status bar
displays the number of the slide that is currently displayed, the total number of
slides, and the name of the design template in use or the name of the background.
The Outline tab displays the text contained in your presentation. The Slides tab
displays a thumbnail of all your slides. You click the thumbnail to view the slide in the
Slide pane.
The View buttons appear near the bottom of the screen. You use the View buttons to
change between Normal view, Slider Sorter view, and the Slide Show view.
Normal View
Normal view splits your screen into three major sections: the Outline and
Slides tabs, the Slide pane, and the Notes area. The Outline and Slides tabs are
on the left side of your window. They enable you to shift between two
different ways of viewing your slides. The Slides tab shows thumbnails of
your slides. The Outline tab shows the text on your slides. The Slide pane is
located in the center of your window. The Slide pane shows a large view of

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 the slide on which you are currently working. The Notes area appears below
the Slide pane. You can type notes to yourself on the Notes area.

Slide Sorter View

Slide Sorter view shows thumbnails of all your slides. In Slide Sorter view,
you can easily add, delete, or change their order of your slides.

Slide Show
Use the Slide Show view when you want to view your slides, as they will look
in your final presentation. When in Slide Show view:
Esc Returns you to the view you were using previously.

Left- Moves you to the next slide or animation effect. When

clicking you reach the last slide, you automatically return to
your previous view.

Right- Opens a pop-up menu. You can use this menu to

clicking navigate the slides, add speaker notes, select a pointer,
and mark your presentation.

Zoom allows you to zoom in and zoom out on the window.

Zooming in makes the window larger so you focus in on an object. Zooming out
makes the window smaller so you can see the entire window.
You can click and drag the vertical and horizontal splitter bars to change the size of
your panes.
You use the Minimize button to remove a window from view. While a window is
minimized, its title appears on the taskbar. You click the Maximize button to
cause a window to fill the screen. After you maximize a window, clicking the Restore
button returns the window to its former smaller size. You click the Close button
to exit the window and close the program.

Task 2: explaining how to create slides

You create your PowerPoint presentation on slides. You use layouts to organize the
content on each slide. PowerPoint has several slide layouts from which to choose.

Themes are sets of colors, fonts, and special effects. Backgrounds add a colored
background to your slides. You can add themes and backgrounds to your slides. After
you complete your slides, you can run your presentation.

Create a Title Slide

When you start PowerPoint, PowerPoint displays the title slide in the Slide pane. You
can type the title of your presentation and a subtitle on this slide. To enter text:

 Click and type the title of your presentation in the "Click to add title" area.

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  Click and type a subtitle in the "Click to add subtitle" area.

If you do not wish to use the title slide, click the Delete Slide button in the Slides
group on the Home tab.

1. Open PowerPoint. You are presented with a title slide.

2. Enter the information shown here. Type College Scholarships and Financial
Aid in the Click to Add Title text box. Type Paying for College in the Click to
Add Subtitle text box.

Creating New Slides

After completing your title slide, you can create additional slides. To create a new
slide:

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 1. Choose the Home tab.

2. Click the New Slide button in the Slides group. The Office Theme
dialog box appears and displays several layout templates.
3. Click the layout you want. The layout appears in the Slide pane of the
PowerPoint window.

3. To add text, click inside the placeholder and type.

4. To add an additional slide to your presentation, do one of the following:

Right-click the slide layout. A menu appears. Click Layout and then
click the layout you want.

Choose the Home tab, click the New Slide button , and then
choose the slide layout you want.

Creating an Outline

If you need to present the information in your slide in outline form, you can easily
create an outline by using the Increase List Level button to create a hierarchy.

1. Choose the Home tab.

2. Click the New Slide button in the Slides group. The Office Theme
dialog box appears.
3. Click the Title and Content layout.
4. Enter the information shown here. Click the Increase List Level button in
the Paragraph group to indent the bullets for Diploma and Degrees. If you ever
need to decrease an indent, use the Decrease List Level button in the
Paragraph group.

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 Use Two-Column Text

You can also place text in two separate columns.

1. Choose the Home tab.

2. Click the New Slide button in the Slides group. The Office Theme
dialog box appears.
3. Click the Two Content layout.
4. Enter the information shown here.

Task 3 Explaining how to format slides

After creating a slide, if you want to add text:

1. Place the mouse pointer at the point at which you would like to add text.
2. Type the information you want to add.

If you would like to change text:

1. Select the text you want to change.

2. Type the new text.

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You can use the Backspace key to delete text. You can also delete text by highlighting
the text and pressing the Delete key.

Apply a Theme

A theme is a set of colors, fonts, and special effects. Themes provide attractive
backgrounds for your PowerPoint slides.

To apply a theme to all of the slides in your presentation:

1. Choose the Design tab.

2. Click the More button in the Themes group.
3. Click the design you want.

To apply a theme to selected slides:

1. Click the Slides tab, located on the left side of the window.
2. Hold down the Ctrl key and then click to select the slides to which you want to
apply a theme.
3. Choose the Design tab.
4. Click the More button in the Themes group.
5. Right-click the theme you want to apply. A menu appears.
6. Click Apply to Selected Slides. Excel applies the theme to the slides you
selected.

You can add a dramatic effect to your theme by applying a background.

1. Choose the Design tab.

2. Click the Background Styles button .
3. Click the background you want.

1. Choose the Design tab.

2. Click the More button in the Themes group.

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 3. Click the theme you want. PowerPoint applies the theme to all of the slides in
your presentation.

Add a Background

1. Choose the Design tab.

2. Click the Background Styles button .
3. Click the background you want. PowerPoint applies the background to your
slides.

Task 4 Explain how to run slides

After you create your slides, you can run your slide show:

1. Do any one of the following:

o Press F5.

Choose the Slide Show tab. Click the From Beginning button in the Start Slide
Show group.
o Click the Slide Show icon in the bottom-right corner of your screen.

Your slide show appears on your screen.

Navigating the Slide Show

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 Task Procedure

Go to the next slide. Do one of the following:

 Press the Right Arrow key.
 Press the Enter key.
 Press the Page Down key.
 Left-click the slide.

Go to the previous slide. Do one of the following:

 Press the Left Arrow key.
 Press the Backspace key.
 Press the Page Up key.

End the slide show and return to Press the Esc key.
PowerPoint.
1. Press F5 to run the slide show.
2. Use the arrow keys on your keyboard to move forward and backward through
your slides.
3. Use the Esc key to return to Normal view

Task 5 Describe how to edit slides

Add Animations

Animations control how objects move onto, off of, and around your slides. You can
animate the objects on your PowerPoint slides. PowerPoint provides four types of
animations: Entrance, Emphasis, Exit, and Motion Paths. An Entrance animation
determines the manner in which an object appears on a slide; for example, an object
can move onto a slide. An Emphasis animation does something to draw attention to an
object; for example, the object can become larger. An Exit animation determines the
manner in which an object leaves a slide; for example, an object can move off a slide.
A Motion Paths animation determines how an object moves around a slide; for
example, an object can move from left to right.

After you add an animation, you can use the Custom Animation pane to modify it by
choosing an effect. Choosing an effect enables you to define what starts the
animation, its properties (such the direction from which an object moves onto the
slide), and control the speed of the animation. In addition, you can have an animation
start when you click the mouse, start along with the previous animation, or start at a
specified time after the previous animation.

If the Auto Preview box is checked on the Custom Animation pane, PowerPoint
provides you with preview of your animation after you create it and each time you
modify it. You can also use the Play button on the Custom Animation pane to
preview an animation.

To choose an effect:

1. Select the object you want to animate.

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 2. Choose the Animations tab.
3. Click the Custom Animation button . The Custom
Animation pane appears.
4. Click the Add Effect button . A menu appears.
5. Choose the type of effect you want. A submenu appears.
6. Click the effect you want. PowerPoint applies the effect.

To modify an effect:

1. Click the down arrow next to the Start field on the Custom Animations pane
and then select the start method you want.
2. Click the down arrow next to the Property field on the Custom Animations
pane and the select the property you want. The Property field might be labeled
Direction, Size, or some other property.
3. Click the down arrow next to the Speed field on the Custom Animations pane
and then select the speed you want to apply to your animation.

To preview the animation, click the Play button on the Custom Animations
pane.

Adding an Animation to a Slide

1. Click Slide 2 on the Slides tab.

2. Select "Start saving early."
3. Choose the Animations tab.
4. Click the Custom Animation button . The Custom
Animation pane appears.
5. Click the Add Effect button . A menu appears.

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 6. Choose Entrance. A submenu appears.
7. Click Fly In. PowerPoint applies the effect. If the Auto preview box is
checked, PowerPoint automatically provides you with a preview of the
animation.

Modifying the Effect

1. Click the down arrow next to the Start field and then select After Previous.
2. Click the down arrow next to the Direction field and then select From Bottom.
3. Click the down arrow next to the Speed field and then select Medium.

Adding Another Animation

1. Select "Apply for financial aid."

2. Click the Add Effect button . A menu appears.
3. Choose Entrance. A submenu appears.
4. Click Fly In. PowerPoint applies the effect. If the Auto preview box is checked,
PowerPoint automatically provides you with a preview of the animation.

Modifying the Animation

1. Click the down arrow next to the Start field and then select After Previous.
The Apply for Financial Aid field appears in the center of the Custom
Animation pane.
2. Click the down arrow next to the Apply for Financial Aid field and then click
Timing. The Fly In dialog box appears.

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 3. Type 0.05 in the Delay text box.
4. Click OK.

5. Click the down arrow next to the Direction field and then select From Bottom.
6. Click the down arrow next to the Speed field and then select Medium. If the
Auto preview box is checked, PowerPoint automatically provides you with a
preview of the animation. You can click the Play button on the Custom
Animation pane at anytime to preview an animation.

Adding Transitions

Transitions determine how your presentations move from one slide to the next. For
example, a slide can move up onto the screen and replace the previous slide.
PowerPoint provides several transition methods. You can add sound to a transition
and you can control its speed. You can apply a transition to selected slides or to all of
the slides in your presentation.

A transition can occur when the presenter clicks the mouse or after the amount of time
you specify.

To apply a transition to selected slides:

1. On the Slides tab, hold down the Ctrl key and then click the slides to which
you want to apply the transition.
2. Choose the Animations tab.

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 3. Click the More button in the Transition to this Slide group. A menu of
transitions appears.
4. Click the transition you want to apply. PowerPoint applies the transition. As
you roll your pointer over each transition, PowerPoint provides you with a live
preview of the transition.

To apply a transition to all slides:

1. Choose the Animations tab.

2. Click the More button in the Transition to this Slide group. A menu of
transitions appears.
3. Click the transition you want to apply. As you roll your pointer over each
transition, PowerPoint provides you with a live preview of the transition.
4. Click the Apply to All button in the Transition to This Slide
group.

To add a sound to a transition:

1. Choose the Animations tab.

2. Click the down arrow next to the Transition Sound field and then click the
sound you want. As you roll your pointer over each sound, PowerPoint plays
the sound.

To set the speed of a transition:

1. Choose the Animations tab.

2. Click the down arrow next to the Transition Speed field and then click the
speed you want.

If you want the transition to occur after the presenter clicks the mouse, check the On
Mouse Click check box. If you want a transition to occur after a specified period of
time, check the Automatically After check box and then specify the amount of time
you want to elapse before the transition occurs. The On Mouse Click check box and
the Automatically After check box are both located on the Animations tab in the
Transition to This Slide group.

1. Choose the Animations tab.

2. Click the More button in the Transition to this Slide group. A menu of
transitions appears.

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 s

3. Click the Push Up transition. As you roll your pointer over each transition,
PowerPoint provides you with a live preview of the transition.

Adding Sound and Setting the Speed

1. Click the down arrow next to the Transition Sound field and then click Click.
2. Click the down arrow next to the Transition Speed field and then click Slow.

Advancing a Slide

1. Check the On Mouse Click check box.

2. Click the Automatically After check box.
3. Type 00:07 in the Automatically After text box.
4. Click the Apply to All button . PowerPoint applies all of your
changes to all of the slides.
5. Click Slide 1 on the Slides tab.
6. Type 00:03 in the Automatically After text box. PowerPoint changes the
timing for Slide 1.

Spell checking a Check

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PowerPoint checks your spelling as you type and displays errors with a red wavy line
under the misspelled word. You can right-click and then select the correct spelling
from the list of offerings on the menu that appears or select Spelling to open the
Spelling dialog box. If you need to, you can initiate a spell check anytime you like. To
start a spell check, do one of the following:

 Press F7.
 Choose the Review tab and then click the Spelling button .

If the spell check finds a possible spelling error, the Spelling dialog box opens with
the spelling error highlighted. You can respond in several ways.

Response Procedure

Do not change spelling. Click Ignore.

Correct spelling. 1. Click the correct spelling in the

Suggestions box.

2. Click Change.

Add to dictionary. Click Add.

Word is correct. Do not change Click Ignore All.

presentation.

Word is incorrect. Change Click Change All.

entire presentation.
1. Press F7
2. Correct any spelling errors PowerPoint finds. If PowerPoint does not find any
errors, the Spelling Check is Complete message box appears. Click OK.

Using the Outline and Slides Tabs

By default, the Outline and Slides tabs are located on the left side of your PowerPoint
window. The Outline tab displays the text contained in your presentation. The Slides
tab displays a thumbnail of all your slides. You click the thumbnail to view the slide
in the Slide pane.

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 1. Choose the Slides tab to view thumbnails of your slides.

2. Choose the Outline tab to view the text of your presentation as an outline.

Using Slide Sorter View

After you have created your PowerPoint slides, you can move, cut, copy, paste,
duplicate, navigate, and view them in Sorter view. To view the slides in Sorter view,
do one of the following:

 Choose the View tab and then click the Slide Sorter button in the
Presentation Views group.

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 Click the Slide Sorter button in the bottom-right corner of the PowerPoint
window.

Slide Sorter View

Task Procedure

Move to first slide. Use Ctrl+Home.

Move to last slide. Use Ctrl+End.

Move to next slide. Use the right arrow.

Move to previous slide. Use the left arrow.

Select a slide. Single-click the slide.

Open a slide in Normal view. Double-click the slide.

Select slides. Select a single slide:

1. Click the slide you want to select.

Select multiple slides:

1. Hold down the Ctrl key.
2. Click the slides you want to select.

Delete a slide. 1. Select the slide or slides you want

to delete.
2. Press the Delete key.

1. Select the slide or slides you want

to delete.
2. Choose the Home tab and then
click the Delete button .

Copy a slide. 1. Select the slide.

2. Choose the Home tab.
3. Click the Copy button in the
Clipboard group.

1. Select the slide.

2. Press Ctrl+C.

Paste a slide. 1. Select the slide after which you

want the new slide or slides to
appear.
2. Choose the Home tab.
3. Click the Paste button in the
Clipboard group.

1. Select the slide after which you

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 Slide Sorter View

Task Procedure

want the new slide or slides to

appear.
2. Press Ctrl+V.

Cut a slide. 1. Select the slide or slides you want

to cut.
2. Choose the Home tab.
3. Click the Cut button in the
Clipboard group.

1. Select the slide or slides you want

to cut.
2. Press Ctrl+X.

Move a slide. 1. Select the slide (or slides) you want

to move.
2. Drag it to the new location.

Duplicate a slide. 1. Select the slide (or slides) you want

to duplicate.
2. Press Ctrl+D.

1. Choose the View tab.

2. Click Slide Sorter in the Presentation Views group.
3. Double-click a slide to view it in Normal view.

Task 6 Describe how to print slides and handouts

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PowerPoint provides you with many printing options. You can print a large view of
your slides or you can print your slides as handouts with 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, or 9 slides per
page. You can also print your Notes pages or the Outline view of your slides.

To print:

1. Click the Microsoft Office button. A menu appears.

2. Choose Print.
3. Click Print Preview.
4. Click the down arrow next to the Print What field in the Page Setup group and
then select what you would like to print. A preview appears onscreen.
5. Click the Print . The Print dialog box appears.
6. Click the down arrow next to the Color/Grayscale field to select whether you
want your slides to print in color, grayscale, or black and white. If you are
using a black and white printer, choose black and white. You will use less ink
or toner.
7. Click OK.

Printing an Outline

1. Click the Microsoft Office button. A menu appears.

2. Choose Print.
3. Click Print Preview. The Print Preview tab appears.

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 4. Click the down arrow next to the Print What field in the Page Setup group and
then select Outline View.
5. Click the Print button . The Print dialog box appears.

6. Click the down arrow next to the Color/Grayscale field to select whether you
want your slides to print in color, grayscale, or black and white. If you are
using a black and white printer, choose black and white. You will use less ink
or toner.
7. Set the other print settings.
8. Click OK. Your outline prints.

Printing Your Slides

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 1. Click the Microsoft Office button. A menu appears.
2. Choose Print.
3. Click Print Preview. The Print Preview tab appears.
4. Click the down arrow next to the Print What field in the Page Setup group and
then select Slides.
5. Click the Print button . The Print dialog box appears.
6. Click the down arrow next to the Color/Grayscale field to select whether you
want your slides to print in color, grayscale, or black and white. If you are
using a black and white printer, choose black and white. You will use less ink
or toner.
7. Set the other print settings.
8. Click OK. Your slides print.

Printing Your Slides as a Handout

1. Click the Microsoft Office button. A menu appears.

2. Choose Print.
3. Click Print Preview. The Print Preview tab appears.
4. Click the down arrow next to the Print What field in the Page Setup group and
then select Handouts (4 slides per page).
5. Click the Print button . The Print dialog box appears.
6. Click the down arrow next to the Color/Grayscale field to select whether you
want your slides to print in color, grayscale, or black and white. If you are
using a black and white printer, choose black and white. You will use less ink
or toner.
7. Set the other print settings.
8. Click OK. Your handouts print.

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INTERNET AND WORLD WIDE WEB

Specific Objectives:
By the end of this topic, the trainee should be able to:
a) Define the Internet
b) Explain the applications of the Internet
c) Explain the challenges in the use of the Internet in the business environment
d) Explain the need for Internet security
e) Open the browser
f) Surf the net
g) Create e-mail accounts
h) Use e-mail
i) Use search engines
j) Print documents

Task 1 Defining the Internet and applications

Definition of the Internet

The Internet is a global system of interconnected computer networks that use the standard
Internet Protocol Suite (TCP/IP) to serve billions of users worldwide. It is a network of
networks that consists of millions of private and public, academic, business, and government
networks of local to global scope that are linked by a broad array of electronic and optical
networking technologies. The Internet carries a vast array of information resources and
services, most notably the inter-linked hypertext documents of the World Wide Web (WWW)
and the infrastructure to support electronic mail.

History of the Internet

In the 1960s, one of MIT’s projects Mac was funded by ARPA (Advanced Research
Projects Agency) of the department of defense. During one of its conferences, ARPA rolled
out the blueprints for networking the main computer of about a dozen ARPA-funded
universities institutions. They were to be connected with communication lines at then-
stunning 56 Kbps. Shortly after the conference, ARPA proceeded to implement the ARPAnet,
the predecessor of today’s Internet.

Things worked out differently from what was originally planned. Rather than the primary
benefit of researchers sharing each other’s computer, it rapidly became clear that enabling
the researchers to communicate among themselves via electronic mail (e-mail) was the key
benefit of ARPAnet. One of the primary goals for ARPAnet was to allow multiple users to
send and receive information simultaneously over the same communication paths. The
network operated with a technique called packet switching, in which digital data was sent in
small packages called packets. The packets contained data addresses, error control and
sequencing information. The address information allowed packets to be routed to
destinations. The sequencing information helped reassemble the packets into their original
order for presentation to the recipient since they could arrive out of order.
The protocols for communicating over the ARPAnet became known as TCP (Transmission
Control Protocol). TCP ensured that messages were properly routed from sender to receiver
and that those messages arrived intact. As the internet evolved, organizations worldwide were
implementing their own networks for both intra-organization and inter-organization
communications. A wide variety of networking hardware and software appeared. One

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challenge was to get these networks to communicate. ARPA accomplished this with the
development of IP – the Internetworking Protocol, truly creating a network of networks, the
current architecture of the Internet. The combined set of protocols is now referred to as
TCP/IP.

The history of the TCP/IP protocol suite can be traced back to one of the first WANs
consisting of computers from different manufacturers running different operating systems.
Before ARPAnet, most computer networks were homogeneous, consisting of computers from
the same hardware manufacturer running the same operating system.

The ARPAnet’s popularity became apparent, and in 1975, it was converted from an
experimental research network into a fully operational network. Research into network
protocols continued and the Internet Protocol Suite resulted. The TCP/IP protocols were
adopted as Military Standards in 1983, and all computers connected to the ARPAnet were
required to adopt the new protocol. The ARPAnet was then split into two networks: the
MILNET, used for military communications, and the new, much smaller ARPAnet, used for
further research. MILnet and ARPAnet together became known as the Internet. Initially,
Internet use was limited to the universities, research institutions and the military, but
eventually with time Internet has incorporated commercial applications.

The term internet (notice the lower case i) is now used to refer to any collection of physically
separate networks that share the same communication protocols (not necessarily TCP/IP) to
appear as a single logical network. The term Internet (notice the upper case I) is used to refer
to the worldwide collection of interconnected computer networks that run the TCP/IP
protocols.

Internetworking evolved as a solution to three key problems which are as follows:

i) Isolated LANs
It made electronic communication between different offices or departments impossible.
ii) Duplication of Resources
The same hardware and software had to be supplied to each office or department, as did
separate support staff.
iii) Lack of Network Management
No centralized method of managing and troubleshooting networks existed.

Web related terminologies

• Web browsers

Web browsers are software applications that are used to retrieve web pages from the Internet
onto your PC. They let you surf (or browse) through information on the Web. Information on
the Web is structured into pages. Each page has a specific address that is used to locate and
access information on that page.
The three browsers that particularly dominate the Internet market are:

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- Microsoft’s Internet Explorer
- Mozilla Firefox
- Netscape’s Navigator

• Modem (Modulator / Demodulator)

On the Internet, computers exchange information via telephone lines. A modem is a device
that enables you to connect to the Internet and access information. As a transmitting modem,
it translates computer information into a form that can transmit over telephone lines (this is
the process of modulation).
As a receiving modem, it translates the information in a form that your computer can
understand (this is the process of demodulation).
A fast modem is essential. It will reduce the amount of time spent waiting for web pages,
files, or messages from the Internet. Modem speeds are quoted in ‘bps’ (bits per second).
Typical speeds are 9600 bps, 4.4 Kbps (Kilobits per second), 28.8
Kbps, 56 Kbps, etc.

• Internet Service Provider (ISP)

This is a commercial organization that provides Internet connections, along with a set of
support services for a fee.
Most people and organizations get a connection to the Internet over a telephone line through
an ISP, though some larger businesses and institutions (such as universities) have their own
internet connections.

An ISP will usually have a number of host computers. These hosts will typically provide
storage space for electronic mail messages for their users, users’ own web sites and a set of
related facilities such as advice, support software and appropriate security.
Examples of local ISPs include Africa Online, Kenya Web, ISP Kenya, Swift Kenya and
Inter-Connect. When you open an account with an ISP you will be provided with a user name
and a password:
Username - Every time you get connected, you require a name to identify yourself on the
Internet.
Password - This is needed for security purposes. This ensures that your Internet account is
secure.
NB: ISPs charge for the services rendered.

The World Wide Web

The World Wide Web is also known as the Web, WWW or W3. The Web is a part of the
Internet.

The WWW is a collection of hyperlinked web pages published on the Internet. This huge
collection of documents is stored on computers, called hosts, around the world. The
documents may contain text, pictures, sounds, small programs or forms to be completed by a
user.

Web Page
Web pages are documents published by organizations and individuals interested in putting
themselves on the Web. Web pages can include text, pictures, sound and video.

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Each web page has an address on the Internet. This address is called a Uniform Resource
Locator (URL).

Web Site
A collection of web pages belonging to an organization or individual is called a website.
These organizations or individuals maintain the website.

Hyperlinks
All web pages have hyperlinks. These links connect:
1: One web page to another part of the same web page. This is useful if it is a really large
page.
2: One web page to another website somewhere on the Web.
3: A page to a file, such as a sound clip, video, a spreadsheet or a Word document.

These links to other pages can be links to objects stored anywhere on the Internet. Hypertext
links are indicated by underlined text highlighted in blue (usually).
Hyperlinks are also represented by buttons, graphics or pictures.
An example of hyperlinks
To find hyperlinks on a page, move your mouse pointer over the page and where there is a
hyperlink the mouse pointer will change into a hand with a pointing finger.
As you surf around the web, Internet Explorer stores the sites and pages that you visit. You
will notice that the hyperlinks you previously selected are colored differently. Internet
Explorer does this to remind you that you have already visited the page identified by this link.

Web Hosting
A World Wide Web server is a computer with programs that answer requests for documents
from clients (browsers) over the Internet. Files containing web sites are placed on these
servers also known as host computers. A host computer is any computer connected to the
Internet and has stored information that has been made available to the Web.

Home Page
The Home page is the web page loaded when Internet Explorer is first started i.e. when you
access the Web. You can set any web page as your home page.
The home page is also the first page of a company or an individual’s website on the Web.
Note: Do not confuse your home page with the home page of the websites you visit. Your
home page is set through Internet Explorer.
The home page of a website is the introductory page for the site.
If you click a hyperlink such as Home on a web page, you will jump to the website’s home
page, not yours.
To access your home page, click the Home button on the Explorer toolbar.

Web Address (Uniform Resource Locator (URL))

Each web page has a unique address or location, called the Uniform Resource Locator
(URL).
You can instantly display any Web page if you know its URL. For example,
http://www.compaq.com
You can include wildcards in a URL in cases when you may not know the full path. For
example:
http://www.mars.superlink.net/~zorro/humor.com

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The wild card (~) is used to represent character(s). In the above example, sites that have
Azorro, Thezorro etc instead of ~Zorro will be displayed.
A wrongly entered character can result in an invalid URL, e.g. a comma instead of a full stop
or a dash instead of an underscore.

Applications of the Internet

Once you’re connected to the Internet, there are limitless possibilities. You can send
messages to users in other countries, join a chat group, or try out new games. Some of the
services offered on the Internet include the following:
• Electronic Mail (e-mail)
Email is a system for transmitting messages between computers. Exchanging
electronic mail is the most popular feature on the Internet. With Internet email you
can send messages to people all over the world including friends, customers and even
people you meet on the Internet. Electronic mail is faster than ordinary mail, easy to
manage, inexpensive and saves paper.
• Information
The Internet gives you information on virtually any subject. This is because of the
World Wide Web. The World Wide Web (www) is a global system of linked web
pages containing information - text, pictures, sound and video.
You can review newspapers, magazines, academic papers and much more.
Governments, colleges, universities, company and individuals all offer free
information on the Internet. For example, you can inquire about universities in Britain
or America.

• Programs
Thousands of programs are available on the Internet. These programs include word
processors, spreadsheets, electronic cards and much more. You can look for the latest
software over the Internet. For example, you can get the latest Anti-Virus software
available and in addition, retrieve a free trial issue.

• Entertainment
Hundreds of simple games are available on the Internet, including backgammon,
chess, poker, football and much more. The Internet also lets you review current
movies and hear television theme songs.

• Discussion Groups (Chat groups/Rooms)

You can join discussion groups on the Internet and meet people around the world with
similar interests. IRC (Internet Relay Chat) is a chatting system on the Internet that
lets you chat privately or in groups. You can ask questions, discuss problems and read
interesting stories. There are many discussion groups on various topics.

• Online Shopping
You can order goods and services on the Internet without leaving your desk. For
example, you can view a catalogue of a certain clothes shop over the Internet and fill
in an online order form.

• Newsgroups
These are discussions on a range of topics from recreational activities to scientific

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 research. Any Internet surfer can access some of these newsgroups, while others will
need subscription. You can read any articles or write articles and post them.

These services can be used as tools in various ways i.e:

1. As a research tool:
To learn about new developments or products, competitors, market news and
customer opinions.

2. As an advertising/trading tool:
To aid in selling goods or delivering information through World Wide Web pages to
customers on a global 24 hour basis.

3. As a communication tool:
To support correspondence with customers, suppliers or staff through electronic mail.

4. As an entertainment channel:
Most of the games, movies, songs and television theme songs are available for free at
the Internet. You can have interactive conversations with people around the world
including celebrities.

Task 2 Explaining the challenges in the use of the Internet in a business

environment

The rapid growth of end-user computing, low-cost communications and network software
now exert a powerful influence on how businesses organize and communicate. The trend
toward lean organizations–empowered, multi-function work teams–and their need to
communicate information quickly "any time, any place" embodies the emergence of
geographically dispersed electronic groups. This new pattern of organizational structure and
the parallel developments of group information technologies converge into a new working
environment called the networked society.
These information-based organization shifts are enabled by collaborative technology
popularly described as groupware.
Before the Internet was introduced to the public in the mid-90's, most people used
telephones and postal mail to communicate. For businesses and organizations, internal
computer-networking, television, radio, newspapers, conferences, meetings, and faxes were
also essential keys to communication, advertising, and the distribution of information.
Over a decade later, the majority of information, education, and communication is now
accessible over the Internet-and to the majority of homes across the country. There are
many aspects of communication and society that has been affected by this transition to an
Internet powered world.
- Email: Now almost considered an "old school" method of communication, email has
significantly reduced the need for postal mail-for personal and business communication-to
the point where post offices have been downsizing, even closing in some small towns. Many

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businesses use email to advertise (sometimes considered spam) and to notify customers of
everything from sales to bills due.
- Chat and Instant messaging: Mostly used for interpersonal communication, this method of
communication is an informal way to meet new people, keep in touch with friends and
family, or maintain long-distance relationships. Internet messaging in all forms is often a
preferred method of communication to phone calls, letters, and face-to-face communication
because of its laid-back, informal nature.
- Social Networking: By far the most popular and fastest growing communication method
made possible by broadband Internet service, social networking started out as a way for
people to find old friends, stay in touch with current ones, and meet new ones. It has now
grown into a prolific communication tool for both personal and business use. You can
organize groups, notify people of events, send mass email messages, chat, and so much
more. Facebook, Twitter, and MySpace are currently the most popular social networking
sites, and have attracted billions of users. Many businesses have used social networking for
advertising and marketing purposes and seen great results.

Task 3 Explaining the need for Internet security

With the number of businesses that are connecting to the Internet and using cable modems,
DSL lines, and T1 circuits, the need to secure their connections is not only necessary but also
simply due diligence on the part of the company. Businesses rely on their Internet
connection to send credit card payments through, to run their VoIP phones, and even to
host their webpage. If Internet connectivity is disrupted then business can not operate as
usual.
In order to insure that the connection to the Internet is secure there are some basic
methods that can be utilized that are fairly cheap and will more than pay for themselves
with the increased security and uptime of the Internet connection. A business does not need
to make sure their network is as tight as an Army base; they just need to make sure they are
more secure than others so that attackers will target the easier sites and leave theirs alone.
The very first thing that needs to be put in place at each and every Internet connection is a
firewall. All businesses should have a hardware firewall that protects and separates their
business from the Internet. A cable modem with built-in firewall may be adequate for a
household, but a business should look at a commercially available firewall such as a Juniper
firewall 5 series, a SonicWall firewall, or even a Cisco SOHO. These are all inexpensive and
are easy to manage and configure. A firewall is the first step of protection that keeps out
those who do not need to have access to the internal business network. Essentially installing
a firewall is similar to installing locks on a house. Only those with the proper keys can access
the house just as only those who have been specifically granted access can access the
network behind the firewall.
Once a firewall has been installed, configured, and is working properly a business is going to
want to look at the computers themselves. There are two things that need to be done on all
the machines that will insure that the machines stay up and operational longer than those
that are left unprotected. The two things are necessary are: patching the machines for the
latest updates for both the operating system (OS) and the applications, and then installing
antivirus software.

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The patching of the systems will insure that the vulnerabilities that virus/worm writers are
using to exploit and take over machines will not be effective against a patched machine. By
patching the machine the entry door is closed and the worm will not be able to gain access.
Application patches update their tools and software being used on the machine. With the
latest patches this too will make it more difficult for attackers to exploit machines and gain
entry to them.
Antivirus software is an absolute necessity on machines. System administrators and users
can become annoyed with it as it is a resource hog but that is because the software is tasked
with protecting the system and they continually scan the system for infections. When used
in “real-time” mode each file is scanned before downloading, uploading, or being saved to
the disk. This is important when reading emails, sending emails, or even surfing on the
Internet.
There are many other steps that can be taken to give a business a stricter security posture.
However, by taking the above steps a business can rest assured that they have taken the
due diligence and installed the most basic security measures in their business that will make
it difficult for an attacker to gain unauthorized access to a business’s network.

Task 4 Opening the browser and surfing the internet

There are several ways to start Internet Explorer.

1. To start Internet Explorer from the Windows desktop, double-click the Internet
Explorer icon.
OR
1. On the Windows taskbar, click Start.
2. Select the Programs menu item.
3. From the submenu displayed, select Internet Explorer from the Internet Explorer group.
You may be required to make a connection through your ISP in order to log on to the
Internet.
4. Click in the User name: box and enter your user name.
5. Type in your password in the Password box.
The password appears in asterisk format (*) for added privacy and security.
6. Click Connect to access the Internet.
Note: The Dial-up Connection dialog box will not be displayed if you are connected
to the ISP via a proxy server. A proxy server allows several users to access the
Internet account using a single account.

Upon successful logging on, the Internet Explorer displays the ‘home page’ and a
Connection Indicator appears on the Taskbar to indicate that you are online.

NB: All the time you are connected, you incur a local telephone charge to the local phone
company and access time to the ISP.
Connection indicator
You can find out at what speed you are receiving data, how much time you have spent online
etc., by double-clicking the Connection Indicator.
Other browsers have a similar procedure for opening.

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CUSTOMIZING THE WEB BROWSER.

Purpose.
Moving from site to site can be slow if the ISP or Internet lines are busy, if the host server
(the server storing the site you are trying to access) is busy or if you are using a slow modem.
The volume of traffic is also growing on the Internet and so web designers are constantly
looking for ways in which they can make their pages load faster.
If a site contains graphics (or other multimedia content like video, audio etc) you can prevent
the graphics from downloading so as to speed up browsing.

Step-by-Step.
1. From the View menu, select Internet Options .
2. Click the Advanced tab.
3. Scroll down to the Multimedia section.
4. Deselect the options or content that you want turned off e.g Show
Pictures, Play Animations or Play Videos.
5. Click OK.

NB: If the Show pictures check box is cleared, you can still view an individual picture
on a web page by right-clicking its icon and then clicking Show Picture.
Information and Communication Page 8

Task 5 Creating and using e-mail accounts

About e-mail.
One of the common services provided by the Internet is electronic mail, also known as e-
mail. This is a worldwide system for sending and receiving electronic messages from one
computer to another.
E-mail is a much faster, economical and convenient way of sending messages to family,
friends and colleagues than the old fashioned mail called “snail mail”. With “snail mail” a
message or letter is sent to the recipient through the post office and takes days or weeks
before reaching the destination. An e-mail message can travel around the world in minutes.
For one to be able to communicate using email, the following components are needed:
1. A computer where you will send or receive the e-mail messages.
2. Your e-mail address and that of the receiver.
3. An ISP company who will deliver your message to the receiver.
4. An e-mail program that lets you send, receive and manage your e-mail
messages, e.g. Microsoft Outlook, Outlook Express,
Lotus Notes, Eudora.
Once you send a letter, it travels from your computer, through a modem, which connects your
computer to the Internet via the telephone network. The mail travels through various
computers, until it reaches the final destination.

Components of an e-mail address:

An e-mail address consists of two parts separated by the @ symbol.
If your e-mail address is drg@tropicalheat.com:
i) The first part refers to the person’s identity or log-in name, e.g.
“drg”
ii) The second part following the “@” symbol is usually made up of

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 two to three sub-parts to further identify the individual,
organization or ISP. In this case:
• ‘Tropical heat’ identifies the business.
• ‘. com’ is the extension and this identifies the type of the
organization.
The table below shows some extensions and what they represent: -

Extension Represents
.org non-profit making organization
.edu an educational institution/organization
.com a commercial organization
.net network
.mil military
.gov government

Sometimes the name of the country is included in the e-mail address

e.g. skynews@sky.co.uk or nation@africaonline.co.ke. Here ‘.co.uk’ refers to a company
in the United Kingdom whilst ‘.co.ke’ refers to one in Kenya.
Examples of E-mail Addresses:
Smith@compuserve.com
Iat@africaonline.co.ke
Were@ku.ac.ke
Hr-manager@kplc.org
Bridge@arcc.or.ke
Tim@yahoo.com (free e-mail address)
Douglas@hotmail.com (free e-mail address)

Reading e-mail messages.

Once an e-mail message that has been sent to you arrives at your computer, to read the
contents you must open it using the program you have installed for sending e-mail, e.g.
Microsoft Outlook.

Step-by-Step.
1. Launch the e-mail program Microsoft Outlook from the Start menu or a shortcut on
the desktop.
2. Enter the password if prompted and click OK.
Alternatively, you may need to select your profile from the Choose
Profile dialog box that appears.
3. In this case, select your profile by clicking the down arrow key of the Profile Name
dialog box and click OK.
NB: A User Profile is a group of settings that define how Outlook is set up for a
particular user. It also defines through the information services how a user can send,
store, and receive messages.
4. The Inbox is where all incoming messages are stored when you connect to Outlook.
Displayed are the e-mail messages that you have received.
Unopened mail
Opened mail
A list of e-mail messages

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5. To open and read e-mail messages in the Inbox, choose the message that you want to
read. Then, double click on it to open it.

Message
The lower grid of your screen will have the full message. As you read the items in
your Inbox, you can reply to, forward, or file them in other folders that you create.
When you have finished reading a message, you can close the window by selecting
the File menu, then choosing Close. This will take you back to the Outlook window.
When you do not need to use any other e-mail services, you can exit the Outlook
program by selecting the File menu, then choosing Close.
If there are any e-mail messages in the Outbox that have not been sent, a message will
appear prompting you to send the e-mail(s) at that particular time or you can choose
to send it later.

Reply to e-mail messages.

If you have read a message, you may want to send a reply to the original sender.
If the original message that you are replying to was also copied to a number of other people,
you may want to send a reply to all of them.

Step-by-Step.
When replying to a mail message, you can choose to reply with or without the original
message insertion. The original message, sometimes referred to as the history, appears in the
body of the message. This is just for reference purposes and can be removed by selecting the
text and pressing the Delete key or setting options in the
Options dialog box.

Reply and include the original message

1. If the message you want to reply is not open, select it and open it.
2. Click the Reply button in the Mail window. The Reply message window appears. This
window contains the message you are replying to at the bottom.
The Reply button
History/Original
Message part
3. Type the reply where the insertion point is.
4. When you have finished typing and editing the reply, click the Send button if you are on-
line to send the message.
Send button
NB: If you click the Send button while you are offline, the mail will be placed in the Outbox
folder and will automatically be sent the moment you go online.

Reply without including the original message

1. From the Tools menu, click Options.
2. Click the Preferences tab, and then click Email Options.
3. In the On replies and forwards section, click the down arrow key under When
replying to a message box.
4. Select Do not include original message.
5. Click OK.
6. Open the mail message you want to reply to.

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 Information and Communication Page 45
7. Click the Reply button in the Mail window. The Reply message window appears. This
window does not contain the message you are replying to at the bottom.
8. Type the reply where the insertion point is.
9. When you have finished typing and editing the reply, click the Send button.

Notes:
Working Off-line
Connection to the Internet usually means that you are using telephone lines, and therefore
incurring telephone charges and usage on your ISP account.
Once you have launched the Mail program, it is not necessary for you to be connected
directly so that you can read and write your e-mail messages. You may choose to work
offline to save on costs and when you are ready to send your messages you can connect and
send them all at once.

1. On the Task bar, click on the Status button.

2. Choose Disconnect.
Connection Indicator
3. The Connection Indicator disappears from the Taskbar showing that you are now working
off-line. Some services like Internet, Usenet, newsroom, or shopping will not be available
when you are off-line.
To use these services, you need to re-establish the connection.

Sending an e-mail message.

1. To communicate with another user who has an e-mail address. This is cheaper than
sending fax or using the telephone especially for long distance calls.
2. It is also faster to send e-mail than to post a letter.
For example, to send a letter around the world using e-mail is just a matter of minutes as
compared to the weeks ordinary mail takes.
For this reason, most Internet users refer to ordinary mail as ‘snail mail’.

Step-by-Step.
1. From the Outlook window, click the New Mail Message button.
The New Mail Message button
The message composition window is displayed:
Subject box
Message area
2. In the To box, type the e-mail address (or select one from the address book by
clicking on the To button) of the recipient of your e-mail.
3. If you want copies of the message to be sent to other people, type in their e-mail
addresses in the Cc box. Be sure to separate each address with a semi-colon.
You can also send a Blind Carbon Copy (Bcc). Here, the recipients entered receive
the message but their names are hidden from other recipients of the message. To add a
Bcc field, click the View menu and select Bcc field.
4. Type the subject or topic in the Subject box.
5. In the lower grid of the message composition window, type in the message that you
want to send as seen in the illustration above.
You can format the email message using the formatting tools like

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 Bold, Font size, Underline etc.

When you have finished typing the message, editing, and spellchecked it, click the Send
button.

NB: A message that returns to the sender because it cannot reach its destination is referred to
as a bounced message.

To display the Formatting toolbar

If the formatting toolbar is not visible, you will need to display it.
1. Click the View menu from the menu bar, highlight Toolbars then click the Formatting
option.
Formatting toolbar
• You can add Smiley/Smilies to your messages. These are special symbols used to express
emotions in messages. These characters resemble human faces if you turn them sideways as
shown in the table below:
Smiley Represents
: `-(Cry
:-( Frown
:-I Indifferent
:-o Surprise
:-) Smile

Spell-Checking Mail Messages.

Before sending a mail message you can spell check it to correct any spelling mistakes in the
mail.
1. From the Tools menu click Spelling.
2. The Spelling dialog box appears as shown below. The misspell words are highlighted and
shown in this dialog box. Choose the correct word
by selecting it and clicking the Change button.
3. If the word or phrase is correct but is not in the dictionary, click
Ignore.
4. Once the spell check is complete, click OK.

Set up view options.

To make the Microsoft Outlook screen comfortable and convenient to your individual
preferences. For example, if you usually receive a lot of mail you may prefer to see the mail
grouped by sender’s name, or you can preview the contents of an e-mail message before
opening it.

Step-by-Step.
1. Load Microsoft Outlook.
2. From the View menu highlight Current View.
The submenu displays the various view options that can be selected:
3. As an example, highlight the By Sender option and click.
Grouped messages

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4. The mail messages are then grouped by the sender. To display the contents of a group click
the plus button of the group.

To remove folder listing.

The folder list is displayed by default. However if you do not want to view the folder list you
can remove it, by selecting Folder List from the View menu.
To redisplay the folder list, repeat the same step outlined above.

Using the Address Book.

The Address Book is a directory of personal details, including email

addresses, for the people to whom you send messages (called contacts).
You can store such addresses in the Address Book so as to address mail more easily i.e. each
time you want to send email messages you simply select the names from the list of addresses.
This will save the time used to enter lists of email addresses as well as help maintain their
accuracy.
For example, the email address ‘njiiri.mworia@mit.edu.uk’ can be
difficult to remember. Besides, one can easily make a typing error
when typing it in. If you store this address accurately in the Address
Book then you will not worry about remembering it or typing it wrongly.

Step-by-Step.
To Add a Contact to the Address Book
1. To open the Address Book, click on the Address Book button.
Address Book button
There may be several types of address books in the Address Book dialog box
including the Personal Address Book and other Address
Books created by the administrator.
2. Select the type of address book that you want to use in the Show names from the:
box.
The Personal Address Book is the address book used to store personal distribution
lists you frequently address messages to, such as a list of your friends.
The Global Address List (or other listed address books) is the address book that
contains all e-mail addresses for users, groups, and distribution lists in your
organization that you can address messages to. It is the network administrator who
creates and maintains this address book.
3. Click on the New Entry button.
New Entry button
4. Specify the entry type of the contact i.e. whether it is a Private
Address Book Mail Recipient or an entry for a Distribution List.
5. Type in the names for the contact as well as the full email address.
6. Complete the dialog box with the rest of the contact details using
the other tabs e.g. Work or Home information.
7. Click on OK.
The contact or address is added to the Address Book.

To Edit a Contact in the Address Book

You may want to edit a contact’s details. You can do this from the
Address Book.

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1. Open the Address Book.
2. Select the contact that you want to edit.
3. From the File menu, select Properties.
4. Make the necessary changes to the information and click OK.

To Create a Contact from a Mail Message

When you receive a mail message, you can add the sender’s details (name and email
address) to your Address Book in these steps.
1. Open the e-mail message that contains the name you want to add to your contact list.
2. In the From field, right-click the name you want to make into a contact, and then click
Add to Contacts on the shortcut menu.
Or from the shortcut menu, select Add sender to Address
Book.

To Delete a Contact from the Address Book

1. Open the Address Book and select the address that you want to remove.
2. Click on the Delete button.
Delete button
3. Click Yes to confirm that you want to delete the name or entry.

To Create a Distribution List

If you send mail to the same group of people frequently, you can create
a group address list. When you address a message to that group, each individual in the group
receives it. Group address lists are known as distribution lists.
You must have a Personal Address Book set up in order to be able to create a personal
distribution list.

1. On the File menu, point to New, and then click Distribution List.
2. In the Name box, type a name.
The distribution list is saved in your Contacts folder by the name you give it.
3. Click Select Members.
In the Show names from the list, click the address book that contains the e-mail
addresses you want in your distribution list.
4. In the Type name or select from list box, type a name you want to include. In the list
below, select the name, and then click Add.
To add members who are not on the address books, click on Add
New and type in the details and click OK.
The list of members in the distribution list is displayed.
5. Click on Save and Close to exit.
There is another method of creating a distribution list. In this method, you use the
New Entry button.
6. Then select the entry type box, click Private Address Book
Distribution List and then click OK.
7. In the Distribution List Name box, type a name for the group and click OK.
The limitation with this method is that you have to involve the administrator when
adding names to the group.
8. Once this is done, the contact is copied to the Private Address Book
Distribution List box.
Repeat this process until you have all the names you want in your group in the

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 Personal Distribution List.
9. Click OK.
The group or distribution list is now listed in the Address Book.
A group icon showing a distribution list

To Send a Message using the Address Book or Distribution List

1. In Outlook, select the New Mail Message option from the File menu.
2. Click on the To button to open the Address Book.
3. Select the contact names from the list or select the distribution list and click on To ->.
NB: To see the full email addresses select the name of the person from the list and
click on Properties button.
4. Click OK to return back to the Message Composition dialog box.
5. Type out the rest of the message and click on Send.

Attaching files to email messages.

You can attach any type of file such as a document, spreadsheet, graphic image or
presentation to your email messages.
When you attach a file, you're actually attaching a copy of the file, so the original is not
affected.

Step-by-Step.
1. Click the New Message button.
2. In the Message Composition dialog box enter the email address and type in the message to
be sent. Then click where you want the file attachment to appear.
3. Click on the Insert File button.
Insert File button
4. The Insert File dialog box is displayed. Locate the file’s folder and then select the file.
You can select multiple files by pressing the
CTRL key while clicking once on the file names.
However, when attaching several files take care not to attach too many large files or
they will take a long time to send and receive.
5. Click OK.
The attached file is displayed as an icon in the body of the message.
The icon indicates the file type and name. For example, shown below is an icon for an
Excel workbook file attachment:
6. Click on Send.

To Open or View an Attachment

Documents that contain file attachments display a paper clip image in the
view or folder next to the document title.
Once the document is open, Outlook displays an icon representing the attachment.
1. In the Inbox, select the message that contains the attachment and open it.
2. Double-click the icon that represents the attachment.

You must have the application in which the attachment was composed in order to open it.
The MIME (Multipurpose Internet Mail Extension) type of file enables Internet browsers to
access an Internet mail file without prompting the user to specify the program used to create

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the attached file.

As a precaution, do not open file attachments unless you are sure you know where they came
from. There have been several cases of entire hard disks getting damaged due to viruses sent
via e-mails. Examples of email viruses are ‘Melissa’, ‘Bugbear’, ’Sasser’ etc.

Deleting an Attachment
1. Open the message that has the attachment you want to delete.
2. Select the file (attachment) icon and press the Delete key.

Organizing e-mail messages.

You can use Outlook to organize your incoming messages and make it easy to send mail.
There are some messages that you would like to keep for future reference. Instead of letting
them clutter the Inbox, you can make them easier to find by storing them in folders you
create.
Step-by-Step.
Organizing the Inbox
You can organize the messages in your Inbox quickly by sorting them.
To quickly sort messages by subject, sender or the date received, click on the respective
column header.
For example, to sort your messages in alphabetical order by sender, you can click on From in
the column header.

To Create a Mail Folder

1. From the File menu, choose New then Folder.
2. Enter the name of the folder in the Name box, e.g. Personal Stuff.
3. Select the Inbox folder so that the mail folder created will become a subfolder of the
inbox.
4. Click OK.

To Move Messages
1. Select the message(s) you want to move.
2. Using the drag and drop method move the mail into the new folder created.
3. In the pop-up menu, select Move.
OR
From the Edit menu, select the Move to Folder option then select the folder you want to
move the message to.
4. Click OK.

Task 6 Using search engines

SEARCHING THE WEB.

1. If you want to get some information concerning an area or subject of interest over the Web
but you do not know where to find it, you can use a search engine or service to locate sites
that contain that information.
2. Locate particular information in a web site, e.g. you can load a web site like

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http://www.cnn.com/ and wish to read the sports news.
You can use a search engine within that site to locate information on sports.

Search Engines/Search Services.

A search engine is software that helps you locate information in the
Web. There are several search engines such as Yahoo, Infoseek, Lycos,
Web Crawler, and Excite that offer different kinds of searching capabilities.

How Search Engines find Web Pages.

Hundreds of thousands of new web pages are created each day, it is almost impossible for a
search engine to catalog every new page on the
Web. There are two ways that search engines use to locate web pages:
a) Spiders / Robots
Automated robots called spiders travel around the Web looking for new pages, creating links
to them.
b) Submissions
These are derived from people who have created new web pages and then submit information
about pages they have created.

Step-by-Step.
1. Select a search engine, e.g. Yahoo, and type its address in the Address box, i.e.
http://www.yahoo.com. Once the search engine home page appears, type a keyword
or phrase in the Search box, e.g. Kenya, then click the Search button. The steps may
vary depending on the search engine you are using.
2. As soon as the search is completed, you will be presented with a list of sites that
contain the keyword or phrase you are looking for. Select a site whose description
comes closest to the information you desire and click on its link.
3. If there are many sites, not all links will be displayed. However there will be an option
that allows you to view the next 10 or so matches. Click on this if necessary to view
the next set of links. Information and Communication Page 24
NB: If there are too many matches you may want to use an additional keyword to
narrow down the search. Type the additional key word in the search box e.g. “Kenya
AND Economy” to narrow down to sites that contain information about the economy
in Kenya.
4. Click Search.
5. From the search results, select the links that may help you get the information you
require. You may need to click on a number of links to get your exact requirement.
Information and Communication Page 25

Locate information within a website.

Once you access a website, you can search for specific text or information on that site or
page. Unlike search engines like Yahoo,
Infoseek, Lycos, Web Crawler, and Excite that present you with the
URLs or links of sites that hold information you are looking for, search engines within a web
page locate information within that web page.

Step-by-Step.
1. Load the web page to browse. In the example below, the following website is used:
http://www.carleton.ca.

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NB: The steps involved in searching are not standard, they differ from one web page to
another.
2. Position the cursor within the Search box and type a keyword(s), e.g. International AND
Student.
NB: When typing in a keyword you can use logical words or operators like AND (when you
want to display results that meet both criteria) and OR (when you want to display results that
meet one of the two criteria).
3. Click the go button to begin the search.
4. From the Search Results screen, click on a link that is closest to your requirements.

Task 7 Printing documents

PRINTING WEB PAGES.

To obtain a hard copy of the information that you have researched on and collected, for the
purposes of reviewing later or filing.

Step-by-Step.
Setting Page Setup options.
Before printing a web page it is advisable to check the settings in the
Page Setup dialog box. This will ensure that the right paper size, margins and orientation of
the page are set correctly. You can also add headers and footers to a web page.
1. From the File menu click Page Setup .
2. In the Margins boxes, type the margin measurements.
3. In the Orientation area, select either Portrait or Landscape.
4. In the Headers & Footers section, specify the information to be printed.
5. Click OK.

Printing the web page.

1. From the File menu select Print.
2. The Print dialog box appears.
3. Set the print options if necessary and click Print.

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6.1.0 ENTREPRENEURSHIP
15.1.0 ENTREPRENEURSHIP EDUCATION

INTRODUCTON
This module unit is intended to equip the trainee with necessary knowledge, skills, values and
attitudes that will enable him/her to plan, start, operate and manage a personal, group, private
or public enterprise effectively. It is also intended to instil in the trainee the drive necessary
to venture into profit making activities.

GENERAL OBJECTIVES
By the end of this module unit, the trainee should be able to;-
a) Appreciate the importance of entrepreneurship.
b) Acquire entrepreneurial competencies necessary for planning, starting and managing a
business
c) Demonstrate positive attitude towards self employment.
d) Portray a desire to venture into business
e) Identify viable business opportunities
f) Demonstrate entrepreneurial behaviour in planning, starting and managing a business
enterprise.
g) Demonstrate creativity and innovation in their day to day business activities
h) Appreciate the role of business planning
i) Appreciate the emerging issues and trends related to the business environment.

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Introduction to Entrepreneurship
Evolution of Entrepreneurship
The Entrepreneur
Creativity and Innovation
Entrepreneurial Culture
Entrepreneurial Opportunities
Entrepreneurial Motivation
Entrepreneurial Competencies
Starting a small Business
Business Enterprise Management
Financial Management
Marketing
Enterprise Social Responsibility
Business Plan
Information Communication Technology
Emerging issues and trends

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INTRODUCTION TO ENTREPRENEURSHIP
Introduction
Small scale enterprises play a major role in the development of a country economy. Small
enterprises create many jobs, provide a variety of goods and services, contribute a lot of revenue
and promote the use of locally available resources.

This sub-module unit introduces the concept of entrepreneurship and its importance in the
promotion of the national development of a country.
Specific Objectives
By the end of the sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) define various terms used in entrepreneurship.
b) explain the differences between self and salaried employment
c) explain the contribution of employment towards national development

TASKS
Task 1: Terms used in entrepreneurship

1. Entrepreneurship
It is the process of scanning the environment in order to identify a business
opportunity, gathering resources with the aim of establishing a profit making
enterprise, under conditions of risk. According to (Hisrich, 2008). It is the process
of creating something new with value by devoting the necessary time and effort,
assuming the personal or company, financial, psychic, and social risks, and
receiving the resulting rewards of monetary and personal satisfaction and
independence.

2. Entrepreneur
This is a person who is able to identify a business opportunity within an
environment, gather the necessary resources and take reasonable risk to start a
successful business enterprise.
An entrepreneur is also defined as an individual who establishes and manages a
business for the principal purpose of growth and development. The entrepreneur
is characterized principally by innovative behavior and will employ strategic
management practices in a business

3. Enterprise
It is a business organisation that provides goods and services. It is a business concern
whose purpose is profit and has growth potential.

4. Business
It refers to any activity under taken by an individual or organisation for the purpose of
production and/or provision of goods and services to make profit.

5. Creativity
Creativity is the ability to bring something new into existence, often through imaginative
skills. It can also be defined as originality or progressiveness.

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 6. Innovation
It is the process of doing things in a new way. Having a new use for old things is also
innovation.
To some people innovation refers to “an end product, idea, practice or product perceived
as new by the individual” (Rogers and Shoemaker, 1971)

Task 2: Contribution of entrepreneurship towards national

development

1. Importance of entrepreneurship in national development

Entrepreneurship contributes greatly to the economy of the country by providing an
impetus for economic growth. The following are some of the key contributions of
entrepreneurship to national development.

 Creation of employment: An entrepreneur does not only create employment for

himself but also for others. Most jobs in many economies come from the
entrepreneurial activities.
 Utilisation of resources; These include proper and adequate utilisation of local labour
 Improvement of standard of living. Entrepreneurship raises the standards of living of
the people of a nation by providing goods and services. Similarly, it helps in
provision of the basic needs of society in areas which large firms cannot reach.
 Generation of government revenue – This is revenue for the government in form of
licence fees, taxes and through promotion of national productivity by contributing to
the gross domestic product (GDP). They do this by selling products and services thus
reducing the expenditure for imports.
 Innovation of technological development – This is done through utilisation of
technology which is locally available.
 Conservation of foreign exchange: The use of foreign exchange can be minimised by
offering goods produced locally in place of imported goods.

Task 3: Differentiating between self employment and salaried

employment

1. Self employment

Self employment is a situation in which a person starts and operates a business enterprise.
Since entrepreneurial skills drive people into self employment, entrepreneurship training
is therefore expected to prepare trainees for starting and operating their enterprises
effectively.

Self employment does not only improve the standard of living of an entrepreneur, but also
enables him/her to become an active contributor to the social and economic activities a
nation.

Self employment is a situation in which individuals create and run/operate their own
income generating activities.

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2. Advantages of Entrepreneurs in Self Employment
There are several benefits an entrepreneur may derive from self employment.
These include the following:

 Personal satisfaction
Personal satisfaction is the feeling of accomplishment that one derives from self
employment
 Independence:
This means freedom from the control of others. One is able to use one’s knowledge,
skills and abilities. There are no external pressures, interference and orders, which one
must follow. Self employed people have more freedom of action compared to
employed people.
 Income
This is the amount of money left after all expenses have been paid. By being self
employed, one is able to generate an income for oneself.
 Job security
This is the assurance of continued employment and income. It does not have the
mechanism of separation such as laying off, firing or retiring.
 Status:
This is a person’s social rank or position in society. One earns recognition from
members of the society.

3. Disadvantages
 Possible loss of invested capital.
Invested capital refers to the entrepreneurs’ money used in starting and operating the
enterprise. If a business succeeds the profits are high, if it fails, the invested capital is
lost.
 Uncertain income
Earnings from the business are unpredictable therefore there is no guaranteed amount
of income from the business.
 Long working hours
Entrepreneurs shoulder all the responsibilities of the business thus spending most of
their time attending to the business requirements.
 Competition
Entrepreneurs commonly operate small scale businesses that are unable to compete
favourably with large enterprises.
 Lack of skilled personnel
Small businesses are unable to employ and retain qualified personnel due to their
limited income.

4. Salaried employment

Salaried employment is a process in which an individual is hired for a period of time,

which may range from a few months to a few years, and is paid a given amount of money
as salary or wages for the work done.

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 The merits and demerits of salaried employment are varied and largely depend on a
person’s qualification, experience and specialisation area. The merits and demerits are
also determined by the magnitude of growth, investment ability, profit and government
support of a given organisation.

Defined working hours, guaranteed income, delegation of duties and specialisation are
some of the main advantages of being in salaried employment. However, salaried
employment is affected largely by organisational elements such as change of
management, especially where new management introduces new policies, rules,
conditions of employment and other statutory requirements to the organisation. Job
security is not guaranteed and personal satisfaction and motivation is not wholly
experienced

Suggested Learning Activities

1. Present various ways in which entrepreneurship contributes towards national

development
2. Demonstrate various ways in which the employer and the employee benefit from
entrepreneurship development.
3. Identify different entrepreneurial activities within your locality and explain their benefits
to the community
EVOLUTION OF ENTREPRENEURSHIP

Specific Objectives
By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to
a) describe the history of entrepreneurship
b) describe the myths associated with entrepreneurship
c) explain the theories of entrepreneurship
d) explain the importance of these theories
e) explain business, environmental, political and social factors affecting entrepreneurial
development

TASKS
Task1: History of entrepreneurship globally and in Kenya
Entrepreneur is a French word meaning “between – taker” or “go-between”, or
“under taker”.

The evolution of entrepreneurship is discussed in several stages:

1. Earliest period
Earliest definition was by Marco polo, he attempted to establish trade routes to the far
East. As a go- between, Marco polo would sign a contract with a money person to sell his
goods. While the capitalist was a passive risk bearer, the merchant adventurer took the
active role in trading, bearing all the physical and emotional risks. The profit would be
divided between the two of them with the capitalist taking 75% while the merchant –
adventurer settled for the remaining 25%

2. Middle ages

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 As time went by the term entrepreneur changed to describe both an actor and a person
who managed large production projects. This individual did not take any risks but merely
managed the project using the resources provided, usually by the government of the
country. A typical entrepreneur in the middle ages was the person in charge of great
architectural works.

3. 17th century
The person associated with this period is Richard Cantillion an economist. He
development the early theories of entrepreneurship and is regarded as the one who
developed the term risk taker.
The emergent connection of risk with entrepreneurship developed in this century with an
entrepreneur being a person who entered into a contractual arrangement with the
government to perform a service or to supply stipulated products. Since the contract price
was fixed, any resulting profits or losses were the entrepreneurs.

4. 18th century
This is the period in which an entrepreneur was distinguished from the capital provider.
One reason for this differentiation was the industrialisation occurring throughout the
world. Most inventions developed during this time were reactions to the changing world.

5. 19th and 20th century

In this era entrepreneurs were viewed as managers and mainly from an economic
perspective. An entrepreneur was seen as one who organises and operates an enterprise
for personal gain. He contributes his own initiative, skills, and ingenuity in planning,
organising and administering the enterprise. He also assumes the chance of loss and gain
consequent to unforeseen and uncontrollable circumstances.

In the 20th century, the understanding of entrepreneurship owes much to the work of the
economist Joseph Schumpeter .Schumpeter defines an entrepreneur as a person who is
willing and able to convert a new idea or invention into a successful innovation.
Entrepreneurship employs what Schumpeter called "the gale of creative destruction" to
replace in whole or in part inferior innovations across markets and industries,
simultaneously creating new products including new business models.

In this era entrepreneurs were viewed as managers and mainly from an economic
perspective. An entrepreneur was seen as one who organises and operates an enterprise
for personal gain.

For Schumpeter, entrepreneurship resulted not only to new industries but also to new
combinations of currently existing inputs. Schumpeter's initial example of this was the
combination of a steam engine and then current wagon making technologies to produce
the horseless carriage. In this case, the car innovation was transformational, but did not
require the development of a new technology. Different scholars have described
entrepreneurs as, among other things, baring risk. For Schumpeter, the entrepreneur did
not bare risk: the capitalist did.
To him an entrepreneur is more of an innovator.

The ability to innovate can be observed throughout history from Egyptians who designed
and built great pyramids out of stone blocks, to laser surgery then wireless

248
 communication. Although the tools have changed with advances in technology, the ability
to innovate has been present in every civilisation.

Task2: Myths associated with entrepreneurship in Kenya

The following are some of the myths associated with entrepreneurship:

1. Entrepreneurs take wild risks at the start of their business. Even though risk is an
integral part of business, the start of business is not considered the highest risk. An
entrepreneur is more likely to face bigger risks at the latter stage of the business.

2. Entrepreneurs introduce break-through inventions in their start-up business. It

would be easy to assume that entrepreneurs introduce new inventions, usually
technological inventions. This is not true. Innovation may be important, but what makes
entrepreneurship successful is the ability to execute an ordinary idea exceptionally.

3. Most successful entrepreneurs have years of experience in their chosen line of

business. Bill Gates was still a student when he started Microsoft with Paul Allen. This
story of several inexperienced entrepreneurs starting out a new business venture is
replicated over and over again in the lives of millions of other successful entrepreneurs.

4. One needs a lot of money to start a business. This is not so. Money is not always an
important prerequisite to be able to start a business. What sets the successful entrepreneur
apart from the not-so-successful is the ability to make do with what little he or she has.
For instance, they look for other sources of money such as borrowing to grow their
business.
5. Start-ups use equity, not debt money. Entrepreneurs who put up equity coming from
their own pocket only comprise less than 50% of the total start-ups. The majority of the
companies are financed by debt.

Task3: Theories of entrepreneurship

These refer to the various approaches, which have been advanced to give an explanation
as to why entrepreneurs behave the way they do. They are also known as the perspectives
of entrepreneurship.

The theories try to explain whether entrepreneurs are born or made. The born
entrepreneurs inherit the entrepreneurial behaviour from their parents and grandparents
while made entrepreneurs acquire entrepreneurial behaviour from the behaviour in which
they live in.

The following are some of the entrepreneurial theories:

 Economic theory
The theory holds that entrepreneurial behaviour is determined by economic factors.
Thus entrepreneurs are greatly influenced by economic activities. From an economic
point of view an entrepreneur is a person who brings together the factors of
production into a combination to make their value greater than before.

According to Schumpeter, entrepreneurs are innovators who bring together the

various resources to produce a new product/service through new ways/methods of

249
 production, finding new markets, finding new sources of materials to create a new
business.

The economic theory provides basic data in the economic environment – activities
for business start-ups. Thus entrepreneurial activities take place where conditions are
supportive/conducive to investment. This theory revolves around an entrepreneur
being an innovator, combining the various resources/ factors of production to create
new products/wealth.

 Psychological theory
The theory holds that entrepreneurs possess unique needs, values and attributes,
which drive them into entrepreneurial behaviour. It holds that people have personal
traits and attributes, mental desires to be independent.
The main proponent of this theory is McClelland who attributed entrepreneurial
behaviour to the high need for achievement. Entrepreneurs are characterised by high
need for achievement, which tends to give them high desire to take personal
responsibility in risks. They have little interest in routine activities, which are not
challenging. According to this theory, entrepreneurial behaviour is environmentally
determined and is inherent during childhood, where parents have certain high
standards achievement.

 Sociological theory
The sociological theory maintains that environmental factors such as values and
beliefs influence entrepreneurial behaviour. (Max Weber, 1904) According to this
theory, beliefs and societal aspects such as social status and recognition influence
entrepreneurial behaviour.

Task 4: Importance of Entrepreneurship theories

1. Entrepreneurship theories bring greater understanding of entrepreneurship behaviour
exhibited by different entrepreneurs.
2. They enable one to understand the need for entrepreneurship and why some people
are more entrepreneurial than others.
3. The theories bring out various approaches and perceptions held by entrepreneurs.
4. Show that the desire for entrepreneurship is innate as well as environmentally
determined.
5. Helps us to understand the role played by role models through networks that provide
support.

Evaluation
1. Discuss business environmental factors affecting entrepreneurship development.
2. Group discussions on historical evolution of entrepreneurship in Kenya

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 THE ENTREPRENEUR
Introduction
Entrepreneurs are people who are able to identify opportunities where others are unable to.
Entrepreneurs possess unique characteristics that make them stand out as different from other
business people.
The sub-module unit focuses on the characteristics of entrepreneurs necessary for business
success, and their role in the development of an enterprise.
Specific Objectives
By the end of the sub-module unit the trainee should be able to:
a) describe types of entrepreneurs
b) describe the qualities of an entrepreneur
c) explain the role of an entrepreneur in an enterprise

TASKS
Task 1: Types of entrepreneurs
There are three main categories of entrepreneurs: craft, opportunistic and ego oriented
entrepreneurs

1. Craft Entrepreneur:
This is a person who exploits and utilises their personal skills to start a business
without thinking of growth or expansion. Craft entrepreneurs are not growth- oriented
but try to maximise on profits. A craft entrepreneur has skills, which they utilise to
start and run a business.

2. Opportunistic entrepreneur
This is a person who starts a business to maximise / expand to the maximum. He may
not have the skills but is able to start and maximise a business opportunity. He has the
ability to see what other people have not seen in terms of new ideas and starts a
business with an objective of growth. He employs his creativity and even employs or
delegates to others to run the business for him.
An opportunistic entrepreneur has the ability to organise others and resource to
maximise profits.

3. Ego oriented
These are entrepreneurs who are keen on achieving higher status, recognition and a
feeling of superiority. Their main focus is on business evaluation i.e. a shift to higher
levels.

Task 2: Qualities of an entrepreneur

The following are some of the characteristics/ traits of an entrepreneur
1. High need to achieve: an entrepreneur always wants to excel in all he does and has
strong desire for success.
2. Risk – taking: Entrepreneurs like pursuing new and challenging tasks. They
carefully make a choice for success. They take moderate calculated risks which have
high potential for success.

251
 3. Independence: Entrepreneurs like doing things without consulting anybody. He does
things in his own ways in terms of which business to start, how to manage and
improve it. They believe in their own abilities to do things and succeed.
4. Creative and innovative: entrepreneurs have the ability to generate new ideas and
implement them ahead of others.
5. Problem- solving ability: entrepreneurs have the ability to totally recognise and solve
day to day problems in business operation. They recognize the fact that they operate
in an environment with problems and are always ready to solve them to the advantage
of their businesses.
6. Time Consciousness: an entrepreneur believes that time is money and that the
available time must be used effectively for business. H e manages his time well and
does things at the right time.
7. High need to control: an entrepreneur always wants to control his destiny. He starts a
business and keeps at a level that he can easily control and manage based on his
abilities.
8. Leadership ability: Entrepreneurs are pioneers in terms of visions and business ideas.
They are able to mobilise and make use of others to assist in achieving their business
goals.
9. Positive Self- concept: Entrepreneurs have self- confidence and believe in what they
do. They are always optimistic and have positive attitude towards certain
opportunities for success. They approach opportunities with success in mind.

Task 3: Roles of an entrepreneur in an enterprise

The bearing of uncertainty is regarded as the primary function of an entrepreneur. This is
the willingness and ability to deal with uncertainty. Other functions relate to risk – taking
and management of the business. Therefore, as an entrepreneur, one is expected to
perform the following functions:
1. The entrepreneur is the prime mover in the business enterprise. He is the one who
identifies gaps in the market and turns the gaps into business opportunities. Thus an
entrepreneur initiates the business.
2. The entrepreneur finances the business. After identifying a business opportunity the
entrepreneur raises and mobilises the necessary resources to exploit the opportunity.
3. The entrepreneur manages the business. He can either do it himself or delegate to
other people.
4. The entrepreneur bears the business uncertainties or risks of the business. This
arises due to the fact that he is the one who finances the business.

 Hence as a key figure and prime mover of the business, it is his responsibility to:
- Search for business opportunities
- Evaluate the business opportunities to assess their viability
- Mobilise resources needed to start and run the business.
- Manage the business
- Provide the necessary leadership for the people working for the business and,
- Bear the uncertainties or risk of the business
 This is the process of entrepreneurship which encompasses the activities undertaken
by the entrepreneur.

Evaluation
1. Relate entrepreneurial types and qualities to existing entrepreneurs

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2. Role plays on the concept of the entrepreneur.

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 CREATIVITY AND INNOVATION
Introduction
Since customers’ tastes and needs are continually changing, the entrepreneurs must think of new
ideas and better methods of running their businesses in order to satisfy the customer.

This sub-module unit will discuss the importance of creativity and innovation, the barriers to
creativity and innovation including managing barriers to creativity and innovation.
Specific objectives
By the end of the sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) define the terms creativity, innovation, discovery and invention.
b) explain the process of creativity and innovation
c) explain the importance of creativity and innovation.
d) explain barriers to creativity and innovation
e) explain ways of managing barriers to creativity.

TASKS
Task 1: Meaning of creativity and innovation
 Creativity: Creativity is the ability to bring something new into existence.
 Innovation: It is the ability to do existing things in a new way. Having a new use for
old things is also innovation.
 Discovery: It is making known that which has been in existence but whose uses have
not been perceived
 Invention: It means bringing something new into existence
Task 2: Process of creativity and innovation
Creativity as a process has several stages. These are:
1. Preparation. Getting the mind ready for creative thinking using methods such as
- Realizing that every situation is an opportunity to learn
- Reading on a variety of topics/subjects
- Creating a file of interesting articles
- Developing the ability to listen to and learn from others
- Attending professional/ trade association meetings, both to brainstorm with others
having a similar interest and to learn how others have solved a particular problem.
2. Investigation. Studying the problem and understanding its components
3. Transformation. Identifying the similarities and differences in the
information collected.
4. Incubation. The subconscious needs time to reflect on the information collected.
Incubation can be enhanced by
- Doing something totally unrelated to the problem/opportunity under investigation
- Taking time to reflect (freeing the mind from self imposed restrictions)
- Playing and relaxing
- Thinking about the issue before going to sleep so that the subconscious can work on
it during sleep
- Working on the problem or opportunity in a different environment.
5. Illumination. This occurs when all the previous stages start getting clear.
6. Verification. Involves testing if the idea will work, is practical to implement and is a
better solution to a particular problem or opportunity. Experiments, test marketing and
piloting are some of the methods that can be used.

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 7. Implementation. Transforming the idea into reality by bringing it to the market. This is
what distinguishes the entrepreneur from the inventor.

Task 3: Importance of creativity and innovation

 It leads to increased productivity
 It helps in profit maximization
 It motivates employees to become more creative
 It leads to diversification of products and services
 A variety of goods and services is introduced

Task 4: Barriers to creativity and innovation

Creativity and innovation will be limited by:
 Cost of research and development is high
 Inability to protect invention through patents
 Searching for the one right answer
 Blindly following ‘the rules’
 Being over specialized
 Fearing to look foolish
 Fearing mistakes and failure
 Believing that you are not creative
 Viewing play as frivolous
 Focusing on being logical
Task 5: Managing barriers to creativity and innovation
Barriers to creativity and innovation can be overcome by:
 Budgeting for research and development
 Strengthening public institutions that process the patenting process
 Rewarding creativity
 Promoting creativity training
 Avoiding mental blocks
 Being systematic
 Being a problem solver
 Approaching issues from different angles
 Avoiding routine practices
 Concentrating on the end results rather than the means
 Avoiding looking for consensus
Evaluation Activity
Carry out a class exercise aimed at bringing out creativity in the learners e.g. joining 9 dots with
straight lines, discussing the various uses that an identified item can be put into.
Evaluation
1. Distinguish between creativity and innovation.
2. Explain the importance of creativity and innovation to an entrepreneur.

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 ENTREPRENEURIAL CULTURE

Introduction
The culture of entrepreneurship plays a major role in creating entrepreneurs Where the cultures is
rooted there is evident of creativity thus many businesses being started.

This sub-module unit will address concepts of entrepreneurial culture and factors that promote
and hider the entrepreneurial culture development.

Specific Objectives
By the end of this topic the trainee should be able to:
a) explain the concept of entrepreneurial culture.
b) discuss habits that promote entrepreneurial development.
c) discuss factors inhibiting entrepreneurial development.

TASKS
Task 1: Concept of Entrepreneurial culture
Culture has been defined in many different ways. It may be defined as the unique way in
which different societies around the world cope with the environment in which they live.
It generally refers to common ways of thinking and behaving that are passed on from
parents to children or transmitted by social organisations, developed and then reinforced
through social pressure. Culture is learned behaviour and the identity of an individual and
society.
Culture encompasses a wide variety of elements, including language, social situations,
religion, political philosophy, economic philosophy, education and manners and customs.

Task 2: Habits that promote entrepreneurial development

These include:
 Money orientation
 Future orientation
 Time consciousness
 Trust/honesty
 Hard work
Task 3: Factors inhibiting entrepreneurial development
They include:
3. Language

Language is sometimes thought of as the mirror of culture. It is composed of verbal and

non verbal components. Messages and ideas are transmitted by spoken words used, the
voice tone and non verbal actions such as body positions, eye contact, and gestures.
An entrepreneur must have command of the language in the country in which business is
being done.
Dealing with language almost always requires local assistance e.g. use of a local
translator when negotiating a business transaction.
Equally important to the verbal is the non verbal or hidden language of the culture e.g.
space. How much room exists between individuals when they talk. For instance the

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 Germans prefer more space than Americans who prefer to stand close when talking to
people.
An entrepreneur is thus expected to know the local and the national language of the
community where he intends to have his business.

4. Social structure
Social structure and institutions are also aspects of the culture facing the global
entrepreneur.
Social stratification can be very strong in some cultures, significantly affecting the way
people in one social strata behave and purchase.
India, for example is known for its hierarchical and relatively rigid social class system.

5. Religion
Religion in a culture defines the ideas for life that are reflected in the values and attitudes
of individuals and the overall society. The impact of religion on entrepreneurship,
consumption and business in general will vary depending on the strengths of the
dominant religious tenets.
For example, in some Arabian countries women are not expected to conduct business.

6. Education
Both formal and informal education affects the culture and, the way culture is passed on.
A global entrepreneur not only needs to be aware of the education level, as indicated by
the literacy rate of a culture, but also the degree of emphasis on particular skills or career
paths.

The technology level of the firm’s products may be too sophisticated depending on the
educational level of the culture. This also influences whether customers are able to use
the good or service properly and whether they are able to understand the firm’s
advertising or other promotional messages.

 Ways of managing factors that inhibit development of entrepreneurial culture.

These include:
- Flexibility and the willingness to adjust to changes in a given business
environment.
- Change of attitude – positive attitude and willingness to interact with the local
community creates a conducive environment for him/her to conduct business
successfully.
- Readiness to take on new challenges and risks

Suggested Learning Activities

1. Group discussions on cultural habits that promote entrepreneurial development
2. Brainstorming on cultural habits inhibiting entrepreneurial development
ENTREPRENEURIAL OPPORTUNITIES
Introduction
Starting a business requires knowledge, skills, abilities and values. It is therefore important for
entrepreneurs to develop viable business ideas by identifying community needs for products and
services.

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This sub-module unit focuses on business ideas and opportunities, methods of generating these
ideas and opportunities and finally assessing the viability of the generated opportunities.
Specific Objectives
By the end of the sub-module unit the trainee should be able to:
a) explain the meaning of business opportunity
b) explain ways of generating ideas for business opportunities
c) evaluation of business opportunities for viability

TASKS
Task 1: Meaning of business opportunity
1. A business opportunity is an attractive idea which provides the possibility of a return for
the entrepreneur taking the risk. Such opportunities are presented by customer
requirements and leads to the provision of a product or service which creates or adds
value to the buyers.
 What is a Business Idea
- An opportunity in the environment which, can be translated into a business
activity
- The existence of a situation in the environment which, can be advantageously
turned into a business activity.
- The existence of an opportunity which can be exploited for making money
through the operation of business activities.

 Why search and evaluate business ideas?

- There are so many business opportunities available at any one time and the
requirements for translating them into business activities differ between each of
them.
- The need to develop a competitive edge by providing something new that has little
or no competition
- The success and profitability differ between various business opportunities, hence
need to pick one with profit and success potential.

Task 2: Ways of generating business ideas

There are various ways through which business ideas can be generated. These include:
1. Identifying a need in the community: people usually have many unsatisfied needs. By
carrying out a market survey on the location where you need to establish your
business and talking to the potential customer may reveal gaps in that market.
2. Market research: Conduct a market survey and try to identify business opportunities
existing in the market. People may be requiring new product/services or the ones
existing could be having several weaknesses. These are good opportunities for you.
3. Listening to complaints of customers so that you improve an existing business.
4. Brainstorming: This involves sitting in a group and trying to think of as many possible
businesses as possible using the ‘freewheel ’policy. Take time and digest all the
suggested ideas as a basis for making the final decision on the one most suitable for
you.
5. Creativity – By looking at things in a new way and combining two or more ideas in a
new way, such as, one stop shopping spots for customers e.g. a restaurant and a salon
combination.

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 6. Business ideas can also be generated through developing personal hobbies and
discussions with friends
 Guidelines for Business Idea Generation Process:
- Think of as many ideas as possible
- Go out, look and listen.
- Always analyse ideas carefully before finally selecting which ones to implement.
- Be simple
- Start small. “If you want to go somewhere start small” Schummacer

Task 3: Evaluation of business opportunities

A good business opportunity must fulfil or be capable of meeting the following:
1. Demand i.e. it should respond to unsatisfied needs or requirements of customers who
have ability to purchase and are willing to exercise that choice.
2. Return on investment – provide durable, timely and acceptable returns or rewards for
the risk and effort required.
3. Competitive – Equal to or better – from the viewpoint of the customer – than other
available products or services.
4. Meet objectives – meet the goals and aspirations of the person taking the risk
5. Available resources and competencies – be within the reach of the entrepreneur in
terms of resource, competency, legal requirements etc.

Suggested Learning Activity

1. Identify different types of business opportunities and assess each for viability.

ENTREPRENEURIAL MOTIVATION

Introduction
This sub-module unit addresses the motivation factors the triggers an entrepreneur to venture in
business activities. The motivation factors include internal and external ones.

Specific Objectives
By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) Define entrepreneurial motivation
b) Identify entrepreneurial motivation factors

TASKS
Task 1: Defining entrepreneurial motivation
A motive or a drive is a need that is sufficiently pressing to direct the person to seek
satisfaction of the need while a need becomes a motive when it is aroused to a sufficient
level of intensity. For a person to venture into entrepreneurship there must be the
necessary motivations, the drives that will enable him/ her to persist in their
entrepreneurial practices.

Entrepreneurial motivation factors

Although the motivations for venturing out alone vary greatly, the following are some of
the reasons cited for motivating one to become an entrepreneur:

1. Internal motivations and drives include:

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  Employment creation need: This arises in a situation where one fails to get any
form of salaried employment creating a need for being gainfully employed. This acts
as motivation for a person to become an entrepreneur, to start and run his own
business.
 Self-reliance/ need for independence: A self employed person has greater flexibility
in utilisation of their time and have greater independence. This could act as a strong
motivation to make one desire to become an entrepreneur. A corollary to this need for
independence could be the need for power i.e. to exercise power over other, or to be a
boss rather than to be bossed.
 Competition. “anything you can do, I can do better”: This may be in response to
the achievements of peers, friends, or family members who have already made it as
an entrepreneurial business person.
 Need for recognition: Human beings strive to get recognition about their
achievements in life, by their peers, family and society. This need for recognition
could be a motivation for one to go into self employment. Similarly, members of a
certain family may have been in the past entrepreneurial pillars in the community
therefore acting as a motivation for other generations of the family.
 Need for adventure: In salaried employment, a person’s duties are well specified
and the boundaries well defined. Work may become routine posing no challenges and
involving very few responsibilities. This may create a feeling that one needs
challenging activities, activities that carry responsibilities with them. This sort of
scenario acts as a strong motivation for people to go into business on their own.
2. External motivations and drives
These refer to motivations that are provided by others, especially the legal authorities and
the society in general. They provide a conducive climate for you to realise your internal
motivations through entrepreneurship. They include:
 Infrastructure: To operate efficiently any business requires the provision of certain
basic facilities. Such facilities include: power for production processes, water for
basic hygiene purposes, business premises and appropriate land depending on the
nature of the business, services of banks and post-offices among others.
The availability of these facilities plays a major role in encouraging entrepreneurs to
start businesses. The chances of success of a new business venture depend to a large
extent,on the availability and quality of such facilities.
However, the provision of such facilities, to a very large extent, is the responsibility
of the established authorities’ e.g. local authorities.
 Credit facilities:
All businesses require start-up capital and operating capital. Usually personal finances
are not adequate to take care of all the requirements of starting the business. Thus
entrepreneurs require financing from external sources such as government agencies,
banks and non-bank financial institutions. Although these sources are there,
sometimes it is quite difficult to get the financing you need from them. The
requirement that are put by the financial institutions are at times too strict.
 Some of the factors considered include:
- The amount that is required
- The period of the loan
- The viability of the proposed business
- The collateral( security) that is required
- The repayment term ( debt-servicing)

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Suggested Learning Activities
1. Class discussion on motivational factors that have contributed to successful.
2. Discuss motivational factors that may lead them to venture into business.

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ENTREPRENEURIAL COMPETENCIES

Introduction
This sub-module unit addresses the skills, knowledge and attitudes that are required to
competently handle a business enterprise

Specific Objectives
By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) Define entrepreneurial competence in a business
b) Explain key entrepreneurial competencies in business

TASKS
Task 1: Definition of entrepreneurial competence in business
Entrepreneurial competencies refer to skills and abilities that an entrepreneur should have
and exhibit for entrepreneurial success.

Task 2: Key entrepreneurial competencies in business

The following are some of the key competencies required for entrepreneurial success
1. Initiative – refers to acting out of choice rather than compulsion ; taking the lead
rather than waiting for others to start
2. Persistence – an entrepreneur should have a “never say die” attitude, not give up
easily, and strive to seek information continuously until success is achieved.
3. Integrity - the entrepreneur should have a clear sense of values and beliefs that
underpin the creative and business decisions that they make to influence the actions
they take, particularly when in difficult or challenging circumstances
4. Risk taking - an entrepreneur should understand that risk taking means trying
something new, and possibly better, in the sense of stretching beyond what has been
done in the past; and that the constant challenge is to learn how to assess choices
responsibly, weighing the possible outcomes against his/her values and
responsibilities
5. Networking – entrepreneurs should understand that networking is a key business
activity which can provide access to information, expertise, collaboration and sales;
and that careful planning and preparation helps achieve desired results
6. Decisiveness - the entrepreneur should have skills to resolve issues as they arise and
should respond in a flexible manner to deal with changing priorities

7. Concern for high quality of work – attention to details and observance of established
standards and norms.
8. Concern for employee welfare – Believing in employee well being as the key to
9. Competitiveness and success in initiating programmes of employee welfare

Task 3: Ways of matching entrepreneurial competencies with business

opportunities
This involves identifying individual competencies the analysing the competencies with
the business

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Task 4: Identifying and assessing the viability of business ideas and
translating them into business opportunities
1. Ideas and opportunities need to be screened and assessed for viability once they have
been identified or generated. This is not an easy task though important because it
makes the difference between success and failure.
2. The exercise certainly helps in minimising the risks and thus the odds of failure.
3. Identifying and assessing business opportunities involves determining risks and
rewards/ returns reflecting the following factors.
 Personal goals and competencies of an entrepreneur.
It is important for an entrepreneur to possess competencies, knowledge, skills and
abilities before starting a business where these competencies are lacking, it’s vital to
develop or bring in others/managers that compliment what is already available.
 Length of the ‘window of opportunity’.
Opportunities do not exist forever. The entrepreneur has to assess how long this
window will be opened in order to make an investment decision.
 Industry/market.
Is there a need for the product/service? It is also important to know the size of the
market.
 Management skills.
Those businesses that require high level of capital injection require proper
management skills
 Competition
Check out whether the business has a competitive edge over other competitors e.g.
potential constraints and if the industry faces existing entry barriers.
 Resources
Availability and access of these resources determines whether certain opportunities
can be pursued.
 Environment
This refers to political, economic, geographical, legal, regulatory and also physical
environment within which a business operates

Suggested Learning Activity

1. Discuss competences observed during the field visit

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STARTING A SMALL BUSINESS

Introduction
When starting a business the entrepreneur must comply with certain requirements and
regulations.
This sub-module unit looks at the procedure to be followed in starting a business, factors to be
considered in starting a business including support services required and available for the
entrepreneur.

Specific Objectives
By the end of the sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) Describe the procedure of starting a business enterprise
b) Explain the factors to be considered when starting a small enterprise
c) Describe the different forms of business ownership
d) Explain challenges that are faced when starting a small enterprise
e) Describe business life cycle
f) Discuss business support services available to small businesses
TASKS
Task 1: Procedure for starting a Small enterprise
1. Approach to starting a business enterprise
To increase chances of success there should be a systematic approach to starting
a business enterprise. One such approach is outlined below:
 Idea generation.
 Market survey.
 Selection of location.
 Resource mobilization.
 Business registration.
 Licensing.
Task 2: Factors to consider when starting a small enterprise
Below are some of the factors to consider when starting a business:
1. Legal requirements
2. Knowledge and skills for operating the business.
3. The cost of starting and operating the business.
4. The level of competition.
5. The business location
6. The rules and regulations for operating the business.
7. The anticipated profit.
8. The machinery, tools and equipment required and their cost.
9. The source of supply of goods/raw materials.

Task 3: Forms of business ownership

The following are the types of business organisations:
1. Sole proprietorship –This is a business owned by one person.
 Advantages
- Ease of formation: this is the easiest form of business organization to establish.
There are no complex forms to complete and no documentation required between

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 you and any other party. It involves registering your choice of business with the
registrar of companies by filling in a simple form and paying a small registration
fee.
- Easy to raise capital.
- Owner makes independent decisions: the business owner has complete control
over the business is solely responsible for all decisions in the business.
- Owner has personal contact with employees and customers.
- Owner enjoys all the profits.
- Flexibility: the business owner is able to respond quickly to business needs in day-
to-day management decisions of the business. One can easily take advantage of an
attractive business opportunity.
 Disadvantages
- Bears all the losses.
- Capital base may be limited: This kind of business has less financing capacity.
The amount of funds a sole proprietor can raise is limited to their assets and their
credit worthiness.
- Has unlimited liability: The business owner has little or no protection against
personal liability in the event of bankruptcy or adverse legal judgement. Personal
assets such as the owners house, land, car and investments are liable to be seized
if necessary to pay outstanding debts.
- Success of the business depends on the entrepreneur’s hard work.
- Business operations can be affected by death of the owner.

2. Partnerships
A partnership is an association of two or more persons who come together to carry on
a business with a view to making profit. Although it is possible to establish a valid
partnership without a formal agreement, it is advisable to sign an agreement first. The
agreement will state:
- The effective date of the partnership.
- The business name of the partnership.
- The contributions of capital by each partner
- How the business profits and losses will be shared.
- How a partner may withdraw from the partnership
- How the business assets and liabilities will be shared in the event of dissolution.
 Advantages
- Capacity for more capital; partners can raise more capital than a sole trader. The
asset base is much higher.
- Work is divided among partners.
- Better combination of skills and talents: for example, a mechanic and driver could
successfully combine resources and talents to start a driving school.
- Losses and liabilities are shared among partners.
- Business can easily expand.
- Formation of the business is simple: the registration and legal formalities are easy
and simple.
 Disadvantages
- The liability of partners is unlimited.
- Partners are likely to disagree on various matters affecting the business.
- If one partner makes a mistake, all other partners suffer the consequences.

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 - Some partners may work harder than others, yet the profits are shared. This may
discourage a hard working partner.
- If the business relies heavily on one partner and the partner leaves or dies, the firm
can easily collapse.

3. Private limited company

It is formed by a minimum of two shareholders and a maximum of fifty.
 Advantages
- Can raise more capital through sale of shares.
- It has limited liability.
- Death of a shareholder does not affect its operations.
- They are managed by professionals.
 Disadvantages
- Shareholders can only transfer their shares with the consent of other shareholders.
- The company is not allowed to appeal to the public for extra capital, so it may find
it difficult to raise money for expansion.
- Accounts of the company must be filed annually with the registrar of companies.

4. Public limited company

It has a minimum of seven shareholders and no maximum number of shareholders
 Advantages
- Shareholders liability is limited to the amount contributed.
- It can raise more funds through sale of shares.
- There is no restriction on the transfer of shares.
- Public companies can easily expand due to large capital base.
 Disadvantages
- The procedure of forming the company is long and complicated.
- Raising capital can be expensive due to the cost involved.
- As the company grows it may be difficult to manage.
- Once established it has to comply with many regulations.
- The accounts of a public company must be published, so there is no secrecy or
privacy about its affairs.
- Owners exercise little control over the business

5. Co-operative
It is formed by people with a common interest such as those in the same trade or
dealing in similar commodities

Task 4: Challenges faced when starting a small enterprise

1. Limited markets: small enterprises do not have adequate markets for their products
and services. They have little or no access to market information and lack the
necessary resources and expertise to conduct any market research.
2. Inaccessibility to modern and advanced technology; small business do not have
the necessary capital to purchase and gain from the benefits of modern technology,
thus they cannot compete favorably in the market.
3. Poor access to capital: Very few banks have special credit facilities to small scale
entrepreneurs and the few that have established such facilities emphasize on high

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 collateral requirements and high interest rates which make the credit unavailable to
many.
4. Poor managerial skills: most small-scale entrepreneurs lack the necessary managerial
skills required for successful operation of their enterprises.
5. Inability to recruit highly qualified employees they usually pay only minimum wages,
have few fringe benefits, offer low job security and therefore cannot attract high
calibre employees
6. Other challenges include; unfair competition from well established big enterprises,
and lack of coherent policy guidelines among others.

Task 5: Business life cycle

There are seven stages of a business life cycle

Stage 1: Seed
This is the stage when your business is just a thought or an idea. It refers to the
conception or birth of a new business idea. At this stage the company will have to
overcome the challenge of market acceptance. The main focus is on matching the
business opportunity with your skills, experience and passions. Other focal points
include: deciding on a business ownership structure, finding professional advisors, and
business planning.
Early in the business life cycle with no proven market or customers the business will rely
on cash from owners, friends and family. Other potential sources include suppliers,
customers, government grants and banks.

Stage 2: Start-Up
At this stage the business is born and exists legally. Products or services are in production
and you have your first customers. In the start-up life cycle stage, it is likely you have
overestimated money needs and the time to market. Start-ups require establishing a
customer base and market presence along with tracking and conserving cash flow. Money
Sources: Owner, friends, family, suppliers, customers, grants, and banks.

Stage 3: Growth
At this stage revenues and customers are increasing with many new opportunities and
issues. Profits are strong, but competition is surfacing. The biggest challenge growth
companies face is dealing with the constant range of issues bidding for more time and
money. Effective management is required and a possible new business plan. The main
focus is on running the business to deal with the increased sales and customers. Better
accounting and management systems should be set-up. New employees will have to be
hired to deal with the influx of business. Money Sources: Banks, profits, partnerships,
grants and leasing options.

Stage 4: Established
At this stage the business has now matured into a thriving company with a place in the
market and loyal customers. Sales growth is not explosive but manageable. The main
focus is on improvement and productivity. Money Sources: Profits, banks, investors and
government.

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 Stage 5: Expansion
The expansion stage is characterized by a new period of growth into new markets and
distribution channels. This stage is often the choice of the business owner to gain a larger
market share and find new revenue and profit channels.

Moving into new markets requires the planning and research of a seed or start-up stage
business. Focus should be on businesses that complement your existing experience and
capabilities. Add new products or services to existing markets or expand existing business
into new markets and customer types.
Money Sources: Joint ventures, banks, licensing, new investors and partners.

Stage 6: Mature
Businesses in the mature stage of the life cycle will be challenged with dropping sales,
profits, and negative cash flow. Search for new opportunities and business ventures.
Cutting costs and finding ways to sustain cash flow are vital for the mature stage.
Money Sources: Suppliers, customers, owners, and banks.

Stage 7: Exit
This is the big opportunity for your business to cash out on all the effort and years of hard
work. Or it can mean shutting down the business.
Selling a business requires your realistic valuation. It may have been years of hard work
to build the company, but what is its real value in the current market place. If you decide
to close your business, the challenge is to deal with the financial and psychological
aspects of a business loss.
Get a proper valuation on your company. Look at your business operations, management
and competitive barriers to make the company worth more to the buyer.
Money Sources: Find a business valuation partner. Consult with your accountant and
financial advisors for the best tax strategy to sell or close-out down business.

Task 6: Business support services available for small businesses

1. Business support is classified into three broad categories.
 Business start-up
Provides initial pre- start advice and basic business training to ensure that new
businesses are better prepared to cope with the businesses early months of trading
New start up businesses is vulnerable to failure, but start – up support can have
dramatic effects on improving survival rates.

 After care support

Is designed to provide a one-to-one advisory support structure of the early trading
months of the business

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  General business development support.
Small firms do not have the resources to employ specialists and general business
development support, may be defined to meet specific short term needs of companies
e.g. Finance and IT.
It could be long term or short term; it could involve business advisors operating in a
facilitation role, which recognises that a company’s needs change overtime.
 Examples of support services available for small enterprises include:
- Training services
- Marketing services
- Banking services
- Insurance services
- Postal services
- Management – business mentors
- Technology provision
- Business incubators

2. Business incubators
Business incubation centers provide the necessary facilities and support services
for business success at reasonable cost.
 The facilities include:
- Premises
- Machines
- Equipment
- Tools
 The services include:
- Internet services.
- Business training.
- Business counseling.
- Book-keeping and accounting services.
- Marketing assistance.
- Networking.
 Examples of incubators in Kenya include:
- Export Processing Zones (E.P.Z’s)
- Kenya Industrial Estates
- Kenya Industrial Research Development Institute (KIRDI)
- Agricultural Technology Centers, among others.
- Kenya Kountry Business Incubator. (KeKoBI)

NB: The Business Incubation Association of Kenya (BIAK) is the umbrella

organization of incubators in the country.

Suggested Learning Activities

1. Choose appropriate legal forms of business ownership for identified businesses
2. Identify relevant regulations that affect business
3. Discuss benefits derived from business incubators

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 BUSINESS ENTERPRISE MANAGEMENT
Introduction
Any business large or small must apply managerial skills in order to come up with decisions that
are practical. These decisions involve the utilisation of business resources so as to achieve
organisational goals.
This chapter will introduce to the trainees the basic functions of management such as planning,
organising and controlling for effective and efficient utilisation of business resources.
Specific Objectives
By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) Define the term management
b) Explain the functions of management in an enterprise
c) Explain the methods of inventory management
d) Explain the various methods of managing business resources

TASKS

Task 1: Definition of the term management

Management is the process of accomplishing tasks through the efforts of other people.
Management is therefore broadly defined as a set of activities applied to achieve business
objectives by using its resources effectively and efficiently in a changing environment.
Effectiveness is the ability to obtain the intended results while efficiency is accomplishing
the objectives by utilising minimum resources.

Task 2: Functions of management in an enterprise

Management is the process of solving problems in a creative and innovative way.
Management functions involve planning, organizing, leading, controlling and directing
business activities to achieve their goals. Management is necessary because factors such
as employees, technology, competition and costs keep changing.

1. Planning
Planning as a function of management means deciding in advance what actions to take,
when and how to take them
Planning is necessary for committing and allocating the organization’s limited resources
towards achieving its objectives in the most effective way.
Planning is also a process of determining what the business wants to accomplish (goals)
and deciding which activities can be applied to achieve them

2. Organizing
Organising refers to the formal grouping of people and activities in a manner that
facilitates achievement of organisation’s objectives

3. Directing
Directing is influencing other people towards achieving organisation goals. It involves
coordinating, delegating and motivating others to achieve the set objectives.

4. Controlling.
Controlling involves checking the progress of the activities and correcting deviations that
may occur along the way

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Task 3: Inventory management
1. In any business, there is need to keep sufficient stocks of raw materials, and finished
products in order to meet the production and sales target. This is called inventory
management. Inventory control ensures the inventory items in a business are not
overstocked or under stocked.

2. Overstocking leads to tying of capital unnecessarily while under stocking may lead to
stock outs due to sudden increases in sales (demand) or lead to slowing down of
production if it involves raw materials.

3. An entrepreneur should be able to know:

- When to order and re-order level.
- How often to order
- How much to order

4. When to order and re-order level

An entrepreneur needs to know how long it takes between sending an order and delivery,
(lead time). One needs to estimate how many units they expect to sell during that time
(reserve stock or reorder level) e.g. lead time in days = 30 days average usage per
day=100 units reorder level = 30* 100 = 3000 units. A safety margin should be provided
in case some delays are anticipated. It is advisable to provide 50% of the reorder level

 In the above example = (100+50) x 30 = 4500 units

5. How often to order

This is determined by the sales behaviour of each item. Orders can be made as frequently
as it is necessary to avoid stock outs.

6. How much to order

An entrepreneur should order as much as they will sell in time until another order is
made. Generally, goods are cheaper when purchased in large quantities because of
quantity discounts and bargains.

Task 4: Managing of the enterprise resources

Entrepreneurship involves managing business resources for profit. Management of
enterprise resources involves management of the factors of production namely, land,
labour and capital to achieve the desired business objectives.

1. Land
Land is important for purposes of location. Land is also a source of other resources
such as minerals, trees, and soil which become inputs in the production process.
Several factors are examined in deciding the location of the business. They include:
- Availability and reliability of transport
- Distance from the source of raw materials
- Availability of affordable and skilled labour
- Power and water availability
- The characteristics of land available in terms of cost, physical outlook, availability
for extension.

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2. Capital
Sourcing and effective management of financial resources is one of the critical aspects
of managing an enterprise successfully. Capital is required to establish the business,
pay rent, and purchase stock and pay water and electricity bills.
Managing of business financial resources entail s maintaining proper business
records (book keeping and accountancy) to avoid mismanagement of the business
funds. Basic accounting books and documents include purchase journals, cash books,
and balance sheets.

3. Labour
Labour refers to human factor as a business resource. The management of human
factor in a business is called human resource management.

Human resource management involves matching the jobs in an organisation with

qualified and capable individuals. It is the process by which the business positions are
filed with the right people at the right time.

The process involves manpower planning, recruitment and selection, training and
development of personnel to suit the needs of the business and provision of services
related to the welfare of the personnel.

Human resource management also deals with handling grievances and the resolution
of conflicts of personnel in their performance of duties.

Suggested Learning Activities

1. Discuss the ways in which various resources in a business may be managed.
2. Role play management functions

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FINANCIAL MANAGEMENT

Specific objectives
a) Explain the meaning of financial management
b) Identify the various sources of business finance
c) Identify types of business records
d) Record business transactions in the books of accounts
e) Prepare financial statements
f) Interpret financial statements for business decisions
g) Explain the importance of budgeting to a business

TASKS
Task 1: Meaning of financial management
This is the process of controlling the financial resources within a business enterprise. To
achieve this objective, the entrepreneur must come up with formal plans called budgets
and cash flow statements.

1. Sources of business finance

Business finance refers to the funds necessary to start, run and expand a business.

When looking for business finance it is important to realize that some sources of finance
may be appropriate while others may not. There are various sources of business funds
available to the entrepreneur some of which are:
Personal finance- personal savings are a major source of capital during the start-up stage.
The personal savings may be obtained from former employment, money saved in
savings/ fixed deposit accounts, sale of personal assets such as land.

 Advantages of this source are:

- It is the least expensive since no interest is paid.
- It does not involve legal process of acquiring
- It allows for flexibility on the use of funds

 Disadvantages:
- It may be inadequate for business needs.
- May be used without proper planning.
- May take too long to raise adequate capital.

2. Family and friends contributions

The family may provide funds and/or free without necessarily taking up a share of the
business. Sometimes, it is possible to ask for financial assistance from friends. If they do
not require to be paid back, then this would be a form of equity capital
 Advantages
- Funds can be made available to the entrepreneur without conditions.
- The funds may carry little or no risk to the business
- Re-payment period may not be fixed.
- Family and friends may contribute to the management of the business.
 Disadvantages
- They might interfere in the business management.

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 - They might claim part of the profits.
- It may result in differences which may lead to serious consequences.
3. Venture capital
Venture capital is a type of private funding mainly provided for start-ups with a
high potential for profitability and growth. Venture capital typically comes from
institutional investors and high-net worth individuals.

The following are some of the advantages and disadvantages of venture capital:

 Advantages:
- Entrepreneurs can enjoy value addition activities that come with the capital e.g.
mentoring, business alliances, management assistance.
- Entrepreneurs planning to source venture capital must embrace creativity and
innovation.
 Disadvantage:
- Venture capital ties the borrower to the lenders condition thus limiting the
entrepreneur from making certain personal decision.

4. Government Grants
These are grants that the government has put in place from time to time for
onward borrowing by entrepreneurs through intermediaries such as financial
institutions. In the past these have included the youth enterprise fund, the
disability fund, women enterprise fund, fresh graduate funds and so on.

 Advantages of government grants:

- Lending conditions are friendlier compared to commercial lenders?
- Minimal interest rates are charged.
- Business Development Services( e.g. training, mentoring, incubation) are
provided to borrowers
 Disadvantages:
- There is high competition for the funds.
- Bureaucratic processing procedures leading to red tapes.
- Political patronage may interfere with the lending process.
- The amounts of credit available are limited.

5. Banks and non- bank financial institutions

A bank is a financial institution that accepts deposits, gives loans and other
financial services. Non- bank financial institutions provide banking services
without meeting the legal requirements of a bank. These institutions provide
both short term and long term credit at their prescribed conditions.

 Advantages of such institutions are:

- Entrepreneurs can borrow large amounts of money to start or even expand a
business.
- An entrepreneur can get different types of loans from these institutions

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 - The entrepreneur may receive non-financial services e.g. networking, marketing
information, business best practices, training etc.
 Disadvantages:
- The entrepreneur must have collateral to borrow any funds.
- High interest rates are charged.
- There are some hidden loan charges.

6. Borrowed funds (loans)

The government, micro finance institutions and commercial banks offer funds to small
and medium businesses. Some loans require security (collateral) while others do not.
Interest rates on loans vary from one lender to another. Such funds are available from the
following institutions;

7. Micro-finance Institutions/ lending Non-governmental Organizations (NGO’s)

Such institutions include: Kenya women Finance Trust, Faulu Kenya, K-Rep, World
Vision, Plan International and Strengthening Informal Sector Training (SITE).
 Advantages of these institutions are:
- Available at grass root level.
- Provide training in managerial skills.
- They lend to groups and individuals.
- Flexible lending rates
- Collateral may not involve physical property.
- May offer marketing assistance
 Disadvantages:
- May not operate in all regions of the country
- May limit the entrepreneur to operate as a group.
- Some of the institutions may target specific groups e.g.
women/men/orphans/the challenged.
- There is a limit to the funds they lend.
- Regulations of getting funds are rigid.

8. Other sources of business finance:

There are other borrowing opportunities open to small businesses such as Merry-go-
rounds: These are informal groups the entrepreneur may belong to.
 Advantages of such groups are:
- No securities are necessary.
- It is simple to obtain a loan.

9. Commercial banks:
 Advantages of commercial bank loans are as follows:
- Can lend out large amounts of money.
- Repayment periods can be re-negotiated.
- They also offer non-financial advice on business operations.
 Disadvantages:
- The collateral required is higher in value than the borrowed amount.

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 - High interest rates are charged.
- The amount to be borrowed is restricted to the ability to repay.
- Some costs on the borrowed loan may be hidden.
- Some loan conditions are ambiguous.
Task 3: Types of business records
Business records are essential for survival of any business. Records are important
for various reasons such as taxation, decision making among others.

D P F C B D P F C B
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following are some of the basic records that an entrepreneur should use:

1. The cash book.

The cash book is a record in which cash received and paid are recorded. It is
divided into two sides. The left side is used for recording cash received while the
right side is used for recording cash payments.

 Format of a cash book

2. Purchases journal.
This is a diary in which all stock bought on credit is recorded on a daily basis. It
has three columns which include the date, detail, and amount.

- The date column records the date when the goods were purchased.
- The details column records the person or organization that sold the goods on
credit.
- The amounts column records the value of goods purchased.
 Format of a purchases journal

Date Details Amount

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 3. Sales journal.
This is a diary in which all goods sold on credit are recorded on a daily basis.

Like a purchase journal it has three columns: the date, details and amount
column. The details column records the names of persons to whom goods were
sold on credit.

 Format of a sales journal

Date Details Amount

4. Recording business transactions in the books of accounts

 Book Keeping
This involves recording all the transactions, which can be expressed in money, arising
from the business activities as they occur and entering them in the appropriate books.

 Systems of bookkeeping
There are two systems: the single entry and the double entry. The double entry is most
commonly used in industry and commerce.
The double entry system is based on two principles.
- The principle that every transaction has two parts, therefore two entries are made
in the books of account in respect of each transaction.
 One entry to record the item coming into the business
 One entry to record the item leaving the business
- The principle that the value of the item(s) coming in is equal to the value of
item(s) going out.
Value coming in =valiu going out
Thus, a transaction involves an exchange of items and the items exchanged have the
same value i.e. Assets= liabilities and owner’s funds.

5. Debits and credits

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The terms debit and credit are used to describe an increase or decrease in the categories of
the accounting equation (assets, liabilities and capital) and incurred expenses.
The following are the rules of double entry system

278
 Type of account Debit Credit
Assets To increase To decrease
Expenses To increase To decrease
Liabilities To decrease To increase
Income To decrease To increase

The rules provide that

- Debits are recorded on the left side of the ledger
- Credits are recorded on the right side of the ledger

Task 5: Preparation and interpretation of financial statements

Interpreting Financial Records
1. Financial Statements
Understanding financial statements is important to an entrepreneur in determining
financial health of his business.
Entrepreneurs need to be able to:
- Prepare simple statements.
- Interpret and analyse the information contained in the statements
- Identify strengths and weakness in the financial conditions of the business based
on the statements
- Identify strengths and weakness in the financial conditions of the business based
on the statements
- Make changes in business operations to improve the financial conditions of the
business.
 The two most important statements an entrepreneur requires for sound financial
decisions are :

- Profit and loss account

- Balance sheet

2. Profit and loss statement

279
 A profit and loss statement helps to determine whether a business is
operating at a profit or a loss for a given period of time e.g. one year.
There are five steps to calculating the profit and loss statements:
- Determining sales- including sales for credit and cash.
- Cost of goods sold- this refers to the price paid by the business for goods
merchandise sold. It can be compared by adding the value of the goods purchased
during the period to the initial stock.
- Gross profit- This is determined by subtracting the cost of goods sold from sales.
- Expenses- These include labour cost and other cost of operating the business.
- Net profit- This is the amount remaining when the expenses are deducted from the
gross profit.
 An example of a profit and loss account is shown below:

Koske’s Profit and Loss Account for the Year Ending 31st December 2009-10-15

Purchases 150,000 Sales 200,000

Expenses: Gross profit 50,000

Rates 1,500
Rent 5,000
Wages 5,000
Electricity 3,500
Water 800
Advertisement 4,500
Transport 6,000
Total expenses 25,300
Net profit 24,700 _____
50,000 50,000

Therefore Koske’s net profit of ksh 24,700 is the return on capital invested in the
business. In order to make his financial decisions he has to compare one year’s profit
with those realised in other years.
If Koske had invested Ksh. 100,000 in the business, he could calculate his profit turn-over
as follows;

280
 Net profit × 100 = 24,700 × 100 = 24.7%
Capital 100,000

This would guide Koske whether it is profitable to continue with the business or re-invest
elsewhere.
It is also important for koskei to calculate the net profit to gross profit.

 Balance Sheet
The balance sheet is a financial statement which indicates what the business owns and
what it owes on any day of the business life.
The financial figures on the balance sheet change from day to day because money is
always coming in and going out of the business.
The formula used to prepare a balance sheet is
Assets = liabilities + capital (Net worth)

 Assets
These refer to everything a business owns e.g. cash, buildings, equipment, stock.
Assets can be current or fixed.
 Liabilities
These refer to anything that the business owes e.g. loans, credit notes, taxes.
Liabilities can be current or long term.

 Net worth
This is what a business owes after subtracting liabilities. It represents the owners
claim in the business.

Task 7: Importance of budgeting to a business

A budget is a plan that outlines organizations financial or operational goals. It is an action

plan. It helps a business allocate resources, evaluate performance, and formulate plans.
Understanding the importance of budgeting is the first step in successful financial
planning.
A regularly reviewed budget enables an entrepreneur to compare actual performance and
quickly identify losses and take remedial action.
Budgets are intended to provide a basis for evaluating expenditures that will impact the
business for more than one year.
Suggested Learning Activities
1. Carry out a field study to identify different sources of financing a business stating the
benefits and limitations of each source.
2. Discuss the kind of products offered by financial institutions which are beneficial to
local businesses.
3. Select a business enterprise within your locality and highlight some appropriate and
inappropriate management practice by the enterprise.

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 MARKETING

Introduction
For any business to grow there must be an exchange process. This exchange process is realised
when business owners are able to sell their goods/services to the customers.
This sub-module unit will deal with definition of the terms market and marketing, components of
marketing and methods of gathering market information

Specific Objectives
By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) Define the terms market and marketing.
b) Outline the components of marketing
c) Describe the process of Marketing

TASKS
Task 1: Definition of terms
1. Market.
A market is any place where sellers exhibit or show their goods for the buyers to see and
purchase/ buy. A market can also be defined as the existing and potential customers who
are willing and able to buy a product/service.

2. Marketing.
Marketing is the process of making known what products/ services an entrepreneur is
selling or wants to sell.
Task 2: Components of marketing
There are components of marketing generally referred to as the marketing mix or the 4Ps
of marketing as outlined below:
1. Product
This is the good/item or service the entrepreneur intends to sell in order to satisfy
customer’s needs.

2. Place
This is the location where the product is to be sold. The product must be in the right
location or site, at the right time for the customers. Place also refers to the
channels used for the product to reach the consumer.

3. Price:
This is the monetary value of a product. The price should be able to cover the cost
incurred and earn some profits.

4. Promotion:
This is the process of communicating with customers to influence them
towards buying the product.

282
 Figure 2: showing the marketing mix elements

MARKETING MIX

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The marketing process
arra 1. The marketing concept involves the following stages:
ntie
s
- Determining the needs of the organisations customers (market research)
- Analysing their competitive advantage(market strategy)
- Selecting specific markets to serve( target market)
- Determining how to satisfy those needs (marketing mix)

2. Market research involves obtaining information about the market. This is necessary
in order to manage the marketing functions successfully. A market research
programme based on a questionnaire can disclose problems and areas of
dissatisfaction that can be remedied or new products and services that could be
offered successfully.
3. Marketing Strategy includes identifying customers groups (target markets) which a
small business can serve well than its competitors. The strategy should try and address
customer needs which are currently not being met in the market place.

4. Target market/market segmentation

 Market target is the style of marketing where the seller distinguishes between
different segments to focus on and develop on market offers tailored to meet the
needs and demand of each target e.g. an organisation could develop an airline system
designed to meet the needs of affluent( rich) persons, for a clean and comfortable
flight, at a higher price.

283
  Market segment involves dividing the heterogeneous market into several submarket
or segments.
The major ways to segment a market are:
- Geographical segmentation – involves specialising in serving customers in a
particular geographical area.
- Customer segmentation e.g. identifying groups of people who are likely to buy the
product or services i.e. securing heavy users before trying to secure new users.
- Demographical segmentation e.g. age , occupation, religion , lifestyle or income
- Psychographic e.g. social class, lifestyle or personality

Suggested Learning Activities

1. Choose a product and explain how to market it based on the 5Ps.
2. Discuss the marketing styles used by local entrepreneurs.
ENTERPRISE SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITIES
Specific Objectives
By the end of this topic, the trainee should be able to:
a) Define the terms social responsibilities and business ethics
b) Explain the meaning of enterprise social responsibility
c) Identify types of enterprise social responsibility
d) Explain the importance of enterprise social responsibility
e) Explain ethical behaviour in a business enterprise

TASKS
Task 1: Definition of terms
Business ethics refers to the study of behaviour and morals in a business situation. It
involves investigation of business practices in light of human values.
Business ethics (also known as Corporate ethics) examines ethical principles and moral or
ethical problems that arise in a business environment. It applies to all aspects of business
conduct and is relevant to the conduct of individuals and business organizations as a
whole.

Task 2: Meaning of enterprise social responsibility

Social responsibility consists of those obligations a business has to society. The small
business has certain social obligations, responsibilities and responsiveness to society. This
regards the intensity or to what extent the small business should be involved to society
issues.

Social responsibility in enterprise development may be viewed as a contribution that the

community gets from the established enterprise. This includes areas relative to society’s
goodwill towards the enterprise, waste management within the environment and
governments effort in supporting development.

However, an enterprise also has social concerns that should be recognised. These include:
protection of the environment to avoid creating health hazards to the people, provision of
goods and services coupled with equitable distribution of resources, gender sensitivity
issues, and coverage of ethical business practices to promote economic development of a
country.

284
 Some businesses simply react to social issues through obedience of the laws, others make
a more active response, taking, and accepting responsibility for various programmes.
Others are more proactive and are even willing to be evaluated by the public for various
activities.

Task 3: Types of enterprise social responsibility

Generally, small businesses have a social duty and obligation to develop and enhance the
quality of the society in which they operate

The nature of social responsibility for small businesses includes:

1. The environment such as pollution control, protection, and conservation of natural
resources.
2. Community involvement such as donations, sponsorship of public health projects,
support of education and arts, and community recreation programmes.
3. Human resources such as promotion of employment, health and safety, employee
training and development, counselling programmes, career guidance, and employee
physical fitness.
4. Fair business practices such as employment and advancement of women and
minorities, employment and advancement of disadvantaged e.g. the disabled, good
and fair prices, quality products and true information about products.
.
Task 4: Importance of enterprise social responsibility
Enterprise social responsibility forces people to be responsible for their actions and makes
it difficult for them to “exploit” other people for either selfish or unselfish reasons.
Consequently it allows a business to use its resources and engage in activities designed to
increase its profits with the laid rules and regulations thus engage in open and free
competition without deception or fraud. It also helps in improving the living conditions of
citizens.

It provides for increased competitive advantage of an enterprise and nation in general

through good performance of “Corporate Social Responsibility” (commitment by the
enterprise to make contributions to sustainable economic development, co-operation with
the community and society to improve their lives for the mutual benefit of the employees.)

 Enterprise social responsibility offers several benefits to the organisation;

- To protect their trademark and is not criticized by the society;
- To promote sustainably their reputation; expand the market and price advantages;
- To be engaged in investment programs and plans for the purpose of social
responsibility
BUSINESS PLAN

Introduction
A business plan is an important document for an entrepreneur because it acts as a guide and
reference point in regard to overall business management.
This sub-module unit outlines the major components of a business plan and how to write it.
Specific Objectives
By the end of this sub-module unit the trainee should be able to
a) Define the term business plan
b) Describe components of a business plan

285
 c) Explain the uses of a business plan
d) Prepare a business plan

TASKS
Task 1: Definition of business plan
This is a written document justifying the business and gives a step-by-step explanation of
how the business will achieve its goals. It summarises the operational and financial
objectives of a business and contains the details, plans and budgets showing how the
objectives will be achieved.
A business plan shows a clear picture of what the business is, where it is going and how
the entrepreneur proposes to get there.

Task 2: Components of the business plan

A business plan should be comprehensive enough to give any potential user a complete
picture and understanding of the venture and will help the entrepreneur clarify his or her
thinking about the business.
Although there is no generally accepted format of a business plan a typical format would
possess the following:
1. Cover page:
It contains the name of the business, its owner(s), nature of the business, and
the organization to which the business plan is to be presented.

2. Executive summary:
Contains a brief summary of the main contents of the business plan. It is
prepared after the entire plan is written. It summarizes every chapter of the
page.

3. Business description:
Contains a comprehensive description of the business and what it intends to
accomplish
Example of information contained includes:-
- Name of the business and its contact
- Vision and mission of the business.
- Location.
- Form of ownership.
- Major activity of the business.
- Major customers.
- Justification statements/viability
- The goals of the business
4. Marketing plan:
The marketing plan outlines the specific action the entrepreneur intends to
carry out to attract potential customers. The marketing segment is divided
into two major parts:
- Research and Analysis: describes the target market i.e. who the customers are, the
size and its trends, the existing and possible competition.
- Marketing strategy: This part describes the methods that will be used to market
the product, price the product, make sales, advertise and promote the product and
also the distribution channels that will be used.

286
 5. Organization/ management plan.
This is the section that describes the key management personnel required,
their qualifications, duties, salaries and incentives. The organization structure
is also defined
- It also identifies other employees needed, their duties, pay, training needs.
- Other support services required are highlighted in this section e.g. banking
services, legal services, management consultancy Etc.
- Any licenses, permits or regulations affecting the business are discussed here.

6. Operational plan/Production plan.

This section describes the processes, activities, and requirements involved in
realizing the operational goals of the business and required raw materials.

7. Financial plan
This section outlines the financial needs of the business and sources of raising
the finances and also gives the projections of income and expenditure
through such key statements as:
- Cash flow statement
- Income statements (trading, profit and loss account statements) among others.

Task 3: Uses of a business plan

A business plan is important for a business because it can be used to:
- Obtain finances
- Hire staff
- Attract partners -
- To expand the business
- Guide the business in its operations

Task 4: Writing a business plan

COVER PAGE
Name of business:
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
Address and telephone:
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
Name of owner:
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
Date:
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
Signature:

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............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
Summarised statement on:
i) Business description
ii) Opportunity and entity
iii) Target market
iv) Management team
v) Financial plan
vi) Critical risks and problems and solutions

BUSINESS DESCRIPTION
i) Owner Details
Name:.................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
Age:....................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
Address:..............................................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................................................
Occupation:........................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
Education/Professional
Qualifications: ...................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
.........................

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Business
Experience: ........................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
....................
ii) The Business Venture
Name of business:
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
Location of business:
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
Legal form of business:
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
Major activity of business:
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
Principal customers
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
Location of customers:
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
Amount to be invested by owners
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
Amount to be borrowed:
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
Total amount needed for the venture:
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
iii) The Product/Service.

289
Name of
product/service: .................................................................................................................................
..........................
Features of
product/service: .................................................................................................................................
..........................
Benefits obtained from
product/service: .................................................................................................................................
..........................
Unique features of
product/service: .................................................................................................................................
...........................
iv) Entry Plan
Competitive advantage of the business:
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
Weakness of competition:
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
Pricing plan:
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
Plans to attract customers:
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
v) Growth plan
Trends which signal business growth:
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................

Opportunities arising from this trend:

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............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
Plans to take advantage of the opportunities:
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
MARKETING PLAN
i) Potential Customers
Type of customers (individuals, institutions):
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
Total target market population:
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
Number of customers who can buy product/ service:
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
ii) Competition.
Names of the key competitors:
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
Location in relation to your business:
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
Size of the competitors:
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
Comparisons between your product(s) or service(s) and those of the competitors:
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................

Strength and weakness of the competitors:

............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................

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Plans to capitalize on the weakness of the competitors:
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
iii) Pricing.
Methods of calculating the selling price of your product/ service:
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
Factors which will influence your price setting e.g. competitors prices:
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
Actual selling price(s) of your product(s) or service(s):
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
Credit terms to be offered:
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
Discounts to be allowed:
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
Any after-sales service(s) and relevant costs:
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
iv) Sales Tactics.
Method of direct selling or personal selling:
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................

Method of indirect selling:

............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
Method of recruitment and retention of the sale force:

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............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
Utilization of distributors or agents:
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
Ways of selecting and motivating distributors or agents:
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
Geographical area you intend to serve:
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
v) Advertising and promotion.
Media to be
used: ..................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
..........
Product/service image to be portrayed:
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
Image to be projected regarding business:
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
Frequency of advertisements:
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
Cost per advertisement placement:
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
Measuring effectiveness of the advertisements:
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................

Plans for initial promotional campaign:

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............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
Plans for regular promotional methods:
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
Cost of each promotional event:
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
Measuring effectiveness of promotional campaigns:
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
vi) Distribution
Channels to be utilized:
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
Means of transport you will use:
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
Transport cost per month:
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
Anticipated distribution problems:
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................

Overcoming distribution problems:

............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
ORGANISATION PLAN
i) Structure (draw)

294
ii) Key Personnel
Number of positions:
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
Title of positions:
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
Duties of positions:
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................

Remuneration level:
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
Incentive package:
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
iii) Ordinary Employees.
Numbers required:
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
Titles and duties:
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
Remuneration:
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
Incentive package:
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
iv) Support Services.
Banking:

295
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
Book keeping:
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
Legal:
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................

Postal:
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
Management advice:
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
Other:
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................

PRODUCTION PLAN

i) Production and sales

No Item Total Quantity per Sales per year Capacity/Utilisation
year

ii) Machinery/equipment
No Item Unit Price Total Value Maintenance Costs

Total:

iii) Raw Material Requirement

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 No Item Quantity Total Annual Requirement

Value Source

Total:

iv) Utilities / Infrastructure

No Item Annual Requirement Total Annual Maintenance
Costs

Total:

v) Labour
No Particulars No. of Staff Annual Further Training
Wages/Salaries Required
Skilled
Semi-skilled
Unskilled
Owner’s
Salary
Total:

vi) Administrative and Selling Costs

No. Item Quantity Amount

Total:
Summary of Production Cost
TYPE OF COST MONTHLY COST
Source of materials
Materials required
Transportation
Workers/labour
Overhead expenses
Cost per unit
TOTAL COST

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FINANCIAL PLAN
i) Pre- operational Costs
ITEM COST
Transport
Market research
Plan properties
Meeting people
Photocopying
Installations
TOTAL COST

ii) Working Capital.

ITEM AMOUNT
Stock of raw materials
Work in progress
Stock if finished goods
Debtors
Cash
TOTAL WORKING CAPITAL

Suggested Learning Activities

1) Carry out a field study to identify different sources of financing a business stating the
benefits and limitations of each source.
2) Discuss the kind of products offered by financial institutions which are beneficial to
local businesses.

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 INFORMATION COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY
(ICT) IN A BUSINESS
Introduction
All businesses, small or large need information. Information is data that is relevant for a specific
purpose. Businesses require information on new products, technological changes and competitors
to be able to cope. The information must be communicated accurately and timely. It must also be
complete and relevant to meet the demands of today’s business environment.
Specific Objectives
By the end of this sub-module unit the trainee should be able to:
a) Define the term information communication Technology
b) Explain the benefits of ICT to a small enterprise
c) Identify uses of ICT equipment in business enterprise

TASKS
Task 1: Definition of Information Communication Technology (ICT)
Information and Communication Technology is an umbrella term that includes any
communication device or application. ICT describes a range of technologies for
gathering, storing, retrieving, processing, analysing and transmitting information.

Task 2: Benefits/Importance of ICT to a small business enterprise

A business can utilise ICT in pursuit of its objectives. ICT enables a business to access
the relevant information for efficient management of the business. This is in turn leads
to;
- Increased profits,
- Improved time management,
- Increase in cost-effectiveness,
- Increase in sales,
- Higher market exposure
- Reduced work force among others.

Task 3: Uses of ICT equipment

The following are some of the benefits associated with the various ICT tools

1) The Phone
The phone is used to communicate verbally with customers and suppliers. This
includes both the fixed line and mobile phones Other than verbal communication, the
mobile phone is also used for sending and receiving messages, sending and receiving
money e.g. MPesa.

 Benefits of a mobile phone

- It is affordable
- It is easy to use and any one can understand its functions
- It is portable and therefore can be used anywhere at any time
- It is efficient because feedback is immediate
- It can be used in extreme remote areas as long as the network coverage is
available

2) Radio
- This is a very effective way to advertise a business

299
 - It is quite inexpensive and can reach a wide audience
- Some communities have local radio service stations and the small business may
use this service to advertise its products or services where the entrepreneur
may be interviewed during a programme. Examples of such radio service
stations are; Inooro FM, Murembe FM and Ramogi FM.
3) Television
A small business may use the television as a tool for sourcing technological
information, new products/services, market trends and general information
that will assist the entrepreneur to run his business.
4) Print Media
Examples of such are; newspapers, advertising papers/magazines and business
directories.

 Newspapers e.g. the local dailies(The Nation) which the business enterprise can use
to ;
- Advertise their products/services
- Get information on market trends
- Access information on new technology, new products/services
- Access information on political and economic trends in the country

 Advertising Magazines/Papers/Journals/Business directories

These are useful tools for advertising products/services/ location of the
business enterprise

5) The Fax machine

This is short of “facsimile machine”. This is a machine that allows transferring
a copy of a document through the telephone line. Both the person sending
and receiving it must have a fax machine.

 Benefits of the fax machine to small business

- The message sent is received instantly
- If one is dealing with people far away, the fax can be a less expensive means of
communication
- The sent copy is like the original copy
- A message sent through a fax machine confirms in writing anything that has been
previously agreed on verbally

6) The Computer
This is one of the modern ways of communicating and advertising in use. It
can be used in the following ways;
- Word processing – writing letters or receipts
- Storing information – financial data, customers addresses, suppliers addresses
- Keeping track of records – purchases and sales
- Reminder messages – products or service delivery dates
- Generating advertising leaflets, posters or flyers
- Generating financial statements
- E-business – this is publicizing the business through the Internet

300
Task 4: Emerging issues and trends
1) Mobile phone money transfer: mobile phone payment service is used not only as a
means of sending and receiving money but also for selling goods/services,
paying bills (electricity, water, creditors), and also as a means of safe deposit/
banking.
2) Marketing: the mobile phone can be used as a tool of advertising a business
product/service.

Suggested Learning Activities

1) Discuss how available ICT can be used in a small business appropriately.
2) Visit a small business which uses ICT equipment/tools and discuss how it
contributes to the business’ performance.
3) Discuss how an entrepreneur can use the current technological advancement for
the benefit of his/her business?

301
EMERGING ISSUES AND TRENDS IN ENTREPRENEURSHIP

Specific Objectives
By the end of this sub- module, the trainee should be able to:
a) Define of terms.
b) Identify the emerging issues and trends in entrepreneurship

TASKS
Task 1: Emerging issues and trends in entrepreneurship
Trends refer to long term movements in a certain direction. In society a trend describes a
direction in the tastes and desires of the general population. For entrepreneurs, trends
present an incredible world of opportunities. Once an entrepreneur identifies a specific
trend then all their imagination and creative ability can go into generating products and
services to satisfy the demand that the trend creates.

Due to the dynamic nature of the business environment, entrepreneurs are advised to scan
the environment for any new trends. New marketing methods and technologies for
example, may emerge thus creating the need to be inculcated within continuing business
ventures.

Emerging trends in enterprise management can be classified as technological, global,

social/cultural, or economic issues. Technological trends equip an entrepreneur with
knowledge that is useful in the expansion and growth of the business. The use of new
technology creates a competitive advantage for the business by opening a potentially
attractive market for an entrepreneur.

Suggested Learning activity

1. Discuss impact of emerging issues and trends in entrepreneurship development

Suggested Learning Resources

1. Group discussion
2. Textbooks
3. Internet
4. Resource persons

REFERENCES
1. Hisrich R., Shepherd D. Entrepreneurship Development .Seventh Edition . McGraw
–Hill.
2. Deakins D., Freel M. Entrepreneurship and small firms. Sixth Edition.McGraw-Hill.

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7.1.0 FOOD AND BEVERAGE PRODUCTION

7.1.01 Introduction
This module unit is intended to impart in trainees cooking skills and attitudes required
for professional cookery. It gives the trainees a broad knowledge of raw food
materials and their application in food production.

7.1.02 General Objectives

At the end of this module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) operate a given kitchen equipment correctly and safely
b) observe hygiene rules in food and beverage production
c) demonstrate the ability to receive and store ingredients appropriately
d) select ingredients to produce a particular food item
e) prepare and produce a given food item correctly
f) portion, present and garnish food appropriately
g) handle challenges arising from emerging issues and trends in food production

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 KITCHEN ORGANIZATION

7.1.01 Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) explain terms in kitchen organisation
b) explain the layout of a given production area in different establishments
c) state the importance of motion economy in catering processes
d) explain the staff structure of a given catering outlet of different sectors of the
industry
e) identify the qualities of kitchen personnel
f) highlight the duties of the kitchen personnel

Unit tasks

Task 1: explaining terms in kitchen organisation

Definitions of a kitchen:
 A room equipped for preparing meals.
 A kitchen is a room or part of a room used for cooking and food preparation.
 Any room used for the storage and preparation of foods and containing the following
equipment: sink or other device for dishwashing, stove or other device for cooking,
refrigerator or other device for cold storage of food, cabinets or shelves for storage of
equipment and utensils, and counter .

Definitions of kitchen design;

 specialty or sub-set of interior design focusing on kitchens

Task 2: Kitchen layouts:

The layout of a kitchen must be planned around an efficient and systematic flow of foods from
receipt of goods to the service of meal. Details concerning water, fuel, drainage, lighting and
ventilation are also important to any well-designed kitchen. When a kitchen is built, it is designed
to achieve maximum efficiency of time, Labour and product. To achieve this number of factors
are taken into account:
 Type of menu
 Type of establishment
 Type and method of food service
 Number of meals to be served and length of service time
 The size, shape, and location of the food service
 The position of the kitchen in the establishment.

Types of Kitchen Layouts

L- Shaped layout
An L-shaped kitchen consists of work space on two adjoining walls perpendicular to each other.
This is the most popular kitchen design. It consists of a long leg and a shorter one and this type
of design can be used in small and large kitchens. The L-shaped kitchen gives you the possibility
of having a center island depending on the space available. In general, this design will have 2 or
3 appliances on one wall. The usual arrangement is to have the refrigerator at one end, the
range or cooktop at the other end with the sink located in the middle. This shape of kitchen
generally provides good traffic flow.

304
grouping
In this arrange
Island ment equipment is placed back to back in the centre of the cooking area. There is need for
sufficient space to allow for this, including adequate gangways around the equipment and space
to place other items along the walls.

U-shaped

A U-shaped kitchen consists of work space on three adjoining walls, two parallel walls
perpendicular to a third. There are no traffic lanes flowing through the work area. The base of the
U-shaped kitchen is best when it is 10-18 feet wide.
A U-shaped kitchen can have legs as long as you want. You will need to divide that elongated leg
into different work sites for efficient use.

305
This kitchen design shape has three walls instead of two, and the sink usually is located in the
middle wall section. The refrigerator and range or cooktop are usually on the side walls
opposite each other. The U-shaped kitchen design gives room for ample countertop space, and
you have three walls for cabinets and appliances. This kitchen layout tends to create a working
triangle that is very efficient.
The only problem with this type of kitchen design is that sometimes the two U corners are not
used appropriately. Make sure you buy the appropriate storage items for the corner cabinets
created by the U shape design. The U shape design can also create dark kitchens because of the
shape and the amount of cabinets. Using skylights, large windows, lots of under-cabinet task
lighting and light colors will help keep the kitchen bright with sufficient light to see what you're
doing.

Wall sitting
In the wall sitting kitchen design, all major work zones of the kitchen are arrayed along one wall.
Major work zones include the refrigerator, sink, and stove/oven. Minor work zones would
include: microwave, trash compactor, dishwater, etc.

The counter typically is no less than 8 feet long (any less and you would not be able to fit in all
the appliances). The order of the work zones can be almost anything: sink, stove, then fridge...or
stove, sink, then fridge. And so on. Because the arrangement is so small, the order does not really
matter.

Task 3: Importance of motion economy in catering processes.

Work flow- A work flow plan is an ergonomic, food safety orientated plan for efficient use of
the workspace. If you imagine a kitchen space to be a set of rooms, connected by doors, it
should go flow as follows
1 Dirty veg in
2 Veg preparation / cleaning
3 Veg cooking / raw veg storage
4 Veg serving / cooked veg storage
5 Disposal

That way the dirty new veg never comes into contact and cross contaminates the cooked /
cleaned veg.
A similar flow can be made for all aspects of the service of food, including the clean and dirty
pots and rubbish removal. Organising the kitchen into separate areas for separate tasks lies at
the heart of hygienic kitchen design. The exact layout depends on the size of the kitchen as well
as what type of meals are to be prepared there. The objective is to facilitate a smooth work
flow:

306
Delivery >> Storage>> Preparation>> Service >>Disposal
Work triangle- The kitchen work triangle is probably the most researched and applied
ergonomic principle around. It is the centerpiece of most kitchen layouts.
The importance of a good kitchen work triangle is to place the three most common work sites the
most efficient distance apart and to minimize traffic through the work zone.
The kitchen work triangle consists of the distance between the sink, refrigerator and range or
cooktop. Each one of these areas becomes a focal point in the kitchen and forms the three
points of a triangle with different distances between them. Done correctly, the kitchen work
triangle provides the most efficient food preparation area layout in the kitchen.
Whether you're remodeling an existing kitchen or building a new one, an efficient design means
that your work triangle minimizes the number of steps the cook must take between the three
areas during meal preparation and cleanup. The total distance from the sink to the stove to the
refrigerator and back to the sink should be not less than 12 feet total nor more than 27 feet.
Each triangle leg should measure between 4 and 9 feet in length. The kitchen isles should be at
least 42 to 48 inches wide to allow people to move around easily and for appliances to be
opened with ease.

Task 4: Staff structure of catering outlet of different sectors of the industry.

The number of staff employed in a kitchen can vary from very few to as many as over hundred.
They are referred to as the kitchen brigade. There have been many changes in the hospitality
industry in recent years; the clientele has changed, which ha influenced the type of menu offered,
which in turn has affected the way an establishment organizes its kitchen and staff.
Examples of staff structures for different establishments:

1) Partie system- this is the most popular for large establishments. Its main personnel are as
follows;
 Chef de cuisine(head chef)
 Sous chef(second chef)
 Chef de partie (section chef)
 Commis chef(assistant chef)
 Trainee chef
 kitchen porter

307
2) Staff structure for a fast food unit- the personnel here will be influenced by the menu and
equipment available. Its main personnel are as follows:
 Area manager
 Unit manager
 Assistant unit manager
 Floor manager
 Senior crew members
 Crew members.

3) Staff structure for a staff restaurant

 Catering manager
 Chef supervisor
 Leading cook
 Assistant cook
 General assistant

Task 4: Qualities of kitchen personnel

 Creativity
 Passion for food and cooking
 Dedicated
 Knowledgeable
 Team player
 Ambitious- must always look forward to perfecting his or her flair
 Multi task- must do many tasks at once
 Commitment to eminence/ doing the best
 Prompt decisions – able to think rapidly and make good decisions
 Accepting criticisms

Task 5: Duties and responsibilities of kitchen staff

 Ensure that all food and associated products are prepared, cooked served and
presented well
 Ensure that highest standards of food quality are maintained
 Observe stock control procedures
 Proper use and maintenance of kitchen equipment
 Ensure the kitchen is kept clean and hygienic
 Proper use and maintenance of kitchen equipment

LEARNING RESOURCES
 Kitchen
 Equipment
 Charts
 Internet

EVALUATION
1) Name four main kitchen arrangements.
2) Identify the main sections in a kitchen.
3) Sketch the kitchen work triangle and motion flow chart

308
4) Outline the staff structure for various establishments

7.1.02 KITCHEN EQUIPMENT

Theory

7.1.02 T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) classify kitchen equipment
b) outline factors to consider when selecting kitchen equipment
c) Explain the use, care and maintenance of kitchen equipment.

Unit Tasks:
Task 1; Classification of kitchen equipment;
 Small equipment and utensils:- pots, pans, bowls, saucepans, knives, striners,
wisks, trays, measuring equipment and miscellaneous items.
 Large equipment; refrigerators, cookers, deep fat- fryers , bratt pans, micro- wave
oven, boiling pans, bains marie, grills and salamanders griddle.
 Mechanical equipment; blenders, mixers, food slicers, mincers, potato peelers,
pastry rollers, food processors, chipper, juicers, electric masher, dish washers.

Task 2; Factors to consider when selecting kitchen equipment

 Type of fuel
 Number to be catered for
 Cost
 Space available
 Drainage
 Water supply
 Capacity
 Ease of handling
 Maintenance
 Attachments
 Noise level
 Construction
 Safety
 Manufacturers reputability

Task 3: The use, care and maintenance of kitchen equipment

Trainees should explain and practice the use care and maintenance of different kitchen
equipment in relation to type.

KEY LEARNING RESOURCES

 Kitchen equipment
 Pictures
 Photographs
 Internet

309
EVALUATIONS
1. Classify kitchen equipment and give examples in each case.
2. State factors to consider when choosing kitchen equipment.
3. Clean various kitchen equipment properly

7.1.03 HYGIENE

Theory

7.1.03 T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) explain personal hygiene requirements
b) explain food hygiene requirements
c) discuss the environmental hygiene requirement in a work place
d) explain the HACCP concept
e) identify types of waste and its disposal
f) explain legislation in food hygiene and safety

Unit tasks
Task 1: personal hygiene requirements

Good grooming
 Bathe regularly
 Clean hands regularly
 Short fingernails and without varnish
 Hair clean and covered
 Avoid touching nose, mouth and ears during food preparation.
 Clean teeth and regular visit to the dentist
 Clean feet with low closed shoes
 Cover all cuts burns and sores with a water proof dressing. Kitchen staff with septic
wounds and boils should not handle food.
 Use cosmetics in moderation but ideally should be discouraged.
 No jewellery should be worn in the kitchen
 No smoking tasting, of food using fingers or other activities which bring hands and mouth
directly in contact with food.
 No spitting
 Illness sickness diarrhea sore throat fever or skin infections should be reported to
management
 Clean appropriate kitchen uniform
-double breast chefs jacket
-chefs cap
-apron long enough to protect the legs
-checked cotton trousers /skirts
-neck tie

310
 Chef
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Task 2: food hygiene requirements
 Direct handling of food should be avoided particularly cooked food
 Food should be covered to prevent contamination
 Equipment and utensils should be clean
 Cook food thoroughly
 Hot food should be eaten while still hot
 If the food is to be eaten cold cool rapidly and refrigerate within 90 minutes. Cold food
should be kept below 50 c in a refrigerator.
 Cooked food should not be stored too long.
 Take particular care in thorough reheating of made up dishes
 Have boards and knives colored for particular foods (colour coding)
 Wash raw fruit and vegetables thoroughly
 Pay particular attention when handling raw poultry meat and fish
 Ensure food is obtained from reliable sources.
C
o Red for
l Red Meat
o White for
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311
en
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Task 3: environmental hygiene requirements
 All equipment and utensils should be kept clean
 Work surfaces should be washed and disinfected thoroughly:
 Floor should be kept clean and dry
 Kitchen cloths should be washed with a bactericide or by boiling
 Bins kept indoors should be emptied cleaned with detergent and dried, disinfecting is
recommended regularly and bins should be lined before use.

Task 4: The HACCP concept

HACCP (hazard analysis critical control point) enables evaluation of the operation .
It locates possible points of contamination, determines the severity of the hazard and takes
preventive measures to protect against food borne illness outbreak

The HACCP is an assessment of all the hazards associated with each step of a catering
organization. Staff needs to know the hazard, the degree of risk involved and that they apply the
controls which have been introduced to reduce and eliminate the risk.

Task 5: Types of waste and its disposal

 Organic
- Derived from animal and plants foods which includes
- Vegetable and meat trimmings
- Bones
- Inedible plant parts
- Food leftovers
- Old cooking oils
- From flower beds and hedges

 Inorganic (solid waters) which include

- Packaging materials, cans both plastic and metals
- Glass which include crockery
- Glass bottles mostly from the bar and kitchen
- Office wastes which include papers cardboards, cartridges
- Garage wastes which include old engine oils
- Linen wastes, towels and rags

 Liquid wastes
- This include grey water from the kitchen and cooking oils

Disposing wastes
 Burying
- It is suitable for organic wastes which can not (degrade) once in the soil thus add nutrients to
the soils.
- It is not suitable for solid wastes

312
- It is not suitable where large amount of wastes are produced
- It is ideal for picnic where amount of wastes are produced
 Burning
- Mainly used fro flammable waste like paper
- Suitable for small amount of wasted as this method may pollute the air
 Draining into main sewer
- Suitable for disposing liquid wastes like grey water from dish washing
Water from the kitchen is normally channeled to the main sewer.
 Recycling
- This is one of the best way of disposing wastes
- Materials are separated and taken for recycling.
Wastes that can be recycled include
- Glass
- Metals
- Plastic cans and heavy duty plastic sheets and paper
- Rubber
- Paper (made from wood)
- Cooking oil into bio diesel
 Compositing
- Organic matter is composted to produce organic manure to grow organic foods and for adding
nutrients to flower beds

 Feeding animals
Leftover foods are used to feed pigs, cows, dogs and other domestic animals.
 Compactors
- Compacting reduces the wastes sizes (bulkiness)
- The compacted wastes are then discarded into dumping sites.
 Disposal into sea/rivers
- This is a bad method of waste disposal because it pollutes the river environments
- However water from sewage lagoons is usually safe to dispose into the rivers once they are
certified clean.

Task 6: Legislation in food hygiene and safety

The preparation and sale of food is controlled by the food hygiene regulation (general) 1970. The
regulations are applicable to any staff involved in handling food and cleaners of equipment in
food rooms. The responsibility for implementing this KITCHEN EQUIPMENT

Theory

7.1.02 T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
d) classify kitchen equipment
e) outline factors to consider when selecting kitchen equipment
f) Explain the use, care and maintenance of kitchen equipment.

313
 Unit Tasks:
Task 1; Classification of kitchen equipment;
 Small equipment and utensils:- pots, pans, bowls, saucepans, knives, striners,
wisks, trays, measuring equipment and miscellaneous items.
 Large equipment; refrigerators, cookers, deep fat- fryers , bratt pans, micro- wave
oven, boiling pans, bains marie, grills and salamanders griddle.
 Mechanical equipment; blenders, mixers, food slicers, mincers, potato peelers,
pastry rollers, food processors, chipper, juicers, electric masher, dish washers.

Task 2; Factors to consider when selecting kitchen equipment

 Type of fuel
 Number to be catered for
 Cost
 Space available
 Drainage
 Water supply
 Capacity
 Ease of handling
 Maintenance
 Attachments
 Noise level
 Construction
 Safety
 Manufacturers reputability

Task 3: The use, care and maintenance of kitchen equipment

Trainees should explain and practice the use care and maintenance of different kitchen
equipment in relation to type.

KEY LEARNING RESOURCES

 Kitchen equipment
 Pictures
 Photographs
 Internet

EVALUATIONS
4. Classify kitchen equipment and give examples in each case.
5. State factors to consider when choosing kitchen equipment.
6. Clean various kitchen equipment properly

7.1.03 HYGIENE

Theory

314
7.1.03 T Specific Objectives
By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
g) explain personal hygiene requirements
h) explain food hygiene requirements
i) discuss the environmental hygiene requirement in a work place
j) explain the HACCP concept
k) identify types of waste and its disposal
l) explain legislation in food hygiene and safety

Unit tasks
Task 1: personal hygiene requirements

Good grooming
 Bathe regularly
 Clean hands regularly
 Short fingernails and without varnish
 Hair clean and covered
 Avoid touching nose, mouth and ears during food preparation.
 Clean teeth and regular visit to the dentist
 Clean feet with low closed shoes
 Cover all cuts burns and sores with a water proof dressing. Kitchen staff with septic
wounds and boils should not handle food.
 Use cosmetics in moderation but ideally should be discouraged.
 No jewellery should be worn in the kitchen
 No smoking tasting, of food using fingers or other activities which bring hands and mouth
directly in contact with food.
 No spitting
 Illness sickness diarrhea sore throat fever or skin infections should be reported to
management
 Clean appropriate kitchen uniform
-double breast chefs jacket
-chefs cap
-apron long enough to protect the legs
-checked cotton trousers /skirts
-neck tie

Chef
Paper Note
Hat hole
s on
the
top
that
allo
ws
air
flow
Won 315
once
and
 Chef
clothe Dura
Hat ble
and
is
wash
ed to
allo
w
conti
nuou
s use
Task 2: food hygiene requirements
 Direct handling of food should be avoided particularly cooked food
 Food should be covered to prevent contamination
 Equipment and utensils should be clean
 Cook food thoroughly
 Hot food should be eaten while still hot
 If the food is to be eaten cold cool rapidly and refrigerate within 90 minutes. Cold food
should be kept below 50 c in a refrigerator.
 Cooked food should not be stored too long.
 Take particular care in thorough reheating of made up dishes
 Have boards and knives colored for particular foods (colour coding)
 Wash raw fruit and vegetables thoroughly
 Pay particular attention when handling raw poultry meat and fish
 Ensure food is obtained from reliable sources.
C
o Red for
l Red Meat
o White for
u dairy
r products
Yel
c low
o for
Task 3: environmental hygiene
fruirequirements
d
 All equipment and utensils
ts should be kept clean
e
 Work surfaces should Gre
be washed and disinfected thoroughly:
d
 Floor should be kept clean
en and dry
 Kitchen cloths shouldfor
be washed with a bactericide or by boiling
c
 Bins kept indoors should
veg be emptied cleaned with detergent and dried, disinfecting is
h
recommended regularly
etaand bins should be lined before use.
o
p ble
Task 4: The HACCP concept s
p
i Wh
n ite
g for
dai
316
ry
pro
duc
HACCP (hazard analysis critical control point) enables evaluation of the operation .
It locates possible points of contamination, determines the severity of the hazard and takes
preventive measures to protect against food borne illness outbreak

The HACCP is an assessment of all the hazards associated with each step of a catering
organization. Staff needs to know the hazard, the degree of risk involved and that they apply the
controls which have been introduced to reduce and eliminate the risk.

Task 5: Types of waste and its disposal

 Organic
- Derived from animal and plants foods which includes
- Vegetable and meat trimmings
- Bones
- Inedible plant parts
- Food leftovers
- Old cooking oils
- From flower beds and hedges

 Inorganic (solid waters) which include

- Packaging materials, cans both plastic and metals
- Glass which include crockery
- Glass bottles mostly from the bar and kitchen
- Office wastes which include papers cardboards, cartridges
- Garage wastes which include old engine oils
- Linen wastes, towels and rags

 Liquid wastes
- This include grey water from the kitchen and cooking oils

Disposing wastes
 Burying
- It is suitable for organic wastes which can not (degrade) once in the soil thus add nutrients to
the soils.
- It is not suitable for solid wastes
- It is not suitable where large amount of wastes are produced
- It is ideal for picnic where amount of wastes are produced
 Burning
regulation is carried by environmental health officers who regularly visit food businesses to
monitor standards and offer advice. Failure to comply with the regulations may lead to fines or
imprisonment but legal action is used only if advice has persistently been ignored.
The general food hygiene regulations (1970) include:

Premises

317
  Premises should be clean, well lit, suitably ventilated, sanitary conveniences provided for
 Food production areas should not be used for sleeping
 Adequate provision should be made for refuse

Facilities
The following must be provided for:
 First aid materials
 Clean wholesome water
 Accommodation for outdoor clothes and shoes
 Separate facilities for washing hands, raw food and equipment

Equipment should be:

 Clean
 Kept in good repair
 Constructed of non absorbent materials

Food handlers:
 Must not smoke
 Must cover abrasions with water proof dressings
 Wear clean, washable over-clothing
 Inform management of diarrhea, vomiting, septic cuts, boils, throat/nose infections

Food handling:
 Food handlers must protect food from risk of contamination:
 Food should not be placed where it can be contaminated
 Food kept for animals must be kept away from other food
 Food for sale must be covered or screened

Catering practice
 High-risk foods for immediate consumption should be kept at above 630C or below 100C;
e.g. gravy, meat, poultry, cream, milk, fish.

LEARNING RESOURCES
 Text books
 Public Health Act Cap 242
 Food Safety Act Cap 129
 Field visits
 Sample solid wastes
 Internet

EVALUATION
1. Visit a nearby river and identify waste material going into the river
2. discuss methods of waste disposal used in establishments
3. explain how the HACCP concept is used in the kitchen

318
7.1.04 SAFETY

Theory

7.1.04 T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) define the term safety
b) state the safety requirements in a catering premises
c) outline safety precautions necessary when operating a kitchen equipment
d) explain fire safety practices.

Unit Tasks:

Task 1: Definition of the term safety

 the state of being certain that adverse effects will not be caused by some agent under
defined conditions
 freedom from danger; quality of not causing injury or loss.

Task 2: Safety requirements in catering premises

i) All areas in the kitchen should be kept tidy,
ii) Walkways, stairs, entrances and exits should be kept clear
iii) Avoid a build up of rubbish particularly flammable paper and boxes as these can
become fire hazard
iv) Waste product should be stored in covered bins which should be emptied regularly
v) Immediately clean up liquid and powder spillages as they can cause slippery floor
vi) Damaged or unsafe surfaces, fixtures and fittings should be reported to the
responsible person
vii) If you are uncertain in the safe use of equipment or products consult the
Manufacturers’ guidelines or ask your supervisor for guidance
viii) Make sure you are aware of your kitchen fire and evacuation procedure

Task 3: Safety precautions necessary when operating kitchen equipment

Task 4: Fire safety practices.

Identification of fire fighting equipment and causes of fire

CAUSES OF FIRE FIRE FIGHTING EQUIPMENT
 Flammable substances like wood, papers,  Extinguishers labeled Class A fires
grass ( Class A fires)
 Flammable substances like petrol,  Fire Extinguisher labeled Class B fires
paraffin, chemical (Class B fires
 Electrical fault e.g. faulty sockets, faulty  Fire Extinguisher labeled Class C fires
tools/ equipment (Class C fires)
 Flammable metals (Class D fires)  Fire Extinguisher labeled Class D fires

319
 A fire
extingu
isher
showin
g
differe
nt parts

Hose
Uses water
Reels
at high
pressure for
class A
fires

320
 Used to put
out fire by
cutting out
oxygen
supply
Suitable for
fighting
fire on
human
clothes

Water
bucket/ Water
Sand bucket
bucket used for
class A
fires
Sand
used for
class B
fires

Fighting fire in a workshop

i) Fire is fought depending on the size and source of fire
ii) Small fire resulting from flammable substance is fought by covering the source of
fire with a fire blanket or spraying carbon dioxide from a fire extinguisher
iii) Big fire resulting from an explosion is fought using hose reels
iv) Small fire resulting from flammable materials is fought by covering the source of
fire with a fire blanket or pouring with fire blanket water on the source of fire
v)Fire resulting from electrical fault is fought by spraying halogen from a fire
extinguisher or using fire hose

LEARNING RESOURCES
 Text books
 Fire extinguishers
 Fire blanket
 Fire hose
 Guest speaker from fire brigade
 Poster and charts on fire fighting

321
 Internet

EVALUATION
1) Identify 3 types of accidents in a given establishment, their cause and advise on a control
measure or safety precaution that can be taken
2) Identify at least 3 fire fighting equipment and explain when and how you would use then in a
given establishment
3) State at least 4 safe working practices in a given establishment
4) State safety precautions to observe when operating electrical and mechanical equipment.

7.1.05 FUEL AND OTHER SOURCES OF ENERGY

Theory

7.1.05 T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) identify sources of fuel and energy used in catering establishments
b) state factors to consider when selecting fuel and energy for catering establishments
c) describe methods of heat transfer
d) explain ways of fuel and energy conservation.

Unit Tasks:

Task 1: Sources of fuel and energy used in catering establishments

 Kerosene
 Gas
 Charcoal
 Electricity
 Wood
 Biogas
 Solar
 Coal

Task 2: Factors to consider when selecting fuel and energy for catering establishments

 Storage requirements
 Availability – consistency of supply
 Cost
 Efficiency
 Safety
 Installation and maintenance

Task 3: Methods of heat transfer

322
Conduction: Involves transfer of heat in solid materials. Some materials are better conductors of
heat than others and some materials can retain heat better than others. Most
conduction of heat occurs on top of the range(stove). Heat is conducted from its
source to the container holding food and the food is heated.

Convection: Involves the transfer of heat in liquids and gases. In heating liquids or gases,
convection currents are produced which distribute the heat

Radiation: Involves the transfer of heat by electromagnetic waves such as infra-red waves and
microwaves. The waves pass from their source and are absorbed into the food e.g. the
flat grill, salamander or open barbecue.

Task 4: ways of fuel and energy conservation

 Use of energy saving stoves and burners

 Use of natural lights
 Energy saving bulbs
 Use of enough fuel for intended purpose
 Planning household chores
 Correct size of pans for burners
 Cover cooking pots and pans while cooking

LEARNING RESOURCES
 Text books
 Kitchen
 Different types of fuel

EVALUATION
 Explain how methods of heat transfer are applied in a given establishment
 Identify the strategies a given establishment uses to conserve fuel and energy

7.1.06 RECIPES
Theory

7.1.06 T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) Define the term recipe
b) explain the importance of a recipe
c) write recipes for dishes
d) cost and price recipes.

Unit Tasks:

Task 1: Define the term recipe

 This is a precise written formula for preparation and cooking of a menu item
 A recipe is a set of instructions that show how to prepare or make something, especially a
culinary dish.

323
  A set of directions with a list of ingredients for making or preparing something, especially
food.
 A list of materials and directions for preparing a dish or drink; any procedure for
accomplishing something.

Task 2: importance of a recipe

 Helps predetermine portion yields thus more efficient cost control
 Helps standardize purchase specifications
 Menu planning is assisted particularly where nutritional data is included
 Helps to simplify staff induction/training
 Enhance better quality control
 Ensures that the customer always gets a standard product

Task 3: Writing recipes for dishes

A recipe should contain the following:
 Name of the dish
 Yield/ number of portions
 A sequential list of Ingredients
 Quantity of each ingredient
 Method/procedure of preparing the dish
 Cooking time
 Cooking temperature
 Any special equipment needed
 Garnish
 The pan size
 Service methods/accompaniments (optional)

Sample recipe

Name: Roast Chicken

Pan size: Sheet Pan
Temperature: 3500F
Yield: 25 portions
Portion Size: 6 oz
Portion Utensil: Spatula
Cooking Time: 30 minutes
Ingredients Quantity Method
Capons 71/2 Kg  Coat chicken with bread
1
Cooking oil /2 litre crumbs and cheese
Bread crumbs 24 oz  Place on baking sheet
Parmesan cheese (grated) 24 oz  Sprinkle a little salt and pepper
Salt 1 oz  Roast in a hot oven at 3500F
Pepper 1 oz for 30 minutes
 Serve with sauté potatoes and
garnish with parsley

324
Note:
Usually a standard recipe is established for 25 portions
 Some standard recipe forms list ingredients’ quantities for two or three levels of
production e.g. 4 portions; 10 portions and 25 portions
 A standard recipe can be modified by dividing or multiplying the quantities present
 Some progressive food operations/establishments have the capacity to print a standard
recipe for any forecasted number through the use of an in-house computer.

Task 4: Costing and pricing recipes

The cost price of any individual dish may be established by adding together the cost of all
ingredients and dividing by the number of portion.

Example Dish: Steak and Kidney Pie (10 Portions)

Commodity Quantity Unit Cost Unit of purchase Recipe Cost (Kshs)
Topside beef 800g 200 Kg: 160.00
Ox kidney 400g 240 Kg: 96.00
Onion 200g 100 Kg: 20.00
Parsley 1 tspn 10 Bunch: 10.00
Soy sauce 7 ml 65 Litre 0.50
Demi-glace 1 lt 120 Litre 120.00
Tomato paste 750g 100 Kg 75.00

481.50

Price per portion: - Kshs.481.50 ÷ 10 = Kshs.48.15

LEARNING RESOURCES
 Text books
 Recipe files
 Internet
 Magazines

EVALUATION

325
7.1.07 COOKING METHODS

Theory

7.1.07 T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) explain factors to consider when selecting cooking methods
b) explain the preparation methods for food commodities
c) discuss the cooking methods of food items
d) describe how to present various dishes
e) Explain factors to consider when holding and storing different dishes.

Unit Tasks:

Task 1: Factors to consider when selecting cooking methods

 The type of food
 Time available
 Type of fuel
 Equipment available
 Personal taste and preference
 Number of people to be catered for
 Cost
 Skill of personnel
 Culture and religion
 Desired effect
 Dietary needs

Task 2: The preparation methods for food commodities

 Straining
 Sieving
 Chopping
 Slicing
 Shredding
 Dicing
 Blanching
 Grating
 Freezing
 Chilling/cooling
 Chopping
 Cutting

326
Task 3: Cooking methods of food items

Cooking methods fall under 2 main categories

(i) Moist heat
 They include boiling, steaming, stewing, frying and poaching
(ii) Dry heat methods
 They include baking and roasting, microwave cooking, grilling etc

1. Moist heating
a) Boiling
This is cooking food completely covered with water, heated to boiling point
(100°c) and then left to simmer in a cooking pot with a well fitting lid. The
method is suitable for foods like meats, arrow roots, yams, potatoes, maize and
beans.

b) Stewing
This is cooking food in a small measured amount of liquid that is allowed to
simmer.
It is a long slow method of cooking tough hard foods e.g. beef, poultry,
vegetables. It is also used for soft foods such as fruits. The aim is to give food
enough time to soften and to retain nutrients and flavour.

c) Steaming
This is cooking food using steam for steam from boiling water. The steam does not
come into direct contact with the food, it comes into contact with the container
holding the food. It is a suitable method for cooking fish fillet and cake mixture
pudding, spinach.
The methods of steaming include:-
 Plate method
 Bowl steaming method
 Using steamer
 Using colander

Plate Method procedure

Food in the covered plate is placed over a boiling cooking pan root tubers like yams,
arrow roots, potatoes can be cooked in the pan at the same time to economize fuel.

d) Poaching
It is similar to boiling but the temperature is kept below 100°c

e) Frying
 Frying is cooking food in hot fat or oil in a pan

There are three methods of frying

 Shallow fat frying
 Deep fat frying

327
  Dry fat frying

Shallow-fat frying

Th
is
is
co
ok
in
g
fo
od
to
a
fry
in
Deep-fat frying g
Food is cooked in hot pa oil which completely covers the food. A deep fat fryer or a
strong deep pan, a frying
n basket and a draining spoon are required for the process. It is
a suitable method for cooking potato chips, mandazi and samosas
int
Dry-fat frying o
This is cooking food w in its own fat in a shallow pan or cooking in a lightly greased
hi to cook comes from the food being cooked. It is used for
pan. The fat or oil used
cooking bacon andch cuts of pork.
so
2. Dry heat method of m cooking
(a) Baking e
In this method of cooking
fat hot dry air is used. It is usually done in an oven.
It is suitable for foods that have enough moisture such as potatoes and flour mixture
ha
for cakes, scones and bread.
s
be E
en l
(b) Roasting ad e
It is a process of c
decooking food over a fire such as glowing charcoal. It is suitable
for cooking maize, t
sweet potatoes, yams, arrow roots and fish.
d.
r
Another way ofItroasting is cooking food in a heated oven or while it is rotating on
i is used to boost the food. It is a suitable method for
a spit. In both cases fat
is c
cooking meat
a
(c) Grilling sui B
Foods cooked by a are placed over or under the direct heat source and re
ta grilling
bl kIf the food is fairly thick, then only the surface is cooked by
cooked by radiation.
radiation and further icooking takes place by condition.
e
n
m g
et 328
ho o
d v
e
 Charcoal
Grill

(d) Microwave cooking

Food cooked by convectional methods use heat transfer by convection, conduction
and radiation but microwave ovens operate by a different mechanism

Task 4: How to present various dishes

Consider the following factors:-
 The type of food
 Style of service
 Temperature of food
 Service equipment
 Garnishing
 Recommended portions
 Number of courses
 Occasion
 Type of establishment
 Skill of personnel

Task 5: Factors to consider when holding and storing different dishes.

 Quantity

329
  Packing material and equipment
 Temperature
 Shelf life
 Storage area

LEARNING RESOURCES
 Kitchen equipment
 Food ingredient

EVALUATION
1. State reasons for cooking foods
2. Suggest a suitable method of cooking the following foods:-
a) Tough cuts of meat
b) Bread rolls
c) Tomatoes
d) Chicken
e) Pancakes
f) Doughnuts
g) Chapati

7.1.08 HERBS, SPICES AND

CONDIMENTS

Theory

7.1.08 T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) define terms
b) Name types of herbs, spices and condiments
c) explain uses of herbs, spices and condiments
d) explain appropriate storage of herbs, spices and condiments

Unit Tasks:
Task 1: Definition of terms

Herbs: comes from a Latin word “herba” which means grass or herbage. Herbs are green plants
which include roots, stems, leaves, flowers and seeds. They owe their distinctive aromas
and flavours to volatile oils.

Spices: are dried aromatic parts of plants which include roots, bark, leaves, flowers and seeds.
They are purchased whole or powdered.

Condiments: comes from the Latin word “condimentum.” They are generally salty, spicy,
piquant or stimulating. They include salt, pepper, mustard and vinegar.

Task 2: Types of herbs, spices and condiments

330
  Fresh herbs
 Dried herbs
 Frozen herbs
 Herb butters
 Herb vinegars
 Herb mixtures

Examples of commonly used herbs, spices and condiments

Herbs
 Basil  Rosemary
 Bay leaves  Sage
 Coriander  Tarragon
 Chive  Thyme
 Lemon grass  Mixed herbs
 Mint  Garlic
 Oregano  Horse radish
 Parsley
Spices
 Cardamon  Garam masala
 Chilli  Ginger
 Cinnamon  Tumeric
 Cloves  Sesame seeds
 Coriander seeds  Vanilla
 Cumin seeds  Saffron

Condiments
 Salt
 Pepper
 Cayenne pepper
 Paprika
 Vinegar
 Mustard

Task 3: Uses of herbs, spices and condiments

 To enhance flavour of foods
 Enhance colour of food
 Therapeutic purposes
 For preservation purposes
 To distinguish the origin of cuisine

Task 4: Appropriate storage of herbs, spices and condiments

 Dried ones should be stored in containers with tight fitting lids
 Liquid ones should be stored in sealed containers
 Fresh ones should be used as fresh as possible
 Store in a cool dry place

331
LEARNING RESOURCES
 Text books

EVALUATION
1 Distinguish between herbs and spices
2 Give three examples of herbs frequently used in food production
3 Write notes on the following
a) Bouquet garni
b) Parsley
c) Ginger

7.1.09 STOCKS, SOUPS AND SAUCES

Theory

7.1.09 T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) define terms
b) state types of stocks, soups and sauces
c) describe the methods of producing and presenting stocks, soups and sauces
d) explain the uses of stock, soups and sauces
e) prepare, produce and present stocks soups and sauces
f) state qualities of well made stocks, soups and sauces.

Unit Tasks:

Task 1: Definition of terms

Stocks: is a liquid containing the flavour, nourishment and colour extracted from raw meat and
bones, vegetables such as carrots, celery and onion and seasonings such as bay leaf,
parsley stocks and pepper cones by long gentle simmering. It is used as a basis for
cooking many dishes such as soups, sauces and gravies.

Sauces: a well-flavoured thickened liquid used as an accompaniment for other dishes.

Soups: is a well flavoured liquid served as a first course to stimulate appetite

Task 2: Types of stocks, soups and sauces

Stocks
 White (vegetable or bones )
 Brown (vegetable or bones )
 Fish
 Convenience

332
Sauces
 Brown sauce (Èspagnol)
 White sauce (Béchamel)
 Cold sauces (Mayonnaise, mint)
 Sweet sauces (custard, chocolate, jam, vanilla, orange, )
 Savory sauces (tomato, curry, gravy, barbeque, )
 Veloute
 Hollandaise
Soups
 Clear (consomme)
 Broth
 Veloute
 Puree
 Cream
 Pottage
 Chowder
 Bisques

Task 3: Methods of producing and presenting stocks, soups and sauces

Stocks
Guidelines for preparing stocks
 Use fresh meat or bones and vegetables
 Scum should be removed
 Fat should be skimmed
 Simmer stock gently
 It should not be allowed to go off the boil otherwise in hot water there is the danger of it
going sour
 Salt should not be added
 If stock is to be kept, strain, reboil, cool quickly and place in the refrigerator

Sauces
 A white sauce is prepared from white roux with milk and clove-studded onion
 Veloute is made from a blond roux
 Brown sauce is based on a brown roux
 Hollandaise is made by reducing vinegar with herbs and adding egg yolk with a little
water, cooking gently over heat while being aerated with a whisk and slowly
incorporating melted butter
 Mayonnaise is an emulsification of egg yolk and oil with salt, pepper, mustard and
vinegar

Ways of Thickening Sauces

It is important to select the thickening agent that will suit the type of sauce being made:
 A roux
 A starch e.g. corn starch, arrowroot
 Protein like egg yolk and cream
 A beurre manie
 A puree of fruits or vegetables ( also known as coullis)
 Blood (used traditionally for recipes such as jugged hare but not normally used today)

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  Cooking liquor from certain dishes and/or stock can be reduced to give a light sauce

Soups
Un thickened soups
 Consommés are clear soups prepared from strong stocks which are flavoured with various
meats (poultry, game, and fish), vegetables, hers and seasoning and are then clarified with
egg whites. Serve alone or with a simple garnish e.g. julienne or strips of root vegetables
or pasta among others
 Broths are strained soups made from stock and garnished with a cereal, mild herbs, diced
vegetables, meat or fish

Thickened soups
 Purees are made from fresh diced vegetables cooked in stocks. The ingredients in the
soup are passed through a sieve or blender to make a thick soup
 Veloutes are prepared from a blond roux and flavoured stock with the additions of
blanched vegetables, meat, fish poultry and game. They are passed through a sieve and
thickened with a liaison of egg yolks and cream.
 Cream are velvety in consistency and are thickened with cream
 Bisques are made with shellfish, fish stock, vegetables, wines, herbs and seasoning. They
are thickened with rice, passed through a sieve and thickened with wine and cream

Task 4: Uses of stock, soups and sauces

Stocks
 Used as a basis for cooking many dishes such as soups, sauces and gravies

Sauces
 To enhance flavour and appearance of the food it accompanies
 To provide a contrast in texture to food
 To provide a contrasting flavour to food that may be mild
 To add colour to the dish
 To contribute to the nutritional value of the food
 To counteract the richness of a food
 White sauce is used as a part of some cream soups and as binding agent

Soups
 To stimulate appetite
 For therapeutic purposes

Task 5 prepare, produce and present stocks soups and sauces

Suggested recipes
Sauces (Mayonnaise, mint, tomato, curry, gravy, barbeque, custard, chocolate, jam, vanilla,
orange)
Soups (tomato, minestrone, consommé, leek and potato, pumpkin, green pea, brown onion)

Task 6: Qualities of well made stocks, soups and sauces

Stocks

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  Should not be greasy
 Should have its distinctive flavour
 Should not have an unpleasant flavour
 Should not be cloudy
Sauces
 Should have the right consistency
 Should be lump free
 Should have a distinctive flavour
Soups
A soup’s quality is determined by its flavour, appearance and texture
 Should be full flavoured with no off or sour taste – soup’s ingredients should blend and
complement with no one flavour over powering another
 The vegetables in vegetable soup should be brightly coloured not grey
 Garnishes should be attractive and uniform in size and shape
 The soup’s texture should be very precise e.g. smooth, lump free
 Consommes must be crystal clear when cooked
 Cream soups should be velvety in consistency

LEARNING RESOURCES
 Text books
 Internet
 magazines

EVALUATION
1 Define the terms sauce and soups
2 explain two qualities of a good sauce
3 differentiate between a broth and a puree
4 explain five uses of sauce in a meal
5 discuss points to observe when making sauces

7.1.10 HORS D’OEUVRES AND OTHER STARTER DISHES

Theory

7.1.10 T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) define terms
b) identify types of hors d’oeuvres and starter dishes
c) describe the preparation and production procedures of hors d’oeuvres and other
starter dishes
d) prepare, produce and present hors d’oeuvres and starter dishes
e) outline the qualities of hors d’oeuvres and other starter dishes
f) describe the presentation of hors d’oeuvres and starter dishes.
Unit Tasks:

Task 1: Definition of the term

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Hors d’oeuvres: are well seasoned foods for stimulating appetite and are served as a first course
Foods used include meat, poultry, fish, eggs, vegetables, salads and fruits

Salads
These are hors d’oeuvres of a spicy nature that stimulate the appetite e.g. anchovies, beetroot,
red cabbage, potato salad, tomato salad, fish mayonnaisse,egg mayonnaissse,mixed vegetable
salad, cauliflower in cooking liquor.
Other starter dishes
Caviar, shelfish cocktail, melon frappe, salmon fume, fruit fume, pate maison, huitres, escargots,
moules mariniere, Florida cocktail
Savouries: they are small delecate served in a variety of situations e.g fingerbuffets,savoury
course at a dinner and high tea.

Task 2: Types of hors d’oeuvres and starter dishes

Hors d’oeuvres
Can be classified as hot or cold and in both instances could be simple or compound
Hot simple hors d’oeuvres include: bouchees, asparagus, soufflé, assorted, ratatouille,
quichelorraine.
Cold simple hors d’oeuvres include: oysters, grapefruit, fruitjuice, assorted, salads, ratatouille.
.

Task 3: Preparation and production procedures of hors d’oeuvres and other starter dishes.
 Well planned organisation is essential to ensure adequate preparation (mise-en-place), so
that foods are assembled with a good work flow and ready on time.
 Before, during and after assembling, and before final garnishing foods must be kept in a
cool place, cold room or refrigerator so as to minimize the risk of food contamination.
 Personal, food and equipment hygiene of the highest order must be observed with all cold
preparations
 Garnishing and final decoration should take place as close to service time as possible.

General rules when making cold dishes
 Be aware of the texture and flavour of many raw foods that can be mixed together or
combined with cooked foods
 Understand what combination of foods is best suited to be served with other foods
 Develop simple artistic skills that require the minimum time for preparation and
assembly
 Provide an attractive presentation of food at all times
 Individual portions should be removed from refrigeration and allowed to stand at room
temperature for 5-10 minutes before being served.

Task 4: prepare, produce and present hors d’oeuvres and starter dishes
Suggested dishes (chutneys and relishes, cold meats, cold salmon, egg mayonnaise, cucumber
salad, French bean salad, green salad, potato salad horseradish,)

Task 5: Qualities of hors d’oeuvres and other starter dishes

They should be:
 Attractive
 Compliment the meal
 Well flavoured

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  Served at the correct temperature

Task 6: Presentation of hors d’oeuvres and starter dishes

 Portions should be small as they are only meant to stimulate the appetite and not to
appease hunger
 They should be attractively presented as they are the first contact a guest has with the
establishment
 Present appropriately according to type e.g. if to be hot make sure it is hot
 Use appropriate equipment

LEARNING RESOURCES
 Text books
 Internet
 Magazines

EVALUATION
1 expain the following terms
a) Starter.
b) hors d’oeuvres
2 explain five qualities to observe when preparing cold starters
3 discuss the presentation of hors d’ oeuvres

7.1.11 PROTEINS

Theory

7.1.11 T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) state the classification of proteins
b) list sources of protein
c) state factors to consider when selecting protein food
d) explain the preparation of protein foods
e) outline the production method of protein dishes
f) prepare, produce and present protein dishes
g) describe the presentation methods of protein dishes
h) explain the qualities of a finished protein dish.

Unit Tasks:

Task 1: Classification of protein

 Animal (High biological value) proteins
 Plant (Low biological value) proteins

Task 2: Sources of protein

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Animal proteins
- Red meats
 Beef
 Veal
 Mutton
 Lamb
 Pork
 Goat meat
 Offal – liver, kidney, sweet breads
 Game meat
- White meat
 Poultry – chicken, duck, goose, turkey, quails
 Fish – fresh water, salt water, sea fish, shell fish

Plant proteins
- Pulses
 Beans
 Soya beans (high biological value)
 Peas
 Lentils
 Greengrams
 Cowpeas
 Black beans e.t.c

- Nuts
 Ground nuts
 Peanuts
 Almonds
 Walnuts
 Chest nuts
 Hazel nuts

Task 3: Factors to consider when selecting protein food

Animal proteins
 Freshness – without unpleasant odour and the fluid should be watery not sticky
 Colour (dictated by the source of meat e.g. beef should be bright red)
 Buy from a clean well ventilated shop
 It should not have excessive fat and bone
 Texture should be firm and elastic
 The dish to be prepared
 The method of cooking

Plant proteins
 Clean and free from soil and stones
 Free from signs of pests and diseases
 Well shaped, firm and not damaged by harvesting equipment, and weather
 Time available for preparation
 Availability

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  Season

Task 4: Preparation of protein foods

The following preparation methods can be used however, it depends on the type of dish to be
prepared
 Trimming  Sealing
 Cutting  Barding
 Deboning  Carving
 Marinating  Tenderising
 Larding  Sorting (applies to pulses)
 Trussing  Soaking (applies to pulses)
 Singeing

Task 5: Production method of protein dishes

The following cooking methods can be used however; it depends on the type of dish to be
prepared
 Boiling  Frying
 Stewing  Braising
 Roasting  Poaching (particularly for fish)
 Grilling  Steaming (particularly for fish)

Task 6: prepare, produce and present protein dishes

Suggested protein dishes
Plant proteins (curries, stews, goulash)
Animal proteins (curries, stews, goulash roasts and grills)

Task 7: Presentation methods of protein dishes

The following are guidelines for presentation of protein dishes
 Clean serving equipment
 Appropriate serving equipment
 Food should not overflow
 Use appropriate garnishes
 Serve food at the correct temperatures
 Portion sizes should be correct
 Serve with suitable accompaniments

Task 8: Qualities of a finished protein dish.

The following are guidelines for assessing the quality of finished protein dishes
 Doneness
 Colour
 Texture
 Flavour
 Temperature
 Accompaniment
 Presentation

LEARNING RESOURCES
 Text books

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 Magazines
 Internet
 Food charts
 Food commodities
 Kitchen equipment

EVALUATION
1 describe the procedure of trussing poultry
2 discuss the cuts of beef available to a chef
3 explain five points to observe when buying plant proteins.
4 discuss points on storage of proteins

7.1.12 STARCHES

Theory

7.1.12 T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) define terms
b) state sources of starch used in food production
c) state factors to consider in selecting a starch food
d) explain preparation, production and presentation of a starch dish
e) prepare, produce and present hors d’oeuvres and starter dishes
f) explain the qualities of a finished starch dish.

Unit Tasks:
Task 1: Definition of terms
Starch is a type of carbohydrate. It is used as a staple food in the diet of most people and it makes
the bulk of a meal.
Task 2: Sources of starch used in food production
 Tubers
 Roots
 Cereals
 Farinaceous (rice and pasta)
 Plantains
Task 3: Factors to consider in selecting a starch food
 Clean and free from soil and stones
 Free from signs of pests and diseases
 Well shaped, firm and not damaged by harvesting equipment, and weather
 Time available for preparation
 Availability
 Season
 Personal preferences

Task 4: Preparation, production and presentation of a starch dish

Preparation

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  Sorting  Dicing
 Peeling  Chipping
 Grating  Stalking
 Slicing
Production
The following cooking methods can be used however it depends on the type of dish to be
prepared
 Boiling  Baking
 Stewing  Braising
 Roasting  Baking
 Grilling  Steaming
 Frying

Methods of presenting starch dishes
The following are guidelines for presentation of starch dishes
 Clean serving equipment
 Appropriate serving equipment
 Food should not overflow
 Use appropriate garnishes
 Serve food at their correct temperatures
 Portion sizes should be correct
 Serve with suitable accompaniments

Task 5: prepare, produce and present starch dishes

Suggested starch recipes.
Rice (pilaf, braised, steamed, fried, risibisi, buttered)
Potatoes (mashed, sauté, croquette, maxim, chipped, parsley,irio)
Ugali balls
Chapati, pasta

Task 6: Qualities of a finished starch dish

 Doneness  Temperature
 Colour  Accompaniment
 Texture  Presentation
 Flavour

LEARNING RESOURCES
 Text books
 Magazines
 Food charts
 Internet
 Food commodities
 Kitchen equipment

EVALUATION
1 giving examples explain any three sources of starch in a diet
2 discuss the following processes used in preparation of starch dishes

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 a) Chipping
b) Peeling
c) Shredding
d) Stalking
e) Dicing
3 explain three qualities to look for in the evaluation of a finished starch dish

7.1.13 VEGETABLES

Theory

7.1.13 T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) define terms
b) classify vegetables
c) state factors to consider in selecting vegetables
d) explain methods of preparing vegetables
e) explain methods of producing vegetables
f) prepare, produce and present vegetable dishes
f) describe methods of presenting vegetables
g) explain the qualities of finished vegetable dishes

Unit Tasks:

Task 1: Definition of terms

The term vegetable includes any edible part of any plant.

Task 2: Classification of vegetables

1. Roots  Carrots
 Beetroots
 Onions
 Radishes
 Garlic
 Ginger
2. Tubers  Arrow roots
 Cassava
 Sweet potatoes
 Yams
3. Pods and seeds  Green peas
 French beans

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 4. Fruit vegetables  Tomatoes
 Cucumber
 Green pepper (Hoho)
 Hot paper
 Courghettes
 Pumpkins

5. Flower fruits  Cauliflower

 Broccoli
6. Leafy vegetables  Kales
 Spinach
 Cabbages
 Lettuce
 Amaranthus (Terere)
 Nightshade (Managu)
7. Stems and shoots  Leeks
 Celery
 Asparagus
 Bean sprouts
8. Fungi  Mushrooms

Task 3: Factors to consider in selecting vegetables

 Clean and free from soil and stones
 Well shaped, firm and not damaged by harvesting equipment.
 Free from signs of damage, frost pests and disease
 Green vegetables should have crisp fresh leaves with a bright colour.
 Root vegetables should have unblemished skins free from spongy discolored patches
 Legumes should be firm crisp and not too big, pods should not be too full or the vegetable
may be coarse textured.
Task 4: Methods of preparing vegetables
 Cutting  Blanching
 Chopping  Refreshing
 Shredding  Dicing
 Slicing  Grating

Task 5: Methods of producing vegetables

 Steaming  Baking
 Braising  Frying
 Stewing  Sautéing

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  Stir-frying  Boiling

Task 6: prepare, produce and present vegetable dishes

Suggested dishes
Braised red cabbage, sauté spinach, mixed vegetables, ratatouille, buttered baby marrow, stir
fried cabbage and carrots, Vichy carrots, steamed okra in cream.)

Task 7: Methods of presenting vegetables

The following are guidelines for presentation of protein dishes
 Clean serving equipment
 Appropriate serving equipment
 Food should not overflow
 Use appropriate garnishes
 Serve food at their correct temperatures
 Portion sizes should be correct
 Serve with suitable accompaniments

Task 8: Qualities of finished vegetable dishes

 Doneness
 Colour
 Texture
 Flavour
 Temperature
 Accompaniment
 Presentation

LEARNING RESOURCES
 Text books
 Magazines
 Internet
 Food charts
 Food commodities
 Kitchen equipment

EVALUATION
1 Discuss the use and versatility of vegetables in the diet
2 describe the method of storing vegetables in order to maintain their freshness
3 giving examples in each case explain the classes of vegetables
4 illustrate various cuts of vegetables

7.1.14 SALAD AND SALAD DRESSING

Theory

7.1.14 T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) define terms
b) identify types of salads and salad dressing

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 c) describe the preparation and production of salads and salad dressings
d) describe the presentation of salads.
e) prepare, produce and present salads and salad dressing
f) outline the qualities of salads and salad dressing

Unit Tasks:
Task 1: Definition of terms

A salad is any cold dish consisting of meat, poultry, fish, fruits, vegetables and grains or grain
products served singly or as a combination.

Salad dressings are used with most salads to add flavour improve palatability and sometimes bind
ingredients together

Task 2: Types of salads and salad dressing

Salads may appear on the menu in the following ways
 an appetizer
 accompaniment
 main course
 dessert
 for a buffet

Salad dressings
 French dressing
 Mayonnaise
 Vinaigrette

Task 3: Preparation and production of salads and salad dressings

 Select fruits and vegetables that are crisp fresh free from bruises or blemishes
 To maintain crispness stand fruits in ice cold water
 Ingredients washed or stood in water should be dried thoroughly to reduce the risk of the
salad being watered down.
 Select ingredients which compliment each other in flavour texture and colour.
 Use a dressing to enhance the flavour of a salad, do not dress the salad until just before
serving time
 Keep the arrangement of the salad simple.
 Ensure that the fruits are not overcooked
 Garnish should be designed to give contrast and eye appeal to the dish without being too
elaborate.

Task 4: Presentation of salads

 Clean serving equipment
 Appropriate serving equipment
 Salads should not overflow
 Use appropriate garnishes
 Serve salads at their correct temperatures
 Portion sizes should be correct
 Serve with suitable accompaniments

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Task 5: Prepare, produce and present salads and salad dressing
Beetroot salad, cucumber, coleslaw, mustard and cress, potato, pineapple and carrot, tomato and
cucumber.
Task 6: Qualities of salads and salad dressing
 Should appear fresh
 Should be neatly arranged
 Should not be over garnished
 Should be eye appealing
 Should be appetizing
 Should be well chilled

LEARNING RESOURCES
 Text books
 food commodities
 kitchen equipment
 magazines
 food charts

EVALUATION
1 Discuss the guidelines for making salads
2 explain the value of salads and salad dressings
3 prepare produce and present various salads and salad dressings

7.1.15 FRUITS

Theory

7.1.15 T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) define terms
b) classify fruits
c) factors to consider in selecting fruits
d) explain methods of preparing fruits
e) explain methods of producing fruit dishes
f) describe methods of presenting fruit dishes
g) Prepare, produce and present fruit dishes
h) explain qualities of fruit dishes

Unit Tasks:
Task 1: Definition of terms
Fruit is the edible seed bearing portion of some cultivated or wild shrub, trees and plants. Fruits
can be eaten raw and served at the beginning and the end of a meal.

Task 2: Classification of fruits

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 CLASS EXAMPLE
1. Stone fruits  Avocado
Have a hard un edible  Plums
kennel inside the fruit  Peaches
 Cherrie
 Apricots
 Mangoes
 Grapes
2. Soft fruits fleshy  Strawberries
 Blackberries
 Paw paw
 Ripe bananas
 Water melons
 Sweet melons
3. Citrus fruits  Oranges
 Lemons
 Lime
 Tangerine
4. Tropical  Passion fruits
 Yellow passion
 Guavas
 Tree tomato fruit
 Bananas
 pawpaw
5. Hard fruits  Apples
 Pears

Task 3: Factors to consider in selecting fruits

 Buy fruits in season
 Choose good quality fruit
 They should appear fresh and firm to the touch
 Should be clean free from disease or pest damage and un-bruised.
 They should be free from moulds, shriveling or wilting

Task 4: Methods of preparing fruits

 Cutting
 Slicing

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  Dicing
 Peeling
 Coring

Task 5: Methods of producing fruit dishes

Fruits can be eaten:-
 Raw-salads, juices, snacks, garnishes, cocktails, platters.
 Cooked – jams, jellies, fritters, puddings, pastries, pies, cakes, syrups.

Task 6: Methods of presenting fruit dishes

 Clean serving equipment
 Appropriate serving equipment
 Fruit should not overflow
 Use appropriate garnishes
 Serve fruit dishes at their correct temperatures
 Portion sizes should be correct
 Serve with suitable accompaniments

Task 7: Prepare, produce and present fruit dishes

Suggested recipes
Fruit fools, glazed, salads, compote, cocktail, juices.

Task 8: Qualities of fruit dishes

 Good flavour
 Appropriate temperature
 Good texture
 Have appropriate colour

LEARNING RESOURCES
 Text books
 Magazines
 Internet
 Food charts
 Food commodities
 Kitchen equipment
EVALUATION
1 explain the points to consider when buying fruits
2 discuss fault that often occur in preparation of fruits
3 explain measures taken to prevent loss of nutrients during preparation of fruits

7.1.16 PASTRY AND PASTRY PRODUCTS

Theory

7.1.16 T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) define terms

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 b) identify types of pastry and pastry products
c) describe the preparation and production of pastries and pastry products
d) describe the presentation of pastry products
e) Prepare, produce and present pastries and pastry products
f) outline qualities of pastries and pastry products
g) describe storage of pastry and pastry products.

Unit Tasks:

Task 1: Definition of terms

Pastry
A mixture of flour, fat, possibly egg and sugar, the fat usually dispersed as small solid globules
coated with flour and the whole brought together with liquid prior to shaping and baking. There
are many types of pastry.

Pastry board
A square or oblong board preferably marble but usually wood on which pastry is rolled out.

Pastry brake
Opposed and contra-rotating rollers with a variable gap through which pastry can be worked and
reduced in thickness for commercial production. A very small version is used domestically for
pasta production.

Pastry case
An uncooked or blind baked pastry container used to hold savory or sweet mixtures.

Pastry cream
Confectioner’s custard. An egg and flour thickened custard made with sweetened milk flavored
with vanilla. Used as a filling for flans, cakes, pastries, tarts, etc. The flour prevents the egg from
curdling.

Pastry cutters
Various metal or plastic outlines of shapes, e.g. circles fluted circles, diamonds, ginger bread
men, etc. Sharpened on one edge and used to cut out corresponding shapes from biscuit, scone,
pastry, or cakes mixtures.

Task 2: Types of pastry and pastry products

Pâte à choux is a light pastry dough used to make profiteroles, croquembouches, eclairs, French
crullers, beignets. It contains only butter, water, flour, and eggs. Its raising agent is the high
moisture content, which creates steam during cooking, puffing out the pastry.
Phyllo (filo) pastry
Phyllo pastries are usually paper-thin and greatly stretched. They involve several stretched out
layers and are wrapped around a filling and brushed with butter. These pastries are very delicate
and can break easily.

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Phyllo dough is paper-thin sheets of raw, unleavened flour dough used for making pastries like
samosa bags
In both sweetcrust and shortcrust pastry, care must be taken to ensure that fat and flour are
blended thoroughly before liquid is added - this ensures that the flour granules are adequately
coated with fat and are less likely to develop gluten. Overworking the dough is also a hazard.
Overworking elongates the gluten strands, creating a product that is chewy, as opposed to 'short',
or light and crumbly.

Flaky (or rough puff) pastry

The flaky pastry is a simple pastry that expands when cooked due to amount of layers. These are
perfect if you are looking for a crisp, buttery pastry. The “puff” is obtained by beginning the
baking process with a high temperature and lowering the temperature to finish.
Flaky pastry is similar to puff pastry, the difference being that large lumps of shortening are
mixed into the dough, which is then rolled and folded in a similar manner.
The chunks of fat keep the rolled particles of dough separate from each other so that when the
dough is baked, they become flakes. This creates a different texture from puff pastry where
rectangles of dough and fat are rolled and folded in such a way that sheets of pastry in uniform
layers result.

Puff pastry
The puff pastry has many layers that cause it to expand or “puff” when being baked. Pastries
are made using flour, butter, salt, and water. It rises up due to the combination and reaction of the
four ingredients and also from the good amount of air that gets between the layers. Puff pastries
come out of the oven light, flaky, and tender.

Puff pastry is a light, flaky, unleavened pastry containing several layers of fat which is in solid
state at 20°C (68°F).
Puff pastry can also be leavened with baker's yeast to create croissants or Danish pastry, though
such doughs are not universally known as puff pastries.
In addition, since the process of making puff pastry is generally somewhat laborious and quite
time-intensive, faster recipes (known as "blitz" or "rough puff") are fairly common. Many of
these recipes combine the butter into the détrempe(mixture of flour and water) rather than
adding it in the folding process and are thus similar to a folded short crust.

Choux pastry
The choux pastry is a very light pastry that is filled with cream. The pastry is filled with various
flavors of cream and is often topped with chocolate. Choux pastries can also be filled with things
like cheese, tuna, or chicken to be used as appetizers.

Shortcrust pastry
The shortcrust, or short pastry is the simplest and most common pastry made. It is made with the
ingredients of flour, fat, salt, and water. The process of making pastry includes mixing of the fat

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and flour, adding water, and rolling out the paste. It is cooked at 180°C and the result is a soft,
tender pastry. A related type is the sweetened sweet crust pastry.
It is based on a "half-fat-to-flour" ratio. Fat (lard, butter or full-fat margarine) is rubbed into
plain flour to create a loose mixture that is then bound using a small amount of ice water, rolled
out, then shaped and placed to create the top or bottom of a flan or pie.
Sweet crust pastry (sugar paste) is made with the addition of sugar, which sweetens the mix
and impedes the gluten strands, creating a pastry that breaks up easily in the mouth.

Task 3: Preparation and production of pastries and pastry products

 Short crust

This pastry is crispy, light and crumby

Basic recipe of short crust pastry
- ½ fat to flour (i.e. ratio of 0.5:1 fat to flour)
- ½ teaspoon of salt to each 200 gms of flour
- 2-5 tablespoons of water to each 400 gms of flour.

Method
- Sieve the flour and salt together
- Add the fat into lumps
- Cover the fat with flour before beginning to rub in
- Rub until there is no lump using finger tips to avoid melting fat and allowing aeration.
- Add water by sprinkling over the surface of the flour with a round ended knife until large
lumps are formed,
- Draw together with the fingertips
- Knead on a board until the dough is smooth using fingertips
- Form into the required shape
- Roll out round the pastry so as to maintain the shape
- Place in the refrigerator or cool place

 Rough puff pastry

Ingredients
- flour
- teaspoon salt
- (butter/ margarine)
- fresh lemon juice
- Cold water (ice water will make good pastry)
- fat

Method
- Soft the flour and salt into a mixing bowl
- Chop butter/margarine into small pieces
- Add fat into the flour and add lemon juice
- Add a little cold water
- Use pastry knife to mix lightly until dough becomes stiff
- Press the pastry gently but do not kneed it

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 - On the floured board roll the dough lengthwise longer that width.
- Fold into 3 layers
- Wrap the pastry in greaseproof paper and cool in the fridge for 45 minutes
- Remove from fridge and prepare pastry like croissants

 Puff pastry
Ingredients
- Sifted flour - Sugar
- Salt - Salt
- Butter - Baking powder
- Iced water
- Lemon juice
Method
- Put sifted flour and salt in the mixing bowl and add small pieces of butter
- Use the rubbed in method of making pastry mixture
- Add iced water and lemon juice to make dough using pallet knife
- Knead the dough gently on a floured work surface (table, wooden kneading board)
- Make “flap” and roll then cut with a rolling pin
- Add more butter/ margarine and roll out again
- Cover in a cloth and leave in cool place for about 20 minutes
- Roll out 5 more times and fold
- Leave 30 minutes of chilling
- Shape and bake at 22°c

Flaky pastry

Sample recipe
Ingredients
- plain flour
- teaspoon salt
- butter
- fat
- teaspoon lemon juice
- Cold water (ice cold water will give better results)

Method
- Place butter and fat onto a plate and mix until soft
- Sift flour and salt into a large mixing bowl
- Using rubbed in method mix the fat (butter fat) until the mixture form crumbs
- Add lemon juice and cold water
- Roll the pastry out to form a shape longer in length than width
- Fold the 1/3 of the dough and apply the remaining dots of fat
- Fold the other ½ cup of the dough without fat
- Finely fold the remaining dough part
- Gently press with the rolling pin down on the sides of the pastry
- Repeat folding and doting with fat and rolling

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 - Wrap with grease proof paper and cool in the fridge of 45 minutes

Choux pastry

Method
- Melt butter/margarine milk and water in a saucepan
- Heat rapidly so that in bubbles
- Remove from the heat add flour and salt and stir to combine
- Cool pastry and add beaten eggs gradually (step by step)
Transfer the mixture using piping bag with nozzle onto a greased baking tray oven

Task 4: Presentation of pastry products

 In a hotel setting pastry products are presented in different meal times
- For breakfast
- As puddings
- As snack
- As accompaniment

 Breakfast pastry
- Butter croissant – mandazi
- Filled croissant
- Muffins
- Samosa

 Pudding pastry
- Jam pancake
- Jam filled pastry
- Honey/sweet fillet

 Accompaniment Pastry
- Chapati
- Meat pie

Task 5: Prepare, produce and present pastry and pastry products

Suggested recipes
Meat pie, Sausage roll, Palmers, Cream buns, Éclairs, Cream horns, Jam turnovers.

Task 6: Qualities of pastries and pastry products

 They should be light golden brown
 They should cut easily with a fork and break readily when bitten
 The flakes should be thin and the blisters plentiful
 It should be crisp and not soggy
 Should have an acceptable flavour

Task 7 Storage of pastry and pastry products

 Pastry products should be eaten same day it is cooked unless stored in the freezer.

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LEARNING RESOURCES

 Text books
 Food charts
 Internet magazines
 Food commodities
 Kitchen equipment

EVALUATION
1differentaiate the following types of pastry
a) Puff and rough puff
b) Short and choux
2 explain rules to observe when preparing pastry
3 explain the role of the following ingredients in pastries
a) Fat
b) Flour
c) Liquid

7.1.17 CAKES AND CAKE DECORATION

7.1.17 T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) define terms
b) explain the role of ingredients in cake making
c) describe the preparation and production methods of cakes
d) Prepare, produce and present cakes using different methods
e) outline the qualities of a well made cake
f) explain the importance of cake decoration
g) describe the types of cake decorations
h) identify equipment and tools used in cake decoration
i) decorate cakes using different methods
j) describe the methods of decorating cakes
k) describe the storage of cakes.

Unit Tasks:

Task 1: Definition of terms

Task 2: The role of ingredients in cake making

INGREDIENTS PHYSICAL USAGE

PROPERTIES FOR USE
Eggs  Fresh at room  Makes the texture light

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 temperature  Promotes leavening
 Binds the mixture
 Retains air
 Breaks down fats and oils
 Add food value
 Shorten cakes
Flour  Well sieved and whole  Add food value
 Provide the base of the cake
Sugar  Granulated  Sweetens the cake
 Fine crystals  Provide the base of the cake
 Brown
Fat  Solid  Makes cake “short” and rich
 Liquid  Give cake good flavour
Liquid  Water-at room  Helps in raising the mixture
temperature  Helps in raising the cake during
baking
Dried fruits  Whole  Keep the cake moist
 Sultanas  Chopped  Add flavour
 Raisin
 Red Cherries
 Currents
Essence  Liquid  Add flavour
 Solid  Some like lemon rind, orange
rind or others keep the cake moist
Dry powder  Solid  Add flavour
Flavouring  Add colour
 Cocoa
 Spices
 Coffee

Task 3: Preparation and production methods of cakes

Creaming

Ingredients
 Fat/butter
 Sugar which make the major component.
 Eggs enrich the cake, Improves colour, Moistens and tenderizes.

Procedure
 Weigh equal portions i.e.
 200 gms of fat and 200 gms of sugar
 Place in a mixing bowl and vigorously beating it against the wall of the bowl
 Use hands to mix large quantities
 Beat until the mixture turns white and fluffy.

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  Beat the eggs a little at a time in the mixture of fat and sugar.
 Sift the flour directly in the creamed mixture until it is evenly mixed.
 Add other ingredients to the mixture such as fruits to complete the creamed mixture.

Rubbing in involves rubbing fat with flour to add air. Use a metal spoon or palette knife.

Rubbing in Procedure
 Weigh fat and flour e.g. 750 gms fat and 200 gms of flour
 Using fingertips lift the mixture above the mixing bowl to allow adding of air.
 Once the fat and flour is mixed well add other ingredients.

Suggested items which can be prepared using rubbing

(i) Large cakes e.g. chocolate cake
(ii) Small cakes
(iii) Rock, chocolate and coconut buns

Melting used to mix fat and flour using melted fat or oil.
Procedure:
Ingredients
Fat and flour in the ratio of 1:3 of fat and flour.
⅓ of sugar to flour.
⅓ : ⅔ syrup to flour.
Raising agent bicarbonate of soda alone
Using a metal spoon mix the ingredients to produce a cake mixture.

Whisking
Ingredients
Eggs
Plain flour
Essence
Hot water

Procedure
 Prepare two 15cm sand witch tins
 Heat the oven 190 0 c
 Sieve the floor
 Warm the floor
 Put the sugar into a large mixing bowl
 Break the egg separately and add to the sugar
 Stand the bowl in a basin of hot water
 With an egg beater whisk the eggs and sugar together until the mixture is white fluffy and
leaves a trail behind the whisk
 Remove the bowl from the saucepan and continue whisking until the trail left lasts for
three seconds
 Sieve the floor onto the surface of the mixture and fold the floor lightly onto the mixture
using s palette knife

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  Add vanilla essence and hot water and continue folding in lightly
 Divide the mixture equally into the two tins and bake it until set and golden brown
 Remove from the oven stand it for a second on damp cloth and turn it out and cool

Task 4: Prepare, produce and present cakes using different methods

Suggested recipes
Fruit scones Cheese scones, Coconut scones, Rock buns, Victoria sandwich, Queen cakes,
Marble cakes, Madeline, Chocolate cakes, Ginger bread, Ginger biscuits, Swiss roll, Genoese
fancies.

Task 5: Qualities of a well made cake

 Be well risen and brown
 Slightly shrunken from the sides of the tin
 Firm to touch
 Produce no bubbling sound
 Smell cooked

Task 6: Importance of cake decoration

 Improve appearance
 Add flavour

Task 7: Types of cake decorations

Glace icing
Ingredients

 sifted icing sugar

 water
 lemon juice
 Flavouring and colouring essences as desired

Method:
 Sieve the icing sugar in a dry clean mixing bowl
 Make a well in the centre
 Add half of the water and mix with a wooden spoon from the centre outward into a smooth
consistency. Add the remaining water.
 Add flavoring and colouring essences.
 Cover with a damp cloth for a few minutes to let air bubbles bust before use
 Use immediately as it dries quickly and forms a brittle crust.

Butter icing

Ingredients
 butter or margarine.
 sifted icing sugar.
 Few drops of vanilla essence.
 Colouring as desired.
Method:
 Sieve the icing sugar preferably twice into a mixing bowl.

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 Add soft butter or margarine and beat the two together using a wooden spoon until a soft
whitish consistency is obtained as desired.
 Add vanilla essence and colouring as desired

Application
 Place the cake on the cake board
 Put icing on top and spread evenly on top and sides of the cake as required. Smoothen out
with a pastry knife dipped in hot water.
 Pipe or decorate as required

NB: An interesting effect can be produced by simply running a fork dipped in hot water across
the cake to produce lines or work basket type of design on top. Pipe rosettes at the edge

Royal icing:
Ingredients

 sifted icing sugar

 egg whites
 lemon juice and few drops of glycerin

Method:
 Sift twice the icing sugar.
 Separate egg whites from egg yolk.
 Make a well in the centre of icing sugar and add egg whites.
 Mix with a wooden spoon from the centre outward into a smooth constituency.
 Add 1-3 teaspoon lemon juice to whiten.
 Add flavouring and colouring essence as desired
 Leave covered with a damp cloth for at least 30 minutes for air bubbles to bust.
 Apply e.g. coating, piping design, trells work.
 For making leaves and rosettes etc. The consistency will depend on the end use e.g. for roses
one needs a fairly stiff consistency.

Task 8: Equipment and tools used in cake decoration

 Mixing equipment used for mixing ingredients.

Examples of mixing equipments
- Automated mixer.
- Improvised equipment (Bowl and wooden spoon)
 Piping and accessories – used for decorating the cake.
 Fine sieve - used for sieving icing sugar to remove any lumps and impurities.
 Small bowls for dividing a mixer when different colours are required.
 A jug.
 A set of knives e.g. palette and pastry knife.
 Spatula for scrapping or a serrated scraper.
 A cake king ruler – used for leveling.
 Cake rack – used for cooling of cakes after baking.
 Table spoon and wooden spoon - used for mixing, scooping.

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 Cake icing syringe or bag and a set of nozzles (can be bought or improvised) - used for
decorating the cake.
 A cake stand or turntable – used for holding the cake during decoration.
 Cake board, stand – used for display of the cake.

Task 9: Methods of decorating cakes

 Icing
 Piping using icings or whipped cream
 Dusting/dredging
 Glacing
 Decorating with items such as grated chocolate, jelly, coloured sugar, nuts, dessicated
coconut, sweets, fruits, glaced cherries, moulded flowers,

Task 10: Decorate cakes using various methods

Task 11: Storage of cakes

Cakes once produced can be kept for different periods. Depending on the ingredients some go
bad quickly others will stay longer as they age.

Methods of storing include

 Room temperature storage for storage 3 to 4 days
 Fridge at a temperature of between 00 C and 80 C
 Freezer for longer period up to three months
Alcohol baked cakes stores up to 3 months at room temperature

LEARNING RESOURCES
 Text books
 Food commodities
 Kitchen equipment
 Internet
 Food charts
 Magazines

EVALUATION
1. Explain three methods of making cakes
2. Discuss qualities of a well made cake
3. Differentiate the following
a) Glace and butter
b) Royal and fondant

7.1.18 YEAST PRODUCTS

Theory

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7.1.18 T Specific Objectives
By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) define terms
b) identify types of yeast products
c) explain the role of ingredients in yeast mixtures
d) describe the preparation and production of yeast mixtures
e) Prepare, produce and present yeast products
f) outline the qualities of yeast products
g) describe storage of yeast products.
Unit Tasks:

Task 1: Definition of terms

A commercial leavening agent containing yeast cells; used to raise the dough in making bread
and for fermenting beer or whiskey

Baker's yeast is the common name for the strains of yeast commonly used as a leavening agent in
baking bread and related products, where it converts the fermentable sugars present in the dough
into carbon dioxide and ethanol.

Task 2: Types of yeast products

 Lean dough products
A lean dough is one that is low in fat and sugar
Examples: breads, rolls, buns, doughnuts
 Rich dough products
Rich doughs are those that contain higher proportions of fat, sugar, and sometimes eggs.
Examples; croissants, Danish

Task 3: The role of ingredients in yeast mixtures

 Flour – has high gluten content that softens and stretches during fermentation
 Salt – flavours yeast products and prevents yeast from working too fast thus producing a
coarse texture
 Sugar – essential for the fermentation process
 Liquid – used to bind ingredients. Liquid used can be luke warm water, milk
 Fat – used to improve keeping qualities, flavour and to add nutritive value

Task 4: Preparation and production of yeast mixtures

A sample recipe for bread
Ingredients
Flour
Salt
Water
Dry yeast
Sugar
Margarine

Procedure
1) Mix the warm liquid and sugar, then add the yeast. Leave the mixture in a warm place for
yeast to grow
2) Sieve dry ingredients into a bowl.

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 3) Rub in fat
4) Using the yeast and the flour mixture, make a soft dough
5) Knead the dough well to distribute the yeast cells evenly
6) Place the dough in a greased bowl. Stand the bowl in a basin or sufuria of warm water
7) Cover the bowl with a damp cloth and leave the dough to rise until it has doubled its size
8) Turn the risen dough on a floured board and give it a thorough kneading to distribute
carbon dioxide and the yeast cells evenly.
9) Cut and shape the dough to the required shapes
10) Place on a greased loaf tin or baking sheet and leave it in a warm place to rise evenly(to
prove)
11) Brush with milk or beaten egg to add sheen when baked
12) Bake in a very hot oven (2300C; Gas No. 8) for the first five minutes to kill the yeast.
Reduce the temperature to 2000C; Gas No. 6 and continue baking until the loaf is cooked.
13) Remove from oven, test for readiness and turn on a cooling tray

Task 5: Prepare, produce and present yeast products

Suggested recipes
Danish pastry, Croissants, Bread, Dinner rolls, Doughnuts, Chelsea buns, Fruit buns, hot cross
buns.

Task 6: Qualities of yeast products

 A symmetrical shape
 A uniform golden brown to brown crust which is both thin and smooth
 Well risen but not over inflated
 A light texture with a moist and resilient crumb
 A good flavour without a taste of yeast or a sour taste
 A well rounded top especially for breads

Task 7: Storage of cooked yeast products

 Best eaten on the day of baking because they have a low keeping quality due to low
shortening and sugar content
 Store in suitable containers (sealed plastic bags or containers), at room temperature.
 For longer storage put in a freezer.
 Yeast products are softened by a damp environment and humid conditions.

Task 8: Presentation of yeast products

 In a hotel setting yeast products are presented at different meal times
- For breakfast
- As a snack
- As an accompaniment

 Breakfast
- Bread
- Buns
- Doughnuts

 Accompaniment

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 - Bread rolls
- Croutons

LEARNING RESOURCES
 Text books
 Food charts
 Food commodities
 Internet
 Kitchen equipment

EVALUATION
1. Explain the conditions necessary for the growth of yeast
2. Identify common faults and their remedies in yeast products

7.1.19 DESSERTS

Theory

7.1.19 T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) define terms
b) classify desserts
c) explain preparation methods of desserts
d) explain the production method of desserts
e) describe methods of presenting desserts
f) Prepare, produce and present desserts
g) describe the qualities of desserts

Unit Tasks:
Task 1: Definition of terms
Desserts are sweet dishes that can be served hot or cold depending on the type. They are served
after the main meal.

Task 2: Classification of desserts

 Suet mixtures e.g. Christmas pudding
 Rubbed-in mixtures e.g. pineapple crumble, cake
 Creamed mixtures e.g. banana upside down, cakes
 Milk puddings e.g. rice pudding
 Batters e.g. pancakes, fritters
 Pastry dishes e.g. fruit flans, pies and tarts
 Apple dishes e.g. baked apples
 Hot soufflés e.g lemon soufflés
 Sponges e.g. triffle

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  Cold sweets e.g. jellies, creams, ice creams, yoghurt, fruit mixtures like fruit fool, fruit
salad, mousse

Task 3: Preparation methods of dessert

 Whisking
 Creaming
 Rubbing in
 Dicing
 Slicing

Task 4: Production method of desserts

 Baking
 Frying
 Steaming
 Chilling

Task 5: Methods of presenting desserts

 In coupes
 On dessert plates
 In salad bowls
 Multi-portion salad bowls
 On trays/ platters

Task 6: Prepare, produce and present desserts

Suggested recipes
Pineapple crumble, cake, banana upside down, cakes, rice pudding
Jellies, creams, ice creams, yoghurt, fruit mixtures like fruit fool, fruit salad, mousse, fruit flans,
pies and tarts, baked apples, lemon soufflés, trifle, pancakes, fritters

Task 7: Qualities of desserts

 They should have eye appeal
 They should conform to the requirements of their basic recipes
 Well garnished/decorated
 Served in appropriate dishes
 Presented at the right time and temperature
 The portions should be appropriate

LEARNING RESOURCES
 Text books
 Food commodities
 Kitchen equipment
 Food charts
 Magazines
 Internet

EVALUATION
1. List different types of desserts

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2. Discuss the role of desserts in a meal
3. Explain the factors to consider when choosing a suitable dessert for a given meal

7.1.20 SANDWICHES

Theory

7.1.20 T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) define terms
b) identify types of sandwiches
c) describe the preparation and production of sandwiches
d) describe the presentation of sandwiches
e) Prepare, produce and present sandwiches
f) outline the qualities of sandwiches
g) describe the storage of sandwiches

Unit Tasks:

Task 1: Definition of terms

Sandwiches may be made from every kind of bread , fresh or toasted , in a variety of shapes
and with an almost endless assortment of fillings. They may be garnished with potato or
vegetable crisps and a little salad

Task 2: Types of sandwiches

 Toasted sandwiches
 Club sandwich
 Bookmaker sandwich
 Double-decker/ Treble-decker sandwiches
 Open sandwiches/Scandinavian smorrebord
 Croque monsieur

Task 3: Preparation and production of sandwiches

 Toasted sandwiches: made by inserting a variety of savoury fillings between two slices of
hot, freshly buttered toast e.g. scrambled egg, bacon, fried egg, scrambled egg with
chopped ham, or by inserting two slices of buttered bread with the required filling into a
sandwich toaster
 Club sandwich: made by placing between two slices of hot buttered toast, a filling of
lettuce, grilled bacon, slices of hard boiled egg, mayonnaise and slices of chicken. The
sandwiches are usually held together with decorated cocktail sticks

 Bookmaker sandwich: this is a toasted sandwich with a cooked seasoned minute steak
(which is thinly cut from the sirloin) spread with mustard, cut into triangles and served
with parsley

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  Double-decker/ Treble-decker sandwiches: toasted and untoasted bread can be made into
double-decker sandwiches, using three slices of bread with two separate fillings. Trebble
and quadro-decker sandwiches may also be prepared. They may be served hot or cold.

 Open sandwiches/ Scandinavian smorrebord: are prepared from buttered slice of any
bread garnished with any type of meat, fish, eggs, vegetables, salads e.t.c. The varieties of
open sandwiches can include some of the following:
-Smoked salmon, lettuce, potted shrimps, slices of lemon
-Cold sliced beef, sliced tomato, fans of gherkins
-Sredded lettuce, sliced hard-boiled egg, mayonnaise, cucumber
-Pickled herring , chopped gherkin, capers sieved, hard-boiled egg

 Croque monsieur: the filling for this sandwich is Gruyere cheese and ham enclosed with
two slices of bread and it is gently fried in clarified butter unti the cheese melts, then
garnished with parsley. This is sometimes cooked in a sandwich toaster.

Task 4: Presentation of sandwiches

 All spreads and fillings should be prepared and placed on plates ready for assembling
 All equipment and utensils including chopping boards must be ready/accessible
 Bread should be cut and buttered ready for passing along for the various fillings, finishing
with cutting and dressing onto dishes or platters
 Sandwiches may be cut into small cubes and a variety placed on a cocktail stick to
represent a mini kebab.
 When filled the crusts are removed and the sandwiches cut to fingers

Task 5; Prepare, produce and present sandwiches

Suggested recipes
Smoked salmon, lettuce, sliced beef, sliced tomato, sliced hard boiled eggs, cucumber, pickled
herrings.

Task 6: Qualities of sandwiches

 Should always be fresh
 Made to order for best results

Task 7: Storage of sandwiches

 Should be served fresh
 If made in advance they should be well covered with film and refrigerated

LEARNING RESOURCES
 Text books
 Food commodities
 Kitchen equipment
 Magazines
 Internet

EVALUATION
1. List different types of sandwiches

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2. Discuss the qualities of sandwiches
3. Explain the factors to consider when choosing a suitable sandwich for a given function

7.1.21 GARNISHES

Theory

7.1.21 T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) define terms
b) identify types of garnishes
c) explain the role of garnishes in food presentation
d) outline the qualities of garnishes
e) describe the preparation and production of garnishes
f) garnish food appropriately

Unit Tasks:

Task 1: Definition of terms

Garnishes are used for savoury dishes to make food look attractive and colourful

Task 2: Types of garnishes

 Raw garnishes; presented in their fresh raw form e.g. carrots, tomatoes, pepper, parsley,
lemons.
 Cooked garnishes: used on hot dishes e.g. grilled meat with grilled tomatoes
 Cold garnishes: used on cold dishes e.g. cherries on ice-cream, trifles

Task 3: The role of garnishes in food presentation

 To enhance eye appeal
 Give colour and flavour
 Add nutritional value e.g. tomatoes, pepper, carrots, parsley provide vitamins

Task 4: Qualities of garnishes

 The colour and design must harmonize with the food
 They must be edible
 Raw garnishes should be fresh and firm

Task 5: Preparation and production of garnishes

 Slicing  Cutting
 Chopping  Dicing
 Shredding  Blanching
 Grating  Grilling

Task 6: garnish food appropriately

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LEARNING RESOURCES
 Text books
 Food commodities
 Food charts
 Magazines
 Internet
 Kitchen equipment

EVALUATION
1. List different types of garnishes
2. Discuss the role of garnishes in a meal
3. Explain the factors to consider when choosing a suitable garnish for a given meal

7.1.22 BEVERAGES

Theory

7.1.22 T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) define terms
b) identify types of beverages
c) explain methods of preparing beverages
d) explain the presentation of beverages
e) prepare and present different beverages
f) explain the qualities of beverages
g) describe how to store beverages

Unit Tasks:

Task 1: Definition of terms

A beverage is basically a drink specifically prepared for human consumption. This does not
include water as it is a natural resource. Beverages almost always largely consist of water as their
main ingredient.

Task 2: Types of beverages

There are different types of beverages but they are mainly classified based on their properties and
ingredients.

Broadly there are two types of beverages:

1. Alcoholic Beverages and
2. Non-Alcoholic Beverages

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These two types of beverages can be then further classified as:
1. Hot Beverages and
2. Cold Beverages

Alcoholic Beverages

Wines are made from a variety of fruits, such as grapes, peaches, plums or apricots. The most
common wines are produced from grapes. The soil in which the grapes are grown and the
weather conditions in the growing season determine the quality and taste of the grapes which in
turn affects the taste and quality of wines. When ripe, the grapes are crushed and fermented in
large vats to produce wine.

Beer is also made by the process of fermentation. A liquid mix, called wort, is prepared by
combining yeast and malted cereal, such as corn, rye, wheat or barely. Fermentation of this liquid
mix produces alcohol and carbon dioxide. The process of fermentation is stopped before it is
completed to limit the alcohol content. The alcohol so produced is called beer. It contains 4 to 8
percent of alcohol.

Whisky is made by distilling the fermented juice of cereal grains such as corn, rye or barley.
Scotch whisky was originally made in Scotland. The word "Scotch" has become almost
synonymous with whisky of good quality.

Rum is a distilled beverage made from fermented molasses or sugarcane juice and is aged for at
least three years. Caramel is sometimes used for colouring.

Brandy is distilled from fermented fruit juices. Brandy is usually aged in oak casks. The colour
of brandy comes either from the casks or from caramel that is added.

Gin is a distilled beverage. It is a combination of alcohol, water and various flavours. Gin does
not improve with age, so it is not stored in wooden casks.

Liqueurs are made by adding sugar and flavouring such as fruits, herbs or flowers to brandy or
to a combination of alcohol and water. Most liqueurs contain 20-65 per cent alcohol. They are
usually consumed in small quantities after dinner.

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 Non-Alcoholic Beverages

A non-alcoholic beverage is a beverage that contains no alcohol. Non-alcoholic mixed drinks

(including punches, "virgin cocktails", or "mocktails") are often consumed by children, people
whose religion restricts alcohol consumption, recovering alcoholics, and anyone wishing to enjoy
flavorful drinks without alcohol. They are often available as alternative beverages in contexts
(such as bars) where the norm is to drink alcoholic beverages.

A non alcoholic beverage is also a drink that usually contains alcohol, such as beer and wine, but
contain less than .5% alcohol by volume. This category includes low-alcohol beer, non-alcoholic
wine, and apple cider.

Types of non-alcoholic beverages

 Soft drinks
The name "soft drink" specifies a lack of alcohol by way of contrast to the term "hard drink" and
the term "drink", the latter of which is nominally neutral but often carries connotations of
alcoholic content. Beverages like colas, sparkling water, iced tea, lemonade, squash, and fruit
punch are among the most common types of soft drinks, while hot chocolate, hot tea, coffee,
milk, tap water, alcohol, and milkshakes do not fall into this classification. Many carbonated soft
drinks are optionally available in versions sweetened with sugars or with non-caloric
sweeteners.

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 A carbonated beverage Fruit juice

Hot beverages

Coffee-based beverages , Cappuccino Coffee Espresso Café au lait Frappé , Flavored coffees (mocha
etc.) Latte

Hot chocolate ,Hot cider ,Mulled cider,Tea-based beverages ,Flavored teas (chai etc.)

Green tea ,Pearl milk tea ,Tea ,Herbal teas

Yerba Mate Roasted grain beverages ,Sanka

Some substances may be called either food or drink, and accordingly may be eaten with a spoon
or drunk, depending upon their thickness and solid ingredients.
Buttermilk

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Soup
Yoghurt

Task 3: Methods of preparing beverages

Task 4: Presentation of beverages

Task 5: prepare and present beverages
Task 5: Qualities of beverages
Task 6: Storage of beverages

LEARNING RESOURCES
 Text books
 Food commodities
 Kitchen equipment
 Internet

EVALUATION
1. List different types of beverages
2. Discuss the qualities of well made beverages
3. Explain the preparation procedure for various beverages

7.1.23 MENU PLANNING

Theory

7.1.23 T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) define terms used in menu planning
b) state the importance of menu planning
c) identify types of menu
d) explain factors to consider when planning menus
e) explain factors to consider when compiling menus
f) explain how to cost and price menus
g) prepare a time plan for production of a menu.

Unit Tasks:

Task 1: Definition of terms used in menu planning

Menu is a list of dishes to be served in a given meal.

Task 2: Importance of menu planning

 Customer satisfaction
 Facilitating costing
 Facilitating pricing

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 Reference by customer and management
 Guide production
 Facilitate evaluation and improvements
 Facilitate ordering
 Plan storage
 Guides the catering staff on how to prepare dishes
 Help the catering staff to prepare in terms of attitudes, skills ordering etc.
 Some menu requires special preparation like decorations and equipments therefore menu will
help in availing the necessary.

Task 3: Types of menu

1. Table d’hôte
A set menu forming a complete meal at a set price A choice of dishes may be offered at all
courses. Choice and number of courses is limited to two, three or four.

2. A La Carte
Menu with all the dishes individually priced.
Customers compile their own menu from the list.
The meal is cooked to order.
The customer should be prepared to wait for this service.

3. Party/function Menus
Menu for banquets or functions of all kinds.
All guests start the meal at the same time.
Seasonable foods must be available if the menus are printed well in advance to avoid
embarrassments.

4. Ethnic/Specialty menus
Can be al carte or table d’hôte specializing in the food or religion of the country or in a
specialized food itself e.g.

a) Ethnic: - Chinese, Indian, Kosher, Kenyan, African etc

b) Specialty: - steak, fish, pasta, vegetarian etc
Kitchen staff must know how to obtain and use the ingredients.
The ambience (mood) of the restaurant must reflect the menu.

5. Hospital menus/Institutional menus.

It’s a form of a menu given to the patient. The day before service the patient ticks his/her
preferences.
A dietician is usually involved with menu compilation to ensure nothing is given to the patients
that would be detrimental to their health.
The patient’s meals are usually 2-3 courses.

6. Menu for people at work

Menus served to people at the work place.
They vary in standard and extent from one employer to another depending on the company
policy.

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They are usually served in staff canteens or cafeteria.
Some companies charge for the meals and some ask for a token sum and offer meals at a
subsidized price/rate.
The menu offers 2 or 3 course meal with a selection of items.

7. Traditional menus/Ethnic menus

Traditional recipes form a sound foundation of knowledge for the chef/caterer.
However fashions in food change and customers look for new dishes, different combinations of
food, fresh ideas on menu etc
Some of the most successful menus contain a sensible balance of traditional and contemporary
dishes.

8. Menu for children

They emphasize on healthy eating and a balanced diet in schools.
Schools with children from different cultural and religious backgrounds should have appropriate
items available o the menu.
Most establishments provide special children’s menus which concentrate on favorite foods.

Task 4: Factors to consider when planning menus

Several factors direct what kind of menu to make
1. Nutrition requirements
- Proteins
- Starches
- Vitamins
- Fats
- Mineral salts

2. Health consideration
- Sickness
- Deficiencies like scurvy, diabetes, kwashiorkor

3. Availability of foodstuffs
- Seasonal foods like
- Fruits
- Vegetables
4. Number of courses
- Appetizer
- Main dish
- Dessert
5. Sequence of courses

6. Nutritional balance
- Proteins
- Vitamins
- Minerals
- Water

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- Roughage – acts as a “broom” along the digestive system.
- Fats and oils

7. Occasions
- Funerals - Festivities like
- Wedding - Christmas
- Birthday - Ramadhan
- Graduation Ceremony - Easter holiday
- National holiday celebration

Task 5: Factors to consider when compiling menus

 Pricing policy based on cost
 Clientele
 Staff capability
 Facilities for cooking and service
 Balance
 Business promotion and marketing
 Availability and season of supplies

Task 6: Costing and pricing menus

When costing include the following
 Cost of individual ingredients in a recipe
 Cost of each recipe
 Total cost of each dish
 Total cost of the whole meal
 Profit margin and price per portion

Task 7: Preparation of a time plan for production of a menu

A production time plan should include the following
 Menu
 Food order list
 Costing
 Timed order of work
 Presentation and garnishing

LEARNING RESOURCES
 Text books
 Internet
 Price lists
 Recipes

EVALUATION
1 explain the factors to consider when planning menus for different function
2 plan and cost a meal for a given function.
3 discuss the different types of menu

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7.1.24 MEAL PRODUCTION PROCEDURE

Theory

7.1.24 T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) explain factors to consider when selecting ingredients for different dishes
b) describe preparation of ingredients for different dishes
c) describe the production of different dishes
d) explain the presentation of different dishes
e) outline the quality of a given dish
f) explain the post production tasks in meal production procedure.

Unit Tasks:

Task 1: Factors to consider when selecting ingredients for different dishes

 balance -the ingredients should contain all the food nutrients in correct amounts
 Individual requirements - the nutritional needs of individual members depending on the
body size, occupation, age, state of health, sex.
 Foods in season-they are cheaper and fresh.
 Money available-the food budget should be within financial means
 time available for cooking
 individual preferences- personal likes and dislikes
 cooking facilities and equipment available

Task 2: Preparation of ingredients for different dishes

 Sorting
 Peeling
 Grating
 Slicing
 Dicing
 Chipping
 Stalking

Task 3: Production of different dishes

The following cooking methods can be used however it depends on the type of dish to be
prepared

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  Boiling
 Stewing
 Roasting
 Grilling
 Frying
 Baking
 Braising
 Baking
 Steaming

Task 4: Presentation of different dishes

general presentation
 the meal should look attractive
 well garnished
 the correct temperature
 food should be served on clean dishes
 edges of the dishes should be free from smudges

Task 5: Quality of a given dish

 Attractive
 Well flavoured
 Served at the correct temperature
 Balanced
 variety of texture, colour, cooking methods
 correct portion sizes

Task 6: Post production tasks in meal production procedure

This includes the following task
 cleaning pots ,pans, and other equipment
 cleaning the worktops, sinks, cookers, fridges and floor
 arranging equipment in the store
 emptying washing and disinfecting dustbins
 washing and disinfecting kitchen cloths

LEARNING RESOURCES
 Text books
 Internet
 Price lists
 Recipes
 Food commodities
 Kitchen equipment

EVALUATION

1. plan prepare and produce a three course menu for ten delegates attending a syllabus
workshop at the special institute.

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7.1.25 FUNCTION MENUS

Theory

7.1.25 T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) define terms
b) identify types of function menus
c) explain factors to consider when planning for a function menu
d) plan menu for different functions.

Unit Tasks:
Task 1: Definition of terms
 Function menu is simply a menu in which is served at a occasion e.g. Wedding in
which alternate meals may be served between people.
Task 2: Types of function menus
 birthday parties
 wedding parties
 Christmas
 family get together
Task 3: Factors to consider when planning for a function menu
 number of guests
 the menu to be prepared
 the venue
 method and style of service
 type of foods
 serving equipment
Task 4: Menu for different functions
 rice pilau
 stewed meats
 vegetable salads
 fruit salads or whole fruits
 irio\ mukimo
 cold drinks
 roast meats and chicken
Task 5: Prepare and present meals for different functions

LEARNING RESOURCES
 Text books
 Internet
 Price lists
 Recipes
 Food commodities
 Kitchen equipment

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EVALUATION
1.explain the steps to follow when running a catering function
2. plan prepare produce and present a meal for fifty birthday celebrants

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7.1.26 LOCAL DISHES

Theory

7.1.26 T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
 identify different types of local dishes
 explain the methods of preparation and production of local dishes
 describe the presentation of local dishes.
Unit Tasks:

Task 1: Types of local dishes

 western-chicken stew, omusenye, brown ugali
 central-irio,njahi
 riftvalley-roast meat, murusik
 coast-biriani, pilau, chicken curry
 eastern-mukimo, muthokoi, nzuu
 nyanza- omena, whole fish, ugali

Task 2: Methods of preparation and production of local dishes

 Sorting
 Peeling
 Grating
 Slicing
 Dicing
 Chipping
 Stalking
Production methods
 Boiling
 Stewing
 Roasting
 Grilling
 Frying
 Baking
 Braising
 Baking
 Steaming

Task 3: Presentation of local dishes.

general presentation
 Clean serving equipment
 Appropriate serving equipment
 Food should not overflow
 Use appropriate garnishes
 Serve food at their correct temperatures
 Portion sizes should be correct
 Serve with suitable accompaniments
 Should reflect the theme of the meal

LEARNING RESOURCES

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 Internet
 Price lists
 Recipes
 Food commodities
 Kitchen equipment

EVALUATION
1. Plan prepare produce and present a three course menu for twenty luo elders
negotiating dowry for your sister.

7.1.27 INTERNATIONAL DISHES

Theory

7.1.27 T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) identify international dishes
b) describe the preparation and production of international dishes
c) describe the presentation of international dishes.

Unit Tasks:

Task 1: international dishes

4. Caribbean
-avocado soup, baked bananas in tamarin, fish fritters, ham in coconut milk
5. Asia and the Far East
-stir-frys and curries
6. France and other European countries
- fish ,noodles,ratatouille,
7. Japanese
-sushi, deep fried dishes, barbecued chicken skewers
8. North American countries
- salmon, corned beef, marple baked beans, pizza, pies hotdogs

Task 2: preparation and production of international dishes

 Sorting
 Peeling
 Grating
 Slicing
 Dicing
 Chipping
 Stalking
Production methods
 Boiling
 Stewing
 Roasting
 Grilling
 Frying

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  Baking
 Braising
 Baking
 Steaming

Task 3: presentation of international dishes.

General presentation
 Clean serving equipment
 Appropriate serving equipment
 Food should not overflow
 Use appropriate garnishes
 Serve food at their correct temperatures
 Portion sizes should be correct
 Serve with suitable accompaniments
 Should reflect the theme of the meal

LEARNING RESOURCES
 Text books
 Internet
 Price lists
 Recipes
 Food commodities
 Kitchen equipment

 Food Style: the Art of Presenting Food Beautifully,

Molly Siple and Irene Sax

EVALUATION

Plan prepare produce and present a three course menu for thirty Asians students visiting your
institution on an exchange programme

7.1.28 INTRODUCTION TO FOOD AND NUTRITION

Theory

Specific Objectives

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 By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) define terms
b) state the importance of food science and nutrition
c) explain the components of a balanced diet
d) Interpret the food composition tables.

Task 1: defining terms

Food: is any substance, solid or liquid, usually of plant or animal origin that contains or
consists of essential body nutrients, such as carbohydrates, fats, proteins, vitamins, or
minerals, and is ingested and assimilated by an organism to produce energy, stimulate
growth, and maintain life.
Science is a field of study seeking to understand natural phenomena through repeated
observations and experiments
Nutrition is
1. The process of nourishing or being nourished, especially the process by which a living
organism assimilates food and uses it for growth and for replacement of tissues.
2. The science or study that deals with food and nourishment, especially in humans.
Nutrients: Is a chemical that an organism needs to live and grow or a substance used in an
organism's metabolism which must be taken in from its environment.

Nutrients can be organic or inorganic.

 Organic nutrients include carbohydrates, fats, proteins (or their building
blocks, amino acids), and vitamins.
 Inorganic nutrients such as dietary minerals and water.

Task 2: stating the importance of food science and nutrition

Nutrition
 Keeps us healthy and free of diseases, psychological and behavior issues.
 Deals with the relationship between our diet and how our body functions. If we
want our body to maintain health then we must supply the essential nutrients.
 Nothing can heal the body except the body itself so it is vital that we properly
nourish our cells.
 When cells do not receive proper nutrition our health suffers and we become
malnourished or experience an imbalance. When the body is nourished and
working properly it can fight off toxins, bacteria and viruses.
 Our bodies needs are simple, vitamins, minerals, water, carbohydrates, protein
and fats. The food we eat gets ubsorbed in our bloodstream and is broken down
and carried to every cell in our body. These cells all have jobs to do in order for
us to function correctly, build and maintain health
 We need to get the optimum balance of these nutrients in order to thrive.
 The importance of good nutrition plays a vital role in our well-being.
 When we eat a diet rich in essential nutrients we can then sustaining health and
reduce risks of problems, disease and premature death.

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  Eating fruits and vegetables in their natural state provides unsurpassed
nutrition. Removing toxins in our food is also imperative to lessen the load our
bodies have to deal with.
 A raw vegan diet can provide all the nutrients we need. Why nutrition is
important can best be answered by knowing how our body works and responds
to the substances it needs to maintain health and then giving it just that.

TASK 3: COMPONENTS OF A BALANCED DIET

A balanced diet

A balanced diet is one that provides an adequate intake of energy and nutrients for
maintenance of the body and therefore good health. A diet can easily be adequate for normal
bodily functioning, yet may not be a balanced diet. An ideal human diet contains fat, protein,
carbohydrates, vitamins, minerals, water and fibre all in correct proportions. These
proportions vary for each individual because everyone has different metabolic rates and
levels of activity.

Malnutrition results from an unbalanced diet, this can be due to an excess of some dietary
components and lack of other components, not just a complete lack of food. Too much of one
component can be as much harm to the body as too little. Deficiency diseases occur when
there is a lack of a specific nutrient, although some diet related disorders are a result of eating
an excess.

1.1 The components of a balanced diet

A balanced diet contains six key nutrient groups that are required in appropriate amounts
for health. These groups are outlined below.

 Proteins are involved in growth, repair and general maintenance of the body.
 Carbohydrates are usually the main energy source for the body.
 Lipids or fats are a rich source of energy, key components of cell membranes and
signalling molecules, and as myelin they insulate neurons (nerve cells).
 Vitamins are important in a range of biochemical reactions.
 Minerals are important in maintaining ionic balances and many biochemical reactions.
 Water is crucial to life. Metabolic reactions occur in an aqueous environment and
water acts as a solvent for other molecules to dissolve in.

A deficiency of any one type of nutrient can lead to disease, starvation (or dehydration in
the case of water) and subsequent death. Fibre is a component of food that is not nutritious
but is important to include in our diet. Fibre or roughage is non-digestible carbohydrate and
it has an important role in aiding the movement of food through the gut.

An adequate diet provides sufficient energy for the performance of metabolic work,
although the energy food is in an unspecified form. A balanced diet provides all dietary
requirements in the correct proportions. Ideally this would be 1/7 fat, 1/7 protein and 5/7
carbohydrate.

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Carbohydrates

Carbohydrates are a rapid source of energy, they are the body's fuel. The bulk of a balanced
diet should be made from carbohydrates. If eaten in an excess of the dietary requirements
carbohydrates are easily stored as fats in the cells, although carbohydrate is the first source of
energy in the body.

An average adult requires about 12,000kJ of energy a day, most of this is supplied by the
respiration of carbohydrates in the cells.

Lipids

Lipids are a rich source of energy in the diet, they can be greatly reduced in metabolic
reactions and therefore release much energy. They are easily stored in the body and can form
a layer beneath the skin of adipose tissue. As lipids are such a rich source of energy they are
often not needed for respiration if there are adequate quantities of carbohydrate for the energy
output of the body.

As lipids are digested in the intestine into fatty acids and glycerol, some fatty acids are only
available in the diet and cannot therefore be synthesized in the cell in any way. These are
therefore known as Essential Fatty Acids. Fatty acids are categorized according to the number
of double bonds they have in their carbon chain. Saturated fatty acids have none,
monounsaturated fatty acids have one, and polyunsaturated fatty acids have more than one.
Essential polyunsaturated fatty acids cannot be synthesized in the body from anything else as
the correct enzymes to add double bonds after the ninth carbon to the carbon chain are not
present. Two essential fatty acids are linoleic and linolenic acid which are found in vegetable
oils such as soya, sunflower and maize.

Fatty acids are needed for the formation of cell membrane phospholipids and also for the
production of steroid hormones such as prostaglandins and thromboxin which have important
roles in the renal, immune and circulatory systems as signaling chemicals.

Deficiencies of essential fatty acids result in limited growth in children, poor healing of
wounds, scaly skin and hair loss.

Obesity is a result of a high fat intake in the diet and lack of exercise. Obesity is in fact a
form of malnutrition as the diet is not balanced. The risk of developing diseases such as
diabetes, hypertension, CHD, arthritis (due to extra pressure on joints), stroke and some
cancers are increased dramatically with obesity.

Proteins

Protein is not a direct source of energy in the body, it is used primarily for growth and repair
of body tissues although can be used as an energy source as a last resort. Proteins fulfil a
wide variety of roles in the body, they are broken down in the stomach and intestines to
amino acids which are then absorbed. The body can only form 8 amino acids to build proteins
from, the diet must provide Essential Amino Acids (EAAs) which are synthesised into
proteins which can be structural, i.e. collagen in bone, keratin in hair, myosin and actin in
muscle; metabolic enzymes, haemoglobin, protective antibodies and communicative
hormones.

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The diet needs to provide 8 EAAs as the body is unable to synthesis proteins without these
molecules. 2 other amino acids are synthesised from EAAs so if the diet lacks the original
EAAs these other two will not be present either. Phenylalanine is converted to tyrosine and
methionine is converted to cysteine. Cells draw upon a pool of amino acids for protein
synthesis which either come from dietary protein digested and absorbed in the gut and the
breakdown of body protein such as muscle. However, unlike fats and carbohydrates there is
no store of amino acids for cells to draw on, any amino acid in excess of immediate bodily
requirements is broken down into urea and excreted. It is therefore important to maintain the
dietary intake of protein everyday. If the body lacks protein, muscle wasting occurs as muscle
is broken down .

If protein is lacked in a diet a person develops kwashiorkor which is caused when high levels
of carbohydrates are eaten to overcome the lack of protein in the diet. One symptom of
kwashiorkor is the abnormal collection of fluid around the abdomen due to the lack of protein
in the blood. The body cannot retain water by osmosis and fluid accumulates in tissues
causing them to become waterlogged.

Vitamins

Vitamins cannot be synthesised by the body so must be supplied by diet. Vitamins have no
common structure or function but are essential in small amounts for the body to be able to
utilise other dietary components efficiently.

Vitamins fall into two categories, fat soluble vitamins such as vitamin A, D, E and K which
are ingested with fatty foods and water soluble vitamins such as the B group vitamins and
vitamin C. Vitamins are known as micronutrients because only small quantities are required
for a healthy diet, in fact fat soluble vitamins can be toxic in high concentrations, for example
the body stores vitamin A, or retinol, in the liver as it is toxic if kept in high concentrations in
the blood stream, a dose of more than 3300mg of vitamin A can be considered toxic. Water
soluble vitamins such as vitamin C and B groups vitamins can be excreted in the urine if in
excess in the diet.

Vitamins carry out a wide range of functions and prevent specific deficiency diseases. A diet
that lacks a certain vitamin is not a balanced diet, vitamins have vital roles in the maintenance
of a healthy body.

An example of a deficiency is when the diet does not contain enough, or any vitamin A.

Vitamin A is essential to the proper functioning of the retina in the eye and the epithelial
tissues. A lack of vitamin A results in dry, rough skin, inflammation of the eyes, a drying or
scarring of the cornea - xerophthalmia, which occurs when the secretion of lubricating tears is
stopped, the eyelids become swollen and sticky with pus. Mucous surfaces of the eye may
become eroded allowing infection to set in, leading to ulceration and destruction of the
cornea. Night blindness - an inability to see in dim light can also occur. Rod cells in the retina
of the eye detect light of low intensity, they convert vitamin A into a pigment, rhodopsin,
which is bleached when light enters the eye. Rod cells resynthesis rhodopsin, but if there is a
deficiency of the vitamin, rod cells can no longer function and the result is night blindness.
Epithelial cells use retinol to make retinoic acid, an intracellular messenger used in cell

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differentiation and growth. Without retinoic acid epithelial cells are not maintained properly
and the body becomes susceptible to infections, particularly measles and infections of the
respiratory system and gut.

Xenophthalmia is common among children who's diets consist of mainly cereals with little
meat or fresh vegetables, this is common in Indonesia, Bangladesh, India and the Philippines.

Vitamin D, or calciferol, is another fat soluble steroid vitamin which functions to stimulate
calcium uptake from the gut and its deposition in bone. Vitamin D acts as a hormone when
converted by enzymes in the gut and liver into an active form "active vitamin D", which
stimulates epithelial cells in the intestine to absorb calcium. Vitamin D is therefore essential
in growing children's diets to enable the growth of strong bones. Without adequate amounts
of vitamin D children can develop rickets, which is the deformation of the legs caused when
they lack calcium to strengthen the bones. In adults a lack of vitamin D in the diet can lead to
osteomalacia, a progressive softening of the bones which can make them highly susceptible
to fracture.

Vitamin D is made by the body when exposed to sunlight and is stored in the muscles,
however, if the skin is rarely exposed to the sunlight or is dark little vitamin D is produced.
Foods such as eggs and oily fish are all rich in vitamin D.

Vitamin K, phylloquinone, is found in dark green leafy vegetables such as spinach and kale.
It is a fat soluble vitamin which is involved in the clotting process of blood. In the intestines
bacteria synthesise a number of important clotting factors which need vitamin K. Without
vitamin K cuts can fail to heal and internal bleeding can occur.

Vitamin C is a water soluble vitamin, known chemically as ascorbic acid. It is found in citrus
fruits such as oranges and lemons, and also in potatoes and tomatoes. The main function of
vitamin C is the formation of connective tissues such as collagen. It is also known to be an
antioxidant which helps to remove toxins from the body and aids the immune system. A lack
of vitamin C leads to Scurvy, a condition experienced by sailors on long journeys when they
did not have fruit in their diets. Scurvy causes painful, bleeding gums. As vitamin C is water
soluble, it is not toxic in high doses as it can be excreted in the urine, very high doses can
however cause diarrhoea.

B group vitamins have a wide range of roles acting as co-enzymes in metabolic pathways.
They are found in most plant and animal tissues involved in metabolism, therefore foods such
as liver, yeast and dairy products are all rich in B group vitamins. Deficiency of B group
vitamins include dermatitis, fatigue and malformation of red blood cells.

Minerals

Some minerals are considered to be macronutrients as they are required in fairly large
amounts in the diet to maintain a healthy body. Minerals are required in their ionic state in the
diet.

Calcium, Ca2+, is a major constituent of bones and teeth and is required to keep bones
strong. It is required in blood clotting as an activator of various plasma proteins and is also
involved in muscle contraction. Calcium is used in synapses and also as an enzyme activator.

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A good source of calcium is in dairy products, eggs and green vegetables, the RDA for
calcium is 800mg.

Chlorine, Cl-, is required to maintain the osmotic anion / cation balance of the body and the
formation of HCl in the stomach. It is found in table salt and is rarely deficient in the diet as it
is used as a preservative to may foods. Sodium, Na+, is also found in table salt as well as
dairy foods, meat, eggs and vegetables. Sodium is used in conjunction with chlorine in the
maintenance of the osmotic anion / cation balance. It is also needed in nerve conduction and
muscle action. Potassium, K+, is yet another mineral required in nerve and muscle action, it
also has a role in protein synthesis. It is found in meat, fruit and vegetables.

Phosphorus, in the form of phosphate, PO43- is a constituent of nucleic acids, ATP,

phospholipids in cell membranes, bones and teeth. It is present in dairy foods, eggs, meat and
vegetables.

Magnesium, Mg2+, is an important component of bones and teeth and is also an enzyme
activator. It is found in meats and green vegetables.

Micronutrients are minerals needed in trace quantities. Despite the small quantity required,
they are still essential to a healthy balanced diet.

Iron, in the forms of Fe2+ and Fe3+, are required in the formation of haemoglobin and
myoglobin. Iron is a constituent of many enzymes as a prosthetic group and also as an
electron carrier in mitochondria. Red meat, liver and green vegetables are all sources of iron.
Iron supplements are taken by people who suffer from anaemia.

Iodine, I-, is a component of the growth hormone thyroxine. A lack of iodine in the diet can
cause hypothyroidism which results in weight gain and in extreme cases a lack of physical
and mental development known as cretinism. A swelling of the neck can occur which is
called goitre if iodine is deficient in the diet. Iodine can be found in seafood such as shellfish,
seaweed and fish. Iodine has also been added to water supplies in areas where it is deficient
in the main water system.

Copper, Cu2+, manganese, Mn2+ and cobalt, Co2+, are all needed in the diet to form co-
factors for enzymes. Copper is also needed for bone and haemoglobin formation and cobalt is
needed for the production of red blood cells, manganese is also a growth factor in bone
development. They are found in meat and liver as well as some dairy products.

Fibre

Fibre is not digested by the body, but is involved in maintaining the health of the gut and is
therefore an essential part of a balanced diet. Fibre is mostly made up of cellulose from plant
cell walls and is indigestible as the stomach and gut do not contain the correct enzymes. Fibre
aids the formation of faeces, preventing constipation. It also aids the peristaltic movement in
the intestine and has been linked to the prevention of bowel cancer. Fibre also removes some
saturated fats and cholesterol therefore protecting the body a little from the build up of
plaques in blood vessels. Fruit, vegetables and cereals are a good source of dietary fibre.

Water

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 The diet must provide water which is required as a solvent, a transport medium, a substrate in
hydrolytic reactions and for lubrication. Water in fact makes up about 70% of the total body
weight of humans. Water is needed as it is lost constantly from our bodies in urine, sweat,
evaporation from lungs and in faeces. An average person requires 2-3 litres of water a day
which is supplied through drinks and liquid foods.

As you can see a balanced diet is imperative to maintaining a healthy body. People who
choose to be vegetarians and vegans therefore must make sure that their diet contains all the
correct nutrients to avoid any deficiencies that may occur, as well as people living in
countries where their diet lacks certain important food groups.

.TASK 4: INTERPRETATION OF THE FOOD COMPOSITION TABLES.

Food Composition Table
Introduction
The composition of food can vary widely, depending, among other factors, on the variety of
plant or animal, on growing and feeding conditions and, for some foods, on freshness.
Tables are based on average values from a number of samples analyzed in the laboratory
and therefore only provide a rough guide.
The table below thus gives an indication of the average composition of foods. Please refer to
your national food composition table for details of your country of origin.
Food Composition Table
The following table provides details of the energy (kcal), Protein (g), Carbohydrate (g) and
Fat (g) for 100g of various foods.

Food (100g) Energy(kcal) Protein(g) Fat(g) Carbo(g)

All Bran 250 13 2.5 46
Almonds 560 17 54 4
Alpen 368.2 11.5 6.2 66.6
Apples 35 0.2 0 9
Apricots 30 0.6 0 7
Apricots, dried, raw 180 4 0 43
Artichokes Globe boiled 15 1 0 3
Artichokes Jerusalem boiled 20 1.5 0 3
Asparagus boiled 8.8 1.7 0 0.5
Aubergine raw 15 0.7 0 3
Avocados 220 4 20 2

Food (100g) Energy(kcal) Protein(g) Fat(g) Carbo(g)

Bacon collar joint boiled 330 20 27 0
Bacon gammon grilled 230 30 12 0
Bacon gammon joint boiled 270 25 19 0

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Bacon rashers streaky fried 500 23 45 0
Bacon rashers streaky grilled 400 25 36 0
Baked Beans – Heinz 74 5 0.3 12.7
Baked beans - Weight Watchers 53 4.8 0.3 8.8
Bananas 80 1 0.3 20
Barcelona nuts 640 11 64 5
Barley pearl boiled 120 2.7 0.5 28
Bean sprouts canned 10 1.6 0 0.8
Beans broad boiled 50 4 0.6 7
Beans butter boiled 100 7 0.3 17
Beans french boiled 7 0.8 0 1
Beans haricot boiled 90 6.6 0.5 17
Beans mung cooked 100 6 4 11
Beans runner boiled 20 2 0.2 3
Beef brisket boiled 320 27 24 0
Beef Casserole –Crockpot 98.14 9.87 3.37 7.17
Beef corned canned 216 26 12 1
Beef minced stewed 230 23 15 0
Beef rump steak fried 250 29 15 0
Beef rump steak grilled 220 27 12 0
Beef silverside salted 240 29 14 0
Beef sirloin roast 280 24 21 0
Beef steak stewing stewed 220 30 11 0
Beef topside roast 200 27 12 0
Beer bitter 30 0 0 2
Beer larger 30 0 0 1.5
Beer stout 40 0 0 4
Beetroot boiled 45 1.8 0 10
Beetroot raw 30 1.3 0 6
Bilberries 60 0.5 0 14
Biscuit - Custard Cream 483 6 23.8 65
Biscuit - mini cheddars 529 9.8 29.1 54.2
Biscuits - morning coffee 444 6.9 14.5 75.4
Biscuits - Rich Tea 440 6.9 15.7 71.5
Biscuits Chocolate covered 520 6 27 67
Biscuits digestive chocolate 490 7 24 66
Biscuits digestive plain 477 6.5 22 67
Biscuits semi sweet 460 7 17 75
Biscuits shortbread 500 6 26 65.5
Biscuits wafers filled 540 5 30 66
Biscuits water 440 11 12.5 76
Black currents 30 1 0 7
Black pudding fried 300 13 22 15
Blackberries 30 1.5 0 6
Bran Flakes 329 9.3 2 71.5

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Bran wheat 200 14 5.5 27
Brazil Nuts 600 12 60 4
Bread brown 220 9 2.2 45
Bread malt 250 8 3 49
Bread rolls white 300 10 7 54
Bread white 235 7.8 1.6 46.2
Bread white toasted 300 9.6 1.7 65
Bread wholemeal 220 8.8 2.7 42
Breadcrumbs white 350 12 2 77
Broccoli tops boiled 20 3 0 1.6
Brussels sprouts boiled 20 3 0 1.7
Buns current 300 7 8 55
Butter 750 0.5 82 0

Food (100g) Energy(kcal) Protein(g) Fat(g) Carbo(g)

Cabbage savoy boiled 10 1.3 0 1
Cabbage savoy raw 25 3 0 3
Cabbage spring boiled 8 1 0 1
Cabbage winter boiled 15 1.7 0 2.3
Cake fruit 330 4 11 58
Cake Madeira 400 5 17 58
Cake rock 400 5 16 60
Cake sponge with fat 460 6.5 27 53
Cake sponge without fat 300 10 7 54
Cakes fancy 400 4 15 69
Carrots boiled 20 0.6 0 4
Carrots raw 25 0.7 0 5
Cauliflower boiled 10 1.5 0 0.8
Cauliflower cheese 116 6 8 5
Celery boiled 5 0.6 0 0.7
Celery raw 10 1 0 1.3
Cheese camembert 300 23 23 0
Cheese cheddar 400 26 34 0
Cheese cottage 66.5 14 0.5 1.5
Cheese cream 440 3 47 0
Cheese danish blue 360 23 29 0
Cheese edam 300 24 23 0
Cheese parmesan 400 35 30 0
Cheese processed 300 22 25 0
Cherries 40 0.5 0 10
Cherries glace 224 0 0 56
Cheese stilton 460 26 40 0
Chestnuts 170 2 2.7 37
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Chicken Kiev 328 24.4 21.6 10
Chicken roast boned 150 25 5 0
Chicken roast meat 159 22 7.5 0
Chicory 10 0.8 0 1.5
Chocolate Break (mug of) 107 3.1 2.4 19.4
Chocolate milk 530 8 30 59
Chocolate plain 530 5 29 65
Christmas Pudding 300 5 12 48
Cider dry 35 0 0 3
Cider sweet 40 0 0 4
Cockles boiled 50 11 0.3 0
Cocoa powder 300 19 22 12
Coconut 350 3 36 4
Coconut desiccated 600 6 62 6
Cod fillet baked 100 21 1.2 0
Cod fillet fried 170 21 8 4
Cod fillet fried in batter 200 20 10 8
Cod fillet grilled 100 21 1.3 0
Cod fillet poached 90 21 1 0
Cod fillet steamed 80 19 1 0
Coffee instant 155 4 0.7 35.5
Coffee instant & milk 36.96 3.27 0.12 6.14
Coke diet 0.48 0 0 0.12
Cola 48.8 0 0 12.2
Coleslaw 163 1.1 14.8 6.7
Cornflakes 350 8 0.5 82
Cornflour 350 0.6 0.7 92
Cornish pastie 330 8 20 31
Crab boiled 130 20 5 0
Crab canned 80 18 1 0
Cracker Bread 375 10.9 4.1 73.7
Cranberries 18 0.5 0 4
Cream crackers – Crawford 390 7.7 12.8 64.9
Cream double 450 1.5 48 2
Cream single 200 2.4 21.2 3
Cream sterilised canned 230 2.6 23 3
Cream whipping 330 1.9 35 2.5
Crispbread rye 320 9.5 2 71
Crispbread wheat 390 45 7.5 37
Croissant 230 4.3 12.2 27.3
Cucumber 10 0.6 0 2
Currents dried 240 2 0 63
Custard egg 120 6 6 11
Custard powder 120 4 4 17

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Food (100g) Energy(kcal) Protein(g) Fat(g) Carbo(g)
Damsons 35 0.4 0 9
Dates dried 210 2 0 55
Drinking chocolate 370 6 6 77
Dripping 900 0 100 0
Duck roast 190 25 10 0
Dumpling 200 3 12 25

Food (100g) Energy(kcal) Protein(g) Fat(g) Carbo(g)

Egg dried whole 560 43.6 43.3 0
Egg scrambled 250 10 23 0
Egg whole raw 150 12.3 10.9 0
Egg yolk 340 16.1 30.5 0
Eggwhite 35 9 0 0

Food (100g) Energy(kcal) Protein(g) Fat(g) Carbo(g)

Fat cooking 900 0 100 0
Fish fingers fried 230 13.5 13 17
Flour brown 330 13 2 69
Flour white 340 11 1.2 75
Flour white self raising 340 9 1.2 77.5
Flour wholemeal 320 13 2 66
Fruit gums 170 1 0 45
Fruit juice sweetened 40 0 0 10
Fruit juice unsweetened 30 0 0 8
Fruit pie 370 4 16 56
Fruit salad canned 101.2 0.3 0 25

Food (100g) Energy(kcal) Protein(g) Fat(g) Carbo(g)

Goose roast meat 320 29 22 0
Gooseberries 16 1 0 3
Grape nuts cereal 360 11 3 76
Grapefruit – Tin 36 0.3 0 9
Grapefruit peeled 20 0.5 0 5

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Grapes black 50 0.5 0 13
Grapes white 60 0.6 0 15
Green Bean Mix 25.71 1.21 0.53 4.18
Greengages 50 1 0 11

Food (100g) Energy(kcal) Protein(g) Fat(g) Carbo(g)

Haggis boiled 300 11 22 19
Halibut steamed 130 24 4 0
Ham 120 18 5 0
Ham cooked 269 24.7 18.9 0
Hamburgers fried 260 20 17 7
Hare stewed with bones 140 22 6 0
Heart roast 240 26 15 0
Heart stewed 180 31 6 0
Herring grilled 200 20 13 0
Honey 290 0 0 76

Food (100g) Energy(kcal) Protein(g) Fat(g) Carbo(g)

Ice cream dairy 170 4 7 25
Ice cream non dairy 170 3 8 21

Food (100g) Energy(kcal) Protein(g) Fat(g) Carbo(g)

Jams 260 0.5 0 60
Jelly packet 58 1 0 14

Food (100g) Energy(kcal) Protein(g) Fat(g) Carbo(g)

Kidney fried 150 25 6 0
Kidney stewed 170 26 8 0
Kipper baked 200 26 11 0

Food (100g) Energy(kcal) Protein(g) Fat(g) Carbo(g)

Lamb breast roast 400 19 37 0
Lamb chops loin grilled 350 24 29 0
Lamb cutlets grilled 370 23 31 0

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Lamb leg roast 270 26 18 0
Lamb scrag and neck stewed 290 26 21 0
Lamb shoulder roast 320 20 26 0
Lard 900 0 100 0
Leeks boiled 25 1.8 0 5
Lemon curd 280 0 5 63
Lemon juice 7.2 0.3 0 1.5
Lemon sole fried in breadcrumb 200 16 13 9
Lemon sole steamed 90 21 1 0
Lemonade bottled 24 0 0 6
Lemons 15 1 0 3
Lentils boiled 100 8 0.5 17
Lettuce 8 1 0 1
Liver fried 250 27 13 7
Liver stewed 200 25 10 3
Lobster boiled 120 22 3.5 0
Luncheon meat 300 13 27 5

Food (100g) Energy(kcal) Protein(g) Fat(g) Carbo(g)

Macaroni boiled 120 4 0.6 25
Macaroni cheese - Tin 97 3.6 4.8 10.5
Mackerel fried 190 22 11 0
Mandarin Oranges - can 57 0.6 0 14.7
Mango Chutney 230 0.5 0.4 59.8
Mangoes 60 0.5 0 15
Mararoni cheese 170 7 10 15
Margarine 730 0 81 0
Margarine low fat spread 370 0 40 0
Marmalade 260 0 0 69
Marrow boiled 7 0.4 0 1.4
Mars bar 440 5 19 67
Marzipan 440 9 25 49
Mayonnaise 720 2 79 0
Melon 22 0.5 0 5
Milk 65 3.3 3.8 4.7
Milk condensed skimmed 270 9.9 0.3 60
Milk condensed whole 320 8.3 9 55.5
sweetened
Milk evaporated whole 160 8.6 9 11.3
Milk skimmed 33 3.4 0.1 5
Mince and Spaghetti 92.34 8.79 4.04 5.33

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 Mincemeat 284 0 4 62
Muesli 370 13 7.5 66
Mushrooms fried 210 2.2 22 0
Mushrooms raw 13.4 2 0.6 0
Mustard and cress 10 1.5 0 1

Food (100g) Energy(kcal) Protein(g) Fat(g) Carbo(g)

Nectarines 50 1 0 11

Food (100g) Energy(kcal) Protein(g) Fat(g) Carbo(g)

Oil vegetable 900 0 100 0
Omelette 200 11 16 0
Onions fried 350 2 33 10
Onions raw 25 1 0 5
Onions spring 35 1 0 8.5
Orange juice 40 0.6 0 9
Orange peeled 40 1 0 9
Oxo cube 16 1.5 0.3 1.8

Food (100g) Energy(kcal) Protein(g) Fat(g) Carbo(g)

Pancakes 300 6 16 36
Parsnips – boiled 60 1.3 0 13.5
Pasta 365 13.2 2 77
Pastry flaky cooked 560 6 40 47
Pastry Puff 385 5.4 25 37
Pastry shortcrust cooked 530 7 32 56
Peach Slices – tin 49 0.5 0 12.3
Peaches canned 49 0.5 0 12.3
Peaches fresh 34 0.5 0 8
Peanuts fresh 570 24 50 9
Peanuts roasted and salted 570 24 50 9
Pears 30 0.2 0 8
Peas boiled 41 5.4 0.4 4.3
Peas canned 50 5 0.3 7
Peppers green raw 15 1 0.4 2
Philadelphia cheese – light 196 12 15 4
Pickle Branston 150 0.7 0.2 34.5
Pilchards canned 130 19 5 0.7

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Pineapple canned 63 0.4 0.2 16
Pineapple fresh 50 0.5 0 12
Plaice fried in butter 280 16 18 14
Plaice steamed 90 19 2 0
Plums cooking 26 0.5 0 6
Plums dessert 40 0.5 0 10
Popcorn 415 1.6 12.8 78.2
Pork chops grilled 330 29 24 0
Pork leg roast 290 27 20 0
Porridge Oats with Bran 332 10.6 6.7 60
Potato chips 250 4 11 37
Potato crisps 526 7.3 35.2 48.4
Potatoes baked with skin 85 2 0 20
Potatoes boiled - King Edwards 82 1.4 0.1 19.7
Prawns 100 23 2 0
Prunes – Tin 88 1 0 22
Prunes stewed 84 1 0 20
Puffed wheat cereal 325 14 1.3 68.5

Food (100g) Energy(kcal) Protein(g) Fat(g) Carbo(g)

Quiche Lorraine 400 15 28 20

Food (100g) Energy(kcal) Protein(g) Fat(g) Carbo(g)

Rabbit stewed 90 14 4 0
Radish 15 1 0 3
Raisins 250 1 0 65
Raspberries 28 1 0 6
Red Currents 20 1 0 4
Rhubarb raw 6 0.5 0 1
Rhubarb stewed with sugar 45 0.5 0 10
Rice Brown Boiled 182 3.4 1.4 40.7
Rice Krispies cereal 350 6 0.7 88
Rice pudding canned 72 3.7 1.2 12.4
Rice white boiled 119 2.6 0.1 28
Rice white raw 360 6.5 1 87

Food (100g) Energy(kcal) Protein(g) Fat(g) Carbo(g)

Salad Cream 300 2 27 15

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Salad Cream Weight Watchers 145 1.2 8.2 17.4
Salmon steamed 200 20 13 0
Sardines canned in oil 220 24 14 0
Sardines canned tomato sauce 180 18 12 0.5
Satsumas peeled 35 1 0 8
Sauce brown 100 1 0 25
Sausages beef grilled 270 13 17 15
Sausages pork grilled 320 13 25 12
Sausage – Herta 335 12 31 2
Scampi fried in breadcrumbs 320 12 18 29
Scones 370 7.5 15 56
Sherry dry 115 0 0 1.4
Sherry sweet 140 0 0 7
Shredded wheat cereal 320 10.5 3 68
Sorbet Blackcurrent 118 0.3 0 30.7
Spaghetti boiled 120 4 0.3 26
Spaghetti canned tomato sauce 51 1.7 0.2 10.5
Spaghetti tin, weight watchers 51 1.7 0.2 10.5
Spirits - whisky,Gin etc 220 0 0 0
Sponge pudding 340 6 16 46
Spring greens boiled 10 1.7 0 1
Squash undiluted 122 0.1 0.1 32.2
Squash Undiluted - sugar free 5 0.1 0 1.2
Steak stewed canned 180 15 13 1
Strawberries fresh 25 0.5 0 6
Sugar 390 0 0 100
Sugar puffs cereal 350 6 0.8 84
Sultanas 250 2 0 65
Swede boiled 20 1 0 4
Sweetcorn 124 4.1 2.3 22.8
Sweets boiled 330 0 0 87

Food (100g) Energy(kcal) Protein(g) Fat(g) Carbo(g)

Tangerines peeled 36 1 0 8
Toffees 430 2 17 71
Tomato juice 12 0 0 3
Tomato Ketchup 97 1 0 24.9
Tomato Puree 89 5.6 0.4 16.4
Tomatoes canned 23 1 0 5
Tomatoes raw 15 1 0 3
Trout steamed 140 24 4.5 0
Tuna canned in oil 100 25 0.1 0
Turkey roast 140 29 3 0
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Turnips boiled 10.8 0.7 0 2

Food (100g) Energy(kcal) Protein(g) Fat(g) Carbo(g)

Veal fillet roast 230 32 12 0
Venison roast 200 35 6 0

Food (100g) Energy(kcal) Protein(g) Fat(g) Carbo(g)

Walnuts 530 11 52 5
Watercress 14 3 0 0.7
Weetabix cereal 340 11.5 3.5 70
Wine red 70 0 0 0
Wine white dry 65 0 0 0.6
Wine white sweet 10 0 0 6

Food (100g) Energy(kcal) Protein(g) Fat(g) Carbo(g)

Yoghurt flavored - low fat 41.6 4.6 0.1 5.5
Yoghurt natural 55 5.9 1.2 5.6
Yorkshire puddings 222 7 10 26

Suggested Teaching /Learning Activities

- Textbooks
- Food lab
- internet

Evaluation
1. Define the following terms
2. State the importance of food science and nutrition
3. Explain the components of a balanced diet
4. Interpret the food composition tables.

7.1.29 ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS

Specific Objectives
By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) define terms
b) state properties of acids, bases and salts

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 c) explain the use of the pH scale and classify foods
- alkaline foods
- acidic foods
- neutral foods

UNIT TASKS

TASK 1: DEFINING OF TERMS

Ph:
1.is a measure of the acidity or basicity of a solution. It approximates but is not equal to p[H],
the negative logarithm (base 10) of the molar concentration of dissolved hydrogen ions (H+).
Crudely, this matches the number of places behind the decimal point, so for example 0.1
molar hydrochloric acid should be near pH 1 and 0.0001 molar HCl should be near pH 4.
Pure water itself is a weak acid, dissociating to produce a pH of 7, or 0.0000001 M H+. For
an aqueous solution to have a higher pH, a base must be dissolved in it, which binds away
many of these rare hydrogen ions. Hydrogen ions in water can be written simply as H + or as
hydronium (H3O+) or higher species (e.g. H9O4+) to account for solvation, but all describe the
same entity.
2. The pH scale measures how acidic or basic a substance is. The pH scale ranges from 0 to
14. A pH of 7 is neutral. A pH less than 7 is acidic. A pH greater than 7 is basic.
3. A measure of acidity or alkalinity.
Acids
1. Any of a class of substances whose aqueous solutions are characterized by a sour
taste, the ability to turn blue litmus red, and the ability to react with bases and certain
metals to form salts.
2. A substance that yields hydrogen ions when dissolved in water.
3. A substance that can act as a proton donor.
4. A substance that can accept a pair of electrons to form a covalent bond.
5. A substance having a sour taste.

Acids taste sour, are corrosive to metals, change litmus (a dye extracted from lichens)
red, and become less acidic when mixed with bases.

Bases

A base is a chemical species that donates electrons or hydroxide ions or that accepts
protons.

Base is most commonly thought of as an aqueous substance that can accept hydrogen
ions. Bases are also the oxides or hydroxides of metals. A soluble base is also often
referred to as an alkali if hydroxide ions (OH−) are involved.

Salts

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1. A colorless or white crystalline solid, chiefly sodium chloride, used extensively in ground
or granulated form as a food seasoning and preservative. Also called common salt, table salt.
2. A chemical compound formed by replacing all or part of the hydrogen ions of an acid with
metal ions or electropositive radicals.
3. salts Any of various mineral salts used as laxatives or cathartics

4. The chloride of sodium, a substance used for seasoning food, for the preservation of
meat, etc. It is found native in the earth, and is also produced, by evaporation and
crystallization, from sea water and other water impregnated with saline particles.

A salt is an ionic compound which when dissolved in water yields a positive ion other than
hydrogen ion (H) and a negative ion other than hydroxyl ion (OH-).

TASK 2: STATING PROPERTIES OF ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS

Properties of Acids and Bases

 ACIDS

1. Taste sour
2. Reach with certain metals (Zn, Fe, etc.) to produce hydrogen gas
3. cause certain organic dyes to change color
4. react with limestone (CaCO3) to produce carbon dioxide
5. React with bases to form salts and water

 BASES

1. Taste bitter
2. feel slippery or soapy
3. react with oils and grease
4. cause certain organic dyes to change color
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 5. react with acids to form salts and water

Properties of Salts

1) Hydrolysis

This is a reaction in which a salt reacts with water to form a solution which is either acidic or
basic in nature.

a) Salt of weak alkali and strong acid

NH4Cl + H2O NH4OH + HCl

(Slightly acidic)

b) Salt of strong alkali and weak acid

K2CO3 + H2O 2KOH + H2CO3

(Slightly basic)

c) Strong alkali and strong acid

NaCl + H2O Not hydrolyse

(neutral)

2) Efflorescence

The property of hydrated crystals to loose water of crystallization is called efflorescence.

e.g. Washing soda ( Na2CO3 . 10 H2O )

Glauber’s salt ( Na2SO4 . 10 H2O )

Epson salt ( MgSO4 . 7 H2O )

3) Deliquescence

Certain salts when exposed to atmosphere, absorb moisture, becomes moist and ultimately
dissolve in absorbed water forming a saturated solution.
e.g. CaCl2.6H2O, FeCl3, NaOH
4) Hygroscopy

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When a salt exposed to atmosphere, absorbs moisture without dissolving in it, this property
is called Hygroscopy.
e.g. Anhydrous CaCl2, Silica gel, CaO

TASK 3: EXPLAINING THE USE OF THE PH SCALE AND CLASSIFY FOODS

- alkaline foods
- acidic foods
- neutral foods

Why is pH so Important!
A functional definition of pH is the measurement of the acidity or alkalinity of a solution
commonly measured on a scale of 0 to 14. pH 7 is considered neutral, with lower pH values
being acidic and higher values being alkaline or caustic. pH is the most common of all
analytical measurements in industrial processing and since it is a direct measure of acid
content [H+], it clearly plays an important role in food processing. Among the reasons for
measuring pH in food processing include:

1. To produce products with consistent well defined properties

2. To efficiently produce products at optimal cost
3. 4. To avoid causing health problems to consumers
5. To meet regulatory requirements

6. For reaction in aqueous solutions, reaction rates will typically depend on pH. For example,
practically all enzymatic reactions have maximum value at optimal pH. This is important for
for biological functioning.
7. The electrical charge of most biological molecules will depend on pH due to pH influence
on the ionization of weak bases and week acids which are components of those molecules.

In general leafy, dark green vegetables are alkaline. Eat these to your heart's content - they'll
fill you up, there's hardly any calories in them and they're amazingly alkalizing - raw form is
best. These include foods such as spinach, kale, cucumber (ok, not 'leafy' but still dark green
on the outside :-) ), watercress, lettuce, cabbage, green beans, broccoli. The deep green
pigment is due to 'chlorophyll' in the plant - which is pure alkaline sunlight goodness and
amazingly nutritious.

2. Cold pressed omega 3 oils such as olive oil, flax seed oil, starflower oil, sesame seed oil
and even (virgin) coconut oil are very alkaline. Do not fry or heat your oil, as this acidifies it
and in some cases hydrogenates it, which is very harmful. So cold omega 3 oils, which can be
used in salads etc are good.

3. Anything sweet is generally out. Sugar is one of the most acidic foods to your body, so
obviously things such as cakes, chocolate, sweets and fizzy drink s are a no-no if you're on an
alkaline diet. When it comes to fruit, I'm afraid most fruits are acidic. Grapefruits, lemons,
limes and avocadoes are the only fruits (aside from tomatoes) that are truly alkaline. Some
others are debatably mildly alkaline or neutral - perhaps watermelon or blueberries. It
depends on how rigid you want to be with your alkaline diet.

4. Processed foods are acidic. Now this comes down to common sense. If you think of acidic
foods as being harmful to your body, then it stands to reason that things such as takeaways,

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chips, burgers, microwave meals, reconstituted meats and dried packet foods are acidic
doesn't it? We are all aware that these foods are bad for our health if eaten frequently,
however in our culture, this kind of diet is sadly becoming the norm. Following an alkaline
diet means a shift to healthier eating.

5. Meat and dairy are acidic. It's as simple as that really - meat and dairy products are highly
acidic to you your body so must be limited heavily or eliminated altogether if you're going to
go alkaline.

Healthy Alkaline Foods Foods you should only Unhealthy Acidic Foods
- Eat lots of them! consume moderately - Try to avoid them!

Vegetables Fruits Meat, Poultry, And Fish

Alfalfa Grass +29.3 (In Season, For Cleansing Beef -34.5
Asparagus +1.3 Only Or With Moderation) Chicken (to -22) -18.0
Barley Grass +28.1 Apricot -9.5 Eggs (to -22)
Brussels Sprouts +0.5 Bananna, Ripe -10.1 Liver -3.0
Cabbage Lettuce, Fresh Bananna, Unripe +4.8 Ocean Fish -20.0
+14.1 Black Currant -6.1 Organ Meats -3.0
Cauliflower +3.1 Blueberry -5.3 Oysters -5.0
Cayenne Pepper +18.8 Cantaloupe -2.5 Pork -38.0
Celery +13.3 Cherry, Sour +3.5 Veal -35.0
Chives +8.3 Cherry, Sweet -3.6
Comfrey +1.5 Coconut, Fresh +0.5
Cucumber, Fresh +31.5 Cranberry -7.0
Dandelion +22.7 Currant -8.2 Milk And Milk Products
Dog Grass +22.6 Date -4.7 Buttermilk +1.3
Endive, Fresh +14.5 Fig Juice Powder -2.4 Cream -3.9
French Cut Green Beans Gooseberry, Ripe -7.7 Hard Cheese -18.1
+11.2 Grape, Ripe -7.6 Homogenized Milk -1.0
Garlic +13.2 Grapefruit -1.7 Quark -17.3
Green Cabbage December Italian Plum -4.9
Harvest +4.0 Mandarin Orange -11.5
Green Cabbage, March Mango -8.7
Harvest +2.0 Orange -9.2 Bread, Biscuits (Stored
Kamut Grass +27.6 Papaya -9.4 Grains/Risen Dough)
Lamb's Lettuce +4.8 Peach -9.7 Rye Bread -2.5
Leeks (Bulbs) +7.2 Pear -9.9 White Biscuit -6.5
Lettuce +2.2 Pineapple -12.6 White Bread -10.0
Onion +3.0 Rasberry -5.1 Whole-Grain Bread -4.5
Peas, Fresh +5.1 Red Currant -2.4 Whole-Meal Bread -6.5
Peas, Ripe +0.5 Rose Hips -15.5
Red Cabbage +6.3 Strawberry -5.4
Rhubarb Stalks +6.3 Tangerine -8.5
Savoy Cabbage +4.5 Watermelon -1.0 Nuts

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Shave Grass +21.7 Yellow Plum -4.9 Cashews -9.3
Sorrel +11.5 Peanuts -12.8
Soy Sprouts +29.5 Pistachios -16.6
Spinach (Other Than
March) +13.1 Non-Stored Grains
Spinach, March Harvest Brown Rice -12.5
+8.0 Wheat -10.1 Fats
Sprouted Chia Seeds Butter -3.9
+28.5 Corn Oil -6.5
Sprouted Radish Seeds Margarine -7.5
+28.4 Nuts
Straw Grass +21.4 Hazelnuts -2.0
Watercress +7.7 Macadamia Nuts -3.2
Wheat Grass +33.8 Walnuts -8.0 Sweets
White Cabbage +3.3 Artificial Sweetners -26.5
Zucchini +5.7 Barley Malt Syrup -9.3
Beet Sugar -15.1
Root Vegetables Fish Brown Rice Syrup -8.7
Beet +11.3 Fresh Water Fish -11.8 Chocolate -24.6
Carrot +9.5 Dr. Bronner's Barley
Horseradish +6.8 Dried Sugar Cane Juice -
Kohlrabi +5.1 Fats 18.0
Potatoes +2.0 Coconut Milk -1.5 Fructose -9.5
Red Radish +16.7 Sunflower Oil -6.7 Honey -7.6
Rutabaga +3.1 Malt Sweetner -9.8
Summer Black Radish Milk Sugar -9.4
+39.4 Molasses -14.6
Turnip +8.0 Turbinado Sugar -9.5
White Radish (Spring) White Sugar -17.6
+3.1
Condiments
Fruits Ketchup -12.4
Avocado (Protein) +15.6 Mayonaise -12.5
Fresh Lemon +9.9 Mustard -19.2
Limes +8.2 Soy Sauce -36.2
Tomato +13.6 Vinegar -39.4

Non-Stored Organic
Grains And Legumes
Buckwheat Groats +0.5 Beverages
Granulated Soy (Cooked Beer -26.8
Ground Soy Beans) +12.8 Coffee -25.1
Lentils +0.6 Fruit Juice Sweetened
Lima Beans +12.0 With
Soy Flour +2.5 Fruit Juice, Packaged,
Soy Lecithin (Pure) +38.0 Natural -8.7
Soy Nuts (soaked Soy Liquor -38.7
Beans, Then Air Dried) Tea (Black) -27.1

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 +26.5 White Sugar -33.6
Soybeans, Fresh +12.0 Wine -16.4
Spelt +0.5
Tofu +3.2
White Beans (Navy Miscellaneous
Beans) +12.1 Canned Foods
Microwaved Foods
Nuts Processed Foods
Almonds +3.6
Brazil Nuts +0.5

Seeds
Caraway Seeds +2.3
Cumin Seeds +1.1
Fennel Seeds +1.3
Flax Seeds +1.3
Pumpkin Seeds +5.6
Sesame Seeds +0.5
Sunflower Seeds +5.4
Wheat Kernel +11.4

Fats (Fresh, Cold-

Pressed Oils)
Borage Oil +3.2
Evening Primrose Oil
+4.1
Flax Seed Oil +3.5
Marine Lipids +4.7
Olive Oil +1.0

Table: pH scale of alkaline and acid forming foods

Source: "Back To The House Of Health" by Shelley Redford Young)

The more alkaline-forming foods you add to your nutrition, the stronger will be the results.
Should you not be able to completely avoid acidic foods, you should at least try to consume
as less as possible of them, and instead put more green food and veggies on your plate.
Remember that every little step to a more alkaline diet is an improvement to a healthier way
of life.

Moreover, you can add green plants nutritional supplements to your diet, which can
support you in attaining pH balance in a natural way. Such supplements were developed by
Dr. Young, a microbiologist and nutritionist. Over many years he has researched the
interrelations between acid wastes inside the body and the development of unhealthy
conditions and disease.

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His assignment is not only to promote a stronger awareness among people for a proper acid
alkaline balance within the body, he has also developed the InnerLight products to support
the body to naturally decrease its acid levels by alkalizing the cell system. Two of his
cornerstone products are called SuperGreens and Prime pH.

Neutral Foods

Neutral foods are foods that have neither an acid nor alkaline ash. The have a pH of 7, or
close to it.

The following foods as neutral foods:

 Butter
 Margarine
 Cooking fats
 Oils
 Plain candies
 Sugar
 Syrup
 Honey
 Arrowroot
 Corn
 Tapioca
 Coffee
 Tea

Suggested Teaching/Learning Resources

- textbooks
- food lab
- internet
- food commodities
- acids
- bases
- water pH scale
- litmus paper

EVALUATION
1)define the following terms:-
a) Acids
b) Bases
c) Salts
d) pH
2) state properties of acids, bases and salts
3) explain the use of the pH scale and classify foods

7.1.30: PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL ASPECTS OF

NUTRIENTS
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 Specific objectives:-
1. List types of nutrients and other useful components in food
2. Identify chemical components of macro nutrients
3. Outline the properties of nutrients
4. Explain the functions of nutrients and other food components
5. Explain the physical and chemical changes in nutrients during production
procedures
Task 1:Listing types of nutrients and other useful
components in food
Nutrients can be classified in different ways:-
Organic nutrients include carbohydrates, fats, proteins (or their building blocks, amino
acids), and vitamins. Inorganic chemical compounds such as dietary minerals, water, and
oxygen may also be considered nutrients.
A nutrient is essential to an organism if it cannot be synthesized by the organism in
sufficient quantities and must be obtained from an external source. Nutrients needed in
large quantities are called macronutrients; micronutrients are required in only small
quantities.

The following are the basic components of food:-

Carbohydrates
The body's principal source of energy. All sugars and starches that we consume are
carbohydrates. Examples include table sugar, whole grains, pasta, fruit, popcorn etc.
Carbohydrates can be classified into two types, simple and complex. Simple carbohydrates
are sugars and complex carbohydrates are primarily starches.
Carbohydrates are transformed by the body into one substance, glucose. Glucose is a form
of sugar that is carried in the blood and transported to the cells for energy. Any glucose not
used by the cells is converted into glycogen that is stored in the muscles and liver. The
body's glycogen storage capacity is limited, so any unused glucose is converted to fat.
Fiber
Fiber is not a single substance. It is a group of different compounds that have a varied effect
in the body. All types of fiber are parts of plants that can't be digested. There are two
categories of fiber, those that are soluble in water and those that are not soluble in water.
An advantage of fiber is if you eat foods with high fiber, then you will have less room for
high calorie and fat foods. Fiber also has many health benefits. Foods that are rich in fiber
also tend to be high in anti-oxidants and other substances that may protect against a variety
of cancers.
Protein
Protein is the basic material of life. It makes up 3/4's of our body tissue. Without dietary
protein, all body functions would not take place. Proteins can be broken into complete and
incomplete proteins. Complete proteins supply a sufficient amount of the nine essential
amino acids.
Adequate amounts of protein are necessary to build muscles. Eating a normal, balanced diet
should give you adequate amounts of protein.

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Fats
Fats are essential for the proper functioning of the body. We need to consume some fats to
remain healthy. Fats supply necessary fatty acids that the body can only get from foods. Fats
also serve as the storage substance for the body's excess calories. When the body has
depleted its carbohydrate stores, it draws on fat. Additional benefits of fats include
maintaining healthy skin and hair, regulating blood cholesterol levels, and giving you the
sensation of feeling full.
There are saturated fats, unsaturated fats and trans fats. The majority of our fat intake
should come from the unsaturated fats.
Vitamins
Without vitamins, we could not exist. They affect all functions in the body and help regulate
them. Most vitamins must be obtained from food. We need 13 vitamins: A, C, D, E, K, B (8
different B Vitamins).
Vitamins are either water-soluble (B + C) or fat-soluble (A,D,E,K)
Each vitamin carries out specific functions. If your diet is lacking in a certain vitamin, you
may develop a deficiency disease.
Minerals

Mineral Chemical element (as opposed to organic compound, as in the case of

vitamins) necessary for the health and maintenance of bodily functions.

Macro Definitions vary slightly from one source to another, but common
Mineral definitions of Macro Minerals include:

1. Minerals found in a typical adult human body in quantities greater than

335g.

2. Minerals required by a typical adult human body in quantities greater

than 100mg per day.

Micro Definitions vary slightly from one source to another, but common
Mineral definitions of Micro Minerals include:

1. Minerals found in a typical adult human body in quantities less than 5g.

2. Minerals required by a typical adult human body in quantities of 1mg-

100mg per day.

Trace Chemical element (as opposed to organic compound, as in the case of

Element vitamins) required in minute concentrations for normal bodily development
and growth.
There is some overlap between the classification of elements as "Micro
Minerals" and "Trace Elements"; different textbooks favouring one or other

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 category for elements such as copper, manganese, zinc and others.
In the case of "Trace Elements", `of the two definitions stated above, No.2
(relating to the typical daily requirement) may be the most helpful because
according to this definition Trace Elements are described as "Minerals
required by a typical human body in quantities of less than 1mg per day".
Examples of Trace Elements include:
Flourine; Iodine; Cobalt; Molybdenum; Silicon, and others.

Minerals act as nutrients and are essential to many processes in the body, including the
functioning of the heart and digestive system and bone formation. Some key minerals we
need include Boron, Calcium, Chloride, Chromium, Copper, Iron, Fluoride, Iodine,
Magnesium, Manganese, Molybdenum, Phosphorus, Potassium, Selenium, Sodium and Zinc.
These are also needed in small amounts but are important for our body's basic growth &
structure. There are some 50 minerals in our body serving important functions like
formation of bones & teeth, formation of blood, hair growth, nail growth, skin integrity etc.
Food sources include - egg, 3meat, milk, cheese, nuts, vegetables, beans, banana, orange,
melons, salt etc.
Water
Water is essential to human life. Half of our weight is water. The body loses and needs to
replace water every day. The typical suggestion is 8 glasses of liquid every day.

Task 2: Identifying chemical components of macro

nutrients
Macro nutrients
Macro nutrients constitute the bulk of the food we eat, they provide energy and chemical
building-blocks for tissues.
CHEMICAL COMPONENTS OF MACRONUTRIENTS
Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates serve as the main energy source for the human body. Chemically,
carbohydrates are organic molecules in which carbon, hydrogen and oxygen bond together
in the ratio: Cx(H2O)y where x and y are some whole numbers. Animals break down
carbohydrates during metabolism to release energy. This reaction is shown below for the
carbohydrate glucose:
C6H12O6 + 6 O2 6 CO2 + 6 H2O + energy
Animals obtain carbohydrates by eating food that contains them, such as plant material.
Plants manufacture carbohydrates by harvesting energy from sunlight to run the above
reaction in reverse, as shown below:
6 CO2 + 6 H2O + energy (from sunlight) C6H12O6 + 6 O2
Carbohydrates come in 2 types: the simple sugars and the complex carbohydrates.
 Simple Sugars: Simple sugars are sweet in taste and are broken down quickly in the
body to release energy (as shown in the reaction at top). The basic unit in a

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 carbohydrate is the sugar, or saccharide, unit. The simplest sugars are the
monosaccharides, these are sugars that are composed of a single saccharide molecule.
Three of the most common monosaccharides are glucose, fructose and galactose.
Fructose is the main sugar found in many fruits. The structure of these
monosaccharides are shown below:

glucose fructose galactose

As you can see, all three monosaccharides are similar, differing in structure only in
the position of the =O group or in the orientation of an -OH group. These structural
differences are an important feature of the monosaccarides. In water, the
monosaccharides shown above actually link to themselves to form a ring structure.
Disaccharides are also simple sugars that taste sweet and are easily broken down to
release energy in the body. Disaccharides are formed when 2 monosaccharides
molecules bond together. A water molecule is eliminated when this reaction takes
place. Two of the most common disaccharides are sucrose, commonly known as table
sugar, and lactose, or milk sugar. Sucrose is a disaccharide consisting of 1 glucose
molecule linked to one fructose molecule. Lactose consists of a glucose molecule
bonded to a galactose molecule.

 Complex Carbohydrates: The complex carbohydrates are polymers of simple sugars.

A polymer (simply translated as 'many parts') is a molecule that consists of repeating
units of a smaller molecule. For example, a chain can be thought of as a polymer of
the links in the chain. The complex carbohydrates are molecules in which many
mono-, or di-, saccharides bond together in a chain. The three most common complex
carbohydrates are: starch, glycogen and cellulose:
o Starch is a straight chain polymer of glucose. Plants manufacture starch by
bonding many glucose molecules end-to-end as a means of storing energy for
future use. Animals can digest starch easily by breaking it down into glucose
and using the sugar as an energy source. Some common sources of starch are
potatoes, bread (made from grains), beans, corn, etc.
o Glycogen is also a polymer of glucose. But rather than a straight chain of
glucose units, glycogen is a more highly branched chain of glucose
molecules. Glycogen is the main energy reserve in animals. When excess
glucose is eaten by an animal, this glucose is bonded together to form
glycogen molecules which the animal stores in the liver and muscle tissue as
an "instant" source of energy.

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 o Cellulose is yet a third polymer of the monosaccharide glucose. Cellulose
differs from starch and glycogen because the glucose-to-glucose bonds in
cellulose are different and are much more difficult to break apart. Most
animals (with the exception of cockroaches, cows and some other creatures)
cannot digest cellulose. Since plants do not have bones to provide support for
the plant, cellulose is used as a structural molecule to support leaves and other
plant parts. Despite the fact that it cannot be used as an energy source in most
animals, cellulose in the diet is often referred to as dietary fiber. Fiber helps
exercise the digestive track and keep it clean and healthy.

Fats
Fats are a sub-group of compounds found in living organisms that are insoluble in water
known as lipids. Fats are triglycerides, molecules made from the reaction of one molecule of
glycerol with three fatty acids, as depicted in the reaction below:

Fats serve several nutritional purposes. First, fats can be used as a reserve, or long-term,
source of energy in animals. During periods of low food consumption, fat reserves in the
body can be mobilized and broken down to release energy. Fats serve as an insulation
material to allow body heat to be conserved and also lining and protecting delicate internal
organs from physical damage. In addition, fats are essential to the proper maintenance of
cell membranes in the body and are used in the production of certain hormones and
steroids.
Fats can be classified as either saturated or unsaturated depending on the number of
carbon-carbon double bonds in the Fatty Acid chains of the molecule. Fats that contain no
or few double bonds are referred to as saturated fats. These fats tend to be solid at room
temperature, such as butter or lard. The consumption of saturated fats carries some health
risks in that they have been linked to arteriosclerosis (hardening of the arteries) and heart
disease. Unsaturated fats contain more double bonds in their structure. These fats are
generally liquids at room temperature (fats that are liquid at room temperature are referred
to as oils). Monounsaturated fats, such as olive oil and canola oil, appear to be particularly
beneficial in the fight against heart disease.
Proteins
Proteins are polymers of amino acids. While there are hundreds of thousands of
different proteins that exist in nature, they are all made up of different combinations of just
20 amino acids. Proteins are large molecules that may consist of hundreds, or even

411
thousands of amino acids. The 20 amino acids found in nature all have the general
structure:

Where the R group at bottom varies depending on the specific amino acid in question. This R
group can be simply an H atom, as in the amino acid glycine, or a more complex organic
structure. When 2 amino acids bond together, the OH group highlighted in red above is
released from one amino acid, and the H atom highlighted in red is released from a second
amino acid. The nitrogen from the second amino acid then bonds to the carbon from the first
to create a peptide bond, as illustrated below (the peptide bond is highlighted in red).

A Peptide Bond
In proteins, many peptide bonds form between many amino acids to create long chains
(thus proteins are also called polypeptides because they contain many peptide bonds).
Proteins serve many purposes in the body. Structural proteins such as keratin and
collagen are the main ingredients in your hair, muscles, tendons and skin and help give
structure to the body. In addition to adding structure, other proteins perform a wide range
of functions in the human body. Amylase is a protein that helps your body digest starch, the
protein hemoglobin is responsible for transporting oxygen in the blood stream, insulin helps
regulate the storage of glucose in the body and the list goes on and on. There are an
estimated 100,000 different proteins in the human body alone. Each has a different
structure and performs a different function in the body.
Because proteins perform such specific tasks in the body, each protein has to be
manufactured in the body to suit the individual's specific needs. When an animal eats
protein, that protein is broken down in the digestive tract into its individual amino acids.
These amino acids are then recombined in the body in the specific sequence needed to form
whichever protein the animal needs at that point in time. Thus protein in food is just a
source of amino acids. Some good food sources of protein include beans, milk and cheese,
fish and meats.
General Nutrition
In addition to the macronutrients described above, there are many micronutrients
(substances needed in small amounts) essential to healthy living. These micronutrients
include the vitamins and minerals. A healthy diet includes the proper ratio of
macronutrients along with the essential quantities of micronutrients. The U.S. Department
of Agriculture has put together a Food Pyramid to help educate the public on a proper diet.

412
 The food groups at the bottom of the pyramid, including the grains and cereals, should make
up the largest portion of an individual's diet. Those groups at the top of the pyramid,
including the fats and oils, should make up
the smallest portion of the diet.

Task 3: Outlining the properties of nutrients

Task 4: Explaining the functions of nutrients and other
food components
FUNCTIONS OF PROTEINS
Functions of Protein
Protein has a range of essential functions in the body, including the following:
 Required for building and repair of body tissues (including muscle)
 Enzymes, hormones, and many immune molecules are proteins
 Essential body processes such as water balancing, nutrient transport, and muscle
contractions require protein to function.
 Protein is a source of energy.
 Protein helps keep skin, hair, and nails healthy.
 Protein, like most other essential nutrients, is absolutely crucial for overall good
health.

Proteins are, in effect, the main ‘actioners’ in cells and in an entire organism. Without
proteins the most basic functions of life could not be carried out. Respiration, for example,
requires muscle contractions, and muscle contractions require proteins.
Proteins as Enzymes
The function of proteins as enzymes is perhaps their best-known function. Enzymes are
catalysts—they initiate a reaction between themselves and another protein, working on the
molecule to change it in some way.
The enzyme, however, is itself unchanged at the end of the reaction.
Enzymes are responsible for catalyzing reactions in processes such as metabolism, DNA
replication, and digestion.
In fact, enzymes are known to be involved in some 4,000 bodily reactions.

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Proteins in Cellular Signaling and Molecular Transport
Cells signal one another for an enormous variety of reasons, the most basic of which is
simply to coordinate cellular activities. Signaling is how cells communicate with one another,
allowing such essential processes as the contraction of the heart muscle to take place.
Proteins are important in these processes due to their ability to bind other molecules—a
protein produced by one cell may bind to a molecule produced by another, thus providing a
chemical signal which allows the cells to provide information about their state. Proteins are
also involved in molecular transport. A prime example of this is the protein called
hemoglobin, which binds iron molecules and transports them in the blood from the lungs to
organs and tissues throughout the body.
FUCTIONS OF CARBOHYDRATES
Carbohydrates have six major functions within the body:
1. Providing energy and regulation of blood glucose
2. Sparing the use of proteins for energy
3. Breakdown of fatty acids and preventing ketosis
4. Biological recognition processes
5. Flavor and Sweeteners
6. Dietary fiber

Providing energy and regulating blood glucose

Glucose is the only sugar used by the body to provide energy for its tissues. Therefore, all
digestible polysaccharides, disaccharides, and monosaccharides must eventually be
converted into glucose or a metabolite of glucose by various liver enzymes. Because of its
significant importance to proper cellular function, blood glucose levels must be kept
relatively constant.
Among the enormous metabolic activities the liver performs, it also includes regulating the
level of blood glucose. During periods of food consumption, pancreatic beta cells sense the
rise in blood glucose and begin to secrete the hormone insulin. Insulin binds to many cells in
the body having appropriate receptors for the peptide hormone and causes a general
uptake in cellular glucose. In the liver, insulin causes the uptake of glucose as well as the
synthesis of glycogen, a glucose storage polymer. In this way, the liver is able to remove
excessive levels of blood glucose through the action of insulin.
In contrast, the hormone glucagons is secreted into the bloodstream by pancreatic alpha
cells upon sensing falling levels of blood glucose. Upon binding to targeted cells such as
skeletal muscle and brain cells, glucagon acts to decrease the amount of glucose in the
bloodstream. This hormone inhibits the uptake of glucose by muscle and other cells and
promotes the breakdown of glycogen in the liver in order to release glucose into the blood.
Glucagon also promotes gluconeogenesis, a process involving the synthesis of glucose from
amino acid precursors. Through the effects of both glucagon and insulin, blood glucose can
usually be regulated in concentrations between 70 and 115mg/100 ml of blood.
Other hormones of importance in glucose regulation are epinephrine and cortisol. Both
hormones are secreted from the adrenal glands, however, epinephrine mimics the effects of
glucagon while cortisol mobilizes glucose during periods of emotional stress or exercise.

414
Despite the liver's unique ability to maintain homeostatic levels of blood glucose, it only
stores enough for a twenty-four hour period of fasting. After twenty four hours, the tissues
in the body that preferentially rely on glucose, particularly the brain and skeletal muscle,
must seek an alternative energy source. During fasting periods, when the insulin to
glucagons ratio is low, adipose tissue begins to release fatty acids into the bloodstream.
Fatty acids are long hydrocarbon chains consisting of single carboxylic acid group and are
not very soluble in water. Skeletal muscle begins to use fatty acids for energy during resting
conditions; however, the brain cannot afford the same luxury. Fatty acids are too long and
bulky to cross the blood-brain barrier. Therefore, proteins from various body tissues are
broken down into amino acids and used by the liver to produce glucose for the brain and
muscle. This process is known as gluconeogenesis or "the production of new glucose." If
fasting is prolonged for more than a day, the body enters a state called ketosis. Ketosis
comes from the root word ketones and indicates a carbon atom with two side groups
bonded to an oxygen atom. Ketones are produced when there is no longer enough
oxaloacetate in the mitochondria of cells to condense with acetyl CoA formed from fatty
acids. Oxaloacetate is a four-carbon compound that begins the first reaction of the Krebs
Cycle, a cycle containing a series of reactions that produces high-energy species to
eventually be used to produce energy for the cell. Since oxaloacetate is formed from
pyruvate (a metabolite of glucose), a certain level of carbohydrate is required in order to
burn fats. Otherwise, fatty acids cannot be completely broken down and ketones will be
produced.

Sparing Protein and Preventing Ketosis

So why are carbohydrates important if the body can use other carbon compounds such as
fatty acids and ketones as energy? First of all, maintaining a regular intake of carbohydrates
will prevent protein from being used as an energy source. Gluconeogenesis will slow down
and amino acids will be freed for the biosyntheses of enzymes, antibodies, receptors and
other important proteins. Furthermore, an adequate amount of carbohydrates will prevent
the degradation of skeletal muscle and other tissues such as the heart, liver, and kidneys.
Most importantly, ketosis will be prevented. Although the brain will adapt to using ketones
as a fuel, it preferentially uses carbohydrates and requires a minimum level of glucose
circulating in the blood in order to function properly. Before the adaptation process occurs,
lower blood glucose levels may cause headaches in some individuals. To prevent these
ketotic symptoms, it is recommended that the average person consume at least 50 to 100g
of carbohydrates per day.
Although the processes of protein degradation and ketosis can create problems of their own
during prolonged fasting, they are adaptive mechanisms during glucose shortages. In
summary, the first priority of metabolism during a prolonged fast is to provide enough
glucose for the brain and other organs that dependent upon it for energy in order to spare
proteins for other cellular functions. The next priority of the body is to shift the use of fuel
from glucose to fatty acids and ketone bodies. From then on, ketones become more and
more important as a source of fuel while fatty acids and glucose become less important.

Flavour and Sweeteners

A less important function of carbohydrates is to provide sweetness to foods. Receptors
located at the tip of the tongue bind to tiny bits of carbohydrates and send what humans

415
perceive as a "sweet" signal to the brain. However, different sugars vary in sweetness. For
example, fructose is almost twice as sweet as sucrose and sucrose is approximately 30%
sweeter than glucose.
Sweeteners can be classified as either nutritive or alternative. Nutritive sweeteners have all
been mentioned before and include sucrose, glucose, fructose, high fructose corn syrup,
and lactose. These types of sweeteners not only impart flavor to the food, but can also be
metabolized for energy. In contrast, alternative sweeteners provide no food energy and
include saccharin, cyclamate, aspartame, and acesulfame. Controversy over saccharin and
cyclamate as artificial sweeteners still exists but aspartame and acesulfame are used
extensively in many foods in the United States. Aspartame and acesulfame are both
hundreds of times sweeter than sucrose but only acesulfame is able to be used in baked
goods since it is much more stable than aspartame when heated.

Dietary Fibre
Dietary fibres such as cellulose, hemicellulose, pectin, gum and mucilage are important
carbohydrates for several reasons. Soluble dietary fibres like pectin, gum and mucilage pass
undigested through the small intestine and are degraded into fatty acids and gases by the
large intestine. The fatty acids produced in this way can either be used as a fuel for the large
intestine or be absorbed into the bloodstream. Therefore, dietary fibre is essential for
proper intestinal health.
In general, the consumption of soluble and insoluble fibres makes the elimination of waste
much easier. Since dietary fibre is both indigestible and an attractant of water, stools
become large and soft. As a result, faeces can be expelled with less pressure. However, not
enough fibre consumption will change the constitution of the stool and increase the amount
of force required during defecation. Excessive pressure during the elimination of waste can
force places in the large intestine wall out from between bands of smooth muscle to
produce small pouches called diverticula. Hemorrhoids may also result from unnecessary
strain during defecation.
The disease of having many diverticula in the large intestine is known as diverticulosis.
Although diverticula is often asymptomatic, food particles become trapped in their folds and
bacteria begin to metabolize the particles into acids and gases. Eventually, the diverticula
may become inflamed, a condition known as diverticulitis. To combat the disease,
antibiotics are administered to the patient to destroy the bacteria while the intake of fiber
in the diet is decreased until the inflammation has subsided. Once the inflammation has
been reduced, a high fiber diet is begun to prevent a relapse.
Besides the prevention of intestinal disease, diets high in fiber have other health benefits.
High fiber intake reduces the risk of developing obesity by increasing the bulk of a meal
without yielding much energy. An expanded stomach leads to satisfaction despite the fact
that the caloric intake has decreased.
Beyond dieters, diabetics can also benefit from consuming a regular amount of dietary fiber.
Once in the intestine, it slows the absorption of glucose to prevent a sudden increase in
blood glucose levels. A relatively high intake of fiber will also decrease the absorption of
cholesterol, a compound that is thought to contribute to atherosclerosis or scarring of the
arteries. Serum cholesterol may be further reduced by a reduction in the release of insulin
after meals. Since insulin is known to promote cholesterol synthesis in the liver, a reduction

416
in the absorption of glucose after meals through the consumption of fiber can help to
control serum cholesterol levels. Furthermore, dietary fiber intake may help prevent colon
cancer by diluting potential carcinogens through increased water retention, binding
carcinogens to the fiber itself and speeding the passage of food through the intestinal tract
so that cancer-causing agents have less time to act.

Biological Recognition Processes

Carbohydrates not only serve nutritional functions, but are also thought to play important
roles in cellular recognition processes. For example, many immunoglobulins (antibodies) and
peptide hormones contain glycoprotein sequences. These sequences are composed of
amino acids linked to carbohydrates. During the course of many hours or days, the
carbohydrate polymer linked to the rest of the protein may be cleaved by circulating
enzymes or be degraded spontaneously. The liver can recognize differences in length and
may internalize the protein in order to begin its own degradation. In this way, carbohydrates
may mark the passage of time for proteins.
FUNCTIONS OF FAT
The various functions of fat are:-

The Caloric Value Of Fat

Among the many functions of fats in the body is that they provide a lot of energy in the form
of calories.
Calories are a measure of the heat produced by the utilization of foods in the body.
Carbohydrates and proteins produce four Calories of heat per gram. Carbohydrates, proteins,
and fats are all composed of hydrogen, oxygen, and carbon, but fats don't have enough
oxygen built into their structures to allow for breakdown. Oxygen has to be added into the
mix from the oxygen in the blood.

This process is called oxidation and it gives rise to a great deal more caloric heat than is
involved in the breakdown of carbohydrates or proteins, which do have sufficient oxygen.
The heat value of a pound of fat is equal to the heat value of two and 1/4 pounds of
carbohydrate or protein. This is why we say that fat has 9 Calories per gram while
carbohydrates have only 4 Calories.

Body Fat As Storage of Energy

Body fat provides the most important reservoir of stored energy as adipose tissue. Even in a
person who is not overweight, body fat still makes up about 10 percent of their body weight.
From a survival standpoint, this is absolutely critical, since in periods of low food availability
or during a famine situation, a person must live off his/her stored body fat or perish.

This is how we obtain energy from the stored body fats. As we have seen, fats are made up of
glycerol combined with fatty acids. The glycerol is broken away from the fatty acids, and can
then be converted into glucose for immediate use, and to glycogen for storage and later use.
About 10 percent of the fat we eat converts to sugars in a process called glyconeogensis

Fats Also Serve As Transporters

Another very important function of fats is the transportation and use of vitamins A, D, E, K,
417
and for other substances which are fat soluble. Without fat in the diet, those vitamins would
not be able to function. This would result in severe problems with eyesight, skin, nail
formation, blood clotting, kidney function, bone growth and repair, reproductive functions,
and cellular energy. Additionally, some of the fatty acids that make up fats are absolutely
necessary for life. They are called essential fatty acids (or EFAs), because they must be eaten.

Fats slow stomach digestion and passage of foods through the intestinal path. This important
fat function gives the body the necessary time to absorb the essential nutrients in the protein
food, which historically has been in shorter supply.

Additional Functions Of Fat

 Fat, in the form of structural body fat, provides important protection for the vital
internal organs.
 Fat is a fairly poor conductor of heat, body fat in the subcutaneous tissues (under the
skin) acts as insulation, and tends to prevent loss of body heat.
 Fats are required for brain structure.
 Substances made from fats also provide the covering for nerves, and thereby allows
nerves to carry the impulses necessary to function.
 Fat provides the makeup of the walls of cells, the cell membranes, which are required
to allow the passage in and out of essential chemicals.
 Fats are part of the structure of the skin which literally holds us together. The skin is
often overlooked as being important for existence, but consider what would happen if
the skin were to 'come apart' like old fabric.
 Fats are necessary for the production of hormones to regulate and initiate body
activities.
 Another function of dietary fats is the stimulation of the flow of bile, and the
emptying of the gallbladder. Bile, is important in the body's elimination of the waste
products created by the normal breakdown of red blood cells. If the bile does not
leave the gallbladder as it should, gallstones may form.
 Fat is absolutely necessary for milk production in nursing mothers, and is required
during pregnancy for the proper development of the child.
 Fat is also necessary for the normal body development of children, once born.

FUNCTIONS OF VITAMINS

Function:
Each vitamin has specific functions. If levels of a particular vitamin are inadequate, a
deficiency disease results.
Vitamin A helps in the formation and maintenance of healthy teeth, skeletal and soft tissue,
mucous membranes, and skin. It is also known as retinol because it generates the pigments
that are necessary for the working of the retina. It promotes good vision, especially in dim
light. Vitamin A may also be required for reproduction and breast-feeding. Beta-carotene is
a precursor to vitamin A that has antioxidant properties, helping the body deal with
unstable chemicals called free radicals.
Thiamine (B-1) helps the body cells convert carbohydrates into energy. It is also essential for
the functioning of the heart and for healthy nerve cells, including those in the brain.
promotes digestion, child growth; prevents fatigue and fat deposits in arteries

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Riboflavin (B-2) works with the other B vitamins and is important for body growth and red
blood cell production. Similar to thiamine, it helps in releasing energy from carbohydrates.
Niacin is a B vitamin that helps maintain healthy skin and nerves. It is also important for the
conversion of food to energy and may have cholesterol-lowering effects.
Vitamin B-6 is also known as pyridoxine. Aids metabolism of protein carbohydrates and fats
i.e the protein a person eats, the more vitamin B-6 is required to help the body use the
protein. It aids in the formation of red blood cells and in the maintenance of normal brain
function. It also assists in the synthesizing of antibodies in the immune system. It controls
cholesterol level; aids chemical balance between blood and tissue; prevents water retention
Vitamin B12 like the other B vitamins, is important for metabolism. It, too, helps in the
formation of red blood cells and in the maintenance of the central nervous system.It builds
nucleic acid; prevents pernicious anemia.
Pantothenic acid is essential for the metabolism of food. It is also essential in the synthesis
of hormones and cholesterol. Biotin is essential for the metabolism of proteins and
carbohydrates, and in the synthesis of hormones and cholesterol. Cholesterol is needed for
the functioning of cell membranes, particularly in the brain.
Folate (folic acid) works with vitamin B-12 in the production of red blood cells. It is
necessary for the synthesis of DNA, which controls heredity as well as tissue growth and cell
function. Any woman who may become pregnant should be sure to consume enough folate
-- low levels of this substance are associated with devastating birth defects such as spina
bifida. Many foods are now fortified with folic acid to help reduce the level of such birth
defects. Essential for function of Vitamins A, D, E, and K, forms red blood cells and nucleic
acid; improves circulation; aids digestion of proteins. May help some cancers. Reduces the
risk of coronary heart disease.
Vitamin D is also known as the "sunshine vitamin," since it is manufactured by the body
after being exposed to sunshine. Ten to 15 minutes of sunshine three times per week is
adequate to produce the body's requirement of vitamin D. This vitamin promotes the body's
absorption of calcium, which is essential for the normal development and maintenance of
healthy teeth and bones. It also helps maintain adequate blood levels of calcium and
phosphorus, which are minerals necessary for many functions. It also maintains nervous
system and heart action;

Vitamin E is also known as tocopherol and is an antioxidant, It protects body's store of

Vitamin A, tissues and fat from destructive oxidation, and breakdown of red corpuscles;
strengthens capillary walls; regulates menstrual rhythm; prevents loss of other vitamins;
aids blood flow to heart; lowers blood cholesterol and fatty acids; vital to cell health;
regulates protein and calcium It is also important in the formation of red blood cells and the
use of vitamin K.

Vitamin K is known as the clotting vitamin, because without it blood would not clot. Some
studies indicate that it helps in maintaining strong bones in the elderly.

.vitamin c: also called ascorbic acid is essential for the formation of collagen thus promotes
wound healing ; needed for absorption of iron, some proteins and folic acid; prevents
oxidation of other vitamins(is an antioxidant); aids in metabolism of amino acids and
419
calcium; stops internal bleeding; strengthens blood vessels maintains hard bones and teeth;
promotes healthy teeth and gums ;promotes stamina; holds body cells together prevents
infections, colds, fatigue and stress; reduces allergies; heals wounds and burns.

FUNCTIONS OF MINERALS

Summary Table
The following table (in alphabetical order within categories) includes basic information
about some functions of the major minerals used by the human body.

Mineral Functions Signs of Signs of

Deficiencies
Excessive Intake

Calcium Key Deficiency (or Formation of

(Ca)
constituent insufficient uptake) "stones" in the
of bones may lead to: body, especially
and teeth; Osteomalacia; the Gall Bladder
Essential for Osteoporosis; and the Kidneys.
vital Rickets;
metabolic Tetany.
processes
such as
nerve
function,
muscle
contraction,
and blood
clotting.

Iron (Fe) Essential for Deficiency may Long-term

transfer of lead to: excessive intake of
oxygen Anaemia; iron can lead to:
between Increased Haemochromatosi
tissues in susceptibility to s or
the body; infections. Haemosiderosis
(involving organ
damage), and both
of which are rare;
Insufficient
calcium and
magnesium in the
body (because
these minerals
compete with
each other for

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 absorption);
Increased
susceptibility to
infectious
diseases.

Magnesium Essential for Deficiency can Unusual.

(Mg)
healthy occur gradually,
bones; leading to:
Functioning Anxiety; Fatigue;
of muscle & Insomnia;
nervous Muscular
tissue; problems; Nausea;
Needed for Premenstrual
functioning problems.
of approx. The most extreme
90 enzymes. cases of deficiency
may be associated
with arrhythmia.

Phosphorou Constituent Insufficient Excess

s (P)
of bone phosphorous may phosphorous can
tissue; lead to: interfere with the
Forms Anaemia; body's absorption
compounds Demineralization of: calcium, iron,
needed for of bones; magnesium, and
energy Nerve disorders; zinc.
conversion Respiratory
reactions problems;
(e.g. Weakness;
adenosine Weight Loss.
triphosphat
e - ATP).

Potassium Main base Insufficient Excessive amounts

(K)
ion of potassium in the in the body
intracellular body may lead to: (whether due to
fluid; General muscle intake or other
Necessary paralysis; causes) may lead
to maintain Metabolic to:
electrical disturbances. Arrhythmia, and
potentials of ultimately cardiac
the nervous arrest ("heart
system - and attack").

421
 so Metabolic
functioning disturbances.
of muscle
and nerve
tissues.

Sodium (Na) Controls the Insufficient sodium Excessive amounts

volume of in the body may in the body
extracellular lead to: (whether due to
fluid in the Low blood intake or other
body; pressure; causes) may lead
Maintains General muscle to:
the acid- weakness/paralysis Hypernatraemia;
alkali (pH) ; De-hydration
balance in Mild Fever; (especially in
the body; Respiratory babies);
Necessary problems. Possible long-term
to maintain effects may
electrical include
potentials of hypertension.
the nervous
system - and
so
functioning
of muscle
and nerve
tissues.

Chromium Involved in Deficiency may

(Cr) the lead to:
functioning Confusion;
of skeletal Depression;
muscle. Irritability;
Weakness.

Copper (Cu) Part of the Insufficient copper

enzyme has been
copper- associated with:
zince changes in hair
superoxide colour & texture,
dismutase and hair loss;
(CuZn SOD); disturbances to the
Also present nervous system;
in other bone diseases.

422
 enzymes,
including Serious deficiency
cytochrome is rare but can lead
oxidase, to:
ascorbic Menke's
acid syndrome.
oxidase, and
tyrosinases;
Found in the
red blood
cells, and in
blood
plasma;

Manganese Antioxidant Deficiencies are Excessive intake

(Mn) properties; unusual but may has been
Fertility; lead to: associated with
Formation Bone deformities; brain conditions
of strong Rashes & skin such as symptoms
healthy conditions; similar to those
bones, Reduced hair resulting from
nerves, and growth; Parkinson's
muscles; Retarded growth disease.
Forms part (in children).
of the
enzyme
copper-
zince
superoxide
dismutase
(CuZn SOD)
system;

Selenium Antioxidant Deficiency may Excessive intake

(Se) properties lead to: can lead to
(prevents Cardiomyopathy; selenium
peroxidatio Kaschin-Beck poisoning.
n of lipids in disease (affects the
the cells); cartilage at joints).
Essential
component
of the
enzyme
glutathione
peroxidase;

423
 Contributes
to efficiency
of the
immune
system -
very wide
variety of
protective
functions
within the
body.

Sulphur (S) Healing Deficiency of

build-up of sulphur is unusual.
toxic
substances
in the body;
Structural
health of
the body
(sulphur is a
part of
many amino
acids incl.
cysteine and
methionine)
;
Healthy
skin, nails &
hair.

Zinc (Zn) Needed for: Deficiency is rare Excessive intake is

Functioning but may lead to: not a common
of many Lesions on the skin, problem but
(over 200) oesophagus and especially if zinc
enzymes; cornea; supplements are
Strong Retarded growth taken over an
immune (of children); extended period
system; Susceptibility to of time, can
infection. reduce the
absorption of
Copper (so Copper
supplements may
also be
appropriate).

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FUNCTIONS OF WATER IN HUMAN BODIES

Water serves many curative functions even in our day-to-day life. In fact, water is very
essential for maintaining the proper functioning of our body and sustaining us. It makes up
more than half of our body weight and caters to the requirements of various bodily needs.
Deficiency of water in the body can affect various functions and in severe conditions might
also lead to death.

Effects of Water Deficiency

 Low blood pressure
 Clotting of blood
 Kidney malfunction
 Severe constipation

Functions of Water in the Human Body

The functions given below will help you understand the role of water in our body:
 Water is essential for digesting food. It is also important for getting rid of various
toxic elements from the body, in the form of urine, sweat and fecal matter.
 Water helps to cushion our joints and prevents shocks in them.
 Water present in blood is the carrier of oxygen and nutrients to all our body cells.
 Water present in lymph (a fluid that is part of our immune system) helps the body to
fight against various diseases.
 Water helps to regulate and maintain our body temperature.
 Water prevents dehydration and thus, helps to maintain proper metabolism in our
body.

Task 5: Explaining the effects of the following

conditions on nutrients during production
procedures
- acid
- heat
- air
- water
- light

Task : SOURCES OF NUTRIENTS AND OTHER FOOD COMPONENTS

Nutrient Sources
wholemeal bread, wholegrain cereals, baked
Complex carbohydrate & fibre beans, pasta, potatoes, peas, other starchy
vegetables
lean meat, chicken, fish, cheese, milk, eggs,
Protein
bread, nuts, legumes

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 oils, butter, margarine, cream, meat, cheese,
Fat
pastry, biscuits, nuts
Vitamin A butter, margarine, cream, cheese, eggs, meat
Beta-carotene (converts to carrots, spinach, pumpkin, broccoli, tomatoes,
vitamin A) apricots, rockmelon
Fatty/canned fish, butter, margarine, cream,
Vitamin D
cheese, eggs
Polyunsaturated oils, polyunsaturated
margarine, nuts, olive oil, fatty fish and small
Vitamin E
amounts in wholegrain cereals and green
vegetables
Vitamin K green vegetables, cheese, butter, pork, eggs
Thiamin Wholegrain cereals, pork, bread, nuts, peas
milk, meat, eggs, cheese, wholegrain, cereals,
Riboflavin
nuts, mushrooms
fish, meat, peanuts, wholegrain cereals, nuts,
Niacin
mushrooms
eggs, wholegrain cereals, peanuts, fish, meat,
Pantothenic acid
vegetables
Wholegrain cereals, meat, fish, peanuts,
Vitamin B6
bananas
green vegetables, wholegrain cereals,
Folic acid
wholemeal bread, nuts
Vitamin B12 meat, fish, eggs, cheese, milk, oysters
Biotin eggs, cheese, milk, fish, wholegrain cereals
Oranges, tomatoes, potatoes, broccoli, cabbage,
Vitamin C
Brussels sprouts, Strawberries
cheese, milk, yoghurt, canned fish, nuts,
Calcium
sesame seeds ,dried fruit
meat, fish, poultry, eggs, milk, cheese, nuts,
Phosphorus
cereals, bread
meat, poultry, wholegrain cereals, wholemeal
Iron
bread, eggs
table salt, meat, milk, cheese, seafood, spinach,
Sodium
celery
Potatoes, bananas, oranges, apricots, other fruit
Potassium
and vegetables, meat, fish, nuts

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 Sea foods, milk and cereals and vegetables
Iodine from areas with high iodine content in the soil,
iodised table salt
oysters, meat, fish, poultry, eggs, wholegrain
Zinc
cereals, peanuts

Suggested Teaching /Learning Activities

- Textbooks
- manuals
- internet
- Food commodities
- Acids
- Bases
- Water pH scale
- Litmus paper

Evaluation
1. List types of nutrients and other useful components in food
2. Identify chemical components of macro nutrients
3. Outline the properties of nutrients
4. Explain the functions of nutrients and other food components
5. Explain the effects of the following conditions on nutrients
during production procedures
- acid
- heat
- air
- water
- light

7.1.31 NUTRITIONAL DISEASES AND DISORDERS

Theory
Specific Objectives
By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) list nutritional diseases and disorders
b) explain the causes of nutritional diseases and disorders
c) describe the signs and symptoms of nutritional diseases and disorders
d) discuss prevention and management of nutritional disorders

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Task 1: Listing nutritional diseases and disorders
Obesity
Dental caries
Coronary heart disease
Diabetes mellitus
Kwashiorkor
Marasmus
Anorexia nervosa
Food allergy
Iron deficiency anaemia
Chronic starvation.
Pellagra
Scurvy
Rickets
Nutritional anaemia
Osteomalacia
Beriberi
Keratomalacia
Gouts

Task 2: Explaining the causes of nutritional diseases and disorders

Kwashiorkor
Kwashiorkor is a virulent form of childhood malnutrition characterized by edema, irritability,
anorexia, ulcerating dermatoses, and an enlarged liver with fatty infiltrates. The presence of
edema caused by poor nutrition defines kwashiorkor.[1] The cause of kwashiorkor was
thought to be due to insufficient protein consumption alone, however micronutrient and
antioxidant deficiencies are now believed to play important roles.
Signs and symptoms
The defining sign of kwashiorkor in a malnourished child is pedal edema (swelling of the
feet). Other signs include a distended abdomen, an enlarged liver with fatty infiltrates,
thinning hair, loss of teeth, skin depigmentation and dermatitis. Children with kwashiorkor
often develop irritability and anorexia. [1]
Victims of kwashiorkor fail to produce antibodies following vaccination against diseases,
including diphtheria and typhoid.[5] Generally, the disease can be treated by adding food
energy and protein to the diet; however, it can have a long-term impact on a child's physical
and mental development, and in severe cases may lead to death.
Possible causes
There are various explanations for the development of kwashiorkor and the topic remains
controversial. It is now accepted that protein deficiency, in combination with energy and
micronutrient deficiency, is necessary but not sufficient to cause kwashiorkor [The condition
is likely due to deficiency of one of several types of nutrients (e.g., iron, folic acid, iodine,
selenium, vitamin C), particularly those involved with anti-oxidant protection. Important
anti-oxidants in the body that are reduced in children with kwashiorkor include glutathione,
albumin, vitamin E and polyunsaturated fatty acids. Therefore, if a child with reduced type
one nutrients or anti-oxidants is exposed to stress (e.g. an infection or toxin) he/she is more
liable to develop kwashiorkor.

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Anorexia nervosa
There are two main types: a general deficiency of calories and all nutrients; and deficiency of
specific nutrients. A general lack of nutrition may be caused by poor eating as a result of
severe illness or surgery. It may also be due to extreme dieting, general bad eating habits, or
deliberate starvation as occurs in the eating disorder anorexia nervosa. Some people may
neglect their diet because of other psychological problems such as alcohol dependance. A
general deficiency of nutrients may also result from poor absorption of food in the small
intestine - due to a specific intestinal disorder or a gastric bypass operation. Symptoms of a
general deficiency may include weight loss, muscle weakness, tiredness, as well as skin and
hair disorders.
Specific nutritional deficiencies may occur if people limit their diets because of certain
beliefs. In some cases malabsorption in the small intestine causes deficiency of a specific
nutrient. For example, the bowel disorder Crohn's Disease can affect the last section of the
small intestine (ileum) through which Vitamin B12 is absorbed. Specific nutritional
deficiencies may result in a variety of disorders. These include iron deficiency anemia and
the bone disorders osteomalacia and rickets caused by a lack of calcium or Vitamin D.
Vegetarians who fail to eat a balanced diet may often suffer from a lack of iron and other
micronutrients. Vegans will suffer from a deficiency of Vitamin B12 if they do not eat B12
fortified foods.

Marasmus
Signs and symptoms
Marasmus is a type of serious protein-energy malnutrition characterized by energy
deficiency, causing a look of emaciation since body weight is reduced to up 80% of the
normal weight for a patient’s height. Other common characteristics of marasmus include dry
skin and loose skin folds. The main symptom of marasmus is malnutrition, which can lead to
muscle and tissue wasting, edema, behavior changes and drastic loss of adipose tissue from
areas where fat deposits are normally present, such as thighs and buttocks.

Possible causes
Marasmus is caused by an unhealthy and excessive deficiency of almost all nutrients,
especially calories and protein.

Diabetes

Definition of Diabetes
Diabetes mellitus is a chronic disease caused by the inability of the pancreas to produce
insulin or to use the insulin produced in the proper way.

Description of Diabetes
After a meal, a portion of the food a person eats is broken down into sugar (glucose). The
sugar then passes into the bloodstream and to the body's cells via a hormone (called insulin)
that is produced by the pancreas.
Normally, the pancreas produces the right amount of insulin to accommodate the quantity
of sugar. However, if the person has diabetes, either the pancreas produces little or no
insulin or the cells do not respond normally to the insulin. Sugar builds up in the blood,

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overflows into the urine and then passes from the body unused. Over time, high blood sugar
levels can damage:
 eyes - leading to diabetic retinopathy and possible blindness
 blood vessels - increasing risk of heart attack, stroke and peripheral artery
obstruction
 nerves - leading to diabetic neuropathy, foot sores and possible amputation, possible
paralysis of the stomach, chronic diarrhea
 kidneys - leading to kidney failure

Diabetes has also been linked to impotence and digestive problems. It is important to note
that controlling blood pressure and blood glucose levels, plus regular screenings and check-
ups, can help reduce risks of these complications.
There are two main types of diabetes, Type I and Type II:
Type I diabetes or insulin-dependent diabetes (formerly called juvenile-onset
diabetes, because it tends to affect persons before the age of 20) affects about 10
percent of people with diabetes. With this type of diabetes, the pancreas makes
almost no insulin.
Type II diabetes or non-insulin-dependent diabetes. This was previously called
"adult-onset diabetes" because in the past it was usually discovered after age 40.
However, with increasing levels of obesity and sedentary lifestyle, this disease is now
being found more and more in adolescents - and sometimes even in children under
10 - and the term "adult onset" is no longer used.
Type II diabetes comprises about 90 percent of all cases of diabetes. With this type
of diabetes, either the pancreas produces a reduced amount of insulin, the cells do
not respond to the insulin, or both.
There are three less common types of diabetes called gestational diabetes, secondary
diabetes and impaired glucose tolerance (IGT):
Gestational diabetes occurs during pregnancy and causes a higher than normal
glucose level reading.
Secondary diabetes is caused by damage to the pancreas from chemicals, certain
medications, diseases of the pancreas (such as cancer) or other glands.
Impaired glucose tolerance (IGT) is a condition in which the person's glucose levels
are higher than normal.
Causes and Risk Factors of Diabetes
The cause of Type I diabetes is genetically based, coupled with an abnormal immune
response.
The cause of Type II diabetes is unknown. Medical experts believe that Type II diabetes has a
genetic component, but that other factors also put people at risk for the disease. These
factors include:
 sedentary lifestyle
 obesity (weighing 20 percent above a healthy body weight)
 advanced age
 unhealthy diet
 family history of diabetes
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  improper functioning of the pancreas
 minority race (higher risk in Black, Hispanic, American Indian, westernized Asian
and native Hawaiian populations)
 medication (cortisone and some high blood pressure drugs)
 women having given birth to a baby weighing more than 9 lbs.
 previously diagnosed gestational diabetes
 previously diagnosed IGT

Symptoms of Diabetes
Usually, the symptoms of Type I diabetes are obvious. That is not true for Type II. Many
people with Type II do not discover they have diabetes until they are treated for a
complication such as heart disease, blood vessel disease (atherosclerosis), stroke, blindness,
skin ulcers, kidney problems, nerve trouble or impotence.
The warning signs and symptoms for both types are:
Type I: Frequent urination, increased thirst, extreme hunger, unexplained weight loss,
extreme fatigue, blurred vision, irritability, nausea and vomiting.
Type II: Any Type I symptom, plus: unexplained weight gain, pain, cramping, tingling or
numbness in your feet, unusual drowsiness, frequent vaginal or skin infections, dry, itchy
skin and slow healing sores.
Note: If a person is experiencing these symptoms, they should see a doctor immediately.

Diagnosis of Diabetes
Besides a complete history and physical examination, the doctors will perform a battery of
laboratory tests. There are numerous tests available to diagnose diabetes, such as a urine test,
blood test, glucose-tolerance test, fasting blood sugar and the glycohemoglobin (HbA1c) test.
A urine sample will be tested for glucose and ketones (acids that collect in the blood and
urine when the body uses fat instead of glucose for energy).
A blood test is used to measure the amount of glucose in the bloodstream.
A glucose-tolerance test checks the body's ability to process glucose. During this test, sugar
levels in the blood and urine are monitored for three hours after drinking a large dose of
sugar solution.
The fasting blood sugar test involves fasting overnight and blood being drawn the next
morning.
The glycohemoglobin test reflects an average of all blood sugar levels for the preceding two
months.

Treatment of Diabetes
A landmark study, the 10-year, multi-center Diabetes Control and Complications Trial
(DCCT), has now shown that intensifying diabetes management with stricter control of blood
sugar levels can reduce long-term complications.
The results of DCCT are extraordinary in that they prove that tight control of glucose levels
can in fact dramatically slow the onset and progression of diabetic complications in both
Type I and Type II diabetes. Additionally, researchers have found strict attention to diet and
exercise also helps in the management of diabetes.

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Management of Type I Diabetes
Virtually everyone with Type I diabetes (and more than one in three people with
Type II) must inject insulin to make up for their deficiency. Until recently, insulin
came only from the pancreases of cows and pigs (with pork insulin more closely
duplicating human insulin). While beef, pork and beef/pork combinations are still
widely used, there are now two types of "human" insulin available: semisynthetic
(made by converting pork insulin to a form identical to human) and recombinant
(made by using genetic engineering). All insulin helps glucose levels remain near
normal (about 70 to 120 mg/dl).
Different types of insulin work for different periods of time. The numbers shown
below are only averages. The onset (how long it takes to reach the bloodstream to
begin lowering the blood sugar), peaking (how long it takes to reach maximum
strength) and duration (how long it continues to lower the blood sugar) of insulin
activity can vary from person to person and even from day to day in the same
person.
Rapid or Regular Activity: Onset is within half an hour and activity peaks during a 2 to
5 hour period. It remains in the bloodstream for about 8 to 16 hours. These fast-
acting, short-lasting insulins are useful in special cases: accidents, minor surgery or
illnesses, which cause the diabetes to go out of control or whenever insulin
requirements change rapidly for any reason. These are also being used more and
more in combination with a long-acting insulin or alone (prior to meals and at
bedtime).
Semilente: A special type of short-acting insulin that takes 1 to 2 hours for onset,
peaks 3 to 8 hours after injection and lasts 10 to 16 hours.
Intermediate-Acting: Reaching the bloodstream 90 minutes after injection,
intermediate-acting insulin peaks 4 to 12 hours later and lasts in the blood for about
24 hours. There are two varieties of this type of insulin: Lente (called L) and NPH
(called N).
Long-Acting: These insulins, which take 4 to 6 hours for onset, are at maximum
strength 14 to 24 hours after injection, lasting 36 hours in the bloodstream. Long-
acting insulin is referred to as U (for Ultralente).
Pellagra
Pellagra is a disease that is caused by a vitamin deficiency of niacin and/or tryptophan.
Niacin is one of the B complex vitamins that provides essential nutrients to the human body.
Tryptophan can be converted to niacin as long as there is not a protein deficiency in addition
to the niacin deficiency, because the body will create needed protein before niacin. The
human body is very complex and requires a lot of different vitamins and minerals to
maintain a healthy state, that is why the government and other health agencies recognize
similar standards for the daily intake of foods rich in the essential vitamins and minerals.
With the right balance of foods in a human beings diet, diseases like Pellagra can be
avoided.
Symptoms of Pellagra
The symptoms of Pellagra are skin irritations and sores that resemble scaly or dry skin in a
severe state or even large weeping sores. There is typically diarrhea and inflamed mucous

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membranes, causing someone suffering from Pellagra to have a sore mouth on top of
everything else. A high sensitivity to light, aggressive behavior and insomnia are also
reported symptoms. Mental confusion or delusions are a common symptom of this disease,
along with the potential for dementia if it goes untreated.
Treatment and Prevention of Pellagra
Pellagra is easily treated through receiving doses of niacin, although it must be done
carefully as overdosing on niacin can be very dangerous. Niacin in high amounts is
considered toxic to the body and can cause serious consequences if too much is
administered and too quickly. That is why a doctor or medical professional or some sort is a
must for dealing with this disease. However, preventing the disease is done simply through
maintaining a properly balanced diet. Most all plant and animal foods are rich in niacin, so it
is not difficult for those in a developed country to receive the proper amounts just by eating
normally. Foods that are especially high in niacin are yeast, all kinds of meat especially liver
and fish, any kind of beans or soy products such as kidney beans, green beans, pinto beans,
tofu and soy beans, milk and green leafy vegetables like lettuce, kale and spinach. Seeds are
another good source of niacin, like sunflower seeds, which also make a great snack.
Obesity
Overweight and obesity are defined as abnormal or excessive fat accumulation that
presents a risk to health. One of the measure of obesity is the body mass index (BMI), a
person’s weight (in kilograms) divided by the square of his or her height (in metres).
BMI = weight/height²
A person with a BMI of 30 or more is generally considered obese. A person with a BMI equal
to or more than 25 is considered overweight.
Overweight and obesity are major risk factors for a number of chronic diseases, including
diabetes, cardiovascular diseases and cancer. Once considered a problem only in high
income countries, overweight and obesity are now dramatically on the rise in low- and
middle-income countries, particularly in urban settings.

Dental caries
Dental caries, also known as tooth decay or cavity, is a disease wherein bacterial processes
damage hard tooth structure (enamel, dentin and cementum). These tissues progressively
break down, producing dental caries (cavities, holes in the teeth). If left untreated, the
disease can lead to pain, tooth loss, infection, and, in severe cases, death.
Tooth decay is caused by specific types of acid-producing bacteria that cause damage in the
presence of fermentable carbohydrates such as sucrose, fructose, and glucose. The mineral
content of teeth is sensitive to increases in acidity from the production of lactic acid.
Specifically, a tooth (which is primarily mineral in content) is in a constant state of back-and-
forth demineralization and remineralization between the tooth and surrounding saliva.
When the pH at the surface of the tooth drops below 5.5, demineralization proceeds faster
than remineralization (i.e. there is a net loss of mineral structure on the tooth's surface).
This results in the ensuing decay. Depending on the extent of tooth destruction, various
treatments can be used to restore teeth to proper form, function, and aesthetics, but there
is no known method to regenerate large amounts of tooth structure. Instead, dental health

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organizations advocate preventive and prophylactic measures, such as regular oral hygiene
and dietary modifications, to avoid dental caries.

Coronary heart disease

Coronary heart disease (CHD) is a narrowing of the small blood vessels that supply blood
and oxygen to the heart. CHD is also called coronary artery disease.
Coronary heart disease is usually caused by a condition called atherosclerosis, which occurs
when fatty material and a substance called plaque build up on the walls of your arteries.
This causes them to get narrow. As the coronary arteries narrow, blood flow to the heart
can slow down or stop. This can cause chest pain (stable angina), shortness of breath, heart
attack, and other symptoms.
Many things increase your risk for heart disease:
 heredity can increase your risk. You are more likely to develop the condition if
someone in your family has had a history of heart disease -- especially if they had it
before age 50. Your risk for CHD goes up the older you get.
 Diabetes is a strong risk factor for heart disease.
 High blood pressure increases your risk of coronary artery disease and heart failure.
 Abnormal cholesterol levels: your LDL ("bad") cholesterol should be as low as
possible, and your HDL ("good") cholesterol should be as high as possible.
 Metabolic syndrome refers to high triglyceride levels, high blood pressure, excess
body fat around the waist, and increased insulin levels. People with this group of
problems have an increased chance of getting heart disease.
 Smokers have a much higher risk of heart disease than nonsmokers.
 Chronic kidney disease can increase your risk.
 Already having atherosclerosis or hardening of the arteries in another part of your
body (examples are stroke and abdominal aortic aneurysm) increases your risk of
having coronary heart disease.
 Other risk factors including alcohol abuse, not getting enough exercise, and excessive
amounts of stress.

Symptoms
Chest pain or discomfort (angina) is the most common symptom. The pain usually occurs
with activity or emotion, and goes away with rest.

Other symptoms include shortness of breath and fatigue with activity (exertion).

Prevention and management

1. Management of risk factors.

2. Regular exercises
3. Lifestyle modification.

Food Allergy
Food allergy is an abnormal response to a food triggered by your body's immune system.
Allergic reactions to food can sometimes cause serious illness and death.

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In adults, the foods that most often trigger allergic reactions include
 Fish and shellfish, such as shrimp, lobster and crab
 Peanuts
 Tree nuts, such as walnuts
 Eggs

Problem foods for children are eggs, milk (especially in infants and young children) and
peanuts.
Sometimes a reaction to food is not an allergy. It is often a reaction called "food
intolerance". Your immune system does not cause the symptoms of food intolerance.
However, these symptoms can look and feel like those of a food allergy.
Signs and Symptoms

Symptoms of a food allergy usually develop within about an hour after eating the offending
food. The most common signs and symptoms of a food allergy include:

 Hives, itching, or skin rash

 Swelling of the lips, face, tongue and throat, or other parts of the body
 Wheezing, nasal congestion, or trouble breathing
 Abdominal pain, diarrhea, nausea, or vomiting
 Dizziness, lightheadedness, or fainting

In a severe allergic reaction to food—called anaphylaxis—one may have more extreme

versions of the above reactions. Or one may experience life-threatening signs and symp-
toms such as:
 Swelling of the throat and air passages that makes it difficult to breathe
 Shock, with a severe drop in blood pressure
 Rapid, irregular pulse
 Loss of consciousness

Management of allergies

 People allergic to certain food items should carefully read food labels before
consuming any product.
 medical alert bracelet or necklace or a card stating that one has a food allergy and are
subject to severe reactions should be worn.
 An auto-injector device containing epinephrine (adrenaline) one can get by
prescription should be carried and administered when one is experiencing a food
allergic reaction.
 Seek medical help immediately if you experience a food allergic reaction, even if you
have already given yourself epinephrine.

Chronic Starvation
Starvation is a severe reduction in vitamin, nutrient, and energy intake. It is the most
extreme form of malnutrition. In humans, prolonged starvation can cause permanent organ
damage ,and eventually death.

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Common causes
The basic cause of starvation is an imbalance between energy intake and energy
expenditure. In other words: the body expends more energy than it takes in as food. This
imbalance can arise from one or more medical conditions and/or circumstantial situations,
which can include:
Medical causes
 Anorexia nervosa
 Bulimia nervosa
 Coma
 Depression
 Diabetes mellitus
 Digestive disease

Circumstantial causes
 Famine for any reason, including overpopulation and war.
 Fasting, when done without proper medical supervision and lasting more than a
month.
 Poverty
 Deprivation

Signs and symptoms

Emmaciation
Vitamin deficiency is a common result of starvation, often leading to anemia, beriberi,
pellagra, and scurvy. Diarrhoea, skin rashes, edema,heart failure are also associated with it.
Individuals are often irritable and lethargic as a result.
Atrophy (wasting away) of the stomach weakens the perception of hunger, since the
perception is controlled by the percentage of the stomach that is empty. Victims of
starvation are often too weak to sense thirst, and therefore become dehydrated.
All movements become painful due to atrophy of the muscles, and due to dry, cracked skin
caused by severe dehydration. With a weakened body, diseases are commonplace. Fungi,
for example, often grow under the esophagus, making swallowing unbearably painful.
The energy deficiency inherent in starvation causes fatigue and renders the victim more
apathetic over time. As the starving person becomes too weak to move or even eat, his or
her interaction with the surroundings diminishes.
Management
Treat underlieng causes
Scurvy
Scurvy is a disease resulting from a deficiency of vitamin C, which is required for the
synthesis of collagen in humans. Scurvy leads to the formation of spots on the skin, spongy
gums, and bleeding from the mucous membranes. The spots are most abundant on the
thighs and legs, and a person with the ailment looks pale, feels depressed, and is partially
immobilized. In advanced scurvy there are open, wounds and loss of teeth.

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Vitamin C is widespread in plant tissues, with particularly high concentrations occurring in
citrus fruits (oranges, lemons, limes, grapefruits), tomatoes, potatoes, cabbages, and green
peppers.
Methods of prevention of Scurvy include
- Adequate diet - sources include citrus fruits (lemons, limes, oranges), berries,
capsicum, parsley, pawpaw, leafy green vegetables.
- Vitamin C supplements

Rickets
Rickets is a softening of bones in children potentially leading to fractures and deformity.
Rickets is among the most frequent childhood diseases in many developing countries. The
predominant cause is a vitamin D deficiency, but lack of adequate calcium in the diet may
also lead to rickets (cases of severe diarrhea and vomiting may be the cause of the
deficiency). Although it can occur in adults, the majority of cases occur in children suffering
from severe malnutrition, usually resulting from famine or starvation during the early stages
of childhood. Osteomalacia is the term used to describe a similar condition occurring in
adults, generally due to a deficiency of vitamin D.
Long-term consequences include permanent bends or disfiguration of the long bones, and a
curved back.
Vitamin D is required for proper calcium absorption from the gut. Sunlight, especially
ultraviolet light, lets human skin cells convert Vitamin D from an inactive to active state.
Symptoms
Signs and symptoms of rickets include:
 Bone pain or tenderness
 dental problems
 muscle weakness
 increased tendency for fractures (easily broken bones),
 Skeletal deformity
o Toddlers: Bowed legs
o Older children: Knock-knees
o Cranial, spinal, and pelvic deformities
 Growth disturbance
 Hypocalcemia (low level of calcium in the blood), and
 Tetany (uncontrolled muscle spasms all over the body).
 soft skull

Long-term consequences include permanent bends or disfiguration of the long bones, and a
curved back.

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Prevention of Rickets:
Methods of prevention of Rickets mentioned in various sources includes :-
- Sunlight exposure
- Vitamin D
- Adequate diet
- Cod liver oil - a good source of Vitamin D

Treatments for Rickets

Treatments to consider for Rickets may include:
 Adequate diet
 High-calcium high-phosphorous diet
 Vitamin D supplements
 Cod liver oil

Osteomalacia
Osteomalacia is the softening of the bones due to defective bone mineralization. It may
show signs as diffuse body pains, muscle weakness, and fragility of the bones. A common
cause of the disease is a deficiency in vitamin D, which is normally obtained from the diet
and/or sunlight exposure.
Causes
The causes of adult osteomalacia are varied.
 Insufficient sunlight exposure, especially in dark-skinned subjects
 Insufficient nutritional quantities or faulty metabolism of vitamin D or phosphorus
 Renal tubular acidosis
 Malnutrition during pregnancy
 Malabsorption syndrome
 Chronic renal failure
 Tumor-induced osteomalacia
 Long-term anticonvulsant therapy
 Celiac disease

Signs and Symptoms

 Weak bones

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  Bone pain
 Muscle weakness
 Hypocalcemia
 Easy fracturing

Treatment
- Exposure to sufficient and direct sunlight.
- Eating foods rich in Vitamin D is recommended.
- Calcium and phosphorous intake should also be increased
- Supplements may be administered in some cases

Beriberi
Beriberi is a nervous system ailment caused by a deficiency of thiamine (vitamin B1) in the
diet. Thiamine is involved in the breakdown of energy molecules such as glucose and is also
found on the membranes of neurons. Symptoms of beriberi include severe lethargy and
fatigue, together with complications affecting the cardiovascular, nervous, muscular, and
gastrointestinal systems.
Description and Treatment
Beriberi is a disease in which the body does not have enough thiamine (vitamin B1).
There are two major types of beriberi:
 Wet beriberi affects the cardiovascular system.
 Dry beriberi and Wernicke-Korsakoff syndrome affect the nervous system.

Beriberi occurs mostly in patients who abuse alcohol. Drinking heavily can lead to poor
nutrition, and excess alcohol makes it harder for the body to absorb and store thiamine.

Symptoms of dry beriberi:

 Difficulty walking
 Loss of feeling (sensation) in hands and feet
 Loss of muscle function or paralysis of the lower legs
 Mental confusion/speech difficulties
 Pain
 Strange eye movements (nystagmus)
 Tingling
 Vomiting

Symptoms of wet beriberi:

 Awakening at night short of breath
 Increased heart rate
 Shortness of breath with activity
 Swelling of the lower legs

Prevention
Eating a proper diet that is rich in thiamine and other vitamins will prevent beriberi.
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Nursing mothers should make sure that their diet contains all vitamins .
People who drink heavily should try to cut down or quit, and take B vitamins to make sure
their body is properly absorbing and storing thiamine.

Treatment
 Eating food rich in thiamine be recommended.
 Supplementation may be necessary in some cases.
 Other types of vitamins may also be recommended.

Nutritional Anaemia
Anaemia is a condition that is characterised by very low levels of healthy red blood cells
(RBCs) or haemoglobin (the component of RBCs that delivers oxygen to tissues throughout
the body
Nutritional anaemia is caused by deficiency of nutrients required for the formation of RBCs.
Nutrients that are essential for formation of normal blood cells are iron, folic acid, vitamin
B12, vitamin B6 and vitamin C. Among nutritional anaemia, iron deficiency anaemia is the
most common anaemia in India. Nutritional megaloblastic anaemia (caused by deficiency of
vitamin B12 and folic acid) is the other common nutritional anaemia. These anaemia are due
to reduced intake, impaired absorption and increased losses, or may be because of the
body's increased demand of nutrients.
Symptoms of Anaemia
Weakness, fatigue and lethargy may be signs of mild anaemia. A pale skin, lack of colour in
the creases of the palm, gums, nail beds, or lining of the eyelids are other signs of anaemia.
Someone who is weak, tires easily and is often out of breath, and feels faint or dizzy may be
severely anaemic. Some other symptoms of anaemia are:
 Pica (craving for abnormal things, such as ice)
 Headaches
 Inability to concentrate, memory loss
 Inflammation of the mouth or tongue
 Insomnia
 Irregular heartbeat
 Loss of appetite
 Rapid breathing
 Sweating
 Thirst

Types of Anaemia
There are numerous types of anaemia, ranging from nutritional, congenital, anaemia of
chronic disease and haemolytic, to the rare ones. Following is a list of the various types of
anaemia:
 Iron deficiency anaemia.
 Folic acid deficiency anaemia.
 Vitamin B12 deficiency anaemia/pernicious anaemia

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  Vitamin C deficiency anaemia

Iron Deficiency Anaemia

Iron deficiency anaemia is the most common form of anaemia in the world. The onset of
iron deficiency anaemia is gradual. At first, there may not be any symptoms. The deficiency
begins when the body loses more iron than it derives from food and other sources. As a
result, fewer RBCs develop. In the early stage of this anaemia, RBCs look normal but are
reduced in number. Then the body tries to compensate for the iron deficiency by producing
more RBCs, which are characteristically small in size. Symptoms develop at this stage.
Causes and preventions:
 Iron deficiency anaemia occurs because of reduced intake or absorption of iron;
adequate iron-containing foods must be included to form a part of the diet.

 Increased loss of iron as seen in bleeding disorders or in hookworm infestation can

cause this anaemia; treatment for worms should be done regularly and good personal
hygiene must be followed.

 Due to increased demand as seen during pregnancy or adolescence; iron supplements

should be given if found necessary.

Iron in the diet: Iron deficiency anaemia can occur at any age group. Dietary iron comes
from two sources; animal products containing haem iron and plant sources containing non-
haem iron. Cooking of food in iron pots also contributes to iron in the diet. Even though
breast milk contains less iron content, it has better absorption and bio-availability of iron as
compared to other milks.
Iron absorption is increased in presence of vitamin C. Therefore, inclusion of vitamin C rich
foods in meals will enhance iron absorption. Tannin in tea can inhibit iron absorption.
Therefore, drinking tea with meals should be avoided.
Folic Acid Deficiency Anaemia
This sort of nutritional anaemia is the most common type of megaloblastic anaemia (in
which RBCs are bigger than normal). It is caused by the deficiency of folic acid, a vitamin
that the body needs to produce normal cells.
Folic acid anaemia is especially common in infants and teenagers. Although this condition
usually results from a dietary deficiency, it is sometimes due to the body's inability to absorb
enough folic acid from foods such as cheese, eggs, fish, milk, meat, mushrooms and green
vegetables.

Vitamin B12 Deficiency Anaemia

Another megaloblastic anaemia, vitamin B12 deficiency anaemia is less common than folic
acid anaemia. It develops when the body does not absorb enough of this nutrient. Vitamin
B12 is necessary for the creation of RBCs and is found in meat and vegetables. Large
amounts of B12 are stored in the body, so this condition may not become apparent until as
much as four years after B12 absorption stops or slows down. The most common form of

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B12 deficiency is pernicious anaemia. Eating disorders or an unbalanced diet increase the
risk of developing this type of anaemia.

Vitamin C Deficiency Anaemia

This is a rare disorder that causes the bone marrow to manufacture abnormally small RBCs.
Vitamin C deficiency anaemia results from a severe, long-standing dietary deficiency.

Treatment of Nutritional Anaemia

A diet rich in iron,folate,vitamin C vitamin B12 is recommended, proper cooking of food,
good personal hygiene and fortification of foods with iron goes a long way in combating
nutritional anaemia.
Anaemia due to nutritional deficiencies can usually be treated at home with iron
supplements or injections of vitamin B12. People with folic acid anaemia should take oral
folic acid replacements. Vitamin C deficiency anaemia can be cured by taking one vitamin C
tablet a day.

Keratomalacia is drying and clouding of the cornea due to vitamin A deficiency and
insufficient protein and calories in the diet.

The surface of the conjunctiva and cornea dries, sometimes leading to corneal ulcers and
bacterial infections. The tear glands are also affected, resulting in an inadequate tear film
and dry eyes. Night blindness (poor vision in the dark) may develop because of the effects of
vitamin A deficiency on the retina. The diagnosis of keratomalacia is based on the presence
of a dry or ulcerated cornea in a malnourished person.

Management

Diets rich in vitamin A accompanied with foods rich in fat are recommended.Fat increases
the absorption of vitan A since it is a fat soluble vitamin. Vitamin A supplements is also part
of the treatment of this condition. The dosage is determined by the severity of the condition,
although prolonged daily administration of large doses, especially to infants, may result in
hypervitaminosis. An adequate diet containing whole milk and foods high in vitamin A or
carotenes prevents the condition.

Gout
Gout is a disease that results from an overload of uric acid in the body. This overload of uric
acid leads to the formation of tiny crystals of urate that deposit in tissues of the body,
especially the joints. When crystals form in the joints it causes recurring attacks of joint
inflammation (arthritis). Chronic gout can also lead to deposits of hard lumps of uric acid in
and around the joints and may cause joint destruction, decreased kidney functions and
kidney stones

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It is often related to an inherited abnormality in the body's ability to process uric acid. Uric
acid is a breakdown product of purines that are part of many foods we eat. An abnormality
in handling uric acid can cause attacks of painful arthritis (gout attack), kidney stones, and
blockage of the kidney-filtering tubules with uric acid crystals, leading to kidney failure. On
the other hand, some people may only develop elevated blood uric acid levels
(hyperuricemia) without having arthritis or kidney problems.
Management
- Protein intake should be restricted
- One should reduce alcohol intake or stop taking alcohol altogether

Suggested Teaching/Learning Resources

- Textbooks
- Handouts
- Resource persons
- Food commodities
- Recipes
- Magazines
- Internet

Evaluation
1. List nutritional diseases and disorders
2. Explain the causes of the various nutritional diseases and disorders
3. Describe the signs and symptoms of nutritional diseases and disorders
4. Discuss prevention and management of nutritional disorders

7.1.32 ENZYMES
specific objectives
By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) define terms
b) explain characteristics of enzymes
c) explain classification of enzymes
d) explain the role of enzymes in food processing and preservation
TASK 1: DEFINING TERMS
Enzymes are protein molecules that act as biological catalysts on reactions. Almost all
processes in a biological cell need enzymes to occur at significant rates.
A catalyst is any substance which makes a chemical reaction go faster, without itself being
changed. A catalyst can be used over and over again in a chemical reaction: it does not get
used up.
Substrate is a molecule upon which an enzyme acts.
Metabolic pathways are series of chemical reactions occurring within a cell. In each
pathway, a principal chemical is modified by chemical reactions. Enzymes catalyze these
reactions, and often require dietary minerals, vitamins, and other cofactors in order to
function properly. Metabolism is a step-by-step modification of the initial molecule to shape
it into another product.

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TASK 2: EXPLAINING CHARACTERISTICS OF ENZYMES
Characteristics of enzymes
1. Enzymes are specific in nature
Enzymes have a speciality in that they possess an 'active site'. This active site allows other
molecules to bind to the enzyme, and these molecules are known as the 'substrate', and the
shape of the active site allows them to fit perfectly forming the enzyme-substrate complex.
The substrate then unbinds in the form of it's product.
Enzymes are said to specific in their nature, as the shape of the active site will only allow
one molecule to fit. It may either catalyse the breaking up or joining of molecules, forming
one or more products. When the reaction is complete, these products leave the active site,
and as said before - the enzyme is unchanged and can thus receive another substrate
molecule.
2. Enzyme Concentration
Increasing enzyme concentration increases the rate of the reaction so long as there is
sufficient substrate, there is more enzyme-substrate complexes being formed and more
product being formed thus faster rate of reaction. The rate of reaction increases linearly
with enzyme concentration.
3. Substrate Concentration
Increasing the substrate concentration increases the rate of reaction, to a certain point
known as the saturation point, which is where every enzymes active site is occupied and so
substrate simply ends up 'queuing up' and waiting for an active site.
3. Temperature
The speed at which molecules move around freely is determined by the temperature giving
them more or less energy to do so - at high temperatures the molecules, the enzymes and
the substrates, move around fastest, and thus there are the most collisions per second,
causing enzyme-substrate complexes to be formed more frequently.The bonds in the
enzyme molecule begin to shake so violently that they begin to break, which causes the
enzyme to lose it's shape, which changes the shape of the active site (so the substrate will
no longer fit) and the enzyme is said to be denatured. The reason the rate of reaction does
not immediately drop to 0 is that the enzyme slowly loses shape as the temperature
increases, and so the substrate fits less well and eventually not at all, and so the catalysis
does not occur. The process of denaturing is usually irreversible.
In humans 40ºc is the optimum temperature for enzyme reactions- the temperature at
which an enzyme catalyses a reaction at the maximum rate. Our bodies are kept at 37ºc to
make sure they never go above 40ºc as enzymes would start to denature at even the
slightest upward variation - which would be extremely dangerous as nearly all reactions
within the body rely on enzymes.
A very low temperature on the other hand lowers enzyme activity since low temperatures
inactivates the enzymes.
4. The effect of pH on enzyme activity
pH is a measure of hydrogen ions in a solution, and these affect enzyme activity since the
hydrogen ions can react with the enzyme and change the enzymes shape, deforming the
active site. Depending on where it is normally located in the body, an enzyme will have pH

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values at which its structure is most stable. As conditions deviate from this point, the
enzyme’s ability to help along reactions decreases.

Most enzymes work best near a pH of 7, but some enzymes operate most effectively in a
particularly acidic environment, such as the stomach; a neutral environment impairs their
function As with temperature, too high or low pH for the enzyme will denature the enzyme.
5. Inhibition
There are two types of enzyme inhibition - that are substances that inhibit the enzymes
function.
(i) Competitive
(ii) Non-competitive

They can be harmful in that they can stop a reaction happening, or helpful in stopping a
reaction from running wild - perhaps the end-product of a chain of reactions will be an
enzyme inhibitor to prevent the reaction continuing indefinitely.
i) Competitive

Competitive enzyme inhibitors are named as such because they compete with the substrate
for the enzyme molecule's active site's. They achieve this by being a similar shape and fitting
into the active site, temporarily blocking substrate from entering. This makes the reaction
slower, since there is less chance that genuine substrate will collide with an enzyme and
form product. Competitive inhibitors affect on the enzyme is always reversible.

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ii) Non-Competitive

Non-competitive enzymes are ones that do not compete, in that that either bind
permanently to the active site or bind elsewhere, deforming the active site. Eventually, they
will destroy all available enzymes, stopping the reaction short even if there is remaining
substrate, since all active sites are either blocked or deformed. Unless the inhibitor only
binds to somewhere else on the enzyme very briefly, the enzyme will be irreversibly
unusable for normal enzyme-substrate complexes to form.
Example: The antibiotic penicillin acts by permanently filling an enzyme required for
bacterial cell wall synthesis.

TASK 3: EXPLAINING CLASSIFICATION OF ENZYMES

Enzymes are generally classified on the basis of the type of reactions that they catalyse. 6
groups of enzymes can be recognised on this basis. The following table lists the 6 groups of
enzymes along with examples.

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TASK 4: EXPLAIN THE ROLE OF ENZYMES IN FOOD PROCESSING
AND PRESERVATION
Enzymes Used in Food Processing -
Enzyme Substrate Action/Objective
A. Proteases
1. Endogenous proteases Meat ('hanging' of Tenderisation of meat,
meat)
flavour development
2. Subtilisin Soya protein Partial hydrolysis; increases
whipping expansion,
emulsifying capacity;
hydrolysate may be added to
cured meats.
3. Subtilisin Red blood cells RBC haemolysate subjected
(RBCs) to hydrolysis haeme
molecules precipitate and are
removed; purified hydrolysate
spray dried and used in cured
meats, sausages, luncheon
meats, etc.
4. Papain (in active form) Meat (tenderisation) Injected into the jugular vein
shortly before slaughter; after
slaughter, papain is activated
and tenderises the meat; only
2-5 ppm (of body weight)
enzyme injected.
5. Heat labile fungal protease Dough from high Hydrolysis of gluten; makes
gluten wheat varieties
dough suitable for biscuit,

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 pie, pastry making.
C. Catalase H2O2 Degrades H2O2 into water
and O2; used in combination
with glucose oxidase to
remove glucose and/or O2
from foods, drinks, etc.
D. Amylases Starch, sucrose, D - Production of glucose,
glucose maltose and high fructose
syrups.

Other enzymes used in food processing

Enzyme Used in Fruit Juice Manufacturing

Enzymes are, widely used in fruit Juice and brewing industries to achieve specific objectives,
which can not be otherwise, achieved. In addition, brewing industry employs varied but
specific strains of yeast for fermentation of the brew.

The cloudiness of fruit juices and wines is mainly due to pectins, which exhibit are usually
associated with other plant polymers and even cell debris. The pectins are digested by
pecteolytic enzymes mixtures prepared . The four enzymes present in the mixture act
synergistically to accomplish, a task, which can not be achieved by mechanical means.
Treatment of fruit pulp with pecteolytic enzyme mixture gives the following benefits:

(i) Elimination of juice/wine cloudiness,

(ii) reduced solution viscosity,

(iii) Increased juice yields, e.g., a 15% increase in case of white grapes,
(iv) Shorter fermentation period in case of wine making.

Cheese Making
The milk is warmed and a mixture of two enzymes (chymosin and pepsin)known as rennet,
which is obtained from the fourth stomach of the milk-fed calf, is added. This coagulates the
milk to form 'curds and whey'. The whey is a cloudy liquid which contains some protein and
sugars (including 'milk sugar', lactose), while the curds are precipitated protein which is
pressed and subsequently packed in various sized containers for maturing.
Many modern cheeses are produced using chymosin from fungi or bacteria, and sold as
vegetarian cheese.
Liquid-Centred sweets and Chocolates
Have you ever wondered how the liquid centre is placed into chocolates? A mixture of equal
parts glucose and fructose is very soluble in water, whereas sucrose is less soluble; and an
equivalent amount of sucrose in water forms a paste-like solid. If the enzyme invertase
(from yeast) is injected into the chocolate which contains sucrose paste, the sucrose is
converted to glucose and fructose.

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 High Fructose Corn Syrup
Most of us are aware that, traditionally, sugar was obtained from sugar cane or sugar beet.
However, most of the sugar sweeteners used in processed food nowadays, such as jams,
ketchups and soft drinks, comes from sweetcorn. It is also in many so-called health foods.
The process for making the sweetener, known as 'high fructose corn syrup' High-fructose
corn syrup (HFCS) is produced by processing corn starch to yield glucose, and then
processing the glucose to produce a high percentage of fructose. The process is somewhat
complicated, involving the different enzymes amylase and isomerases.
Suggested Teaching/Learning Resources
- Textbooks
- Food commodities
- Acids
- Bases
- Water pH scale
- Litmus paper
Evaluation
1. Define terms the following
a) Enzyme
b) Catalyst
c) substrate
d) Metabolic pathway
2. Explain characteristics of enzymes
3. Explain classification of enzymes
4. Explain the role of enzymes in food processing and preservation

7.1.33 DIGESTION OF FOOD

Specific Objectives
By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) define terms
b) describe the digestive system
c) identify enzymes and their functions
d) explain the food absorption process

TASK 1: DEFINING TERMS

Digestion: The mechanical and chemical breakdown of food to prepare it
for absorption

Mastication: chewing food which pulverizes it and mixes it with saliva

Deglutination: Swallowing; moving food from the mouth to the pharynx

and into the esophagus.

Ingestion: placing food into the mouth (entry of food in the digestive system),

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Mechanical and chemical breakdown: mastication and the mixing of the resulting bolus with
water, acids, bile and enzymes in the stomach and intestine to break down complex
molecules into simple structures,

Absorption: of nutrients from the digestive system to the circulatory and lymphatic capillaries
through osmosis, active transport, and diffusion,

Egestion: Removal of undigested materials from the digestive tract through defecation.

Peristalsis refers to rhythmic contractions that move food in the gut. Peristalsis in the
esophagus moves food from the mouth to the stomach.

TASK 2: DESCRIBING THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

Human Digestive System

The human digestive system is a complex process that consists of breaking down large
organic masses into smaller particles that the body can use as fuel. The breakdown of the
nutrients requires the coordination of several enzymes secreted from specialized cells
within the mouth, stomach, intestines, and liver. The major organs or structures that
coordinate digestion within the human body include the mouth, esophagus, stomach, small
and large intestine, and liver.

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Mouth
In the human body, the mouth (oral cavity) is a specialized organ for receiving food and
breaking up large organic masses. In the mouth, food is changed mechanically by biting and
chewing. Humans have four kinds of teeth: incisors are chisel-shaped teeth in the front of
the mouth for biting; canines are pointed teeth for tearing; and premolars and molars are
flattened, ridged teeth for grinding, pounding, and crushing food.
In the mouth, food is moistened by saliva, a sticky fluid that binds food particles together
into a soft mass. Three pairs of salivary glands—the parotid glands, the submaxillary glands,
and the sublingual glands—secrete saliva into the mouth. The saliva contains an enzyme
called amylase, which digests starch molecules into smaller molecules of the disaccharide
maltose.
During chewing, the tongue moves food about and manipulates it into a mass called a bolus.
The bolus is pushed back into the pharynx (throat) and is forced through the opening to the
esophagus.
Esophagus
The esophagus is a thick-walled muscular tube located behind the windpipe that extends
through the neck and chest to the stomach. The bolus of food moves through the esophagus
by peristalsis: a rhythmic series of muscular contractions that propels the bolus along. The
contractions are assisted by the pull of gravity.
Stomach
The esophagus joins the stomach at a point just below the diaphragm. A valvelike ring of
muscle called the cardiac sphincter surrounds the opening to the stomach. The sphincter
relaxes as the bolus passes through and then quickly closes.
The stomach is an expandable pouch located high in the abdominal cavity. Layers of
stomach muscle contract and churn the bolus of food with gastric juices to form a soupy
liquid called chyme.
The stomach stores food and prepares it for further digestion. In addition, the stomach plays
a role in protein digestion. Gastric glands called chief cells secrete pepsinogen. Pepsinogen is
converted to the enzyme pepsin in the presence of hydrochloric acid. Hydrochloric acid is
secreted by parietal cells in the stomach lining. The pepsin then digests large proteins into
smaller proteins called peptides. To protect the stomach lining from the acid, a third type of
cell secretes mucus that lines the stomach cavity. An overabundance of acid due to mucus
failure may lead to an ulcer.
Small intestine
The soupy mixture called chyme spurts from the stomach through a sphincter into the small
intestine. An adult's small intestine is about 23 feet long and is divided into three sections:
the first 10 to 12 inches form the duodenum; the next 10 feet form the jejunum; and the
final 12 feet form the ileum. The inner surface of the small intestine contains numerous
fingerlike projections called villi. Each villus has projections of cells called microvilli to
increase the surface area.
Most chemical digestion takes place in the duodenum. In this region, enzymes digest
nutrients into simpler forms that can be absorbed. Intestinal enzymes are supplemented by

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enzymes from the pancreas, a large, glandular organ lying near the stomach. In addition,
bile enters the small intestine from the gall bladder to assist in fat digestion.
The enzymes functioning in carbohydrate digestion include amylase (for starch), maltase
(for maltose), sucrase (for sucrose) and lactase (for lactose). For fats, the principal enzyme is
lipase. Before this enzyme can act, the large globules of fat must be broken into smaller
droplets by bile. Bile is a mixture of salts, pigments, and cholesterol that is produced by the
liver and stored in the gall bladder, a saclike structure underneath the liver.
Protein digestion is accomplished by several enzymes, including two pancreatic enzymes:
trypsin and chymotrypsin. Peptides are broken into smaller peptides, and peptidases reduce
the enzymes to amino acids. Nucleases digest nucleic acids into nucleotides in the small
intestine also.
Most absorption in the small intestine occurs in the jejunum. The products of digestion
enter cells of the villi, move across the cells, and enter blood vessels called capillaries.
Diffusion accounts for the movement of many nutrients, but active transport is responsible
for the movement of glucose and amino acids. The products of fat digestion pass as small
droplets of fat into lacteals, which are branches of the lymphatic system.
Absorption is completed in the final part of the small intestine, the ileum. Substances that
have not been digested or absorbed then pass into the large intestine.
Large intestine
The small intestine joins the large intestine in the lower right abdomen of the body. The two
organs meet at a blind sac called the caecum and a small fingerlike process called the
appendix. Evolutionary biologists believe the caecum and appendix are vestiges of larger
organs that may have been functional in human ancestors.
The large intestine is also known as the colon. It is divided into ascending, transverse, and
descending portions, each about one foot in length. The colon's chief functions are to
absorb water and to store, process, and eliminate the residue following digestion and
absorption. The intestinal matter remaining after water has been reclaimed is known as
feces. Feces consist of nondigested food (such as cellulose), billions of mostly harmless
bacteria, bile pigments, and other materials. The feces are stored in the rectum and passed
out through the anus to complete the digestion process.
Liver
The liver has an important function in processing the products of human digestion. For
example, cells of the liver remove excess glucose from the bloodstream and convert the
glucose to a polymer called glycogen for storage.
The liver also functions in amino acid metabolism. In a process called deamination, it
converts some amino acids to compounds that can be used in energy metabolism. In doing so,
the liver removes the amino groups from amino acids and uses the amino groups to produce
urea. Urea is removed from the body in the urine. Fats are processed into two-carbon units
that can enter the Krebs cycle for energy metabolism. The liver also stores vitamins and
minerals, forms many blood proteins, synthesizes cholesterol, and produces bile for fat
digestion

TASK 3: IDENTIFYING ENZYMES AND THEIR FUNCTIONS

452
 Summary of Digestive Enzymes
The digestive enzymes in the table below are summarized according to type of food that
they digest.

FOOD TYPE ENZYME SOURCE PRODUCTS

CARBOHYDRATES Salivary amylase Salivary glands Maltose

Pancreatic amylase Pancreas Maltose
Maltase Small intestine Glucose

PROTEINS Pepsin Stomach mucosa Peptides

Trypsin Pancreas Peptides
Peptidases Intestinal mucosa Amino acids

FATS Lipase Pancreas Fatty acids

and glycerol

The table below shows digestive enzymes grouped by source of the enzyme.

SOURCE ENZYME FOOD PRODUCT

MOUTH (salivary glands) Salivary amylase Polysaccharides Maltose

STOMACH Pepsin Proteins Peptides

PANCREAS Pancreatic amylase Polysaccharides Maltose

Trypsin Proteins Peptides
Lipase Fats Fatty acids
and glycerol

SMALL INTESTINE Maltase Maltose Glucose

Peptidases Peptides Amino acids

TASK 4: EXPLAINING THE FOOD ABSORPTION PROCESS

ABSORPTION
The term digestion includes all the chemical changes that occur while food is being prepared
for use by the body..
When digestion is complete proteins no longer exist as such, because they have been split
into amino acids. These important foods are taken up by the tiny blood vessels in the wall of

453
the intestine, and carried to the liver. There some of them are changed promptly so as to
add to the sugar supply of the body, while others circulate in the blood so as to be available
to the tissues, to be used both in the growth of new cells and in replacing those damaged in
the activities of living.
Starches and sugars are finally absorbed as simple sugars—chiefly glucose. These simple
sugars are carried in the blood stream for a short time following a meal, and the level of the
blood sugar may be raised slightly until the surplus sugar is changed to body glycogen. This
is accomplished largely by the liver, and glycogen is stored in the liver and muscles for use as
need arises.
Digestion brings very interesting changes in the fats eaten. They are changed to glycerol and
fatty acids dissolved in bile. These substances enter the cells lining the villi or minute finger-
like processes covering the surface of the intestinal wall, and are rebuilt into neutral fats
suitable for the use of the human body. The white corpuscles of the blood pick up these
particles of fat and transport them into the lymph channels which ultimately empty the fatty
solution into the blood stream through the thoracic duct, which unites with the veins near
the heart. After absorption the excess fats are removed from the circulation and are added
to the deposits of fat in the body, in the form of human fat otherwise known as adipose
tissue.
Fat-soluble vitamins are absorbed and stored along with fats. Most water-soluble vitamins are
absorbed by diffusion or mediated transport. Vitamin B12, because of its large size and
charged nature, first binds to a protein, called intrinsic factor, which is secreted by the
stomach epithelium, and is then absorbed by endocytosis.

The stomach absorbs some water but most is absorbed at small intestine by diffusion.
After these necessary foods have been removed from the contents of the bowel, and the
available water has been withdrawn, useless residue remains.
Suggested Teaching/Learning Resources
- Textbooks
- Internet
- Charts

Evaluation
1. Define the following terms
- Digestion
- Absorption
- assimilation
- mastication
- peristalsis
- Deglutination
- Egestion
- Ingestion

2. Describe the human digestive system

3. Identify enzymes and their functions
4. Explain the food absorption process

7.1.34 FOOD ADDITIVES

454
 Theory

7.1.34 T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) define terms
b) explain the importance of food additives
c) classify types food additives
d) explain the use of food additives
e) explain legal requirements in the use of food additives

TASK 1: DEFINING TERMS

Food additives are substances added to food to preserve flavour or improve its taste and
appearance.

TASK 2: IMPORTANCE OF FOOD ADDITIVES

Importance of Food Addatives

Food additives have the following importance:-
1. Maintaining product consistency
Substances called emulsifiers provide a consistent texture and prevent products from
separating. Stabilizers and thickeners provide an even texture. Anticaking agents allow
substances to flow freely.
2. Improve or preserve the nutrient value
Many foods and drinks are fortified and enriched to improve the nutritional status. For
example, vitamins and minerals are added to many foods including flour, cereal, margarine,
and milk. This helps to make up for vitamins or minerals that may be low or completely
lacking in a person's diet. All products that contain added nutrients must be labeled.
3. Maintain the wholesomeness of foods
Contamination from bacteria can allow food borne illnesses to occur. Preservatives reduce
the spoilage that air, fungi, bacteria, or yeast can cause. Certain preservatives help preserve
the flavor in baked goods by preventing the fats and oils from going bad. They also keep
fresh fruits from turning brown when exposed to the air.
4. Control the acidity and alkalinity and provide leavening
Specific additives help change the acid-base balance of foods to obtain a desired taste,
color, or flavor. Leavening agents that release acids when they are heated react with baking
soda to help biscuits, cakes, and other baked goods rise.
5. Provide color and enhance flavor
Certain colors improve the appearance of foods. There are many spices and natural and
synthetic flavors that bring out the best in the flavor of food.

TASK 3: TYPES OF FOOD ADDITIVES, THEIR FUNCTION AND USES

455
 ADDITIVE FUNCTION FOODS WHERE EXAMPLES OF
THEY ARE USED ADDATIVES
Sweeteners Add sweetness with or Beverages, baked Sucrose (sugar),
without the extra calories goods, confections, glucose, fructose, , corn
table-top sugar, syrup, high fructose
substitutes, many corn syrup,
processed foods
Color Additives Offset color loss due to Many processed carotene, grape skin
exposure to light, air, foods, (candies, extract, or carmine,
temperature extremes, snack foods paprika, caramel color,
moisture and storage margarine, cheese, fruit and vegetable
conditions; correct natural soft drinks, juices, saffron
variations in color; enhance jams/jellies, gelatins,
colors that occur naturally; pudding and pie
provide color to colorless fillings)
and "fun" foods
Flavors and Add specific flavors Pudding and pie Natural flavoring,
Spices (natural and synthetic) fillings, gelatin artificial flavor, and
dessert mixes, cake spices
mixes, salad
dressings, candies,
soft drinks, ice
cream, BBQ sauce
Flavor Enhance flavors already Many processed Monosodium glutamate
Enhancers present in foods (without foods (MSG), hydrolyzed soy
providing their own protein, autolyzed yeast
separate flavor) extract,
Emulsifiers Allow smooth mixing of Salad dressings, Soy lecithin, mono-
peanut butter, and diglycerides, egg
ingredients, prevent
chocolate, margarine, yolks, polysorbates,
separation
frozen desserts sorbitan monostearate
Keep emulsified products
stable, reduce stickiness,
control crystallization, keep
ingredients dispersed, and
to help products dissolve
more easily

Stabilizers and Produce uniform texture, Frozen desserts, dairy Gelatin, pectin, guar
Thickeners, improve "mouth-feel" products, cakes, gum, carrageenan,
Binders, pudding and gelatin xanthan gum, whey
Texturizers mixes, dressings,
jams and jellies,
sauces
pH Control Control acidity and Beverages, frozen Lactic acid, citric acid,

456
 Agents and alkalinity, prevent spoilage desserts, chocolate, ammonium hydroxide,
acidulants low acid canned sodium carbonate
foods, baking powder
Leavening Promote rising of baked Breads and other Baking soda,
Agents goods baked goods monocalcium
phosphate, calcium
carbonate
Anti-caking Keep powdered foods free- Salt, baking powder, Calcium silicate, iron
agents flowing, prevent moisture confectioner's sugar ammonium citrate,
absorption silicon dioxide
Humectants Retain moisture Shredded coconut, Glycerin, sorbitol
marshmallows, soft
candies, confections
Yeast Nutrients Promote growth of yeast Breads and other Calcium sulfate,
baked goods ammonium phosphate
Dough Produce more stable dough Breads and other Ammonium sulfate,
Strengtheners baked goods azodicarbonamide, L-
and cysteine
Conditioners
Firming Agents Maintain crispness and Processed fruits and Calcium chloride,
firmness vegetables calcium lactate
Enzyme Modify proteins, Cheese, dairy Enzymes, lactase,
Preparations polysaccharides and fats products, meat papain, rennet,
chymosin
Gases Serve as propellant, aerate, Oil cooking spray, Carbon dioxide, nitrous
or create carbonation whipped cream, oxide
carbonated beverages

TASK 4: USES OF FOOD ADDITIVES

(Refer to task 3)

7.1.34 T5 LEGISLATION IN THE USE OF

FOOD ADDITIVES

The government of Kenya regulates the use of additives thorough KEBS and KEPHIS as per
the requirements of Food, Drugs And Chemical Substances (Food Labeling, Additives And
Standards) Regulations [CAP 254]

Suggested Teaching/Learning Resources

- Textbooks
- Different Legislations and Acts
- Manuals

457
 - Internet
- Food additives
- Manufacturer’s instructions
Evaluation
1. Define the term food additive
2. Explain the importance of food additives
3. Classify types food additives
4. Explain the use of food additives
5. Explain legal requirements in the use of food additives

7.1.35 FOOD CONTAMINATION

Theory

7.1.35 T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) define terms
b) classify food contaminants
c) explain critical points of food contamination
d) outline the legislation regarding food contamination
Task 1;Defining terms
Enzymes- are chemicals which are present in all food. They speed up chemical changes that
result in loss of flavour, colour and texture. As enzymes are mainly composed of protein, they
are sensitive to heat. They are active in temperatures found in a kitchen on a warm sunny

Micro-organisms-- are tiny organisms present almost everywhere; they occur in all fresh
foods, in the soil, in dust, on all surfaces and on the skin of people handling food.

Moulds- are tiny plants, which are just visible to the naked eye. They grow from cells called
spores present in the air. They settle and multiply on suitable foods

Yeasts- are microscopic single called plants, which are found in the air and soil, and on the
surface of fruit. Some are able to tolerate fairly high acidic, salt and sugar concentrations and
can grow without the presence of oxygen.

Bacteria- are the most widespread of the micro-organisms found in food. They are minute
single cells of various shapes. Under ideal conditions, they divide into two every 20 minutes,
consequently, millions of them may develop in contaminated food in a short time

Food contamination-process whereby contaminants or hazardous substance get into food

materials

Food spoilage-means the original nutritional value ,texture,flavour,of food are damaged
rendering it unfit for consumption.

Task 2 ;classifying food contaminants

 Food contaminant includes:

- Microbial: bacteria, fungus and virus

458
- Chemical contaminants i.e. pesticides residues, detergents
- Extraneous matter i.e. weed seeds, soil, dust
- Physical matter i.e. iron fillings, strings, saw dust
- Physical effects like nuclear radiation and gases

Task 3;Explaining critical points of food contamination

Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point (HACCP) is a systematic preventive
approach to food safety and pharmaceutical safety that addresses physical, chemical,
and biological hazards as a means of prevention rather than finished product
inspection. HACCP is used in the food industry to identify potential food safety
hazards, so that key actions, known as Critical Control Points (CCPs) can be taken to
reduce or eliminate the risk of the hazards being realized. The system is used at all
stages of food production and preparation processes including packaging, distribution,
etc.
The HACCP seven principles
Principle 1: Conduct a hazard analysis. Plans determine the food safety hazards and identify
the preventive measures the plan can apply to control these hazards. A food safety hazard is
any biological, chemical, or physical property that may cause a food to be unsafe for human
consumption.
Principle 2: Identify critical control points. A Critical Control Point (CCP) is a point, step, or
procedure in a food manufacturing process at which control can be applied and, as a result,
a food safety hazard can be prevented, eliminated, or reduced to an acceptable level.
Principle 3: Establish critical limits for each critical control point. A critical limit is the
maximum or minimum value to which a physical, biological, or chemical hazard must be
controlled at a critical control point to prevent, eliminate, or reduce to an acceptable level.
Principle 4: Establish critical control point monitoring requirements. Monitoring activities
are necessary to ensure that the process is under control at each critical control point. .
Principle 5: Establish corrective actions. These are actions to be taken when monitoring
indicates a deviation from an established critical limit. The final rule requires a plant's
HACCP plan to identify the corrective actions to be taken if a critical limit is not met.
Corrective actions are intended to ensure that no product injurious to health or otherwise
adulterated as a result of the deviation enters commerce.
Principle 6: Establish record keeping procedures. The HACCP regulation requires that all
plants maintain certain documents, including its hazard analysis and written HACCP plan,
and records documenting the monitoring of critical control points, critical limits, verification
activities, and the handling of processing deviations.
Principle 7: Establish procedures for ensuring the HACCP system is working as intended.
Validation ensures that the plants do what they were designed to do; that is, they are
successful in ensuring the production of safe product. Plants will be required to validate
their own HACCP plans. FSIS will not approve HACCP plans in advance, but will review them
for conformance with the final rule.
Task;4-Outlining legislation regarding Food Safety Act 1990

The Food Safety Act 1990 is wide-ranging legislation on food safety and consumer
protection in relation to food .

459
 The main
aims of the Act are:
 to ensure that all food meets consumers‟ expectations in terms of nature, substance and
quality and is not misleadingly presented;

 to provide legal powers and specify offences in relation to public health and consumers‟
interests

Thus, food safety can be achieved provided you;

 Keep yourself clean

 Keep the work place clean
 Wear suitable clean clothing
 Protect food from contamination
 Store, prepare, serve and display food at the correct temperature,
 Inform manager if you have an illness
 Do not work with food if you have food poisoning symptoms

Preventing food contamination at critical points.

To avoid food contamination, the following critical points need to be observed to
avoid contamination ensure that:
- Foods should be bought from reliable suppliers
- Foods need to be stored away from possible contaminants i.e. separate stores for chemicals
and non edible items.
- During transportation separate the foods from potential contaminants.
- Do quality check before receiving food from suppliers.
- Receiving provide an ideal avenue to check for food contamination.
- Methods of checking contaminants.
- Check for sale by date labels.
- Check for physical damages like discolourisation.
- Check for extraneous matter
- Smell test, some food has characteristic smell.
- For frozen foods do temperatures check as soggy meats means possibility of bacterial
contamination
- Check for leaks on containers.
- Check for chemicals contamination by doing small check.
- Clear sewing operation.
- Remove physical contaminants by sieving, winnowing etc.
- Bag clean
- Controlled temperature especially during food serving
- Freezing for meat storage and some dairy products like cheese store at – 18 oC
- Refrigeration store at 0 – 8 0C to store for short periods of time.
- Air conditions to maintain room temperatures.

460
 During food production and preparation the following should be observed to avoid food
contamination:
- Appropriate food handling practices.
- Use clean handling equipments and tools.
- Sanitize tools and equipments.
- Using working boards for different food stuffs.
- Clean and sanitize working surfaces.
- Avoid cross contamination from raw foods and cooked foods.
- Foods that are eaten raw like salads must be properly cleaned and handled with clean ha
- Serve food at correct holding temperature for hot foods at 800C and maintain that
temperature for cold foods likes salad place in a chilled chamber.
- Using clean sanitized tools and equipments during food service.

 Food handlers must observe appropriate food handling practices like:-

- Washing hands before and after serving foods
- Short hair.
- Trimmed finger nails.
- Clean uniforms/clothes.
- No spitting next to food.
- No blowing your nose near foods.
- Avoid touching your body parts like nose, since some bacteria thrive in those parts.
- Washing hands after visiting wash rooms.
- Wear plastic gloves while handling foods.

Suggested Teaching/Learning Resources

- Textbooks
- Resource persons
- Different Legislations and Acts
- Internet
- Food commodities

Suggested Teaching/Learning Activities

- Group discussions on classification food contaminants
- Observation
- Field visit
- Research
- Practice HACCP
- Report writing

.Evaluation
1. Define the following terms:
 Yeast

 Bacteria
 Enzymes
 Micro-organisms

461
 Moulds
 Food contamination`
2. Classify food contaminants
3.Explain critical points of food contamination
4.Outline legislation regarding food contamination

7.1.36 FOOD SPOILAGE

Theory

7.1.36 T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) define terms
b) list types of food spoilage
c) explain causes of food spoilage
d) describe the characteristics of food fit for human consumption
e) describe characteristics of spoilt food
f) explain measures taken to prevent food spoilage

Task 1;Defining terms

Food Spoilage - The process of food becoming inedible, usually by microorganisms,
which can make food partially or completely unusable

Task 2: Identifying types of food spoilage

Food spoilage means that the original nutritional value, texture and flavour of food are
damaged and the food becomes harmful to humans thus becoming unsuitable for
consumption i.e. becomes unwholesome.

 Enzymatic Spoilage
- Enzymes are proteins found in all plants and animals
- They act on food nutrients when conducive environments like temperature, pH, and
oxygen is available
- If uncooked foods are not used while fresh, enzymes can cause undesirable changes in
colour, texture and Flavour
- Enzymes are destroyed easily by heat processing
- Enzymes act as catalysts for chemical reactions causing food spoilage
- The browning of meat is normally caused by oxidation reactions with enzymes playing a
major role
- The enzymes reactions can be altered by decreasing or increasing temperature
- High temperatures kill enzymes this stopping enzyme spoilage
- Low temperatures like -18 oC retards the action of enzymes thus preventing food spoilage

 Microbial spoilage caused by bacteria, yeasts and moulds

- Bacterial spoilage accounts for a bigger percentage of food spoilage especially fresh
vegetables fruits and meat
- Bacteria are microscopic minute organisms round, rod or spiral in shape and are of two
types spore forming and non – spore forming
- Optimum conditions for bacteria action
 High temperature

462
  Low acid conditions thus preferring foods like vegetables and meat
 Moist conditions
 Oxygen for those which require oxygen
 Non oxygen dependent requires non oxygen conditions.

 Yeast Spoilage
- Yeasts growth causes:
- Fermentation which is the result of yeast metabolism.
- There are two types of yeasts;
- True yeast and false yeast.
- True yeast metabolizes sugar producing alcohol and carbon dioxide gas which is known as
fermentation.
- False yeast grows as a dry film on a food surface, such as on mangoes.
- False yeast occurs in foods that have a high sugar or high acid environment.
- Yeasts thrive in high acid foods like fruit, tomatoes, jams, jellies and pickles.
- Easily destroyed by heat processing high acid foods at a temperature of 100°C (212°F) in
a boiling water canner for the appropriate length of time destroys yeasts.

 Mould spoilage
- Moulds grow in filaments forming a tough mass which is visible and referred to as `mould
growth'.
- Moulds form spores which, when dry, float through the air to find suitable conditions
where they can start the growth cycle again.
- Mould can cause illness, especially if the person is allergic to molds.
- Usually though, the main symptoms from eating mouldy food will be nausea or vomiting
from the bad taste and smell of the mouldy food.
- Moulds thrive in high acid foods like fruit, tomatoes, jams, jellies and pickles.
- Easily destroyed by heat processing high acid foods at a temperature of 100°C (212°F) in
a boiling water canner for the appropriate length of time destroys moulds

 Fungal spoilage

Stor Blue
age moul
rot d rot
in in
grap toma
es to
caus caus
ed ed by
by Peni
Botr cilliu
ytis mi
 Bacterial spoilage
cine causes soft
spp rot in tomato caused due to Erwinia carotovora bacteria
 Chemical food
rea spoilage
- Caused by action of chemical on food
 Insect spoilage
- Insects like weevils attack grains and dry foods stuffs causing physical damage
- Grains such as maize beans, green grams are highly susceptible to spoilage by insects
- Grains get holes thus affecting their appearance, texture and nutrients.
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 Animal spoilage

Animals like rats and others eat grains, nuts causing partial damage thus spoiling their
physical appearance

Task 3;Explaining causes of food spoilage

o Light
o Humidity
o Oxygen
o Development of micro-organisms
o Heat

Task 4: Describing characteristics of food fit for human consumption

 .It should not have moulds
 It should not have a bad smell .
 .It should have the desired texture .
 . It should have the right colour
 It should not have a deteriorated taste .

Task 5: Identifying spoilt foods/ Characteristics of spoilt food

 Appearance of moulds on foods
 Bad smell is due to toxins produced by spoilage agents in terms of gases like sulphur
dioxide
 Deteriorated texture where foods like fruits become soft or hard
 Colour change for example, meat changes from bright red to brown colour, Oranges from
yellow/orange colour to ash grey colour
 Deteriorated taste like sour taste for milk and fruits
 Food composition, change of food value like change of fruit sugar to

Task 6 :Explaining measures to prevent food spoilage

 Keep food in well-ventilated places to avoid build-up of moisture

 Do not keep food at warm temperatures.

 Make sure pickles or foods preserved in acid (vinegar, acetic acid) have sufficient acid
added during processing and are used within a reasonable time.

 Adding sugar to food will preserve them, e.g. jam. However they should be used within a
reasonable time

 Check food on delivery and do not accept damaged stock

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 Rotate food using a first in-first out policy.
Suggested Teaching/Learning Resources
- Textbooks
- Resource persons
- Different Legislations and Acts
- Internet
- Charts
- Food commodities
- Food additives
Evaluation
1. Define the term food spoilage
2. list types of food spoilage
3. explain causes of food spoilage
4. describe the characteristics of food fit for human consumption
5. describe characteristics of spoilt food
6. explain measures taken to prevent food spoilage

7.1.37 MICRO-ORGANISMS

Theory

Specific Objectives
By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) define terms
b) list the types of micro-organisms
c) discuss factors affecting the growth of micro-organisms
d) discuss the importance of micro-organisms in the food industry
Content
TASK 1: DEFINITION OF TERMS

Microorganisms are tiny, mostly one-celled organisms capable of rapid reproduction under
proper growth conditions.

TASK 2: TYPES OF MICRO ORGANISMS

Those microorganisms important in the food industry include the bacteria, viruses, yeasts,
molds, and protozoans
Bacteria
Bacteria are single-celled microorganisms found in nearly all natural environments.
Outward appearances of the cell such as size, shape, and arrangement are referred to as
morphology. Morphological types are grouped into the general categories of spherical (the
cocci), cylindrical (the rods) and spiral. The cocci may be further grouped by their
tendencies to cluster. Diplococci attach in pairs, streptococci in chains, staphylococci bunch
like grapes, and sarcinae produce a cuboidal arrangement. Bacterial cells have definite
characteristic structures such as the cell wall, cytoplasm, and nuclear structures. Some also
possess hairlike appendages for mobility called flagella, fimbriae which aid in attachment,
plus cytoplasmic and membranous inclusions for regulating life processes.

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Viruses
Viruses are extremely small parasites. They require living cells of plants, animals, or bacteria
for growth. The virus is mainly a packet of genetic material which must be reproduced by
the host.
Yeast and mold
Yeast and mold are fungi which do not contain chlorophyls. They range in size from single-
celled organisms to large mushrooms. Although some are multi celled, they are not
differentiated into roots, stems and leaves. The true fungi produce masses of filamentous
hyphae which form the mycelium. Depending on the organism, they may reproduce by
fission, by budding as in the case of yeasts, or by means of spores borne on fruiting
structures depending on the organism.
Protozoa
Protozoa are single-celled organisms such as the amoeba which can cause disease in
humans and animals. They possess cell structure similar to higher, more complex
organisms.

TASK 3: FACTORS AFFECTING GROWTH OF

MICRO-ORGANISMS
Nutrients
Nutrients such as carbohydrates, fats, proteins, vitamins, minerals and water, required by,
man are also needed by microorganisms to grow. Microbes differ in their abilities to use
substrates as nutrient sources. Their enzyme systems are made available according to their
genetic code. They vary in ability to use nitrogen sources to produce amino acids and,
therefore, proteins. Some require amino acids to be supplied by the substrate. When
organisms need special materials provided by their environment, we refer to them as
fastidious. Difference in the utilization of nutrients and the waste products they produce
are important in differentiating between organisms.
Oxygen
Microbes also differ in their needs for free oxygen. Aerobic organisms must grow in the
presence of free oxygen and anaerobic organisms must grow in the absence of free oxygen.
Facultative organisms can grow with or without oxygen, while microaerophilic organisms
grow in the presence of small quantities of oxygen.
Water
Water is necessary for microbes to grow, but microbes cannot grow in pure water. Some
water is not available. A measurement of the availability of water is aw or water activity.
The aw of pure water is 1.0 while that of a saturated salt solution is 0.75. Most spoilage
bacteria require a minimum aw of 0.90. Some bacteria can tolerate an aw above 0.75 as
can some yeasts and most molds. Most yeasts require 0.87 water activity. An aw of 0.85 or
less suppresses the growth of organisms of public health significance.
Temperature
Microorganisms can grow in a wide range of temperatures. Since they depend on water as
a solvent for nutrients, frozen water or boiling water inhibits their growth. General terms
are applied to organisms based on their growth at different temperatures. Most organisms
grow best at or near room and body temperature. These are mesophiles. Those growing

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above 400C (1050F) are called thermophiles while those growing below 250C(750F) are
called psychrotrophs.
Acidity
The nature of a solution based on its acidity or alkalinity is described as pH. The pH scale
ranges from 0, strongly acidic, to 14, strongly basic. Neutral solutions are pH 7, the pH of
pure water. Most bacteria require near neutral conditions for optimal growth with
minimums and maximums between 4 and 9. Many organisms change the pH of their
substrate by producing by-products during growth. They can change conditions such that
the environment can no longer support their growth. Yeasts and molds are more tolerant of
lower pH than the bacteria and may outgrow them under those conditions.
Light & Chemicals
Ultraviolet light and the presence of chemical inhibitors may also affect the growth of
organisms. Many treatments such as hydrogen peroxide and chlorine can kill or injure
microbes. Under certain conditions those given a sublethal treatment are injured, but can
recover.

TASK4: IMPORTANCE OF MICRO-

ORGANISMS IN THE FOOD
INDUSTRY
Importance microorganisms
Nutrient Recycling. Dead material in soil is not broken down by microbes to release
nutrients making them available to help sustain the life of other organisms. Microbes have
therefore been used for centuries to provide us with food.
Bread making: Bread is the result of a microbial fermentation of sugars to produce carbon
dioxide carbon bubbles that make bread rise.
Beer and wine making: yeast is used to convert sugars into alcohol for our consumption.
Yoghurt and cheese are produced by bacterial fermentation of lactose, the sugar in milk.
As animal feeds industry and fish industry: Microbes such as phytoplankton also serve as the
nutrient source that indirectly feeds all marine animals. And microbial symbioses with plants
allow them to grow strong and increase productivity sometimes they are even essential for
plant survival.
Biosynthesis: Microbes are builders, making products such as vitamin C.
Xanthan gum : It has been discovered that microorganisms are useful for making xanthan
gum (a food thickener).

Suggested Teaching/Learning Resources

- Textbooks
- Resource persons
- Different Legislations and Acts
- Internet
- Charts
- Food commodities
- Food additives
- Manufacturer’s instructions
467
Evaluation
1. Define the term micro organism
2. List the types of micro-organisms
3. Discuss factors affecting the growth of micro-organisms
4. Discuss the importance of micro-organisms in the food industry

7.1.38 FOOD POISONING

Theory

7.1.38 T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) define terms
b) discuss causes of food poisoning
c) discuss types of food poisoning
d) explain preventive measures of food poisoning
e) explain requirements for prevention of food poisoning

Content

7.1.38 T1 DEFINITION OF TERMS

Food poisoning: occurs when food that is eaten, contains harmful bacteria or toxins.

Mild food poisoning is usually not a cause of worry. However sometimes, it can be serious
and may cause deadly illnesses.

The common symptoms associated with food poisoning include vomiting, nausea, diarrhoea
and abdominal pain.

7.1.38 T2 CAUSES OF FOOD POISONING

1. Toxins from bacteria

2. Presence of toxic chemicals like fertilizers, insecticides, heavy

metals and in food and water.

7.1.38 T3 TYPES OF FOOD POISONING

1. Bacterial food poisoning - Here the micro organisms called bacteria are responsible. The
food material may contain the pathogenic bacteria or their toxin and will be ingested along
with the food.

2. Non bacterial food poisoning - Due to the presence of toxic chemicals like fertilizers,
insecticides, heavy metals and etc. Since bacterial food poisoning is common it is discussed
here.

Bacterial food poisoning

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 All bacteria are not harmful.There are some pathogenic bacteria which secrete toxins and
cause clinical manifestations.These organisms enter the human body through food articles or
drinks.

Some Common Bacterial Food Poisonings

1.Salmonella food poisoning - There are three different varieties of salmonella bacteria.
These bacteria are present in milk, milk products and eggs.
Symptoms of this food poisoning include nausea, vomiting and diarrhoea. Fever is also
common.

2. Botulism - This is the dangerous type of food poisoning caused by clostridium botulinum.
The spores of these organisms are seen in the soil and enters the human body through pickles
and canned fish ect. Compared to other food poisonings here vomiting and diarrhoea are rare
mainly the nervous system is affected. The symptoms start with double vision, numbness
with weakness. Later there will be paralysis with cardiac and respiratory failure ending in
death.

3. Staphylococcal food poisoning - It is caused by staphylo coccus aureus. These organisms

usually cause skin troubles like boils and eruptions. It causes mastitis in cow. Through the
milk and milk products it enders and causes gastroenteritis. There will be vomiting,
abdominal cramps with diarrhoea.

4. Clostridium food poisoning - This is caused by clostridium perfringens. They are present in
stool, soil and water. They enter the body through, meat, meat dishes and egg etc. If food
articles are cooked and kept in room temperature for a long time and heated again before
eating can result this food poisoning. Symptoms include vomiting, diarrhoea and abdominal
cramps.

5. Bacillus cereus - The spores of these organisms can survive cooking and causes enteritis.
Diarrhoea and vomiting is common in this infection.

6.Shigella: Shigella is found in the gastrointestinal tract of humans and apes. This type of
food poisoning spreads when people ignore washing their hands properly, after contact with
faecal (solid waste products of the body) matter. Bloody diarrhoea and stomach cramps are
the most common symptoms that usually begin within a couple of days after the infection.
7. Campylobacter: This type of bacteria is commonly associated with poultry products. A
person consuming raw poultry meat or not following safe meat-handling practices, causes
Campylobacter. If the storage area of poultry products is not kept clean, then this bacteria can
easily contaminate the meat. The best way to prevent this bacterial infection is to cook the
food thoroughly. Good personal hygiene should also be maintained while handling the food.
Antimicrobial agents are commonly used to treat severe infections.

8. E.Coli: Escherichia Coli is the main culprit behind food borne illness. Although this
bacteria is harmless, some of its strains can cause considerable damage to the body. The
bacteria constitutes 1% of the total bacteria residing in an adult's intestines. People infected
with the harmful strains of E.Coli, often experience severe stomach pain.. People who eat
contaminated or undercooked ground beef are susceptible to this infection. It has been
reported that those affected with E.Coli infections recover within 5 to 10 days. As a
preventive measure, one should avoid undercooked and raw meat. Drinking unpasteurized

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milk or apple juice or eating raw vegetables can lead to this type of food poisoning.

7.1.38 T4 PREVENTIVE MEASURES AGAINST FOOD POISONING

How to Prevent Food Poisoning

1. Only purified water should be used.

2. Hygiene should be maintained by all persons keeping contact with food.
3. Workers should use masks, cap and gloves during cooking and serving
4. Sick individuals should not come in contact with food materials.
5. Kitchen and premises should be neat and clean.
6. Utensils should be washed with soap and hot water.
7. Should not keep the prepared food for a long time in room temperature.
8. All food materials should be kept in closed containers.
9. Animals like dog, cat, rat ect should not come in contact with food

7.1.38 T5 LEGAL REQUIREMENTS IN PREVENTION OF FOOD

POISONING

Suggested Teaching/Learning Resources

- Textbooks
- Resource persons
- Different Legislations and Acts
- Internet
- Food commodities
- Food preparation areas
- Food additives
- Manufacturer’s instructions

Evaluation
1. Define the term food poisoning
2. discuss causes of food poisoning
3. discuss types of food poisoning
4. explain preventive measures of food poisoning
5. explain requirements for prevention of food poisoning

7.1.39 FOOD PRESERVATION

Theory

7.1.39 T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) definition of terms
b) explain principles of food preservation
c) discuss the importance of food preservation
d) discuss methods of food preservation

470
Content
TASK 1: DEFINITION OF TERMS

Food preservation is the process of treating and handling food to stop or greatly slow down
spoilage (loss of quality, edibility or nutritive value) caused or accelerated by micro-
organisms

TASK 2: PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PRESERVATION

Preservation usually involves preventing the growth of bacteria, fungi, and other micro-
organisms, as well as retarding the oxidation of fats which cause rancidity. It also includes
processes to inhibit natural ageing and discolouration that can occur during food
preparation such as the enzymatic browning reaction in apples which causes browning
when apples are cut. Some preservation methods require the food to be sealed after
treatment to prevent recontamination with microbes; others, such as drying, allow food to
be stored without any special containment for long periods.
The principles of food preservation are:
 Elimination of water or humidity :- microbial spoilage is controlled by such measures
as filtering of liquids to eliminate the bulk of microbes;

 Control of temperature either by heating or cooling to retard the growth of microbes

or kill them;

 Control of the amount of oxygen e.g. by canning, to create an unfavorable

environment detrimental to the growth of microbes;

 Addition of chemicals and biological agents, such as nitrates/nitrites, antibiotics, and

non-pathogenic micro organisms, to create an environment unfavorable to the growth
of pathogenic micro organisms;

 Use of radiation to control micro organisms.

TASK 3: IMPORTANCE OF FOOD PRESERVATION

1. Seasonality: Seasonal foods e.g. mangoes can be preserved for use when out of season in
form of juices, jams, pickles etc.
2. Adds variety to our meals
3. Reduces bulk therefore economises on storage facilities
4. Eases transportation
5. Saves time
6. Reduces waste due to spoilage
7. Saves money

TASK 4: METHODS OF FOOD PRESERVATION

471
 Effect on microbial growth or
Method
survival
Refrigeration Low temperature to retard growth
Low temperature and reduction of
water activity to prevent microbial
Freezing
growth, slowing of oxidation
reactions
Drying, curing and Reduction in water activity sufficient
conserving to delay or prevent microbial growth
Vacuum and oxygen free Low oxygen tension inhibits strict
modified atmosphere aerobes and delays growth of
packaging facultative anaerobes
Carbon dioxide enriched
Specific inhibition of some micro-
and or modified
organisms
atmosphere packaging
Addition of weak acids; Reduction of the intracellular pH of
e.g. sodium lactate micro-organisms
Reduction of pH value in situ by
microbial action and sometimes
additional inhibition by the lactic and
Lactic fermentation
acetic acids formed and by other
microbial products. (e.g. ethanol,
bacteriocins)
Cooking in high sucrose
concentration creating too high
Sugar preservation
osmotic pressure for most microbial
survival.
Steeping or cooking in Ethanol
produces toxic inhibition of
Ethanol preservation
microbes. Can be combined with
sugar preservation
Compartmentalization and nutrient
limitation within the aqueous
Emulsification
droplets in water-in-oil emulsion
foods
Addition of preservatives
Inhibition of specific groups of
such as nitrite or
micro-organisms
Sulphate ions
Delivery of heat sufficient to
Pasteurization and
inactivate target micro-organisms to
appertization
the desired extent
Delivery of ionizing radiation to
Food irradiation
disrupt cellular RNA
Application of high
Pressure-inactivation of vegetative
hydrostatic pressure
bacteria, yeasts and moulds
(Pascalization)
Pulsed electric field
Short bursts of electricity for
processing (PEF
microbial inactivation
treatment) 472
 Suggested Teaching/Learning Resources
- Textbooks
- Resource persons
- Different Legislations and
- Acts
- Internet
- Charts
- Food commodities
- Food additives
- Manufacturer’s instructions

Evaluation
1. define the term food preservation
2. explain principles of food preservation
3. discuss the importance of food preservation
4. discuss methods of food preservation

7.1.40 NUTRITION IN HIV AND AIDS

Theory

7.1.40 T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) define terms
b) explain the transmission modes of HIV and Aids
c) state the signs and symptoms of HIV and Aids
d) explain the preventive measures of HIV and Aids
e) discuss nutrition and diet therapy in relation to HIV and Aids

TASK 1 Definition of terms

1. Nutrition

 The process of nourishing or being nourished, especially the process by which a living
organism assimilates food and uses it for growth and for replacement of tissues.
 The science or study that deals with food and nourishment, especially in humans.

2 .HIV AND AIDS

AIDS
Acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS) is an infectious disease caused by the human
immunodeficiency virus (HIV). It was first recognized in the United States in 1981. AIDS is
the advanced form of infection with the HIV virus, which may not cause recognizable disease
for a long period after the initial exposure (latency). No vaccine is currently available to
prevent HIV infection. At present, all forms of AIDS therapy are focused on improving the
quality and length of life for AIDS patients by slowing or halting the replication of the virus

473
and treating or preventing infections and cancers that take advantage of a person's weakened
immune system.

HIV

HIV stands for the Human Immunodeficiency Virus and is a 'Retrovirus'

 Acquired — because it is a condition that has to be contracted. It cannot be inherited

or transmitted through the genes.
 Immune — because it affects the body’s immune system, the part of the body that
fights off diseases.
 Deficiency — because it makes the immune system stop working properly.

 Syndrome — because people with AIDS experience a number of different

symptoms and opportunistic diseases.

Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) is a systemic viral infection that weakens the body's
ability to fight infection and can cause acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS, the last
stage of HIV disease).

Task 2: explaining the transmission modes of Hiv and Aids

HIV transmission
 HIV is spread by sexual contact with an infected person,
 By sharing needles and/or syringes (primarily for drug injection) with someone who is
infected
 Less commonly (and now very rarely in countries where blood is screened for HIV
antibodies), through transfusions of infected blood or blood clotting factors.
 Babies born to HIV-infected women may become infected before or during birth or
through breast-feeding after birth.

Task 3: stating the signs and symptoms of HIV and Aids

1.depression
2. Diarrhea
Diarrhea can be a life threatening problem if not treated correctly and rapidly
3. Thrush
most common HIV opportunistic infection
4. Weight Loss
Weight loss is a common problem in HIV and AIDS. Weight loss is a serious problem
5. Lipodystrophy
Fat redistribution syndrome
6. Lactic Acidosis
This emerging problem can make you sick, miserable, and can even be fatal.
7. Sinus Infections
Your head feels congested and full. The pressure behind your eyes makes it hard to
concentrate. The pounding in your head and face is relentless.
474
8. Fatigue
Fatigue is a common problem in HIV and Aids
9. Nausea / Vomiting
Nausea is not only aggravating and can make you feel sick, when associated with vomiting it
can be dangerous
10. Burning and Tingling of the Feet and Hands
That burning in your feet can be very painful.

Explaining Some of the frequently reported symptoms of HIV/AIDS infections are:

 constant or rapid unexplained weight loss of more than 10 pounds in two months; lack
of appetite
 unexplained long-lasting diarrhea or bloody stools
 constant fatigue that is not associated with physical activity or mental depression
 persistent fevers, night sweats, dry cough, or difficulty breathing for more than two
weeks
 lightheadedness, dizziness, headaches, mental disorders
 a thick, whitish coating of yeast on the tongue or mouth that cannot be scraped off
(This is called "thrush.")
 severe or recurring vaginal yeast infections and chronic pelvic inflammatory disease
(PID)
 purplish growths or blotches on or under the skin, inside the mouth, or on the nose,
eyelids, or rectum
 swollen glands or enlarged lymph nodes in the neck, armpits, or groin for more than a
month

Task 4:explaining the preventive measures of HIV and Aids

If you are HIV negative

The following preventative measures might seem personally restrictive, but they are effective
in the prevention of HIV infection:

1. Do not have sexual intercourse with people known or suspected to be infected with
AIDS; multiple partners; a person who has multiple partners; or people who use
intravenous (IV) drugs. Always know the HIV status of any sexual partner. Do not
engage in unprotected sex unless you're absolutely certain your partner is not
infected with HIV.
2. Do not use intravenous drugs. If you do use IV drugs, do not share needles or
syringes. ..
3. Avoid exposure to blood from injuries or nosebleeds where the HIV status of the
bleeding person is unknown. Using protective clothing, masks and goggles may be
appropriate when caring for people who are injured.
4. The blood for transfusions should be well screened .
5. HIV positive women should be counseled, before becoming pregnant, about the risk
to unborn babies. Pregnant women with HIV should be made aware of medical
advances that may help prevent the fetus from becoming infected. ..

475
6. Use condoms to prevent HIV transmission. .
7. Get tested immediately if you know or think that you have had contact with someone
who has HIV. Seek medical treatment if the result is positive because early treatment
may help.

If you are HIV positive

If you have been diagnosed with HIV/AIDS, the following preventative measures can help
you protect others:

1. The only way to protect your sexual partner from HIV infection is to avoid practices
that expose them to infected body fluids. Always use a new latex condom for any
sexual activity.
2. If you are pregnant, seek medical treatment immediately. The HIV infection can be
passed on to your baby but if treatment is received during pregnancy the risk to the
baby can be reduced by as much as two-thirds. Delivery of the baby by cesarean
section cuts the risk even further.
3. Tell the people who need to know about your diagnosis. It is important to tell any
previous or current partners that you are HIV positive. .
4. If you use intravenous drugs, never share your needles and syringes with anyone else
as they may contain traces of HIV infected blood.
5. Do not donate blood or organs.
6. Do not share personal items such as razor blades or toothbrushes. These items may
also contain traces of HIV-infected blood.

.Task 5 Discussing nutrition and diet therapy in relation to HIV and Aids

When infected with the HIV virus the body's defence system - the immune system - works
harder to fight infection. This increases energy and nutrient requirements. Further infection
and fever also increase the body's demand for food. Once people are infected with HIV they
have to eat more to meet these extra energy and nutrient needs. Such needs will increase even
further as the HIV/AIDS symptoms develop.

Food is essential for our bodies to:

 develop, replace and repair cells and tissues;

 produce energy to keep warm, move and work;
 carry out chemical processes such as the digestion of food;
 protect against, resist and fight infection and recover from sickness

.
Energy
■ Energy requirements are likely to increase by 10% to maintain body weight
and physical activity in asymptomatic HIV-infected adults, and growth in
asymptomatic children.
■ During symptomatic HIV, and subsequently during AIDS, energy requirements
increase by approximately 20% to 30% to maintain adult body weight.
476
■ Energy intakes need to be increased by 50% to 100% over normal requirements
in children experiencing weight loss.

proteins
There are insufficient data at present to support an increase in protein
intake for PLWHA above normal requirements for health i.e. 12% to
15% of total energy intakeHIV status.

VITAMINS AND MINERAL INTAKE

Vitamins and minerals are essential to keep healthy. They protect against opportunistic
infection by ensuring that the lining of skin, lungs and gut remain healthy and that the
immune system functions properly. Of special importance are vitamin A, vitamin C, vitamin
E, certain B-group vitamins and minerals such as selenium, zinc and iron. A mixed diet as
recommended in Chapter three should provide enough of these vitamins and minerals.
Some background information on micronutrients, their nutritional role and food sources is
provided in Annex 3.
Vitamin A is important to keep the lining of skin, lungs and gut healthy. Vitamin A deficiency
increases the severity of diseases such as diarrhoea while infection will increase the loss of
vitamin A from the body. Good vitamin A sources are dark green, yellow, orange and red
vegetables and fruit. These include spinach, pumpkin, cassava leaves, green peppers,
squash, carrots, amaranth, yellow peaches, apricots, papaya and mangoes. Vitamin A is also
contained in red palm oil, yellow maize, orange and yellow sweet potatoes, egg yolks and
liver.
Vitamin C helps to protect the body from infection and aids in recovery. It is found
particularly in citrus fruits such as oranges, grapefruit, lemons and mandarins. Guavas,
mangoes, tomatoes and potatoes are also good sources of vitamin C.
Vitamin E protects cells and aids resistance to infection. Foods containing vitamin E are
green leafy vegetables, vegetable oils, peanuts and egg yolks.
Vitamin B-group. This group is necessary to keep the immune and nervous system healthy.
Vitamins, however, may be lost from the body through the use of certain medicines for the
treatment of tuberculosis. Good food sources include white beans, potatoes, meat, fish,
chicken, watermelon, maize, grains, nuts, avocados, broccoli and green leafy vegetables.
Iron. Iron-deficiency anaemia is a widespread problem in many countries, especially among
women and children. Good iron sources are green leafy vegetables, seeds, whole-grain
products, dried fruit, sorghum, millet, beans, alfalfa, red meat, chicken, liver, fish, seafood
and eggs.
Selenium is an important mineral because it helps to activate the immune system. Good
sources include whole grains such as wholemeal bread, maize and millet and dairy products
such as milk, yoghurt and cheese. Meat, fish, poultry, eggs and other protein-rich foods are
also good sources, as are peanut butter, dried beans and nuts.

477
Zinc is also important for the immune system. Zinc deficiency reduces the appetite. Sources
include meat, fish, poultry, shellfish, whole-grain cereals, maize, beans, peanuts and milk
and dairy products.
.
Energy
■ Energy requirements are likely to increase by 10% to maintain body weight
and physical activity in asymptomatic HIV-infected adults, and growth in
asymptomatic children.
■ During symptomatic HIV, and subsequently during AIDS, energy requirements
increase by approximately 20% to 30% to maintain adult body weight.
■ Energy intakes need to be increased by 50% to 100% over normal requirements
in children experiencing weight loss.

proteins
There are insufficient data at present to support an increase in protein
intake for PLWHA above normal requirements for health i.e. 12% to
15% of total energy intakeHIV status.

Teaching/ Learning resources

- Textbooks
- Resource persons
- Different Legislations and Acts
- Internet
- Charts
- Visual aids
- Food commodities
Evaluation

1. define terms
 Nutrition
 HIV/AIDS
2. explain the transmission modes of HIV and Aids
3. state the signs and symptoms of HIV and Aids
4. explain the preventive measures of HIV and Aids
5. discuss nutrition and diet therapy in relation to HIV and Aids

478
8.1.0 FOOD AND BEVERAGE SERVICE AND SALES

8.1.01 Introduction
This module unit is intended to equip the trainee with knowledge, skills and
attitudes, which enable him/her to maintain high standards of food and beverage
service and sales within the hospitality industry.

The trainee will be involved in all aspects of food and beverage service and sales.
He/she will employ both mental and physical abilities in conjunction with the
available resources to achieve the desired goals.

8.1.02 General Objectives

By the end of this module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) appreciate the organisation of food and beverage service outlets
b) demonstrate the ability to use appropriate equipment in food and beverage
service
c) promote health and safety as regards to employees, guests and property
d) apply food and beverage service manipulation skills
e) appreciate the need for good customer care
f) adopt emerging trends in food and beverage service

479
8.1.01 INTRODUCTION TO FOOD AND BEVERAGE SERVICE AND
SALES

Theory

8.1.01 T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) define terms
b) explain the importance of food and beverage service and sales
c) outline the historical development of food and beverage service
d) explain the scope of food and beverage service
e) explain the layout of different food and beverages service outlets

SALES. 8.1.01 INTRODUCTION TO FOOD AND BEVERAGE SERVICE AND

Unit Tasks

Task 1: Definition of Terms

Food can include a wide range of styles and cuisine types.

Beverages:
Includes all alcoholic and non-alcoholic drinks, Alcoholic beverages include wines and all
other types of alcoholic drinks such as Cocktails, beers and cider, spirits and liqueurs.
No-n alcoholic bev.includes Mineral Water, Juices,Squaches and Aerated waters as well as
Tea, Coffee, Chocolate, Milk and Milk Drinks also and proprietary drink such as Bovril,
Milo and others.
Food and boo (or food service) operators include for example various types of restaurants
(bistros, brassenes, coffee-shop 1st class/fine dining etch themed,)cafes, cafeterias, take
away canteens, function rooms, tray service operators, lounge service and others.

Task 2.Importance of food and beverage service and sales.

Acts as a bridge between the food production system, the beverage provision and the
customer.
Provision of food and bev to customers.
To meet various customers needs through meal experience (e.gphysological-need to satisfy
one’s appetite and quench thirst, attending a function in order to meet others and others.

Task 3.Historical development of food and Bev. Service.

Task 4.Scope of food and bev service and sales.

The scope covers commercial profit and on non commercial welfare.
Commercial profit oriented .
This can either be public or private owned with catering as main or secondary activity.
The profit Oriented sectors are further subdivided into two categories.The general market
which covers hotels/restaurant,popular catering, fest food,takeaway, retail stores,
Banqueting and others.
Restricted market covers transport catering,clubs industria (contract) and others.
The cost provision (welfare sector)is a restricted includes instritutional catering,
school,universities and colleges,hospitals.the forces prisons and industrial (own catering)

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Refer to table 1.4 summery of sectors in food and industry pg 9 food and Bev service by
Lillicrap.

The general market, customers are non capture i.e while in the restricted market, customers
are capture.
i.e customers have no choice e.g welfare or have seme –capture i.e

Task 5 Layout of different food and beverage.

Task 6 Personnel & their attributes

Duties and responsibilities of restaurant staff refer to booklet pg.20-26

Task 6b.Attribute-Refer to booklet pg 31-34

Task 7.Challenges faced by f&B service personnel.

Dealling with warrious customers moods or
-Managing customer/camp/planning
-unsatisfied”
Unpatient”
Rude customers
Poor pay
Working odd hours
Staff paying bills left by costomers.

8.1.2 T STAFF ORGANIZATION.

Unit Task.

Task1.Meaning of staff organization.

Staff organization is basically concerned with matters such as division of tasks within the
restaurant position of responsibility and authority and the relationship between them.

Task 2.importance of staff organization.

It helps in indroducing the concepts of span of control, level of mgt and delegation of power
and responsibilities.
For smooth functioning of food & bev.service
For proper coordination between different levels of mgt and debts.
Task 3 organization structures
Refers to f/b by Lillicrap pg 21 7th ed.

8.1.033FOOD AND BEVARAGES SERVICES EQUIPMENT UNIT TASLS

UNIT TASKS
Task 1
Classification of Food and Beverages Service equipment .The operating equipment used in
hotels /restaurants play an important role in attracting customers.
The Food and Beverage equipment include:- service equipment ,furniture,fixturies
including linen all of which quality reflect the standard and style of the restaurant.

481
Food and Beverage service equipment may be divided into : glassware; chinaware (or
crockery), Tableware which are further subdivided into flatware ,cuttery and hollware.

GLASSWARE
- It coutributes to the appearance of the table and the overall actraction of the service
area.It is produce frond and (silicon which combined with other substacies,The
mixture is heated to a high temperature,.
- Glassware refers to glass and drinkware items .Some of the example of glassware
include colleens glassware ,highball glass ,pint and pilsner glass and many
others.The choiceof the right quality glass is vital element for customer
sastification.Well designed glassware combinies elegance ,strength and stability and
should be fine and smooth.Many standard pattern and sizes it glassware are
availablefor serve each drink.Most glass drinking vessels are either
tumblers ,flat,bottomed glass with no handle ,foot or stem.
- (refer to notes on pg 41 for examples0
- Draw the table 2.4 on PP 66 – lilicerap
- Example of Chinaware with standard sizes

CHINAWARE OR CROCKERY
Chinaware is tern used for crockery wheter bone china (i.e fine and expensive)
earthenware (opaque Xcheaper or vetrified (metallised).It is made of Silicon Soda
ash and china clay ,glazed to give a fine finish .Chinaware can be found in different
colours a designs which are always coated with glaze.
Chinaware is more resistant to heat than glassware .

TABLEWARE
Is divided into 3 parts:- Flatware, cuttery and hollowware
- Flatware – denotes all forms of spoon tard forks as well as serving flats.
- Cuttery – refers to Knives and other cutterys
- Hollow-ware – consists of any other items ,apart from flatware and cuttery,for
example ,tea pots,mugjugs,sugar basins and srving dishes.
- Tableware come in different sizes and patterns.All spoons ,forks and knives used as
eatering implemention are non referred to as cuttery.
- Examples of tableware are soup spoons, fish refer suddui PP 23 – 26
- Point to consider when purchasing tableware
 The type of menu and service offered
 The peak demand period turnover
 The maximum and average seating capacity
 The washing –up facilities and their turnover.
SILVER-WARE
is a general term used to describe actual cuttery, flatware and hollowware most silverware
items made now are stainless steel since items is cheaper and more hard- wearing.
The silverware used in hotels depends on
 The type and amount of business done
 The meuse
 The type and style of service
 A good quide to the amount of cuttery needed for table service can be calculated by
multiplying the restaurant capacity by three times.

SPECIAL EQUIPMENT
These are specialist items of equipment provided for use with specific dishes.

482
Examples of these include asperagus tongs, pastry ,knife/fork,butter knife and others as
shown on PP 61 lilicap

DISPOSABLES
These are throe –away and thre has been a considered growth in their use due to:-
- The need to reduce costs
- The difficulty of obtaining labour for washing up
- To reduce the high cost of launderings
- Improved standard of hygiene
- Breakage cost minimization.
- Reduction in storage space required
- The need of transport cateriers on trains,boats and planes
- The devpt fast –food and take away operations
The disposable should be attractive ,presentable and acceptable to the chut and also help
to attact customers.
The choice of which disposable to use new be determinant by;-
 Necessary because of operational needs for
- Outdoor catering
- Automatic vendering
- Fast food
- Take aways

 Cost consideration such as:-

- Tradicyional terms of seurce equipment
- Cost of laundry
- Wash-up costs

TASK 2: SELECTION FOR FOOD AND BEVARAGES SERVICE EQUIPMENT

Selection Factors
- Standard of the restaurant /hotel
- Type of service
- Recor and theme of the restaurant
- Type of chenitelle
- Purability of equipment
- Ease of maintainance
- Availability when stocks runout for replacement\Storage and the washing up
facilities
- Flexibility of use
- Price factors
- Standardizations
Hotel/restaurant should be well stocked with appropriate equipment to prove quality
service.For multi purpose use and to cut down costs ,most hotels /restaurants standardize
equipment in terms of size and colour.

TASK 3: USE ,CARE AND MAINTAINANCE OF FOOD AND BEVARAGES

SERVICES EQUIPMENT

Handling of glassware
1. Glassware is highly fragile and most delicale and expensive –hence atmost care has
to be taken while handling glass equipment.

483
 2. Glasses are normally stored in a glass pantry and should be placed updise down in
single rows on paper-lined shelves to prevent dust settling in them.
3. Tumblers should not be stacked inside one another as this may result in heavy
breakages and accidents.
4. The appearance of the drink mainly depends on the glass therefore the glass should
be sparkling clean and attractive in shape in style.
5. When glassware is machine or hand washed,each individual item must be polished
and dried with a glass cloth made of lined ,as water leaves stains on the glasses.
6. Glasses whether clean or dirty have to be handled by the base or stem ,since the
finger prints left on necessitates polishing.
Polishing glass
Refer to serving food and drink table and function student guide pg 119

Storing Crockery

Handing crockery Hygiennically

Refer to Serving Fast and drinks Pg 121

Cleaning and polishing Silverware in largo establishments the clearing and polishing of
silverware is the responsibility of the plate room staff but the service staff can look after
their own silverware.

Silverware can be cleaned and polished a number of method:-

 By using a burnishing machine
 By using polint method
 By using plate powder
 By using siver dip
 By using other paste,powders and clerning materials sold under trade names.
 Always thoroughly wash silver after using any polish and cleaner cleaning
chemicals can cause food poisoning.
Careful storage of cuttery is most important ideally ,thre should be boxes or drawers for
each specific item,each box has a drawer being lined with saize to prevent the items
concerned sliding about and becoming scrarched and marked.Other items of hollow-ware
and flat ware should be stored on hollow-ware and flat ware should be store on shelves
shelves that are labeled to show where different items go.They must be stored at conviment
height for planning on and recovering from the shelves.

-All flat ware ,cuttery and hollow –ware should be stored in a room or cupboard that can be
locked.
Cuttery may be store in cuttery trolleys or trays.

TASK 4: RECORDS USED IN F & B SERVICE EQUIPMENT.

- ts
- reports

8.1.02 STAFF
ORGANIZATION

Theory

484
8.1.02 T Specific Objectives
By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) explain the meaning of staff organisation
b) state the importance of staff organisation
c) explain the organisational structure of different food and beverage service
outlets
d) explain the attributes of food and beverage service personnel
e) identify duties and responsibilities of food and beverage service personnel
f) explain the challenges faced by food and beverage service personnel

8.1.02 C Competence
The trainee should have the ability to:
i) sketch organisational structures of different service outlets
ii) perform duties of service personnel

Content
8.1.02 T1 Meaning of staff organisation
8.1.02 T2 Importance of staff organisation
8.1.02 T3 Organizational structure of
food and beverage service
outlets
- Welfare
- Commercial
8.1.02 T4 Personnel and their attributes
8.1.02 T5 Duties and responsibilities
of food and beverage
service personnel
8.1.02 T6 Challenges faced by food
and beverage service
personnel

Practice

8.1.02 P Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) sketch organisational structures of different service outlets
b) perform duties of service personnel

Content
8.1.02 P1 Organizational structures
8.1.02 P2 Duties of service personnel

Suggested Teaching/Learning Resources

- textbooks
- charts and diagrams
- internet

Suggested Teaching/Learning Activities

- taking notes
- group discussions
- research
- browsing
485
 - report writing
- sketching

Suggested Evaluation Methods

- tests
- assignments
- reports

8.1.03 FOOD AND BEVERAGE SERVICE EQUIPMENT

Theory

8.1.03 T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) classify food and beverage service equipment
b) explain factors to consider in selection of food and beverage service
equipment
c) explain use, care and maintenance of food and beverage service equipment
d) identify the records used in food and beverage service equipment

8.1.03 C Competence
The trainee should have the ability to:
i) identify service equipment
ii) use, care and maintain service equipment
iii) keep food and beverage service equipment records

Content
8.1.03 T1 Classification of food and
beverage service equipment
8.1.03 T2 Selection of food and
beverage service equipment
8.1.03 T3 Use, care and maintenance
of food and beverage
service equipment
8.1.03 T4 Records for food and
beverage service equipment
- types
- importance and use

Practice

8.1.03 P Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) identify service equipment
b) use, care and maintain service equipment
c) practice record keeping for food and beverage service equipment

Content
8.1.03 P1 Service equipment
486
8.1.03 P2 Use, care and maintenance
of service equipment
8.1.03 P3 Record keeping for food and beverage service equipment

Suggested Teaching/Learning Resources

- textbooks
- internet
- equipment

Suggested Teaching/Learning Activities

- taking notes
- group discussions
- research
- report writing

Suggested Evaluation Methods

- tests
- assignments
- reports

8.1.04 FOOD AND BEVERAGE SERVICE AREAS AND ANCILLARY

DEPARTMENTS

Theory

8.1.04 T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) identify food and beverage service areas and ancillary departments
b) state the functions of the service areas and ancillary departments
c) identify equipment used in service areas

8.1.04 FOOD AND BEVERAGE AREAS AND ANCILLARY DEPARTMENTS

Unit Tasks
Task 1: Food and beverage service and ancillary departments
Most work of mis-en-place starts in the service area. In large establishments this area is
found between the kitchen and the food service areas and is one of the busiest areas
especially at service time.
The service areas are:
1. still room
2. silver or plate room
3. wash up
4. hotplate
5. spare line store

STILL ROOM
The main function of the still room is to prepare and provide food items and equipment
which are not catered for in any other major departments in a foods service operations such
as the kitchen, larders and pastry. The still room has to produce a wide variety of food items
and ensure their proper storage, preparation and presentation, a considerable amount of
equipment is used.
The equipment that may be found includes:
487
 Refrigeration for the storage of milk
 Beverage making facilities
 Large double sink and drainage board for wash up purposes
 Sinks and washing machines
 Salamander or toasters
 Bread slicing machines
 Worktop and cutting board
 General storage space, shelves and cupboards
 Coffee grinding machines
 Beverage making facilities
 Steamer and hot water boiler

SILVER ROOM OR PLATE ROOM

In large or more luxurious establishments the silver room or plate room may be two
separate units, but in majority of places they are often combined with pantry wash-up area.
The silver room holds the stock of silver required for the service of meals. The various
types of silver are kept here on labeled shelves with all the service plates of one size stacked
together.
Cutlery, flatware, hollow ware and other small items are usually stored in drawers lined
with baize, as this helps to reduce noise, slipping and scratching.

Silver cleaning methods

There are various methods of cleaning silver which depend on the size and class of
establishment. Larger establishments are burnishing machines while small establishment
use manual method.
1. Burnishing machines
This is a revolving drum with a safety shield depending on size it may be divided into
compartments to hold specific sizes of silver. A rod may be inserted through the centre
of the drum from one end to the other. It is removable and is passed through the handles
of tea pots, coffee pots, milk jugs and others. The burnishing machines are half-full of
ball bearings to which soap powder is added. The silver is place inside and then the lid
is clamped down. The main water supply is turned on for constant supply of water. The
machine is switched on as the drum revolves the silver and the ball bearing. Tarnish is
removed but silver is not scratched. The silver should be rinsed in hot water and dried
with a clean tea cloth.
2. Polivit
This is an Aluminium metal sheet containing holes. The polivit id placed in a bowl
together with some soda. The silver is then put in the bowl. Sufficient boiling water is
poured into the bowl to cover the silver. A chemical reaction causes tarnish to be lifted.
The silver removed and put in a bowl of boiling water and rinsed then polished with a
clean dry cloth
3. Plate Powder
This is a pink powder, which needs mixing with little methylated spirit or water to
obtain a smooth paste. Using methylated spirit takes shorter time than water. The paste
is rubbed onto the silver using a clean piece of clothe then left to dry until the paste dries
and the silver is rubbed off with clean clothe. The silver is finally rinsed in hot water
and polished with a dry tea clothe.
4. Silver dip
This is a pink-coloured liquid which must be used in a plastic bowl. The silver is placed
into a wire basket dipped and left only for a very short time, then lifted and drained. It is

488
 then placed in a warm water, rinsed and then polished with a clean dry clothe. Its is a
quicker method than others but harder on silver because of the chemical reaction.

WASH-UP ORGANISATION
At the service time the wash-up area is one of the wash-up area is one of the busiest
sections. It must be correctly sited to allow a smooth flow of work promoting a fast
turnover and efficient service. The wash-up service area should be the first section in the
stillroom where the waiter enters from the service area. The dirty palters are stacked
correctly and the entire cutlery in a special wire basket or container in readiness for
washing. The server must place any debris into the bin provided. All used napkins.
Doilies or kitchen paper should be placed in a separate bin.

Dish washing methods

There are five main methods of dishwashing for foodservice operations
1. manual (Tank) method
Dirty crockery are washed in a sink of hot water containing detergent and then placed
into racks and dipped into another sink which is known as the sterilizing tank. The water
temperature is very high, approximately, 75 C (170 F). The crockery is left in for a few
minutes then lifted out and left to drain. As the water is very hot, the crockery will air
dry making this a more hygienic method since no cloths are used. The crockery is then
stacked and stored.
2. Semi- automatic
Soiled ware loaded manually into a dishwashing machine by operators and instructions
from manufacturers followed. Debris should be removed from the crockery before it is
placed into the wire racks. The racks are then passed through the machine, the crockery
being washed, rinsed and then sterilized in turn. They are left to drain a few minutes,
then stacked and stored.

3. Automatic Conveyor
Soiled ware are loaded in baskets, mounted on conveyor, by operators for automatic
transportation through a dishwashing machine
4. Flight conveyor
Soiled ware loaded with pegs mounted on a conveyor by operators for automatic
transportation through a dish washing machine
5. Deferred wash
Soiled ware (Not complete hand written)

8.1.05 SAFETY

Theory

8.1.05 T Specific Objectives

By end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) explain the importance of safety
b) explain safety measures to be observed in food and beverage service areas
c) identify common hazards in the food and beverage service areas
d) explain appropriate action when handling common accidents in food and
beverage service areas
489
 e) explain the legal requirements on safety in food and beverage service area

8.1.05 C Competence
The trainee should have the ability to:
i) practice safety rules in food and beverage service
ii) practice fire drills in food and beverage service
iii) apply first aid procedures

Content
8.1.05 T1 Importance of safety in
food and beverage area
8.1.05 T2 Safety measures in food
and beverage service areas
8.1.05 T3 Common hazards in food
and beverage service areas
8.1.05 T4 Handling common
accidents
8.1.05 T5 Legal requirements on safety

Practice
8.1.05 P Specific Objectives
By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) practice safety rules in food and beverage service
b) practice fire drills in food and beverage service
c) apply first aid procedures

Content
8.1.05 P1 Safety rules in food and
beverage service
8.1.05 P2 Fire drills
8.1.05 P3 First aid procedures

Suggested Teaching/Learning Resources

- textbooks
- handouts
- charts and diagrams
- internet
- resource persons
- equipment

Suggested Teaching/Learning Activities

- taking notes
- group discussions
- research
- browsing
- report writing
- observation

Suggested Evaluation Methods

- tests
- assignments
- reports
490
8.1.06 HYGIENE

Theory

8.1.06 T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) define relevant terms
b) explain the importance of hygiene in food and beverage service
c) state hygiene rules in food and beverage service
d) highlight legal requirements on hygiene in food and beverage service outlets

8.1.06 C Competence
The trainee should have the ability to practice basic hygiene rules in food and
beverage service

Content
8.1.06 T1 Definition of terms
8.1.06 T2 Importance of hygiene in
food and beverage service
8.1.06 T3 Hygiene rules in food and
beverage service
8.1.06 T5 Legal requirements in food
and beverage outlets

Practice

8.1.06 P Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to practice basic
hygiene rules in food and beverage service

Content
8.1.06 P1 Hygiene rules in food and
beverage service

Suggested Teaching/Learning Resources

- handouts
- internet
- journals
- resource persons

Suggested Teaching/Learning Activities

- taking notes
- group discussions
- research
- report writing
- observation
- practice

Suggested Evaluation Methods

- tests
- assignments
491
 - reports

8.1.07 TABLE COVERINGS AND LINEN

8.1.07 T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
d) Define relevant terms
e) identify types of table coverings and linen
f) describe materials used for table coverings and linen
g) describe napkin folds and their application.
h) care for and maintain table covering and linen appropriately

UNIT TASKS
Unit task 1 Definition of terms
Linens are fabric goods, such as tablecloths, napkins and slip cloths.
Today, the term "linen" has come to be applied to all related products even though most are
made of cotton, various synthetic materials, or blends.
Linen is a material made from the fibers of the flax plant.

Unit task 2 Types of table coverings and linen

The main items of linen normally found in a restaurant are: tablecloths; slip-cloths; buffet
cloths; trolley and sideboard cloths; and waiter’s cloths or service cloths.

Table Cloths

 Table linens made from cotton or linen are not only more absorbent but also last longer.
 The fibers don't pill or pile as easy as with synthetic table linens and they don't become
shiny when exposed to an iron's heat.
 Egyptian cotton and Irish linen are considered the finest materials for table linens
because of their long, durable fibers.
 White is the most popular color for table linens because it's considered formal.
 Table linens in off white or ivory are also acceptable.
 A damask (woven) or embroidered pattern is a perfectly acceptable table cloth.

Types of Tables Size of Tables Size of Table Cloths

Square table 76 cm sq 92 cm sq 137 x 137 cm 183 x 183 cm

Rectangular table 136 x 76 cm 183 x 137 cm

Round table 92 cm diameter 184 cm diameter

Figure 4.10 Tables and Table Cloths

492
  Table cloths should be large enough to cover the top as well as a portion of
the legs of a table without interfering with the guest's comfort while he is
seated at the table.
 The size of the tablecloth varies according to the size of the table it is
required to cover.

Slip Cloths or Naperones

 These are designed to be laid over the tablecloth to protect it from spillage and
give it a longer life.
 Using a slip cloth reduces the number of tablecloths used and thus reduces the
cost of inventory and laundry.
 Slip cloths may measure 1 metre square approximately.

Figure 4.11 Slip Cloth

Napkins or Serviettes
a) A napkin or serviette is a rectangle cloth or paper used at the table for wiping
the mouth while eating.
b) It is usually small and folded.
c) Conventionally, the napkin is folded and placed to the left of the place
setting, outside the outermost fork.
d) In an ambitious restaurant setting, it may be folded into elaborate shapes and
displayed on the empty plate.
e) A napkin may also be held together in a bundle (with cutlery) by a napkin
ring.
f) Alternatively, paper napkins may be contained with a napkin holder.

Figure 4.12 Napkin Fold

 Napkins may be of the same colour as tablecloths, or in a colour that blends

with the decor of the restaurant.
 Napkins should be spotlessly clean and well-pressed.
 The ideal size for a napkin is between 46 to 50 cm sq.

Buffet Cloths
 For a buffet table, the minimum size of the tablecloth required is 2 m x 4 m.

Trolley Cloths and Sideboard Cloths

 These are usually made from tablecloths well worn and not suitable for use
on tables, mended by the housekeeping department and folded to fit a
sideboard or trolley.

Waiter’s Cloths or Service Cloths

 A service cloth is a very important part of service equipment as well as being
part of the food server’s uniform.
 It must be kept clean and ironed at all times and only used as a service cloth
for certain activities such as:
 Carrying hot plate
 Final polishing of plates
 Wiping small spills
 Brushing crumbs onto a service plate
 Wiping the undersides of the plates before placing plates on the table
493
  Service cloths are also used by every waiter as protection against heat and to
keep uniforms clean.
Unit task 3 Materials used for table
coverings and linen
 identification
 selection
 care
 maintenance
Unit task 4 Napkin folds and their
applications

Unit task 5

8.1.08 FURNITURE, FITTINGS AND FIXTURES

8.1.08 T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
 define relevant terms
 identify various types of furniture, fittings and fixtures in food and beverage
service areas
 identify materials used for different furniture, fittings and fixtures
 explain factors to consider when selecting furniture, sittings and fixtures for
the food and beverage service areas
 explain the use, care and maintenance of furniture, fittings and fixtures

Content
8.1.08 T1 Definition of terms
8.1.08 T2 Types of furniture, fittings
and fixtures

494
495
 TABLES
 The size and shape of tables depends entirely on the availability of space and the kind of
service envisaged.
 Normally three types of tables are used.
 They are round, rectangular and square.

Figure 4.3 Restaurant Tables

- The height of the table irrespective of the shape should be 75 cm from the floor
level.
- The diameter of a round table to seat four people should be approximately 92
cm.
- The size of a square table to seat two people should 76 cm sq and 92 cm square
to seat four people.
a) The size of rectangular table to seat four people should be 137 cm x 76 cm.
b) Commercial table tops come in a variety of materials: wood, metal, stone, tile and
melamine.
c) Many restaurant table tops are available with edged finishes to prevent scuffs and dents.
 In some expensive tables, another table top is placed with revolving facility, on top of
which the food is placed where th guests can rotate revolving top and serve himself, if he
chooses to.

CHAIRS
 Chair are available in various shapes, colours and sizes to suit all occasions.
 Because of the wide ranges of style, chairs come in varied height and width.
 However the dimension of chairs should be relative to table dimensions.
 The average height of the chair should be 92 cm.
 The seat should be 46 cm from the floor and 23 cm from the top of the table.
 This would enable guests to sit and eat comfortably, without their legs
touching the underside of the table.

Figure 4.4 Restaurant Chairs

SIDE STATION / DUMMY WAITER

 The side station is also called the dummy waiter or service console.
 This is a very important piece of furniture in a restaurant.
 It is used by the service staff for keeping all the service equipment at one place.
 It is also used as a landing table for the dishes picked up from the kitchen enroute
to the table and the dirty dishes from the guest's table to the wash-up area.
 For the convenience of the service staff, the side station should be strategically
located in a restaurant.
 The side station should be kept clean and presentable as it can be seen by the
guests.

Figure 4.5 Side Station

g) The following service equipment can be stored in a side station:

-Salvers -Creamers -Wine chiller and stand
 -Coffee pots -Teapots -Ice buckets and tongs
-Finger bowls -Cruet sets -Sugar bowl; and tongs
-Soup ladles -Butter dishes -Bottle and wine openers
-Cigar cutters -Bread baskets -Bud vases
-Candle holders -Wine cradle -Toothpick stand
-Straw stand -Pot holders -Drip bowls
 The style and design of the side board varies from establishment to
establishment.
 It depends upon:
 The style of service and menu offered
 The number of waiters working from one sideboard
 The number of tables to be served from one sideboard
 The amount of equipment it is expected to hold

Figure 4.6 Old Fashioned Side Station

 It is essential that the side board is of minimum size and portable so that it
may be moved, if necessary.
 If the sideboard is too large for its purpose, then it takes up space which could
be used to seat more customers.
 The top should be of heat resistant material which can be easily washed down.
 After service, the sideboard is either completely emptied out or restocked for
the next service.

8.1.08 T3 Materials used for

furniture, fittings and
fixtures
8.1.08 T4 Selecting furniture, fittings
and fixtures
8.1.08 T5 Use, care and maintenance
of furniture, fittings and
fixtures
-

8.1.09 MENU KNOWLEDGE

Theory

8.1.09 T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) define relevant terms
b) explain the origin of menu
c) explain the importance of menu
d) identify the types of menu
e) outline the menu sequence
f) describe accompaniments and garnishes

8.1.09 C Competence
The trainee should have the ability to:
i) set covers for different menus

497
 ii) identify correct accompaniments for various dishes
iii) design menu cards

Content
8.1.09 T1 Definition of terms
8.1.09 T2 Menu origin
8.1.09 T3 Importance of menu
8.1.09 T4 Types of menu
8.1.09 T5 Menu sequence
8.1.09 T6 Accompaniments and garnishes

Practice

8.1.09 P Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) set covers for different menus
b) identify correct accompaniments for various dishes
c) design menu cards

Content
8.1.09 P1 Covers setting for different menus

8.1.09 P2 Accompaniments for

various dishes
8.1.09 P3 Designing menu cards

Suggested Teaching/Learning Resources

- textbooks
- internet
- journals
- interior decoration equipment and materials
- equipment
- magazines

Suggested Teaching/Learning Activities

- taking notes
- group discussions
- research
- report writing
- sketching
- observation
- practice

Suggested Evaluation Methods

- tests
- assignments
- reports

8.1.10 NON-ALCOHOLIC BEVERAGES

498
8.1.10 T Specific Objectives
By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
 define relevant terms
 identify types of non-alcoholic beverages
 explain preparation of non-alcoholic beverages
 outline the procedures of serving non-alcoholic beverages
 explain preparation and presentation of non-alcoholic cocktails

UNIT TASK
Unit task 1 Definition of terms
 Beverages are potable drinks which have thirst-quenching, refreshing, stimulating and
nourishing qualities.
 A beverage is a liquid formulation specifically prepared for human consumption
 The word “Beverage” has been derived from the Latin word “bever” meaning rest
from work
 A non-alcoholic beverage is a beverage that contains no alcohol.
 Syrup is a thick, viscous liquid, containing a large amount of dissolved sugars (60 to
65% brix), but showing little tendency for crystalisation of dissolved sugar.

Nutrients
A source of nourishment, especially a nourishing ingredient in a food.
Psychoactive
Having an altering effect on perception, emotion, or behavior.
Sake
A Japanese liquor made from fermented rice.
Alcoholism
A disorder characterized by the excessive consumption of and dependence on alcoholic
beverages
Euphoric
Describes a feeling of joy and excitement
Sangria
A cold drink made of red or white wine mixed with brandy, sugar, fruit juice, and soda water.
Vermouth
A sweet or dry fortified wine flavored with aromatic herbs and used chiefly in mixed drinks.
Tequila
An alcoholic liquor distilled from the fermented juice of the Central American century plant
Agave tequilana
Caffeine
 Caffeine is a drug that stimulates the central nervous system

Unit task 2 Types of non-alcoholic beverages

BEVERAGES AND THEIR CLASSIFICATION
 A beverage is a liquid formulation specifically prepared for human consumption.
 The word “Beverage” has been derived from the Latin word “bever” meaning rest
from work.
 After work, one tends to feel thirsty due to fluid loss through perspiration and one is
inclined to drink water or other potable beverages to compensate fluid loss.

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  Beverages can be broadly classified into two.
 They are Alcoholic Beverages and Non-alcoholic Beverages.
 The following chart shows the classification of beverages.

NON-ALCOHOLIC BEVERAGES
 A non-alcoholic beverage is a beverage that contains no alcohol.
 Such drinks are generally drunk for refreshment, or to quench people's thirst.
 Non-alcoholic beverages can be mainly classified as hot and cold beverages.

Cold Drinks

1.Aerated
 These beverages are charged o r a e r a t e d with carbonic gas.
 The charging with carbonic gas imparts the pleasant effervescent characteristic of
these beverages. Carbonation occurs when carbon dioxide is dissolved in water or an
aqueous solution.
 This process yields the "fizz" to carbonated water and sparkling mineral water.
Example: soda water, dry ginger, fizzy lemonade, ginger beer, coca-cola, pepsi, and
others.
 Spring water/ Spring water is the water derived from underground Mineral water
formation from which water flows naturally (artesian) to the surface of the earth.
Minerals become dissolved in the water as it moves through the underground rocks.
 This may give the water flavor and even carbon dioxide bubbles, depending upon the
nature of the geology through which it passes.
 This is why spring water is often bottled and sold as mineral water.
 Mineral water is the water containing minerals or other dissolved substances that alter
its taste or gives it therapeutic value.
 Salts, sulfur compounds, and gases are among the substances that can be dissolved in
the water.
 Mineral water can often be effervescent.
 Mineral water can be prepared or can occur naturally.

Squash
 Squash is a highly-sweetened (and often fruit-based) concentrate, which is diluted
with a liquid, most commonly water, before drinking.
 Typically, squash is created by mixing one part concentrate with four or five parts of
water (depending on concentration and personal taste) directly into a glass or mug or
into a jug.
 Squashes are also mixed with spirits or cocktails.
 The most common flavours are orange, apple and blackcurrant, lemon, peppermint,
mixed fruit, summer fruits, and lemon-lime.
 Other flavours include peach, strawberry, passion fruit, custard apple and kiwi fruit.

3. Juice
 Juice is prepared by mechanically squeezing or macerating fresh fruits or vegetables
without the application of heat or solvents.
 Popular juices include, but are not limited to, apple, orange, prune, lemon, grapefruit,
cherry, pineapple, tomato, carrot, grape, strawberry, cranberry, pomegranate guava,
sapota and celery.
 It has become increasingly popular to combine a variety of fruits into single juice

500
 drinks.
 Popular blends include cran-apple (cranberry and apple) and apple and blackcurrant.
 Juices are also used for cocktails and mixing with spirits.

4. Syrup
 Syrup is a thick, viscous liquid, containing a large amount of dissolved sugars (60 to
65% brix), but showing little tendency for crystalisation of dissolved sugar.
 The main use of these concentrated sweet fruit flavourings is as a base for cocktails,
fruit cups or mixed with soda water as a long drink.
 Some examples of syrup are orgeat (almond), cassis (blackcurrant), citronelle
(lemon), framboise (raspberry) and cerise (cherry)

Hot Drinks

1. Tea
 Tea is one of the most widely-consumed stimulant beverage in the world.
 It has a cooling, slightly bitter, astringent flavor.
 It has almost no carbohydrates, fat, or protein.
 Tea is a natural source of the amino acid theanine, methylxanthines such as caffeine
and theobromine, and polyphenolic antioxidant catechins.

2. Coffee
 Coffee is a widely consumed stimulant beverage prepared from roasted seeds,
commonly called coffee beans, of the coffee plant.
 Once brewed, coffee may be presented in a variety of ways.
 Drip brewed, percolated, or French-pressed / cafetière coffee may be served with no
additives (colloquially known as black) or with either sugar, milk or cream, or both.
 When served cold, it is called iced coffee.

3.Cocoa
 It is a powder made from cacao seeds (bean) after they have been fermented, roasted,
shelled, ground, and freed of most of their fat.
 A beverage is made by mixing this powder with sugar in hot water or milk.
It is a rich source of theobromine which acts as a stimulant.

Unit task 3 Preparation of non-alcoholic beverages

Preparation of Tea
 Tea brewing or preparation is an art that is simple to perform but which also requires
some care to do well.
 While essentially tea is brewed by adding boiling water to the dry leaf, the quantity of
leaves, the temperature of the water and timing is of vital concern.
 The following is a guide for the preparation of tea. The basic rule of thumb to start is
'one teaspoon of loose-leaf tea per cup'.
1. Warm your empty tea pot by filling it with hot water. This will
prevent the hot water from cooling too quickly when leaves are added.
2. Boil freshly drawn tap water. If the quality of your tap water is
poor, try using filtered or bottled spring water. For black tea, use the water when it comes to a
boil. Water left boiling too long will de-aerate. This will result in a flat tasting tea. For green
tea, the water should be heated to a lower temperature (usually approximately 80 degrees
Celsius), which may vary from tea to tea.

501
 3. Empty the hot water from your tea pot and add 2.25g or one
rounded teaspoon of tea leaves for each cup of water (or one heaping teaspoon per mug),
placing the tea directly into the bottom of the pot or using a basket infuser. Tea ball strainers,
while convenient, often yield poorer tasting tea as they are often too small to allow all of the
leaves to fully unravel its contents. If you do use a tea ball, be sure to use one that is
sufficiently large to pack the tea loosely.
4. Add the freshly boiled water over the leaves in the tea pot.
5. Brew tea for the appropriate length of time. Time needed to brew
tea varies depending on the leaves being used and the drinker's individual taste. Careful
timing is essential for brewing tea. A very general rule to follow is the smaller the leaf, the
less time required for brewing. Broken grades of tea leaves and most Darjeeling teas usually
only need 3-4 minutes to brew. Whole-leaf teas often need 4-5 minutes. All teas, however,
will become bitter due to higher tannin
extraction if brewed for longer than 5 or 6 minutes. When brewing tea, time with a timer,
and not with your eyes. It is a common mistake to brew the tea until it looks a particular color
or shade. The color of tea is a poor indicator of the tea's taste.
6. If you use a basket infuser or a tea ball, remove these promptly when the
brewing time has expired. If you placed the tea directly into the pot, pour the tea into the cups
through a strainer to catch the leaves. In this instance, if you do not wish to serve your tea
immediately, pour your tea through a strainer into another pre-heated tea pot.
7. Tea sometimes is brewed with spices like fresh ginger, dried ginger powder
or cardoms to enrich the flavor.
Milk and sugar should be added according to individual taste. Adding of milk first or last
does not make any significant difference in the taste of tea - but many people have their
choice some like to add milk first and some afterwards. Sugar must be added last. Tea is also
taken hot with sugar and slices of lemon. This is known as Russian Tea. For preparing iced
tea: prepare strong tea. Pour over crushed ice on which placed a sprig of mint and topped
with lemon slices.

Instant tea:
 Of late completely water soluble tea powder is getting popular. Another convenient
method of preparing tea is to use tea bags
Methods of Preparation of Coffee
 General methods of preparation of coffee is given below.
 This is followed by specific methods of brewing coffee which is given under
appropriate headings.
1. Brewing
Coffee can be brewed in several different ways, but these methods fall into two main groups
depending upon how the water is introduced to the coffee grounds. If the method allows the
water to pass only once through the grounds, the resulting brew will contain mainly the more
soluble components (including caffeine).If the water is repeatedly cycled through the beans
(as with the common percolator), the brew will also contain more of the relatively less
soluble, and bitter-tasting, compounds found in the bean, but for this coarse ground coffee
will be required.
2. Boiling
Despite the name, care should be taken not to actually boil coffee for more than an instant
because the decoction becomes bitter. The simplest method is to put the ground coffee in a
cup, pour in hot water and let it cool while the grounds sink to the bottom. This is a
traditional method for making a cup of coffee (known as "mud coffee")."Cowboy coffee" is
made by simply heating coarse grounds with water in a pot, letting the grounds settle and

502
pouring off the liquid to drink, sometimes filtering it to remove fine grounds. The above
methods are sometimes used with hot milk instead of water. Water temperature is crucial to
the proper extraction of flavor from the ground coffee. The recommended brewing
temperature of coffee is 93°C (199.4°F). If cooler, some of the solubles that make up the
flavor will not be extracted. If the water is too hot, some undesirable, bitter, components will
be extracted, adversely affecting the taste. If coffee is heated to boiling point only very
briefly, the taste will be little affected; the longer it is kept at a high temperature the worse the
taste becomes.

Figure 10.3 French Press or Cafetière

Steeping
 A cafetière (or French press) is a tall, narrow cylinder with a plunger that includes a
metal or nylon mesh filter.
 Coffee is placed in the cylinder and boiling water is poured on.
 The coffee and hot water are left in the cylinder for a few minutes (typically 4'-7') and
the plunger is pushed down leaving the filter immediately above the grounds,
allowing the coffee to be poured out while the filter retains the grounds.
 Depending on the type of filter, it is important to pay attention to the grind of the
coffee beans, though a rather coarse grind is almost always called for.
 A plain glass cylinder may be used, or a vacuum flask arrangement to keep the coffee
hot.

Drip Brew
 Drip brew (also known as filter or American coffee) is made by letting hot water drip
onto coffee grounds held in a coffee filter (paper or perforated metal).
 Strength varies according to the ratio of water to coffee and the fineness of the grind,
but is typically weaker than espresso, though the final product contains more caffeine.
 By convention, regular coffee brewed by this method is served in a brown or black
pot (or a pot with a brown or black handle), while decaffeinated coffee is served in an
orange pot (or a pot with an orange handle).

Moka Pot Method

 There is an art to making coffee in a moka pot that includes the amount of water, the
amount and grind of the coffee, the compactness of the coffee grounds in the filter and
the heat of the water used to brew it.
 It is possible to make excellent coffee without any acidity or bitterness in a moka pot
if you follow simple procedures listed below:
1. Place your kettle of cold water on your stove burner and heat water until hot. Depending
on the quality of your water, you may find that using filtered water significantly improves the
taste of your coffee.
2. Grind your coffee. Grind just a little coarser than for an espresso machine (fine, espresso
grind of dark roasted coffee). Just coarse enough so it doesn't go through the upper filter
holes or block them.
3. Place hot water in the bottom section of the pot up to the level of the safety valve.
4. Insert the filter basket. Fill the filter basket with ground coffee until it is level and then
level off with a knife.Do not compact the coffee, because as the water reaches the grounds
they will expand effectively tamping your coffee for you.
5. Make sure the filter disk and gasket are in place in the top portion of the pot. Screw the top
section onto the bottom section of the pot and tighten to obtain a perfect seal. If using a

503
stovetop moka pot, place it on the stove on medium to medium-high heat. When hot, the air
and water trapped inside the bottom tank expand due to the heat being applied the device. As
this happens, it pushes the hot water up a tube, through the coffee grinds, and out of the spout
into the top chamber of the pot.
6. When the water in the tank has been exhausted, that's when you hear the ‘gurgle,’ that
signifies the drink is ready to pour (approximately 4-5 minutes). Brewing is completed when
all the water has been percolated into the top chamber. Remove the moka pot from the stove.

Figure 10.4 Moka Pot

 Do not put the pot in the dishwasher. Wash the pot in mild detergent and water and
dry thoroughly after each use.
 Always keep your moka pot scrupulously clean. Disassemble the moka pot after every
use and clean the filter and top pot, being sure that you clean the underside of the top
pot. Every few weeks, run some vinegar through the moka pot as if you were brewing
coffee to get rid of any mineral deposits left behind by hard water.

Pot Method
i) Warm an earthenware pot or jug. Put in 3 level teaspoons of fresh coffee powder (coarse
grind) for each 250 ml cup.
ii) Pour water which has started to boil over the powder and stir. Cover the pot and let it
stand near the fire for 5 to 7 minutes.
iii) Pour the coffee through a fine meshed sieve or cloth. Add milk and sugar to taste.

Filter Method
 Several types of filters are available. Stainless steel or brass filters are the best, but the
latter should be properly tinned, or else the coffee will be spoilt.
 Glass or china containers are good but are fragile. Copper should not be used because
of possible copper poisoning.
i) Put in 3 level teaspoons of coffee powder (fine or medium grind) to each 250 ml. or 8 oz.
cup. Press the plunger down lightly over the powder.
ii) Pour water which has just come to boil over (he plunger in a circular motion. Let it stand
for 5 to 7 minutes.
iii) Coffee can be poured out straight from the lower vessel and milk and sugar added as
required.

Percolator Method
i) Place the ground coffee powder in the centre section of a clean warm percolator on a fine
strainer fitted inside and resting on a paper filter (a pinch off salt is mixed with the coffee).
ii) Pour fresh boiling water slowly through the top section.
iii) The water passes through the coffee, is strained and collects in ihe bottom section of the
apparatus.

Figure 10.5 Precolator

Espresso or Caffè Espresso

 Espresso is a concentrated coffee beverage brewed by forcing very hot, but not
boiling water under high pressure through coffee that has been ground to a
consistency between extremely fine and powder.

504
 Figure 10.6 Caffè Espresso Machine

 The defining characteristics of espresso include a thicker consistency than drip coffee,
a higher amount of dissolved solids than drip coffee per relative volume, and a
serving size that is usually measured in shots, which are between 25 and 30 ml
(30ml=1 fluid ounce) in size.
 Espresso is chemically complex and volatile, with many of its chemical components
quickly degrading due to oxidation or loss of temperature. Properly brewed espresso
has three major parts: the heart, body, and the most distinguishing factor, the presence
of crema, reddish-brown foam that floats on the surface of the espresso. It is
composed of vegetable oils, proteins and sugars. Crema has elements of both
emulsion and foam colloid.

Instant Coffee
 A thick coffee decoction is prepared first and then it is either spray dried to a fine
powder or freeze dried to granules.
 When added to hot water it dissolves completely leaving no residue.

Turkish Coffee
 It is heavily laced with cardomom and is quite thick in consistency. It is a traditional
after meal drink in many Arab
countries.

General Rules for Storing and for Making Coffee

i) Coffee loses aroma and flavour with storage, as the volatile components evaporate. It
should be roasted and ground immediately before brewing for the best possible drink.
ii) Roasted coffee bean can be stored for some time, and can be re-roasted briefly
immediately before use. Ground coffee should be used within two or three days of grinding.
iii) Vacuum-packing extends storage life much. Roasted coffee, whether ground or not, can
be kept in an airtight container in a freezer to lengthen shelf life.
iv) Fresh coffee is the best; so buy quantities to last not more than a week.
v) Use the exact quantity of powder required.
vi) Use freshly drawn and freshly boiled water.
vii) The coffee-maker must be rinsed with hot water before each use and thoroughly
washed and dried before being put away. Never brew less than three- fourths
of the coffee maker's capacity; use a smaller one instead.
COCOA
 Cocoa, besides being a stimulant, is also a food. It is prepared from the seeds (beans)
of a tree called theobromo cacao, grown in South and Central America.the
West and East Indies and along the Gold Coast and adjacent areas in Africa.
Common commercial varities are criolo (fine quality) and trinitario (medium
quality). The pods are gathered in heaps and cut open with sharp rounded
knives. The cocoa beans which are covered with a moist, glistening sweet
white pulp (mucilage) are scooped out. Oxidation begins almost at once
causing the beans to become brown. Therefore, as soon as possible, they must
be placed on fermenting heaps and are spread in the sun to remove the
moisture so that spoilage does not set in. However, fermentation is necessary
to get the finest possible flavor. This is accompanied by a rise in temperature
and the transformation of natural sugars to acetic and other acids. After several
days, this operation is complete and the beans are allowed to dry. They are

505
 then ready to be packed and shipped. Cocoa contains theobromine and
caffeine as well as starch fat, nitrogenous compounds and salts. So, apart from
being a stimulating drink, it is also a food. Cocoa can be prepared in milk
only, or in milk and water, mixed to suit the taste of the individual. The
powder is mixed with sugar to avoid lumping. A little cold milk is added and a
thick even paste made. Either hot rnilk or hot milk and water are poured over.
The preparation is then allowed to boil for a few minutes which improves the
flavour. A pinch of salt added at the beginning enhances the flavour.

Unit task 4 Service of non-alcoholic

beverages
Unit task 5 Preparation and
presentation of non-
alcoholic cocktails

8.1.11 ALCOHOLIC BEVERAGES

Theory

8.1.11 T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) define terms used in the service of alcoholic beverages
b) explain the bar layout and work flow
c) identify equipment used in the bar
d) identify bar personnel and their duties
e) classify alcoholic beverages
f) prepare and use wine and drink lists
g) explain the procedures for preparation and service of alcoholic beverages
h) explain the preparation and presentation of alcoholic cocktails
i) outline legal aspects of alcoholic beverages

Content
8.1.11 T1 Definition of terms
8.1.11 T2 Bar layout and work flow
8.1.11 T3 Bar Equipment
8.1.11 T4 Bar personnel
- job titles
- duties
- qualities
8.1.11 T5 Classification of alcoholic
beverages
8.1.11 T6 Wine and drink lists
- function
- compiling
- types

8.1.11 T7 Preparation and service of

alcoholic beverages
8.1.11 T8 Alcoholic cocktails

506
8.1.11 T9 Legal aspects regarding
alcoholic beverages

Practice

8.1.11 P Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) identify equipment used in a bar
b) identify different alcoholic beverages
c) set up and display a given bar
d) serve alcoholic beverages appropriately
e) prepare, present and serve alcoholic cocktail

Content
8.1.11 P1 Bar equipment
8.1.11 P2 Alcoholic beverages
8.1.11 P3 Setting up and displaying a bar
8.1.11 P4 Service of alcoholic beverages
8.1.11 P5 Alcoholic cocktails

8.1.11 C Competence
The trainee should have the ability to:
i) identify equipment used in a bar
ii) identify different alcoholic beverages
iii) set up and display a given bar
iv) serve alcoholic beverages appropriately
v) prepare, present and serve alcoholic cocktail

Suggested Teaching/Learning Resources

- textbooks
- internet
- resource persons
- equipment
- alcoholic beverages

Suggested Teaching/Learning Activities

- taking notes
- group discussions
- research
- report writing
- observation
- interpret themes

Suggested Evaluation Methods

- tests
- assignments
- reports

8.1.12 FOOD AND BEVERAGE SERVICE PROCEDURES

507
 Theory

8.1.12 T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) explain styles of food and beverage services
b) outline the preparation procedures of food and beverage service
c) explain the importance of interpersonal skills in food and beverage service
d) outline the procedure of taking orders
e) outline the procedures of meal service
f) explain methods of billing and handling payment
g) explain post service tasks

Unit Tasks
Task 1: Explaining styles of food and beverage services
There are a variety of styles of food service. The type used in an establishment will depend
on a number of factors like:
i) the policy of the establishment
ii) the type, size and site of the establishment
iii) the time available
iv) the type and number of customers
v) the type of menu and its cost
For most types of food service, customers are seated at a laid table and served by one or
combination of the service methods
These methods are:
 Plate Service (American Service)
In plate service the food is plated in the kitchen or at a service point and served to guest on
the plate
It is the basic and commonly used form of service and demands that the waiter should be
skilled in carrying plates without disturbing the food arranged on them. The methods used to
carry the plates depend on the number of plates to be carried. The two professional methods
mostly used in the industry are two and three carrying techniques.
Advantages

i) Its fast and simple service

ii) Its not expensive. One waiter/waitress serve may guests and no special service
equipment in necessary
iii) It does not require highly trained technical staff that demands for higher pay

Disadvantages
i) Less showmanship
ii) Reduced personalized attentions

Silver Service
Silver service is a technique of transferring food from a servicing dish to the guest’s plate
from the left with the use of service cutlery. The food is fully prepared and pre-cut in the
kitchen and then neatly arranged on silver platters by the chef. The waiter then shows the
platter to the guests as a polite gesture and serves the food to individual plates.

Advantages

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 i) Only one waiter is needed to each station
ii) Elegant and entertaining
iii) No extra space is needed for the equipment except for the side stand
iv) It guarantee equal portions because the food is pre-cut and already served
v) Gives the guests personal attention

Disadvantages
i) It requires a big initiated investment in silver equipment
ii) If many guests are served from one platter, the last one to be served may see a
rather less attractive display
iii) If every guest in a party orders different dish like steak or fish, the waiter must
carry very heavily loaded tray/trays to the dining room
Family Service
Family service is a simple method of service in which serving dishes are placed on
the dining table, allowing the guests to selected and serves themselves. This style
of service enables the guests to select only what they require and in appropriate
portions. Family service is often offered in addition to plate service e.g. the main
item may be plate-served and the guests left to help themselves to serve vegetables
and salads.
Advantages
i) It is fast as food is served at the proper temperature
ii) It is inexpensive
iii) It requires no special equipment

Disadvantages
i) Less showmanship
ii) Reduced personalized attention to customers

Buffet Service
In buffet service the food, hot or cold is presented attracting on a long table, classified and
arranged according to proper sequence, from appetizers to desserts. Soup is placed on soup
tureen and the hot entrees in chaffing dishes to keep them warm. Some equipment line dinner
plates and saucers are laid down right on the buffet table. The guests go to the buffet table
pick up plates, china, cutlery and napkin and all other items and serve themselves of their
choice.

Advantages
i) Its is a fast service
ii) It requires less staff to render the service
iii) The presentation of different dishes can be appetizing

Disadvantages
i) It may result in shortages of food especially when the early one may serve
themselves more thus very little food is left for the late comers.

Cafeteria service
In this service guests collect their own meals on a tray as they select food items from the hot
or cold counters

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Carvery Service

Carvery service offers the gusts the opportunity of choosing a starter and sweet from a table
d’hote type menu and main course from a carvery display. When customers are seated the
menu is presented and the first course is ordered. After the first course the customer id invited
to the carvery where they choose from a variety of roast meals or vegetarian alternatives.

Gueridon

8.1.12T UNIT TASK 2: Preparation procedures of Food and Beverage Service

The customer’s first impressions of the restaurant are the most important and
these are largely determined by the professionalism of the service staff and their
preparations prior to service. These pre-service preparations are known as mise-
en-place and are vital in that they create the right and pleasing environment by the
setting and controlling of temperature, lighting and equipment.

Preparation before service

The service staff should check the following before service.
 The tables and linen are clean
 Table cloths are evenly spread on the table
 Chairs are dusted and properly arranged
 The table set up is appropriate and pleasing
 The silver is polished and the china and crockery are spotlessly clean and
befitting the occasion
 Cruet sets, sugar bowls and flower vases are filled and placed on the table
suitably
 The floor/carpet is clean and dry
 The restaurant and back area are in a state of readiness before the service
session commences
 The side station is fully equipped for service and the following should be
checked:
- condiments tray is cleaned and refilled
- Napkins are folded and kept handy for the particular session
- Salvers, extra linen, cutlery and service equipment necessary for the
session are stacked up
- Water jugs and ice buckets are filled and kept ready
- Coffee pots ready with freshly brewed coffee/tea
- Sugar cubes, butter and butter plates ready

Mise-en-Scene
Mise-en-Scene means to prepare environment of the outlet before service in order
to make it pleasant, comfortable, safe and hygienic.

Ensure that:
 Carpets are well brushed or hovered
 All tables and chairs are serviceable
 Table lights and wall lights have functioning bulbs
 Menu cards are presentable and attractive
 Tent cards or other sales material are presentable

510
  Doors and windows are thrown open for some time to air the restaurant.
 Exchange dirty linen for fresh linen
 Table clothes and mats are laid on the tables
 Replace wilted flowers with fresh flowers

Mise-en-Place
Mise-en-Place is a French term that means to “putting in place” which is
attributed to the preparation of a work place for ultimate smooth service. Before
service commences, the staff should ensure that the station is in total readiness to
receive guests.

Mis-en-Place involves:
 Side stations should be stacked with sufficient covers for resetting is over.
Extra linen, crockery, cutlery, glass ware and ash trays should be kept handy
so that they are readily available for use.
 Cruet sets should be cleaned and filled on a daily basis
 Sauce bottles should be filled and the necks and tops of bottles wiped clean
 Butter condiments and accompaniments for service should be kept ready for
use when needed.

Refer to: 25.4.3

511
  8
8.1.13T1 Unit task 1: Definition of
terms
 Colour
- Is an element of art and design that is perceived only by the sense of
sight.
- Is a form of light energy that has wavelength
 Pigment
- Is a colouring matter which gives colours to objects
- A surface of an object is capable of reflecting colour of a particular type
only if it has its pigment.
 Hue - the property which makes colours appear different from each other
 Value – lightness or darkness of a colur
 Intensity - the degree of purity and saturation of a colour

8.1.13T2 Importance of interior

decoration in Food and Beverage Service

18.1.13T3 Associative use of colour in Food and Beverage Service

 Colours should be used to express ideas, imaginations and feeling. These
thoughts and feelings which are hidden in us should be produced and made
visible to there other people.
 Colour should be chosen wisely so that guests feel at home. Colours can alter
size or shape of a room or add to its warmth, cheerfulness, peace and quiet.
 Warm and cool colours. Hues are categorized as cool or warm. Cool colours
are:
- Blue, green and purple
- Pale blue is fresh and cool
- Dark blue can be depressing if used in large areas
- Green is cool and has a soothing and pleasant effect
- Purple has richness and less depressing than dark blue
- White appears hygienic and cold
- Swarm colours are red, yellow and orange. They are conspicuous,
cheerful and stimulating. They can make objects appear nearer and larger
so that a large bad lit room can be made to seem small and cosy.
 Neutral colours are grey, beige, tan, brown, white and black.
These are often used with cool or warm colours. They can be sued as main
colours with touches of contrasting or bright colours. If used alone they appear
dull and monotonous.

The following colours are regarded as most acceptable: Pink, peach, pale yellow,
clear green, beige, blue and turquoise. These colours reflect the natural colours
found in good and well represented food stuffs.

Bright illumination may be found in bars with light colours on the walls, but food
service areas are better with dimmer illumination and warmly coloured walls,
giving a more relaxed and welcoming atmosphere.

8.1.13T4 Effects of colour on surfaces

 The aspect of the room will have some influence on the choice of colour.

512
  The light in the room reflects on the colours and textures and the amount of
light varies the general effect of the colour. If the room faces north and has
little light the room can be made to look bright and cheerful with warm
colours such as red, orange and yellow.
 A rough surface appears darker than a smooth surface because of the many
shadows cast by the roughness
 Colours may also be affected by their surroundings and may distort other
colours around them. A large area of bright colours always appear brighter
than small ones.

8.1.13T5 Floral arrangement

8.1.13 INTERIOR DECORATION

Theory

8.1.13 T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) define terms
b) explain the importance of interior decoration in food and beverage service
c) explain the associative use of colour in food and beverage service areas
d) explain the effects of colour on surfaces
e) identify decorations for different functions
f) describe different floral arrangements

8.1.13 C Competence
The trainee should have the ability to:
i) identify decorations applicable to various functions
ii) interpret different themes

Content
8.1.13 T1 Definition of terms
8.1.13 T2 Importance of interior
decoration in food and
beverage service
8.1.13 T3 Associative use of colour in
food and beverage service
- symbolism
- warm and cool colours
- colours and emotions
- objective and subjective use of colour
8.1.13 T4 Effects of colour on surfaces
8.1.13 T5 Floral arrangements

Practice

8.1.13 P Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) identify decorations applicable to various functions

513
 b) interpret different themes

Content
8.1.13 P1 Decoration for various functions
8.1.13 P2 Theme interpretation

Suggested Teaching/Learning Resources

- textbooks
- internet
- interior decoration equipment and materials
- equipment
- magazines

Suggested Teaching/Learning Activities

- taking notes
- group discussions
- research
- report writing
- observation

Suggested Evaluation Methods

- tests
- assignments
- reports

8.1.14 INTRODUCTION TO FIRST AID

Theory

8.1.14 T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit the trainee should be able to:
a) define terms used in first aid
b) explain the importance of first aid
c) describe the scope of first aid
d) identify the responsibilities of a first aid provider

8.1.14 C Competence
The trainee should have the ability to provide first aid

Content
8.1.14 T1 Definition of terms
- first aid
- first aid provider
- casualty
- first aid kit
8.1.14 T2 Importance of first aid
8.1.14 T3 Scope of first aid
8.1.14 T4 Responsibilities of a first
aid provider

514
 Practice

8.1.14 P Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-
module unit the trainee
should be able to role play
the responsibilities of a first
aid provider

8.1.14 P1 Role playing the responsibilities of a first aid provider

Suggested Teaching/Learning Resources

- textbooks
- internet
- resource persons

Suggested Teaching/Learning Activities

- taking notes
- group discussions
- research
- report writing
- observation
- practice

Suggested Evaluation Methods

- tests
- assignments
- reports

8.1.15 FIRST AID SUPPLIES

Theory

8.1.15 T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit the trainee should be able to:
a) list first aid supplies
b) explain the use and care of first aid supplies
c) identify the Content of a first aid kit

8.1.15 C Competence
The trainee should have the ability to:
i) identify first aid supplies
ii) use first aid kit
iii) make an improvised first aid kit
iv) demonstrate the use and care of first aid supplies

Content
8.1.15 T1 First aid supplies
8.1.15 T2 Content s of a first aid kit

515
8.1.15 T3 Use and care of first aid supplies

Practice

8.1.15 P Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit the trainee should be able to:
a) identify first aid supplies
b) use first aid kit
c) make an improvised first aid kit
d) demonstrate the use and care of first aid supplies

Content
8.1.15 P1 Identification of first aid supplies
8.1.15 P2 Correct use of first aid kit
8.1.15 P3 Improvise first aid kit
8.1.15 P4 Use and care of first aid supplies

Suggested Teaching/Learning Resources

- textbooks
- handouts
- charts and diagrams
- internet
- resource persons
- equipment

Suggested Teaching/Learning Activities

- taking notes
- group discussions
- research
- report writing
- observation
- practice

Suggested Evaluation Methods

- tests
- assignments
- reports

8.1.16 COMMON ACCIDENTS

Theory

8.1.16 T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit the trainee should be able to:
a) identify common accidents
b) state causes of common accidents
c) explain the prevention of common accidents
d) outline first aid procedures that apply to common accidents

8.1.16 C Competence

516
 The trainee should have the ability to:
i) handle common accidents
ii) prevent of common accidents

Content
8.1.16 T1 Identification of common
accidents
8.1.16 T2 Causes of common accidents
8.1.16 T3 Prevention of common accidents
8.1.16 T4 First aid procedures for
common accidents

Practice

8.1.16 P Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) handle common accidents
b) demonstrate prevention of common accidents

Content
8.1.16 P1 Handling common accidents
8.1.16 P1 Demonstrate prevention of common accidents

Suggested Teaching/Learning Resources

- textbooks
- handouts
- charts and diagrams
- internet
- resource persons
Suggested Teaching/Learning Activities
- taking notes
- group discussions
- research
- report writing
- observation
- practice

Suggested Evaluation Methods

- tests
- assignments
- reports

8.1.17 EMERGING TRENDS

Theory

8.1.17 T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) identify emerging trends in food and beverage service
b) explain the challenges posed by emerging trends in food and beverage service

517
 c) explain ways of managing challenges posed by emerging trends

8.1.16 C Competence
The trainee should have the ability to:
i) identify emerging trends and issues in food and beverage service
ii) cope with emerging trends and issues in food and beverage service

Content
8.1.17 T1 Emerging trends in food
and beverage service
8.1.17 T2 Challenges of emerging trends
8.1.17 T3 Managing challenges in
food and beverage service

Practice

8.1.17 P Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) identify emerging trends and issues in food and beverage service
b) discuss the emerging trends and issues in food and beverage service

Content
8.1.17 P1 Emerging trends in food
and beverage service
8.1.17 P2 Group discussion on
emerging trends and issues
in food and beverage
service

Suggested Teaching/Learning Resources

- textbooks
- internet

Suggested Teaching/Learning Activities

- taking notes
- group discussions
- research
- report writing

Suggested Evaluation Methods

- tests
- assignments
- reports

518
519
9.1.0 HOUSEKEEPING, FRONT OFFICE LAUNDRY AND HOME NURSING

9.1.01 Introduction
This course unit is designed to equip the trainee with knowledge and skills in
housekeeping, laundry and home nursing to enable him/her to maintain the correct
standards of cleanliness, comfort, hygiene and aesthetic values, perform laundry
procedures proficiently and provide basic care for the sick in any given establishment.

9.1.02 General Objectives

At the end of this course unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) understand what is involved in housekeeping, laundry and home nursing
b) appreciate the values gained from good housekeeping, laundry and home nursing
practices
c) understand the operation, care and maintenance of cleaning and laundry equipment
d) operate the cleaning and laundry equipment
e) acquire knowledge and skills in the selection of appropriate cleaning agents:
f) maintain desirable cleanliness and hygiene standards in different establishments
through the application of appropriate cleaning methods and procedures
g) appreciate principles of home nursing.
9.1.0 HOUSEKEEPING, FRONT OFFICE, LAUNDRY AND HOME
NURSING

9.1.01 INTRODUCTION TO ACCOMMODATION OPERATIONS

Specific Objectives
By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) define terms
b) list the components of the accommodation department
c) describe the organizational structures of accommodation establishments
d) explain the duties of the various accommodation staff
e) state the attributes of accommodation staff

UNIT TASKS

Unit Task 1: Defining terms

 Housekeeping
Housekeeping or House cleaning is the systematic process of making a
building neat and clean in approximately that order. This maybe applied
more broadly that just an individual building, or as a metaphor for a similar
"clean up" process applied elsewhere such as a procedural reform. It can also
be called household management, which is the act of overseeing the
organizational, financial, day-to-day operations of a building or estate, and
the managing of other domestic concerns.
 Accommodation
Accommodation (in British usage) or accommodations (in American usage)
refers to lodging in a dwelling or similar living quarters afforded to travelers in
hotels or on cruise ships, or prisoners, etc.

 Operations
These are jobs or tasks comprising of one or more elements or sub-tasks, and
which are performed typically in one location.

 Laundry is a noun that refers to the act of washing and finishing of clothes and
linens, the place where that washing is done, and/or that which needs to be, is
being, or has been laundered.

 Front Office
The term, front office is used in business settings and may refer to the Sales
and Marketing divisions of a company. It may also refer to any other divisions
in a company that interact with their customers. The term front office is in
contrast to the back office operations, which include departments such as
personnel, accounting, payroll and financial reporting which do not interact
directly with customers.
 Unit Task 2: Listing the Components of the accommodation department

Hotels and Motels are organized into departments or Divisions. Each department or
division is responsible for a particular operational function or functions. Most large
properties have a room division which included several departments such as the front
office, laundry and housekeeping. These are known as revenue –generating centers.
Others are considered to be support centers. The executive in charge of the room
division is the Rooms Division Director who in some properties may be called
Residence Manager, Executive manager, or Senior Manager. The room Division
Director reports directly to the General Manger. As a part of the executive committee,
the Room Division Director takes an active part in policy-making decision related to
operations.

Identification of Accommodation areas

 Guestrooms / Floors:
Room attendants and floor supervisors are responsible for the
cleanliness maintenance and security of guestrooms and surrounding
areas.
 Public Areas:
a) Front of the building areas. (E.g. swimming pools, parking area,
club, food service area etc.
b) Back of the building areas.(E.g. Staff canteen, service elevator,
locker rooms, administrative canteen, laundry, linen rooms,
basement, store except kitchen which is cleaned by the kitchen
stewards)
c) Linen and Uniform rooms:
The housekeeping department is responsible for its functioning for
the repairs and renewal of linen and for maintenance of proper
inventory and stock records of all linen items. Linen includes room
linen, food service linen, soft furnishings, uniforms, bed and bath
linen.
d) Laundry: OPL (On Premises Laundry):
If the laundry is on premises then the guest laundry from the rooms
is directly collected and delivered by the laundry ballet. However all
hotel linen is first collected in the linen room and then sent to the
laundry for washing. OPL (off premises laundry) is the laundry of
both the guest and linen which is done by the external laundry. All
the linen including the guest laundry is collected in the linen room
from it is sent to the external laundry for washing. The washed linen
including the guest laundry is collected at the linen from where it is
sent to the guest rooms and other service points.
e) Sanitary areas

Unit Task 3: Organizational Structures for various accommodation

establishments
Unit Task 4: Duties of Accommodation Staff

In a hotel it is generally accepted that a Head Housekeeper is one who supervises

three or more assistant Housekeeper. The housekeeper may be responsible for the
following members of staff.

Assistant Housekeeper (floor housekeepers or floor supervisors)

Supervises the maids and carry out work delegated by the housekeeper while the
total number will vary according to the type of hotel; a general rule is one assistant
housekeeper for 50 rooms
Room maids
Are responsible for the servicing of the guests’ bedrooms, private sitting rooms and
often private bathrooms and are also on call for service to guests. A maid may be
expected to service 10-15 rooms in an eight-hour shift e.g. 7 am to 3 pm or 8 am to 4
pm
Staff maids
Clean the rooms of the living-in staff
Cleaners
Are usually part-time whose job is to clean offices, public rooms, bathrooms & ladies
cloakrooms. In some hotels, this work can be done by full-time housemaids or
corridor maids
There are firms which undertake contract cleaning and some hotels use this service
although the housekeeper still ‘vets’ the work
Linen keeper
Supervises the work of the line room and who may have several linen maids to assist
her in providing clean, presentable linen throughout the building
Cloakroom attendant
Looks after the ladies’ powder room
House porters
They work consists of the removal of rubbish, the shifting of furniture, heavy vacuum
cleaning and other odd jobs
Valets
Usually work only in first-class hotels and are responsible for the valeting of the
clothes of the guests and may combine this with some of the less dirty jobs of the
house porter
He may be a member of the uniformed staff
A florist
May be one of the housekeeping staff, but in some hotels the housekeeper or her
assistants may arrange the flowers and in others there may be contract
arrangement.
The Aims of Housekeeper
 Achieve the maximum efficiency in the care and comfort of the guests and in
the smooth running of the department
 Establish a welcoming atmosphere and a courteous, reliable service from all
staff of the department
 Ensure high standards of cleanliness and general upkeep in all areas for which
she is responsible
 Train, control and supervise all staff attached to the department
 Establish a good working relationship with other departments
 Ensure that safety and security regulations are made known to all staff of the
department Keep the general manager or administrator informed of all matters
requiring attraction
Responsibilities of Housekeeper
The housekeeper has the following responsibilities:
 Co-operation with other departments
 Engagement, dismissal and welfare of staff
 Deployment, supervision, control and training of staff
 Compilation of duty rosters, holiday lists and wage sheets
 Checking the cleanliness of all areas for which she is responsible
 Completion and/or checking of room occupancy lists
 Dealing with guests’ complaints and requests
 Reporting and checking of all maintenance work
 Control and supervision of the work of the linen room and possibly an in-
building laundry
 Dealing with lost property
 Control of all keys in the department
 Prevention of fire and other accidents in the department
 Ordering and control of stores, equipment, cleaning agents in the department
 Being willing to advise on the interior design of the rooms, cleaning and
associated contracts
 Pest control
 Keeping inventories and records of equipment, redecoration and any other
relevant details of the department
  Floral decorations

Unit Task 5: Stating the Attributes of a housekeeper

A housekeeper’s attributes includes:
 An interest in people and fact in handling them
 A pleasant personality and the ability to converse with all types of people
 An ability to hide personal likes and dislikes and to be fair and just
 Strictness regarding punctuality and the keeping of necessary rules
 Loyalty to the establishment and to her staff
 Critical powers of observation
 A sense of humour
 An adaptability and willingness to experiment with new ideas, use initiative
and take responsibility
 A cool head to deal with any emergencies

Suggested Teaching/Learning Resources

- Charts
- Text books

Evaluation questions

9.1.02 HYGIENE DURING OPERATIONS

9.1.02 Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) define terms
b) state the importance of hygiene
c) state personal hygiene measures applicable during operations
d) state the environmental hygiene requirements during operations
e) explain the role of the Public Health Act in hygiene
f) identify common types of infections in house keeping
g) discuss control measures to minimize infections

UNIT TASKS
Unit Task 1: Defining terms
 Hygiene

Hygiene refers to the set of practices associated with the preservation of health
and healthy living. Hygiene is a concept related to medicine, as well as to personal
and professional care practices related to most aspects of living, although it is
most often associated with cleanliness and preventative measures.

The term "hygiene" is derived from Hygeia, the Greek goddess of health,
cleanliness and sanitation. Hygiene is also the name of the science that deals with
the promotion and preservation of health, also called hygienics.
  Infections

An infection is the detrimental colonization of a host organism by a foreign

species. In an infection, the infecting organism seeks to utilize the host's resources
to multiply, usually at the expense of the host.

Unit Task 2: Stating the Importance of Hygiene

Unit Task 3: Stating Personal Hygiene Measures Applicable during

Operations

Reasons for Personal Hygiene

Personal hygiene is important for the following reasons:

 To Improve Health
Wash your hands frequently. Good personal hygiene can make you a healthier
person. Regular bathing and hand washing will prevent many illnesses by killing
the unseen germs found on our bodies.
 To Prevent Body Odor
Apply deodorant daily. Good personal hygiene will prevent body odor. Washing
every day and using a good antiperspirant or deodorant will remove the body
chemicals that cause odor.
 To Improve Self-Esteem
Go about your day with confidence. Good personal hygiene also improves self-
esteem and confidence. If you know you are clean, you can go about your daily
activities without worrying that body odors may be offending others.
 To Prevent Skin Problems
Good personal hygiene may prevent athlete's foot and other skin conditions that
are caused from lack of washing.
 To Prevent Dental Problems
Brush your teeth three times a day. Good personal hygiene will prevent bad breath
and tooth decay. Brushing and flossing your teeth three times a day will keep your
breath smelling clean. It will also please your dentist.

How to practice good hygiene

1. Wash your hands after coming into contact with germs, which can be found
almost everywhere. When you are preparing uncooked meat or have gone to
the bathroom, or done anything that brings your body into contact with
germs, it's important to wash your hands. E. coli, hepatitis and other
infectious diseases can be transmitted if you bring contaminated hands into
contact with someone’s face or body. It is recommended that you use an
antibacterial soap when washing hands to ensure that you kill all, or most,
germs that could be present on your hands and forearms.
2. Brush your teeth 2-3 times a day. Brushing your teeth as recommended by
your dental professional results in a good, healthy personal appearance and
oral health. If you don't brush your teeth as recommended, you could face an
array of dental problems including: tooth decay, gingivitis, bad breath and so
on. The bacterium that form in your mouth between brushing or overnight
causes these dental problems. You are advised to brush your teeth and rinse
 with an antiseptic mouthwash each day at least 2-3 times per day to fight off
these bacterium.
3. Bathe daily. Taking a bath is key to more than just your overall hygiene but
also results in ridding your body of bacteria. Not bathing can lead to an over
accumulation of bacteria that can cause odor and certain types of infection,
primarily in women. You are encouraged to bath at least 1-2 times per day
with an antibacterial soap. Some antibacterial soaps may cause an allergic
reaction. Ask your physician which soap you should use.
4. Wash your hair daily. If you don't wash your hair, you could develop
dandruff problems and lice. Ridding yourself of lice can be difficult. Buy a
shampoo that fights dandruff and moisturizes and improves the quality of
your hair. This is good way to maintain the overall health of your hair. If
you have a problem with dry scalp, consult with a dermatologist about the
possibility of getting a prescription shampoo.
5. Don't use anything that has come into contact with another person's body
fluids. This is a very important step in practicing good hygiene. Don't use or
touch syringes or any other type of medical or personal item that has come
into contact with another person's fluids. Using someone’s personal items
could put you in danger of contracting a very serious illness or condition.
Sometimes, even if you know someone, you should still refrain from her
personal items.

Unit Task 4: Stating Environmental Hygiene requirements during

Operations

Waste Disposal
Waste disposal is a growing problem worldwide. Although there have been recent
advancements in waste disposal, it remains an overall public safety and environmental
health issue that countries around the world continue to address.

Prevention and Reduction

The best method of managing waste is prevention and reduction, which can be
achieved in a number of ways like recycling and making use of secondhand items.
 Energy Recovery
Energy recovery is a promising form of waste disposal. It works by recycling some
forms of waste into a fuel source for heating, cooking and powering turbines.
 Biological Reprocessing
Biological reprocessing methods such as composting can be used for organic
waste like food, paper and plant material.
 Sanitary Landfill
Sanitary landfill disposal is convenient but may experience a lot of growth and
require manpower to maintain.
 Incineration
 Incineration is popular due to the minimal land available for disposal, but there is
some concern about the release of micro-pollutants like dioxins from incinerator
stacks.
 Ocean Dumping
Controversy surrounds ocean dumping as a waste disposal method. Although the
waste may provide nutrients for some sea life, it's widely believed that the harmful
effects would outweigh any benefits.
 Feeding animals

Guidelines for Disposal of Hazardous Waste

Hazardous waste has immediate or long-term risks to humans, animals, plants or the
environment. Because of this, it is unsafe to dispose it with general waste and needs
specific disposal methods. Identifying the most common types of household and
business hazardous wastes is the first step. Knowing the basic guidelines of disposal
will make it easier for you to protect yourself, your family and our environment.
Household Hazardous Waste
House hold waste is considered hazardous if it is labeled toxic, ignitable, corrosive or
reactive. Some of the common ones are gasoline, brake and windshield wiper fluid,
cleaning products, creosote products, paints, paint thinners, pesticides and herbicides.
Business Hazardous Waste
Hazardous waste from business is waste from medical, nursing, dental, veterinary or
pharmaceutical practices. These often include needles, human tissue, body fluids or
blood, laboratory specimens or cultures, carcasses, laboratory equipment, chemical
and radioactive waste.

Identification and Packaging

Keep household hazardous waste in their original containers and do not mix it with
different products. If you are forced to move products from their original containers
for storage, label the new containers carefully for future identification.
Hazardous waste from business needs to be packed in plastic bags or containers that
are easily identified by the color coding identifying the type of waste inside them.
Biohazardous waste is packed in yellow containers or plastic bags with the black
international biohazard symbol on them.
Radioactive waste is packed in red plastic bags or containers with the black
international radioactive symbol
Cell toxic waste, also called cytotoxic waste, is packed in violet plastic bags or
containers labeled with the international cell toxic waste symbol.

Storage
Keep all flammable products out of direct sunlight and away from heat, sparks or
flames.
Store all containers in an upright position in a cardboard box instead of plastic bags
and place leaking containers in a larger plastic container with a tight-fitting lid.
All hazardous waste generated by business needs to be stored in a safe and secure
location. Waste identified as high or extremely risky should not be stored with the rest
of hazardous waste. This kind of waste needs to be picked up by special arrangement,
possibly outside of the regular hazardous waste pickup.

Disposal
The safest way to dispose of household hazardous waste is to either contact a
hazardous waste pickup company in your community or bring it to a household
hazardous waste collection site if one exists. Depending on where you live both
services might have a fee. It is, however, illegal to leave hazardous waste for curbside
pickup.
Hazardous waste generated by businesses is collected and disposed by an authorized
waste contractor who will collect the waste on a scheduled date from the designated
location.

Control of pests and rodents

Control of Pests
Pest control refers to the regulation or management of a species defined as a pest,
usually because it is perceived to be detrimental to a person's health, the ecology or
the economy.

Pests are beneficial as well as a curse to mankind. Animals, bacteria and some insects
are beneficial to people in many ways, but the same time they can also be pests. Pests
such as rats, ants, cockroaches, mice and flies are common in houses and apartments.
There should be an effective pest control to prevent pests in multiplying themselves in
houses, which include effective pest management, pest control and pest prevention.

Pest Management

The best and most effective way for controlling pests is pest management which
includes many steps.

The first and most important step in Pest Control is to identify the pest problem. This
includes finding out exactly what you are up against. Some pests (bacteria, animals)
are really helpful to people, so it is very important to find out any harmful pests.

The second thing is to decide how much pest control is necessary. Only the family
who live in the affected area can judge how serious it is to take action.

The third thing is to choose an available option for pest control such as chemical pest
control or non chemical pest control.

You can control pests by many means; some of the options available are:-

 Non Chemical pest control

 Chemical pest control
 Biological Methods

Non-chemical methods of pest control

The range of non-chemical options available may vary with the pest species, pest
intensity or severity, and effectiveness of the option. Several key non-chemical
options that may help reduce the amount of pesticides used in and around homes
are listed below. However, it is important to realize that for effective use of non-
chemical methods, an understanding of pest biology, ecology, and behaviour is
essential. Such an understanding is not always required when using synthetic
pesticides.
 Exclusion: Any measure used to prevent entry of organisms indoors through
openings in the building structure, doors, windows, or on infested plant or
food materials. Some techniques include screening openings to prevent entry
of flies, mosquitoes, and beetles; caulking cracks and crevices to remove
existing or potential harborages of pantry pests and cockroaches; and sealing
or repairing exterior openings to prevent entry of bats, mice, bees, and
wasps. Plants and food products must be carefully inspected for infestations
at the time of purchase and before they are brought indoors.
 Sanitation: Maintaining clean surroundings both outdoors and indoors
removes potential areas where pests can feed, breed, and hide. Sanitary
measures include: disposing of garbage on a weekly basis during warm
weather to control filth flies and cockroaches; discarding overripe fruits to
control fruit flies and fungus beetles; removing bird nests as these harbor
dermestids, clothes moths, mites, and lice; and vacuuming to reduce
populations of fleas, carpet beetles, house dust mites, and several ground-
dwelling insects and insect relatives. It is also important to keep kitchen areas
clean to reduce incidence of pantry pests and cockroaches.
 Habitat modification: Includes any method used to eliminate or disrupt areas
where pests reside. For example, removing weeds and keeping well-mowed
lawns reduces incidence of crickets and ticks. Removing debris and fallen
leaves near foundations reduces bug and centipede populations. Wood or
wooden piles, where carpenter ants, ground beetles, and spiders seek
harborage, must be stored away from structures. Creating a vegetation-free
barrier around the perimeter of the building will reduce incidence of many
ground-dwelling pests such as clover mites. The use of dehumidifiers is
recommended, especially in basements, to create and maintain a dry
environment to discourage incidence of sowbugs, centipedes, firebrats, and
house dust mites.
 Temperature control: Artificially manipulating the temperature of substrates
infested by pests or areas where pests reside is an inexpensive nonchemical
strategy. The time from treatment to death of a pest and numbers of the pest
killed, may vary with the pest stage, temperature, and duration of exposure.
Pantry pests, clothes moths, and carpet beetles can be eliminated by
subjecting infested foods, clothes, and carpets, respectively, to extremely hot
or cold temperatures. In general, all developmental stages of pantry pests,
clothes moths, and carpet beetles can be killed within minutes to hours when
exposed to temperatures below 32° F and above 104° F.
 Mechanical control: A rolled newspaper or magazine and fly swatters are
some tools used for killing visible and less mobile or immobile pests. On
infested plants, hand-picking insects (e.g., hornworms) is a partially effective
means of pest control. Infested leaves must be excised from plants, bagged,
and discarded.
  Traps: Traps are escape-proof devices that capture highly mobile and active
pests. Live traps can be used for rabbits, pocket gophers, and squirrels.
Unbaited sticky traps such as red spheres, resembling apples, are useful for
trapping apple maggot adults. Colored (yellow) sticky traps are effective in
capturing whiteflies and aphids. Sticky traps can be baited with commercial
lures (pheromones and food attractants) to enhance trap catch. For example,
sticky traps baited with lures for pantry pests, wasps, and flies are
commercially available.
Traps are useful for early detection and continuous monitoring of
infestations. They are not effective in reducing populations unless the pest
population is isolated or confined to a small area. The chance of detecting the
presence of pests in a given area is related to the number of traps used.
Therefore, when pests are present in very low numbers, it is advantageous to
use more than a few traps. Pests must be active or mobile to be captured in
traps. Therefore, any environmental variable (temperature, humidity, wind,
light, or food) or biological factor (age, sex, mating status, etc.) that influence
pest activity, affects trap catch. Consequently, absence of pests in traps does
not imply that the pests are not present in the sampled area.

Chemical Pest Control

Another good solution for pest control is the use of chemical pesticides. It is not
advisable in and around the home and commercial premises, as it will affect people
adversely. The major drawback of this method is that the results of the chemical
pesticides treatment are generally temporary, therefore the need for repeated
treatments. If used incorrectly, home-use pesticides can be poisonous to humans.
While you are using chemical pesticides for pest control, the most important thing to
remember is to take care in choosing the right pesticide product.

Biological Pest Control

Another effective way in controlling pests is using the biological method. This is the
method of using pest's natural enemies to control them. Spiders, centipedes, ground
beetles and ants are some of the beneficial bugs. This method is not harmful to people
in any means and can be implemented effectively.

Rodent Control
Rodents (rats and mice) live in the environment we create for them. They will eat
almost any foodstuff, which can include bird and pet foods, vegetables stored in
outdoor sheds, peelings that are added to open compost bins and household
garbage that is not adequately secured.
It is a myth that rodents only exist in dirty environments, as all they require is a
source of food, water and a safe place to nest. Rodents usually live within 15.25 to
45.75 metres (50 to 150 feet) or their food source. Nesting burrows are often found
in areas not frequented by humans, such as:
 in and around open compost bins (even if it only contains grass clippings).
Compost bins can be screened to help exclude rodents and if properly maintained
should not be a problem.
 in woodpiles.
 under storage sheds and storage piles.
 in non-maintained yard areas.
 in refuse storage areas.
The most common methods of rodent control are through the use of traps and
anticoagulant baits.
Traps: Rodents are wary of new things in their environment. Place traps against
perimeter walls (perpendicular) so that rodents will have to walk overtop of the
release mechanism. Baits that work well include hot dog wieners or peanut butter.
Make sure the baits are fresh. It can be helpful to bait the trap without setting it until
rodents are used to coming to it for food. After they are coming to the trap you can
set it with more confidence.
Baits: Anticoagulant baits can be toxic to humans and pets as well as rodents. They
should always be contained in a tamper-proof bait station. Poison baits should not
be used indoors as inaccessible decaying rodents can cause odour problems that are
difficult to resolve.
If you find dead rodents in the yard, dispose of them as quickly as possible by picking
them up with a shovel and placing them in a transparent green bag. It can be set out
with your regular waste.

Rodent Control Responsibility

The responsibility for rodent control rests with the landowner. The pest control
officer can assist with property inspection and make recommendations for by-law
enforcement if required. Tenants are protected through minimum standards by-laws
but are encouraged to cooperate with their landlords by ensuring good
housekeeping
Unit Task 5: Explaining the Role of the Public Health Act in hygiene

Unit Task 6: Stating Common Infections in housekeeping

Common infections that could be spread by incorrect hygiene practices include:

Influenza(cold)
Influenza, commonly called "the flu," is an illness caused by RNA viruses that infect
the respiratory tract of many animals, birds, and humans. In most people, the infection
results in the person getting fever, cough, headache, and malaise (tired, no energy);
some people also may develop a sore throat, nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea. The
 majority of individuals have symptoms for about one to two weeks and then recover
with no problems. However, compared with most other viral respiratory infections,
such as the common cold, influenza (flu) infection can cause a more severe illness
with a mortality rate (death rate) of about 0.1% of people who are infected with the
virus.

What are flu symptoms?

Typical clinical features of influenza include:

 fever (usually 100 F-103 F in adults and often even higher in children),
 respiratory symptoms such as:
o cough,
o sore throat,
o runny or stuffy nose,
o headache,
o muscle aches, and
o fatigue, sometimes extreme.

 Rotavirus

Rotavirus is a virus that infects the bowels. It is the most common cause of severe
diarrhoea among infants and children throughout the world and causes the death of
about 600,000 children worldwide annually. The name rotavirus comes from the
characteristic wheel-like appearance of the virus when viewed by electron
microscopy (the name rotavirus is derived from the Latin rota, meaning "wheel").

 The time period from initial infection to symptoms (incubation period) for rotavirus
disease is around two days. Symptoms of the disease include fever, vomiting, and
watery diarrhea. Abdominal pain may also occur, and infected children may have
profuse watery diarrhea up to several times per day. Symptoms generally persist for
three to nine days. Immunity from repeated infection is incomplete after a rotavirus
infection, but repeated infections tend to be less severe than the original infection.

 Rotavirus infection can be associated with severe dehydration in infants and children.
Severe dehydration can lead to death in rare cases, so it is important to recognize and
treat this complication of rotavirus infection. In addition to the symptoms of rotavirus
infection discussed above, parents should be aware of the symptoms of dehydration
that can occur with rotavirus infection or with other serious conditions
 How is rotavirus spread?
 Rotavirus infection is highly contagious. The primary mode of transmission of
rotavirus is the passage of the virus in stool to the mouth of another child. This is
known as a fecal-oral route of transmission. Children can transmit the virus when they
forget to wash their hands before eating or after using the toilet. Touching a surface
that has been contaminated with rotavirus and then touching the mouth area can result
in infection.
 There also have been cases of low levels of rotavirus in respiratory-tract secretions
and other body fluids. Because the virus is stable (remains infective) in the
environment, transmission can occur through ingestion of contaminated water or food
and contact with contaminated surfaces. Rotavirus can survive for days on hard and
dry surfaces, and it can live for hours on human hands.

 Norovirus
 Noroviruses are a group of viruses that cause the "stomach flu," or gastroenteritis in
people. The term norovirus was recently approved as the official name for this group
of viruses. Several other names have been used for noroviruses, including:

 Norwalk-like viruses (NLVs)

 caliciviruses (because they belong to the virus family Caliciviridae)
 small round structured viruses.

 Viruses are very different from bacteria and parasites, some of which can cause
illnesses similar to norovirus infection. Like all viral infections, noroviruses are not
affected by treatment with antibiotics, and cannot grow outside of a person's body.
 What are the symptoms of illness caused by noroviruses?
 Norovirus infection usually starts suddenly. The infected person often feels very sick
with nausea and vomiting and watery non-bloody diarrhea with stomach cramps.
Vomiting is more common in children than adults. Sometimes there is a low-grade
fever. There may also be chills, headache, muscle aches, and a general sense of
tiredness.

What is the name of the illness caused by noroviruses?

 Illness caused by norovirus infection has several names, including:
 stomach flu—this "stomach flu" is not related to the flu (or influenza), which is
a respiratory illness caused by influenza virus.
 viral gastroenteritis—the most common name for illness caused by norovirus.
Gastroenteritis refers to an inflammation of the stomach and intestines.
 acute gastroenteritis
 non-bacterial gastroenteritis
 food poisoning (although there are other causes of food poisoning)
 calicivirus infection
 Diphtheria
 Diphtheria is an infectious disease caused by the bacterium Corynebacterium
diphtheriae. This disease primarily affects the mucous membranes of the respiratory
tract (respiratory diphtheria), although it may also affect the skin (cutaneous
diphtheria) and lining tissues in the ear, eye, and the genital areas.

How is diphtheria transmitted?

Diphtheria is transmitted to close contacts via airborne respiratory droplets or by
direct contact with nasopharyngeal secretions or skin lesions. Rarely, it can be
spread by objects contaminated by an infected person. Overcrowding and poor living
conditions can further contribute to the spread of diphtheria.
 Humans are the only known reservoir of Corynebacterium diphtheriae. Infected
individuals may develop symptoms of diphtheria, or they may become carriers of the
bacteria with no symptoms (asymptomatic carriers). These asymptomatic carriers
can serve as reservoirs for active infection and may transmit the disease to other
individuals.

What are the signs and symptoms of diphtheria?

The symptoms of respiratory diphtheria usually begin after a two- to five-day
incubation period. Symptoms of respiratory diphtheria may include the following:
 sore throat,
 fever,
 malaise,
 hoarseness,
 difficulty swallowing, or
 difficulty breathing.

E. coli

What is E. coli?
Escherichia coli (E. coli) is a bacterium that commonly lives in the intestines of people
and animals. There are many strains (types) of E. coli.
Most of the E. coli are normal inhabitants of the small intestine and colon and are
non-pathogenic, meaning they do not cause disease in the intestines. Nevertheless,
these non-pathogenic E. coli can cause disease if they spread outside of the
intestines, for example, into the urinary tract (where they cause bladder or kidney
infections) or into the blood stream (sepsis).
Some strains of E. coli are pathogenic, meaning they can cause disease in the small
intestine and colon. These pathogenic strains of E. coli may cause diarrhoea by
producing and releasing toxins (called enterotoxigenic E. coli or ETEC) that cause the
intestine to secrete fluid or by invading and inflaming the lining of the small intestine
and the colon (called enteropathogenic E. coli or EPEC). A third strain of E. coli has a
tendency to cause inflammation of the colon and bloody diarrhoea (called
enterohemorrhagic E. coli or EHEC).

 Hepatitis A
 Hepatitis means inflammation of the liver
 When doctors speak of viral hepatitis, they usually are referring to hepatitis caused by
a few specific viruses that primarily attack the liver. There are several hepatitis
viruses; they have been named types A, B, C, D, E, F (not confirmed), and G.
 The most common hepatitis viruses are types A, B, and C.
 What are the symptoms and signs of viral hepatitis?
The period of time between exposure to hepatitis and the onset of the illness is
called the incubation period. The incubation period varies depending on the specific
hepatitis virus. Hepatitis A has an incubation period of about 15-45 days; hepatitis B
from 45-160 days, and hepatitis C from 2 weeks to 6 months.
Many patients infected with hepatitis A, B, and C have few or no symptoms of illness.
For those who do develop symptoms of viral hepatitis, the most common are flu- like
symptoms including:
 loss of appetite
 nausea
 vomiting
 fever
 weakness
 tiredness
 aching in the abdomen
Less common symptoms include:
 dark urine
 light-colored stools
 fever
 jaundice (a yellow appearance to the skin and white portion of the eyes)

Staphylococcus (staph infection)

Staphylococcus is a group of bacteria that can cause a multitude of diseases as a
result of infection of various tissues of the body.

Over 30 different types of Staphylococci can infect humans, but most infections are
caused by Staphylococcus aureus. Staphylococci can be found normally in the nose
and on the skin (and less commonly in other locations) of 20%-30% of healthy adults.
In the majority of cases, the bacteria do not cause disease. However, damage to the
skin or other injury may allow the bacteria to overcome the natural protective
mechanisms of the body, leading to infection.

What are the symptoms and signs of a Staph infection?

Staphylococcal disease of the skin usually results in a localized collection of pus,
known as an abscess, boil, or furuncle. The affected area may be red, swollen, and
painful. Drainage or pus is common.

 Streptococcus

 Group A streptococcal (strep) infections are caused by group A streptococcus, a

bacterium responsible for a variety of health problems. These infections can range
from a mild skin infection or sore throat to severe, life-threatening conditions such as
toxic shock syndrome and necrotizing fascitis, commonly known as flesh eating
 disease. Most people are familiar with strep throat, which along with minor skin
infection, is the most common form of the disease.

In addition to step throat and superficial skin infections, group A can cause infections
in tissues (group of cells joined together to perform the same function) at specific
body sites, including lungs, bones, spinal cord, and abdomen.

Unit Task 7: Explaining Infection control measures

Flu

Much of the illness and death caused by influenza can be prevented by annual
influenza vaccination. Flu vaccine (influenza vaccine made from inactivated and
sometimes attenuated [non-infective] virus) is specifically recommended for those
who are at high risk for developing serious complications as a result of influenza
infection. These high-risk groups for conventional flu include all people aged 65 years
or older and people of any age with chronic diseases of the heart, lung, or kidneys;
diabetes; immunosuppression; or severe forms of anemia.

 Rotavirus infection

 Because the virus is so prevalent, it is very difficult or even impossible to prevent

rotavirus infection. Even places with excellent standards of hygiene and sanitation can
become contaminated. Vaccination is the most effective preventive measure.

Norovirus infection

One can decrease chances of coming in contact with noroviruses by following these
preventive steps:

 Frequently wash your hands, especially after toilet visits and changing diapers
and before eating or preparing food.
 Carefully wash fruits and vegetables, and steam oysters before eating them.
 Thoroughly clean and disinfect contaminated surfaces immediately after an
episode of illness by using a bleach-based household cleaner.
 Immediately remove and wash clothing or linens that may be contaminated
with virus after an episode of illness (use hot water and soap).
 Flush or discard any vomitus and/or stool in the toilet and make sure that the
surrounding area is kept clean.
 Persons who are infected with norovirus should not prepare food while they
have symptoms and for 3 days after they recover from their illness (see food
handler information sheet). Food that may have been contaminated by an ill
person should be disposed of properly.

Diphtheria

The prevention of diphtheria is best achieved through universal immunization with

diphtheria toxoid-containing vaccines. Immunization for infants and children consists
of five vaccinations generally given at ages 2, 4, and 6 months, with the fourth dose
being administered between 15-18 months, and the fifth dose at ages 4-6 years. At age
11-12 years, children should receive a single vaccination if they have completed the
recommended childhood vaccination schedule. Because immunity wanes over time,
subsequent booster immunization is required every 10 years thereafter to maintain
protective antibody levels.

Travelers to areas where diphtheria is endemic should review and update their
vaccinations as necessary.

E.Coli

The following precautions are recommended to prevent infection:.

 Drink water from a well only if you know it's free from contamination.
 Do not drink untreated water from streams or lakes.
 Wash your hands
 Wash your hands with soap and water before and after handling food.
It cuts the risk of spreading E. coli
 Be sure children wash their hands carefully and often.

Viral hepatitis
Prevention of hepatitis involves measures to avoid exposure to the viruses, using
immunoglobulin in the event of exposure, and vaccines. Administration of
immunoglobulin is called passive protection because antibodies from patients who
have had viral hepatitis are given to the patient. Vaccination is called active
protection because killed viruses or non-infective components of viruses are given to
stimulate the body to produce its own antibodies.
Prevention of viral hepatitis, like any other illness, is preferable to reliance upon
treatment. Taking precautions to prevent exposure to another individual's blood
(exposure to dirty needles), semen (unprotected sex), and other bodily waste (stool)
will help prevent the spread of these viruses.
.
Protocol for Preventing Cross Infection
Standard precautions are necessary to assist in the prevention of cross infection of
organisms or bacteria from one person to another
Safe work practice applies to all persons, (regardless of status), in the handling of all
bodily fluids including blood (including dried blood), saliva, non-intact skin and
mucous membranes.
It is important to understand that all bodily fluids carry a potential risk of infection.
 Clean the work area, using disposable paper towels with a pre mixed solution
containing hypochlorite bleach such as Quaternary Ammonia Disinfectant.
 Wash hands thoroughly with running warm water and soap and dry hands with
air drier or disposable paper towels.
 Wear disposable plastic gloves at all times – consider all bodily fluids as
potentially infectious.
 Change gloves between tasks and procedures on same person - particularly
after contact with material that may contain a high concentration of micro-
organisms.
  Dispose of soiled dressings into a designated bin, which has a disposable liner
inside.
 Use disposable gloves when handling soiled clothing, double bag clothing and
seal the
 Dispose of plastic gloves into designated waste bin.
 Wash hands thoroughly after removing gloves.

Preventative Measures:
 Keep separate bins for general waste and soiled waste.
 Dispose of faeces in a sanitary manner, and ensure no faecal-oral transmission.
 Clean nasal discharge with paper tissues as they occur and dispose of in
appropriate bin.
 Clean exposed surfaces with a product such as Quaternary Ammonia
Disinfectant.
 Wash hands

Suggested Teaching/Learning Resources

- Text books
- Magazines
- Manufacturer’s manuals
- Pest control chemicals

Evaluation questions
- Assignments
- Reports
- Tests

9.1.03 SAFETY DURING OPERATIONS

Theory

9.1.03T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) define terms
b) state the importance of safety
c) state safety measures during operations
d) explain the role of the Public Health Act in safety
e) outline safety precautions necessary when carrying out housekeeping
operations
f) explain types of fires
g) discuss fire safety measures
h) outline the fire fighting procedures

UNIT TASKS
Unit Task 1: Defining terms
 Safety
 The condition of being safe; freedom from danger, risk, or injury.

Unit Task 2: Importance of safety

Unit Task 3: safety measures during operations

The main hazards associated with hotels and public buildings (the list is not exhaustive)
include:

1. Injuries arising from lifting:

 In order to prevent such injuries employers are required to take precautionary measures
to minimise hazardous manual handling operations e.g. when moving crates/kegs, CO2
cylinders, luggage etc. and use lifting, handling and assisting aids wherever practicable.
Employers must also carry out a sufficient assessment of manual handling operations.
 See also HSE "Getting to grips with manual handling" (link below).

2. Electrical safety:

 All equipment should be installed and maintained by a competent person. It is

recommended (IEE Wiring Regs BS7671) that the fixed system is inspected/tested at
least every five years (or more frequently as recommended by a qualified electrician)
and that all electrical appliances are examined/checked ("PAT" Tested) at a frequency
appropriate to the risk. Regular maintenance should include visual checks for general
wear and tear ensuring that plugs, leads and sockets are in good condition and that there
is no exposed wiring. Any corrective actions must be carried out immediately.
 HSE publication "Maintaining portable electrical equipment in hotels and tourist
accommodation" (See link below).

3. Gas safety

 All Premises - any place of work that has a gas installation and/or gas appliances
installed must be maintained in such a way so as to prevent risk of injury to any person.
The definition of what is an appropriate maintenance programme will be determined by
the installation's age, condition and usage. If an inspector is of the opinion that the
installation is not being properly maintained and may give rise to danger, enforcement
action may be taken.
 Hotels/residential care accommodation - In any room where there is a gas appliance
(boiler/heater etc.), and the room is or can be used for sleeping or dining/lounging, then
that appliance MUST be checked for safety at intervals not exceeding 12 months by a
CORGI registered engineer.
  A record book must be kept in respect of the appliances including: date of the
inspection, any defect identified and any remedial action taken.

4. Safe use of machinery

 To prevent harm to employees ensure that all staff are fully trained to use the equipment
provided e.g. food preparation equipment, compactor, and passenger lift. Ensure that
workplace equipment is maintained, inspected/tested as appropriate and is safe for use
and that it is the right equipment for the job.
 See HSE publication "Maintenance priorities in catering" (see link below)

5. Floors, corridors and stairs:

 In order to prevent slips and trips these areas should be kept free from obstructions at all
times. Floor coverings and routeways should be maintained and all areas should be well
lit. Kitchen floors need to have enough grip and should be kept dry as far as is
practicable. Spillages should be cleared up immediately. Leaking equipment should be
repaired. Staff should wear sensible footwear. Warning signs should be displayed
during cleaning to warn customers/residents/staff of potentially slippery surfaces.
Ensure that any change in floor level is clearly visible.

6. Hazardous substances:

 To prevent personal harm from hazardous substances e.g. skin irritation, respiratory
disease, a COSHH risk assessment is required for such substances as cleaning
chemicals, beer line cleaner (corrosive), CO2 cylinders etc. Safety data sheets should be
obtained from the suppliers of the chemicals to assist in carrying out the risk assessment
and providing information to staff.
 For further advice on what you need to know about the Control of Substances
Hazardous to Health Regulations 2002 (COSHH) see a brief guide to the regulations
which is published online (see link below)

7. Asbestos:

 Many premises because of age will contain asbestos containing materials (ACMs) e.g.
lagged pipes in cellars etc. There is now a statutory duty to manage asbestos in non-
domestic premises. (Regulation 4 of the Control of Asbestos Regulation 2006).

8. Smoking (effective 1 July 2007)

All premises, which are wholly or substantially enclosed and used as a place of work by
more than one person are, now smoke free. "No smoking" signs must be displayed at
 the public entrance to the premises. Take reasonable steps to ensure that staff,
customers etc. are aware that smoking is not permitted. Ensure that no one smokes in
smoke free premises or vehicles.

9. Water temperatures and Legionella control:

One way to minimise the growth of legionella is to store hot water above 60C and distribute
it at above 50C. However, care is needed where water runs hot. The risks of scalding should
be assessed and appropriate measures taken to prevent burns, e.g. warning notices or fitting
thermostatic mixing valves on taps.

Water systems should be designed to avoid conditions that favour the growth of legionella by
ensuring adequate insulation of storage tanks and pipes, using materials that do not encourage
growth of legionella and protecting against contamination by fitting water storage tanks with
lids. Water systems need to be routinely checked and inspected by a competent person and
the risk assessment should be reviewed regularly.

Water stagnation can encourage conditions that favour growth of legionella. It is therefore
advisable to remove dead runs in pipe work from the system, flush out seldom used shower
heads, taps and remaining dead legs periodically (weekly), and to remove any dirt or
limescale. Other water treatment methods include chemical disinfection.

10. Work-related contact dermatitis:

 In catering this is caused by contact with water, soaps and cleaning products. Prevention
is to avoid contact with cleaning products and water (use a dishwasher rather than hand
washing). Protect the skin by wearing non-latex gloves and checking hands regularly
for the first signs of dermatitis (itchy, dry or red skin).

11. Cellar Safety:

 This area contains some significant hazards and access should be restricted to trained
and competent staff only. Hazards include:
o Stairs: These should be of a safe design and in good condition, adequately lit and
provided with a handrail. Sometimes the access to the stairs will be through a
floor hatch which will require the adoption of safe working procedures and
physical barriers to prohibit access to others when raised in an "up" position.
Some cellars may have low ceilings, beams and light fittings; these should be
marked, where practical, in a contrasting colour and have warning signage
displayed. In some instances it might be appropriate to provide insulation or
padding etc.
o Falls from height: If deliveries are made through an external drop down, are there
suitable controls in place to prevent members of the public falling down the open
 flap? All external hatchways/cellar flaps should be maintained in good condition
and have adequate holding bolts or other fastenings.
o Falling objects: Are there controls in place to prevent personal injury to persons
working in the cellar below during the time of a delivery?
o Cuts: Care should be taken when handling glass. In the event of broken glass rigid
containers should be provided for the safe collection and disposal.
o Gas cylinders: Leakage from CO2 and Nitrogen cylinders can pose a risk of
asphyxiation in confined spaces through the relative depletion of oxygen content
of air and faulty gas cylinders can explode. It is essential that in cellars there is
sufficient ventilation provided by either natural or mechanical means. In poorly
ventilated areas it is strongly recommended that a CO2 monitoring system be
installed. It is important that staff are trained how to identify leaking cylinders and
what action to take should one be identified. It is essential that all relevant staff
are fully trained in connection/disconnection procedures of gas cylinders to
prevent cross threading valve damage and/or gas leakage. All empty and full gas
cylinders should be suitably secured or chained in a vertical position to ensure
they can't fall from the vertical storage position and become damaged. Cylinders
must be stored away from heat and ignition sources. It is important that there is an
action plan formulated in the case of a gas leak. CO2 Cellar warning cards should
be displayed near cylinders. Gas cylinders should be checked for leakage on
delivery and when connected to the system. All damaged cylinders must be
reported to the supplier and not used. Cylinders frosted from the bottom upwards
or a hissing noise may indicate a leakage. Do not drop, roll or drag gas cylinders
and cylinder valves should be closed when not in use.

Unit Task 4: Role of Health and Safety Act in safety

Duties of employers in regard to safety

Section 2 states that "It shall be the duty of every employer to ensure, so far as is
reasonably practicable, the health, safety and welfare at work of all his employees", and in
particular that such a duty extends to:
 Provision and maintenance of plant and systems of work that are, so far as is
reasonably practicable, safe and without risks to health;
 Arrangements for ensuring, so far as is reasonably practicable, safety and absence of
risks to health in connection with the use, handling, storage and transport of articles
and substances;
 Provision of such information, instruction, training and supervision as is necessary to
ensure, so far as is reasonably practicable, the health and safety at work of his
employees;
 So far as is reasonably practicable as regards any place of work under the
employer’s control, the maintenance of it in a condition that is safe and without risks
to health and the provision and maintenance of means of access to and egress from it
that are safe and without such risks;
  Provision and maintenance of a working environment for his employees that is, so far
as is reasonably practicable, safe, without risks to health, and adequate as regards
facilities and arrangements for their welfare at work.

Section 3 states the duty of all employers and self employed persons to ensure, as far as is
reasonably practicable the safety of persons other than employees, for example,
contractors, visitors, the general public and clients.
Employers must also prepare and keep under review a safety policy and to bring it to the
attention of his employees (s.2(2)). Trade unions may appoint safety representatives and
demand safety committees. The representatives have a right to be consulted on safety
issues (ss.2(4), (6) and (7)). Since 1996 employers have had a duty to consult all employees
on safety matters.[9][10] No employer may charge an employee for provision of health and
safety arrangements (s.9).
Duties of employees in regard to safety
Under section 7 all employees have a duty while at work to:
Take reasonable care for the health and safety of himself and of other persons who may be
affected by his acts or omissions at work; and
Co-operate with employers or other persons so far as is necessary to enable them to
perform their duties or requirements under the Act.

Unit Task 5: Safety precautions during operations

Safety Housekeeping Tips

Housekeeping is not just cleanliness. It includes keeping work areas neat and
orderly; maintaining halls and floors free of slip and trip hazards; and removing of
waste materials (e.g., paper, cardboard) and other fire hazards from work areas.

Here are some housekeeping tips that will help you keep your work area safe:
 Immediately clean up anything on the floor that creates a slip hazard: water,
grease, paper, dust or other debris. (Get assistance if needed or required.)
 Keep walkways clear of boxes and other obstructions.
 Close cabinets used for storage when not in use.
 Never block fire exits or fire equipment.
 Make sure stacked materials do not impede vision.
 Don’t store items in or on electrical panels or control boxes.
 Pick up and store tools in their proper location immediately after use.
 Keep ventilation systems clear of dust and debris and stored materials.
 Make sure receptacles for waste and debris are conveniently located.
 Remove combustible waste often to minimize the fire hazard.
 Set a good example for other employees by maintaining good housekeeping in
your work area.

Health and safety

Fire and personal injury
These are hazards in any establishments and their prevention is of tremendous
importance .While the management is ultimately responsible for the prevention of accidents,
the housekeeper, along with other department heads, should Endeavour to see that her staff
are safety conscious.
Accidents are costly: there may be serious effects on the injured person; time and materials
may be lost; a new employee may need to be trained. Employers have always been
responsible if defective equipment, due to its design or manufacture which causes accidents
Poor housekeeping accounts for many accidents and also many accidents occur in an
establishment ‘s accommodation area(in one survey taken in a group of hotels it was found
there was more days lost due to accidents in the housekeeping department than in any other
department ).Therefore the housekeeper has a great responsibility for making sure that her
staff are aware of the common causes of accidents and of the necessary precautions to be
taken to comply with the 1974 Health and Safety At Work etc Act .
Under this Act the employer must provide:
And maintain equipment and provide safe working practices;
For correct storage, handling and transporting of articles and substances with maximum
safety;
Information, instruction, training and supervision to ensure the health and safety of
employees;
Safe exit and access to place of work;
A good working environment without risk to health and with adequate facilities (WCs, rest
rooms etc);
A written statement of general policy which should be displayed by employers with more
than five employees and it must be amended as necessary.
Employees should:
Take reasonable care of themselves and other employees and other persons on the premises;
Co-operate with their employer concerning health and safety.
There is a great variety of accidents causing personal injury which may befall guests and staff
and while they are normally caused through someone’s carelessness they are less likely to
occur in a clean ,uncluttered and well maintained department.
The following are some of the more frequent safety hazards and causes of personal injury
which may occur in the housekeeping department.
Causes of Falls
1. Frayed edges and worn patches of carpet;
2. A missing floor tile or uneven floor;
3. A missing piece from the nosing of a hard stair;
4. Slippery floors, especially in conjunction with small mats;
5. Spillages not immediately dealt with;
6. Tripping over fallen articles;
7. Trailing flexes from equipment, lamps, television, etc;
8. Cleaning equipment left about, buckets etc;
9. Faulty step ladders;
10. Stools, boxes etc used instead of step-ladders;
11. Poor lighting in corridors and on stairs;
12. A step in a usual place;
13. No hand grips on baths;
14. Over-reaching;
15. Ill-fitting or inappropriate footwear.
16. Cuts and abrasions
17. Because of:
18. Careless placing of razor blades;
19. Careless disposal of broken glass;
 20. Careless opening of tins;
21. Absence of kneeling mats fro cleaners;
22. Falling objects;
23. Objects poorly stacked and shelves over laden.

Accidents
Any accident at work, either to guest or staff, should be reported immediately to management
or the health and safety officer .It is a legal requirement under the health and safety at work
etc act 1974 that a record is kept of all accidents; this is particularly important because of the
industrial injuries act whereby staff may be entitled to claim compensation .It is usual for the
establishment‘s own accidents report form to be completed as well as the statutory one.
The accident book and report form should be completed at the time of the accident or as soon
after as possible by the injured person or his supervisor .It should state:
i. Personal particulars of person injured e.g. name, address, age, occupation;
ii. Date and time of accident;
iii. Place of accident;
iv. Injury sustained;
v. Cause and /or description of the accident;
vi. What the person was engaged in at the time;
vii. Treatment given and by whom;
viii. Name of witnesses.
It should be signed by the supervisor and if possible by the injured person.
Accidents to guests should also be recorded and all staff should be aware of the fact that they
should never accept liability for an accident .Insurance can be taken out by the establishment
for protection against claims made by guests on staff.
In the case of fatal accidents ,major industries and dangerous occurrences listed in the
reporting of injuries ,diseases and dangerous occurrences regulations ,the environmental
health officer should be notified as soon as possible ,preferably by telephone ,and details
entered in the accident report book .A written report should be sent to the environmental
health officer within seven days .These regulations apply to guests and staff.
Prevention of accidents.
Unless precautions are taken accidents may easily occur and the housekeeper should
therefore see that her staff are made aware of the problems and are instruction in the:
i. Use of correct working methods
ii. Need for tidiness in their work
iii. Need for storing things in their right places
iv. Dangers of floor surfaces being left wet, overpolished, etc
v. Necessity of reporting surfaces and articles in need of repair or replacement.
vi. Need for warning signs on wet floors
vii. Need for hazard spotting
A record of training should be kept and be signed by both trainer and trainee and as well as
training staff to be aware of the causes of personal injury. The housekeeper should make the
necessary reports to maintenance and follow up these reports. She should see that provision is
made for:
i. Hands grips on baths
ii. Non- slip mats in showers
iii. Good lighting on stairs and corridors
iv. Help for maids when jobs are heavy or involve much lifting and stretching
v. Special marks on clear glass doors to prevent people walking into them
Fire prevention
Safety programs must include fire prevention and deterrence. Fires in lodging properties are
very common but so is the fact that most hotels, motels and resorts are equipped with state of
the art equipment to suppress fires when they occur. The executive Housekeeper can prevent
fires by fireproofing guestroom furnishing. Curtains, carpets, pillows, blankets, and
upholstery should be purchased labeled as fire-retardant or flameproof, cigarette smoking in
bed by guests is the typical cause of fires in guestrooms, not reporting faulty electrical
equipment, sockets etc. Excessive accumulation of lint in dryers, paint’s supplies, and oily
rugs can also start fires by spontaneous combustion. Kitchen oily cloths should be kept in
metal containers and washed or disposed of as soon as possible. Frayed guestroom lamp
cables and damaged cords, switches, or plugs may start smoldering fires, as it’s the case
with overcrowded outlets that may overload fuses or circuits.
Safety programs should include fire protection instruction, including fire drills. Fire safety
programs should train employees in combating small, controllable fires, operating fire
extinguisher, closing doors to contain large fires, keeping fire exits free of any materials,
reporting immediately the smell of burning equipment or the presence of smoke, evacuating
the building in an orderly manner if the fire alarm sounds, notifying guests of fire if asked to
do so, and so on. All housekeeping workers must be told, at orientation, where the nearest fire
alarm, fire extinguisher, and fire exit are located. Employees must be trained not to panic in
case of a fire but remain calm in all cases. Panic emotion can cause people to feel disoriented,
preventing them from acting rationally. In the event of fire, staff should be instructed to
operate the nearest fire alarm, attack fire if no personal risk, close windows, switch off
electrical appliances, close door and report to immediate superior, carry out instructions, e.g.
rouse guests, make sure rooms empty etc; report to assembly point for roll call and not to use
lifts
The housekeeper department is also responsible for positing in each guestroom
diagrams of evacuation routes and instructions explaining what to do in case of fire
Accident prevention
Good housekeeping plays a key role in accident prevention and it only requires a little effort
to cleanup after oneself.
Good housekeeping can be achieved by establishing 3 easy steps:
 Plan ahead.
 Assign responsibilities. A person should be specifically detailed to cleanup. Ideally,
each individual should pick up after themselves and keep their work area neat.
 Implement a program. Housekeeping should be part of the daily routine, with cleanup
being a continuous procedure.
Housekeeping Tips
The following practices should help eliminate accidental injuries and prevent fires;
 Keep aisles and stairwells clearly marked and free of clutter.
 Clean up spills and leaks promptly.
 Properly dispose of oily and greasy rags.
 Keep all filing cabinets and drawers closed when not used.
 Keep tools and equipment clean and properly store tools.
 Neatly stack storage racks and bins.
 Smoke in designated areas only.
 Make sure work areas are well lighted.
 Clean up after yourself.
 Keep fire exits, extinguishers, and sprinklers marked and free of obstructions.
 Rope off maintenance areas to minimize personnel traffic.
 Close all drawers, cabinets, etc. when not in use.
Bomb threats
Most bomb threats are made over the phone. The overwhelming majority are hoaxes, often
the work of malicious pranksters. Any bomb threat is a crime and, no matter how ridiculous
or unconvincing, should be reported to the police.
Telephoned bomb threats are frequently inaccurate with regard to where and when a bomb
might explode, and staff receiving a bomb threat may not always be those trained and
prepared for it. But although they may be unable to assess a threat's accuracy or origin, their
impressions of the caller could be important.
Receiving such a threat may be the closest that many people ever come to acts of terrorism,
so be prepared for affected staff to be temporarily in a state of shock. Affected individuals
may need counselling or other support.
Ensure that all staff who could conceivably receive a bomb threat are trained in handling
procedures - or at least have ready access to instructions. This applies particularly to public
transport organisations, courts, banks, hotels, hospitals, news agencies, voluntary
organisations and those offering any sort of emergency service. Switchboard operators should
be familiar with procedures and rehearse them regularly.
 stay calm and listen
 obtain as much information as possible - try to get the caller to be precise about the
location and timing of the alleged bomb and try to establish whom they represent. If
possible, keep the caller talking
 ensure that any recording facility is switched on
 when the caller rings off, dial 911(if that facility operates and you have no automatic
number display) to see if you can get their number
 immediately tell the designated Security Co-ordinator. It is their responsibility to
decide on the best course of action and who should notify the police. If you cannot get
hold of anyone, and even if you think the call is a hoax, inform the police directly.
Give them your impressions of the caller as well as an exact account of what was said
 If you have not been able to record the call, make notes for the security staff or police.
Do not leave your post - unless ordered to evacuate - until the police or security
arrive.

Unit Task 6: Types of fires

Combustion

Combustion is a chemical reaction in which a fuel is rapidly oxidized. Three things are
required to sustain a fire:

 Oxygen (more properly, an oxidizing agent)

 Fuel (a reducing agent)
 Heat
 Therefore, to kill a fire, you must deny the fire one or more of these three things.
You may:

 Exclude oxygen from the fire.

 Remove the fuel on which the fire is feeding.
 Lower the temperature.

Types of Fires
There are four classes of fires, categorized according to the kind of material that is burning.
For the first three classes of fires, there are two sets of color-coded icons in common use.
One or both kinds of icons appear on most fire extinguishers to indicate the kinds of fire
against which the unit is intended to be used. There is only one icon used to indicate the
fourth (class D) kind of fire. Class D fires involve uncommon materials and occur in fairly
specialized situations. Note that any given fire can fall into more than one class; a fire that
involves both burning paper and kitchen grease would be a Class AB fire.

Class A fires are those fueled by materials that, when they burn,
leave a residue in the form of ash, such as paper, wood, cloth,
rubber, and certain plastics.

Class B fires involve flammable liquids and gasses, such as

gasoline, paint thinner, kitchen grease, propane, and acetylene.

Fires that involve energized electrical wiring or equipment (motors,

computers, panel boxes) are Class C fires. Note that if the
electricity to the equipment is cut, a Class C fire becomes one of
the other three types of fires.

Class D fires involve exotic metals, such as magnesium, sodium,

titanium, and certain organometallic compounds such as
alkyllithium and Grignard reagents.

Unit Task 7: Fire safety measures

Fire Safety

Checklist
In All Areas of Your Building
 Cover all unused electrical outlets.
 Arrange electrical cords so they neither dangle loosely nor entangle with one another.
 Matches, lighters, and all flammable materials should be kept out of the reach of
children.
 Radiator covers should be made of a non-heat absorbent material.
  Wood stoves and fireplaces should have screens and a gate, so that children cannot
wander too close.
 Fireplaces and, especially, chimneys should be cleaned and inspected by a reputable
professional every year.
 There should be a smoke detector installed on every level of your building and in the
hallways leading to the bedrooms. It is an extra precaution to have them installed in
each bedroom.
 Set the thermostats on water heaters between 135 and 130 degrees Fahrenheit.
 Formulate an escape plan for every room in your building, with an alternate plan in
case the first option is blocked by fire. Practice these escapes until every member of
your family can
perform them automatically.
 Set up a safe place to meet outside.
 Keep flammable materials away from heat sources.
 Try to use non-flammable or fire-resistant materials for curtains and upholstery.
 Use space heaters only on noncombustible surfaces and at least three feet from
furniture and walls.
 Store all flammable and combustible products in cool, well ventilated places, locked
securely and/or out of the reach of children.
Bathrooms
 Tap water should never be hot enough to scald wrist. Run cold water in tub first, and
then use hot water to warm to desired temperature.
 Check in on children often. Never leave a child unsupervised for an extended period
of time.
 Make sure all medications and chemicals are out of child's reach and/or in child-
proof locked cabinets.
Bedrooms
 In case of fire, it's a good practice to keep water in plastic bottles in bedroom closets
to dampen cloths for face protection during escape.
 If you have smoke detectors in the hallways, you can sleep with the bedroom doors
open.
 Keep drapes away from heat sources, including lamps.
 Keep electrical cords from dangling.
 Try to avoid the use of extension cords. If you must use them, make sure they hug
the wall. Under no circumstances should any electric wires cross over the middle of
the room.
Know your Building
Each occupant should be familiar with the location of all exit stairways on his/her floor. In
addition, occupants should discuss in advance what they will do if the closest exit cannot be
used during a fire emergency.
Following the above suggested steps and doing pre-fire planning, you will greatly reduce
your chance of being killed or injured in a fire in your building. Since no two fires are alike,
plan carefully and learn your building layout well so that you can change your exit plan as
conditions warrant.

Fire Escape Plan

Each occupant of the building must know what to do in the event of a fire. Unless a small fire
can be easily controlled, it is recommended that fighting the fire be left to professional
firefighters and that occupants escape safely from the building.
An escape plan must be created and practiced so that each person knows exactly what to do.
It also is important to practice Exit Drills in the establishments.
Most residential fires occur between 8 p.m. and 8 a.m. Deaths from residential fires occur in
greater numbers between midnight and 4 a.m. when most people are asleep.
Regardless of the cause of the fire, a building may be filled with smoke. This is a very
dangerous situation as occupants may be unable to see very well. The smoke and toxic gases
may cause dizziness and disorientation. In the confusion, one can easily become lost or
trapped in the building. Occupants must understand that their safety depends upon quickly
leaving the building. It has been proven that exit drills reduce chances of panic and injury in
fires and that trained and informed people have a much better chance to survive fires in a
building.
Realize the Danger of Smoke
Each occupant of the building should understand the importance of crawling low under
smoke. Smoke and heat rise so the best place to find fresher, cooler air is near the floor.
When a person is caught in a building filled with smoke, they should drop on hands and
knees and crawl to the nearest exit. Test all closed doors before opening them. Feel the back
of the door. If it is hot, don't open it. Turn and go to the second route of exit. If the door is not
hot, open slowly but be prepared to slam it closed again if there are flames.
Practice what to do if you become trapped. Since doors hold back smoke and firefighters are
adept at rescue, the chances of survival are excellent. Close doors between you and the
smoke. Stuff the cracks and cover vents to keep smoke out. If there's a phone, call in your
exact location to the fire department even if they are on the scene. Wait at the window and
signal with a sheet or flashlight or something visible.
Establish a Safe Meeting Place
A special meeting place should be established a safe distance from the building. Whatever it
is, it must be something that is stationary and won't be moved (such as a car). This is where
everyone meets in the event of a fire. It also prevents occupants from wandering around the
neighborhood looking for one another, or worse, being tempted to re-enter the burning
building for one thought to be trapped inside.
Once outside at the special meeting place, a person can be sent to call 9-1-1. If anyone is
missing, give that information to the fire department immediately and tell them where the
probable location of the missing person could be. Under no circumstances should anyone re-
enter the burning building.
Provide for Those Requiring Additional Help
Special provisions may be required for infants, young children, disabled or the elderly who
may need additional help when escaping. These provisions should be included in the building
fire escape plan and discussed with occupants
When afraid, children commonly seek sheltered places such as a closet or under the bed.
Encourage them to exit outside. Do not allow them to hide. Make sure children can operate
the windows, descend a ladder, or lower themselves to the ground through a window. (Slide
out on the stomach, feet first. Hang on with both hands. Bend the knees when landing.)
Lower children to the ground before you exit from the window. They may panic and not
follow if an adult goes first.
Have children practice saying the fire department number, the family name, and street
address into the phone.
Practice Your Fire Escape Plan
One very good step in the planning of a building fire escape plan is to make a floor diagram
of the building. Mark the regular and emergency escape routes, as well as windows, doors,
stairs, halls.
A good way to practice the effectiveness of a building fire escape plan is to position each
occupant in his or her bed, turn all the lights off, and activate the smoke detector by
depressing the test switch. Each occupant should help "awaken" the others by yelling the
alert. Occupants should exit their rooms according to the plan, crawl low under smoke,
practice feeling doors for heat, and meet in the designated location outside the building.
.
Exit Safely From a Structure
Jumping from upper floors of a building should be avoided. However, it is possible to hang
from a second story window and drop feet first to the ground without significant injury. A
sprained ankle or broken leg is better than dying.
When exiting such a structure, do not use the elevator. Elevators are notorious for stopping at
the fire floor and killing the people inside. A power failure may cause them to stop in
between floors. Use the fire escape or an enclosed fire resistive stairwell to exit.
As a family, explore the building so that every exit, is familiar, including those from storage,
laundry and recreation rooms. If the hallways become smoke-filled as the result of a fire,
memory can help in finding the exits.
Look for these important features in the building - enclosed exit stairways, clearly-marked
exits, clean hallways and lobbies, automatic sprinklers, fire alarm systems and smoke
detectors.
Remember, Plan Ahead!
Remember, the first step toward escaping a fire is to plan ahead. Practice a building fire
escape plan throughout the year and be sure that if anything should change around the
building, it is included in the building fire escape plan.

Unit Task 8: Fire fighting procedures

FIRE EXTINGUISHERS
 A fire extinguisher is a must for every kitchen the place where so many building
fires start. There are different extinguishers for different types of fires. You will
notice labels on the units marked A, B and C. These letters refer to which types of fire
the extinguisher is meant to fight:

o Class A extinguishers are made for fires involving paper, wood, textiles and
plastics. The material inside smothers the fire, putting it out by cutting off the
oxygen that feeds it.
o Class B extinguishers are made for fires involving flammable liquids, such as
grease, oil, gasoline and paint. Two kinds of material are used: one to smother
the fire and one to create a chemical reaction that puts it out.
o Class C extinguishers use non-conductive materials to fight fires in live
electrical equipment.
Each extinguisher also has a rating number indicating what size fire it can handle. Some units
are rated for all three types of fires, but they have a larger size rating for one type than for
another. Choose a fire extinguisher that is right for the types of fire that might break out in a
particular area.
 A first-aid kit prepares you to treat minor injuries. Keep it stocked with clean
supplies and fresh medicines, as well as phone numbers for the local emergency
services, poison control and your doctors' offices.
 Do not store cooking utensils and dish towels too close to the range. They could melt
or catch fire.
 Make sure that plugs near the sink are GFCI outlets, which are designed to monitor
the current going to and coming from the receptacle.
If electricity started flowing through an improper channel to the ground for example, your
body there would be a drop in the current on the proper path. Within a fraction of a second of
detecting that current imbalance, a properly installed GFCI would shut that circuit down. You
might get shocked, but you should be safe from electrocution.
Most local codes now require these outlets in new construction, but older buildings might not
have them in place. Test the GFCI outlets monthly (using the test button) so you can be sure
they will work when they are needed.
 Store knives safely:
o If they are in a drawer, store them with covers to keep someone from being cut
while reaching in the drawer.
o If they are on a magnetic strip, make sure that the magnetic force is strong
enough to hold them and that the strip is fastened tightly to the wall.
Power Surge Protectors
Surge control is important because even small surges or spikes can eventually destroy or
affect the performance of expensive electronic equipment such as computers, phones, faxes,
TVs, VCRs, stereos and microwaves. Damage can occur either instantaneously or over time
as smaller surges cause the gradual deterioration of internal circuitry. The common use of
microprocessors (chips) has increased the need for surge protection because these chips are
generally very sensitive to voltage fluctuations

Fire Drills
Fires can happen anywhere. A fire in a large building creates an enormous risk to everyone.
Other reasons for evacuating buildings include natural gas leaks, earthquakes, hazardous
material spills and storms. Knowing what to do is the key to surviving a fire emergency.
Conducting regular fire drills will give you the knowledge and confidence to escape a fire
safely. There are two steps for a good evacuation program - planning and practice.

Planning
Planning gives you the information you need ahead of time to evacuate safely. In the
workplace, employees and supervisors should plan together for exiting their worksite. At
school, involve all school staff including teachers, administrative and office workers, and the
maintenance and food service staff.
Working together, design an evacuation plan to meet the specific needs of your building and
your occupants. Make the plan clear and concise. Review the plan and walk through the exit
procedure to make sure that everyone knows what to do.
Each building, whether it be a school, workplace or multi-family living unit, should have a
posted exit diagram (plan) and everyone should be familiar with it.
Be sure that smoke detectors are installed and maintained. Know the sound of the fire alarm.
Everyone should recognize and respond to the sound of the smoke detector or other fire alarm
immediately. Immediate response is vital for a quick, orderly evacuation.
Everyone should exit in an orderly manner to prevent confusion and minimize panic or
injury. No one should push their way out an exit. Single file lines are best in controlling
traffic to the exits.
Consider special needs people. When developing your escape plan, remember that younger,
older, or disabled people may need special assistance. Anyone with special needs should be
located as close to an exit as possible. Train others to give special assistance with evacuation.
Be sure to know two ways out. There should be two ways out of every area of the building,
school, or workplace. If the primary exit is blocked by smoke or fire, use your second exit.
Point out all emergency exits as you walk through the emergency procedure.
Always use the stairways to exit multi-story buildings. Do not use an elevator. An elevator
may stop between floors, or go to the fire floor and stop with the doors open.
If a room or corridor is filled with smoke, crawl low on your hands and knees to exit. The
cleaner air is closer to the ground.
Plan your meeting place. A designated meeting place outside the building is a vital part of
an evacuation plan. Count heads. Be aware of who is there (hopefully everybody will be
accounted for) and who is not there. When the fire department arrives, you can report if there
is anyone missing.
Know what to do if you can't escape. You'll need to plan your actions in case immediate
escape is impossible. If possible, for example, stay in a room with an outside window and
always close doors between you and the fire. Think about what you could use - sheets,
towels, curtains, or even large pieces of clothing - to stuff around cracks near the door and
wave as a signal to rescuers. Know how to open the window to ventilate smoke, but be
prepared to close the window immediately if an open window makes the room smokier. If
there is a phone, call the fire department with your location, even if firefighters are already on
the scene. Remember, stay low in smoke until you're rescued.
Practice
After planning, practice to make sure that everyone knows what to do. Have fire drills.
Practice your fire escape periodically throughout the year. Remember, the element of surprise
simulates a real fire and adds essential realism to your fire drill program.
Appoint someone to monitor the drill. This person will sound the alarm and make the drill
realistic by requiring participants to use their second way out or to crawl low. This could be
done by having someone hold up a sign reading "smoke" or "exit blocked by fire." The
monitor also will measure how long complete evacuation takes.
Coordinate arrangements for fire drills in apartments or other multi-family buildings, in
schools or in workplaces with the local fire department.
After the evacuation, take a head count at the designated meeting place(s) to account for
everyone's participation and safe evacuation.
When everyone is back inside the building after the drill, gather everyone together to discuss
any questions or problems that occurred during the drill. Redesign the drill procedures as
needed. Make the next fire drill even more effective.
Remember, once you are outside, stay outside. Don't go back in until the proper authorities
say it is okay.

Suggested Teaching/Learning Resources

- Text books
- Resource persons
- Magazines
 - Manufacturer’s manuals
- Fire fighting equipment

Suggested Teaching/Learning Activities

- Report Writing
- Visits
- Fire drills
- Research

Evaluation questions
- Assignments
- Reports
- Tests

9.1.04 CLEANING EQUIPMENT AND MATERIALS

Theory

9.1.04T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) define terms
b) classify and identify cleaning equipment and materials
c) explain factors to consider when choosing and selecting cleaning equipment
and materials
d) discuss use, care and maintenance of equipment and materials

UNIT TASKS
Unit Task 1: Definition of terms
Equipment
the implements used in an operation or activity

Cleaning Materials

Unit Task 2: Identification and classification of cleaning equipment and materials

CLEANING EQUIPMENT

Efficient cleaning and maintenance are dependent upon high-quality cleaning equipment,
correctly using. Though only 5-10% of the overall cost incurred on cleaning is accounted for
by cleaning equipment and agents, selecting the ideal equipment plays a major role in the
cleaning process. There will often be several ways of carrying out any particular cleaning
task and different types of equipment that can be employed for it. It is the executive
housekeeper’s responsibility to select the most appropriate piece of equipment according
to the hotel’s requirement. Most types of cleaning equipment fall under the category of
recycled items, but a few large pieces of items may be considered as fixed assets. The
 correct choice of quality cleaning equipment could save costs due to breakdowns, reduce
fatigue and also ensure overall efficiency in operations.

Equipment used in the cleaning of surface, furniture and fittings in a hotel building include
both manual and mechanical equipment .

Manual Equipment

Manual equipment can include all types of equipment that clean or aid in the cleaning
process by directly using manoeuvre, operation and energy of employees.

Brushes

These may be designed to remove dry or wet and/or ingrained dust and dirt from hard or
soft surfaces.

Basic parts of a brush: The basic parts of a brush are as follows -

· Bristles: These may be of animal, vegetable or manmade origin. Horsehair, nylon and
polypropylene are commonly used to make bristles for cleaning brushes. In general, the
finer, softer bristles are best for smooth and hard surfaces. The harder the bristles, the
softer the surface on which the brush should be used, exception being toilet brushes and
brushes found on all-purpose flour machines. Bristles, if not maintained properly, have a
tendency to bend, splay or fall out of the stock. Bristles should be closely set in tufts and the
stock well covered with tufts.

· Head stock: This is the part of the brush into which the bristles are inserted. The stock may be
of wood, metal, or plastic. A good brush is one that has a sturdy stock.

· Handle: Brush handles may be detachable or non-detachable. Detachable handles must be

fixed firmly in place on the stock when the brush is in use.

Types of brushes: Three main types of brushes are used for cleaning surfaces.

· Hard brushes: Hard brushes have bristles that are fairly stiff and well spaced out. They are
most suitable for the removal of heavy soil and litter from carpets and for cleaning rough
surfaces.

· Soft brushes: Soft brushes have bristles that are fairly flexible and set close together. These
help to remove loose soil and litter on hard, smooth surfaces. Such brushes may be
designed to dust carpets and furniture, too, especially those made of cane, wicker and
bamboo.

· Scrubbing brushes: Scrubbing brushes have short, coarse bristles designed for use on surfaces
that have become stained and heavily ingrained with dirt. These brushes should only be
used to remove stubborn, heavy soiling from small areas that are difficult for a scrubbing
machine to access. Long handled scrubbing brushes, called deck scrubbers or T-scrubbers,
are useful for cleaning larger areas as well as corners.
 Brushes are also classified on basis of their function:

· Toilet brushes: These are WC brushes, radiator brushes and Johnny mops.
· Bottle brushes: These are used for cleaning overflow vents in wash basins and
tubs.
· Cloth scrubbers: These are used for scrubbing clothes.
· Deck scrubbers: These are used for cleaning large areas.
· Carpet brushes: These are used for brushing carpets.
· Upholstery brushes: These are used to loosen out dust embedded between the
fabric fibres in upholstered chairs and sofas
· Feather brushes: These are brushes with feathers, for light dusting.
· Hearth brush: These are used for cleaning heavy soiling and removing ash out
of fireplaces.

· Flue brush: These are used for cleaning chimneys.

Care and cleaning of brushes:

Brushes should be gently tapped on a hard surface to loosen dust and debris after the
cleaning process. Frequent wash with water is avoidable since the brushes may lose some of
their stiffness in this way. If they must be washed frequently, the final rinse should be in
cold saline water to help the bristles regain their stiffness. Brushes should be cleaned of all
fluff and threads before washing. They may then be rinsed in warm, mild soapy water. A
disinfectant should be added to the water used for rinsing toilet brushes. If brushes with
natural bristles (vegetable or animal origin) have been used for wax polishing, add washing
soda (1 tbsp to 2 litres of water) to remove grease thoroughly. Brushes should be washed by
beating the head up and down, with the bristles facing downwards, so that the water
splashes up between the tufts. They should be rinsed well in the same way in cold water.
After shaking off excess water, the brushes should be left to dry in such a way that the
remaining water may drip off the side of the brush or the top of the head stock. Never leave
brushes resting on their bristles, else they will splay out; if left resting on their stock, water
will rot the stock in time. The best way would be to hang the brushes bristles downward.
When possible, dry brushes in the sun or open air. To extend the life of the brush, apply
lacquer to the stock and handle with an oil-can and allow to harden.

Brooms

Sweeping brooms consist of long bristles gathered together and inserted into a handle. The
bristles of a broom may be made of grass, corn or coconut fibres. Depending on the type,
brooms may be used for removing dust or dirt in large areas.

Types of brooms: As with brushes, brooms may be classified into 3 main categories:

· Soft-bristled brooms: Soft bristled brooms such as corn-fibre brooms, grass brooms and whisk
brooms are used on smooth floors. A good soft broom has comparatively fewer split ends
and any splits that do form are short.
· Hard/Coarse-bristled brooms: Brooms such as yard brooms and coconut fibre brooms are
used on course surfaces, especially outdoors.

· Wall brooms: These are also called ceiling brooms or Turk’s heads. They have a soft head and
long handle, usually made of cane. These brooms are used to remove cobwebs as well as
dust from cornices, ceilings and high ledges.

Electric brooms, arguably a fourth type, have been discussed under

mechanical equipment. All kinds of brooms raise and dissipate dust, so that, with the advent
of the more hygienic process of vacuum cleaning, brooms are used less often for cleaning
purposes in hotels.

Care and cleaning of brooms:

Brooms should be shaken free of dust and fluff. Never store them standing on their bristles,
or the bristles will bend out of shape, resulting in inefficient cleaning. Store brooms either
lying horizontally or hanging bristles downward. Never use soft brooms on wet surfaces.
Stiff brooms such as coconut-fibre brooms can be used on wet surfaces but must be cleaned
afterward thoroughly in saline water and dried in the sun before cleaning.

Box Sweepers

These are also called carpet sweepers and are used for sweeping up dust and
litter from soft floor coverings as well as rugs and carpets. They are ideal for the
removal of spills and for light cleaning of small carpeted areas. A box sweeper
consists of a friction brush that revolves when the equipment is pushed manually
over the carpet bottom to facilitate emptying after use. Choose sweepers with a
wide base that is low enough to be pushed under furniture and that will clean close
to a wall. In sweepers meant to clean hard floors as well as soft floor coverings, the
brush can be lowered to the floor to sweep.

Care and cleaning of box sweepers:

The friction brush should be kept clean; else the efficiency of the equipment will be
seriously impaired. After the cleaning process, the dustpans should be emptied of all the
collected dust.

Dry Mops

Also called dust control mops, these are designed to remove soil and debris from floors,
walls and ceilings without raising and dissipating dust. These mops generally consist of a
handle to which a metal frame is attached. The mop head is either inserted into the frame
or stretched over it, according to the type.

Types of dry mops: There are 4 principle types of dry mops:

 · Mops with impregnated fringes: These mops consist of dense cotton fringes,
approximately 15 cm in length, inserted into a metal frame of 15-120 cm
length. These mops are usually pre-impregnated or will require impregnation
by soaking in or spraying with mineral oil or a synthetic impregnating fluid.
The dust is held onto the mops by the oil.
· Impregnated mop sweepers: These mops consist of a double-hinged frame and
are thus called ‘V-sweepers’ of ‘scissor-action sweepers’. The mops can be
pre-impregnated or may require impregnation before each use. Following
impregnation, sufficient time must be allowed for the mineral oil to cure the
fibres; else the mop will leave a film of oil on the cleaned surface due to
improper curing. To be effective, an impregnated mop must also be
manoeuvred correctly. It should be worked in long, even strokes in a
continual movement, keeping the mop head in contact with the surface all
the time. This way, maximum dust collection and minimum dust dissipation is
ensured.
· Static mops: These mops consist of acrylic, nylon or polyester strands fixed to a
backing stretched over a metal frame. When in use, the fringes splay out to
form a large surface area, holding dust by means of a static charge that builds
up on the fringe. Static mops are more easily maintained than impregnated
mops.
· Disposable mops: These mops consist of a handle with a soft pad at the end,
onto which a cheap cotton or synthetic material is affixed. The material has
properties enabling it to attract and hold dust. The fabric is held in place by
clips or a special tape and is usually purchased in large rolls, from which the
desired amount can be cut. The fabric is disposed off after each use and
replaced immediately. Although very expensive due to constant replacement
of the head, they are extremely hygienic and are particularly suitable when
infection control is required.

Care and cleaning of dry mops:

Shake mops well after use outdoors. The mop head should be easily detachable so they can
be frequently washed in hot water with detergent. The use of soap-free detergent will
prevent the formation of scum that clogs the fibres of the head. The mop must be worked
up and down in at least 2 changes of clean, hot water. The clean mop should then be tightly
squeezed out, shaken well to get rid of excess moisture and left to dry in open air. Once dry,
the mops may need to be re-impregnated.

Wet/damp mops:

These mops are used in conjunction with buckets for the removal of dirt adhering to
a surface. The mop heads can be made of cotton, sponge or any other fibre capable of
absorbing moisture well.

Types of damp mops: There are 4 types of damp mops available:

· Do-all mops: These mops consist of strands of twisted cotton fixed to a circular metal plate,
which in turn is fixed to a stock.

· Kentucky mops: These mops consist of cotton strands fixed to a length of cotton fabric which
is in turn inserted into a flat metal stock. They are available in weights ranging from 330g to
670g. The strands may be stitched together or unstitched. The former are less likely to
tangle, can be laundered more easily and are likely to last longer than unstitched mops.

· Foss mops: These consist of a dense cotton fringe inserted into a heavy metal stock. They are
available in a wide range of weights.

· Sponge mops: These consist of cellulose sponge fixed to a replaceable, lever-controlled head,
hinged for wringing out and attached to a long handle. Using a sponge mop is one of the
easiest ways to wash a hard floor. Short handled sponge mops are also available for cleaning
windows.

· Squeegee: A squeegee consists of a long metallic handle and a wooden or rubber blade to
remove excess water from a surface being cleaned It is effective when followed by mopping
with a damp mop. A smaller version called the window squeegee is used for wiping away
water from windows after washing.

Care and cleaning of damp mops:

Take mops outdoors after use and shake well to remove excess moisture. Then these mops
may be washed in the same way as dry mops. Detachable heads are easier to clean and
maintain. However, drying is the most important part of mop care as bacteria require
moisture to multiply. A disinfectant to discourage their growth is effective only for a short
period of time, so leaving them damp means letting germs breed. Damp mops should be
renewed as soon as there are signs of wear. They should be stored in such a way that air is
allowed to circulate around the mop head. Never use disinfectant or bleach with a cellulose
sponge head. Wash and rinse sponge heads after use, squeeze out excess water and dry
well. Store the sponge head by hanging.

Cloths

Various cloths are used extensively in wet and dry cleaning by housekeeping staff. For
efficient and correct usage, cloths may be colour-coded and the staff well-trained.

Types of cloths: A variety of cloths are available for specific purposes:

· Dusters and cloth mittens: These are meant for dusting and buffing. Soft, absorbent plain or
checked cotton material or yellow flannelette of up to 15 sq. Cm is ideal for dusters. When
used for damp dusting, they must be sprayed with a fine mist of water or dusting solution.
Cloths may be impregnated with a mineral oil instead. Dusters must be folded several times
into a hand-sized pad before use so as to provide a number of clean surfaces and avoid
spreading dirt again to a clean surface instead.
· Swabs and wipes: These are all-purpose cloths made of soft, absorbent material. They are
used for wet cleaning and damp dusting of all surfaces above floor level. They are also used
for cleaning sanitary fittings such as bathtubs and wash basins. Wipes include loosely woven
or knitted cotton cloths and non-woven cloths. Synthetic sponges may also be grouped
under this category. They are available in various sizes and shapes. Sponges are better than
cloths for washing walls, woodwork, glass and upholstery.

· Floor cloths: Floor cloths are bigger, thicker and made of coarser cotton material than all-
purpose swabs. They are used to wipe WC pedestals and remove spills from floors.

· Scrim: This is a loosely woven linen material resembling fine sackcloth. Scrim, because of its
high absorbency and lint-free nature, is often used instead of chamois leather for cleaning
windows and mirrors.

· Glass cloths: Glass cloths are made up of linen tow yarns and do not leave behind lint. They
can therefore be used for wiping mirrors and drinking glasses. These must not be confused
with fabrics made from glass fibres (glasscloth).

· Rags and polishing cloths: Rags are disposable cloths usually obtained from the sewing room
or bought by the sack from tailors. They are used for applying polish or strong cleaning
agents are disposed off when dirty. Polishing cloths need to have a fleecy napped surface
and pieces of flannel are ideal.

· Wet cloths: Wet cloths need to be very absorbent and of a manageable size, so that they can
be wrung out by hand easily during cleaning. They are used for mopping large floor areas.

· Chamois leather: Real chamois leather is the skin of the chamois goat antelope, but now
various cheaper imitations are available. These simulated chamois leathers are usually
skivers, that is, split sheepskin. Chamois leather can be used wet for cleaning windows and
mirrors; when dry; it is used as a polishing cloth for silver and other metals. It is also ideal
for wiping squeegee blades.

· Dust sheets: Dust sheets are made of any thin cotton material, being about the size of a single
sheet. Discarded bed sheets or curtains from the linen room are ideal for use as dust sheets.
They are used to cover floors, furniture or other articles during spring cleaning or
decorating.

· Druggets: These are made up of coarse linen, fine canvas or clear plastic. They may be the size
of a carpet square or runner. They are placed on the floor in doorways to prevent excessive
dirt being tracked in or out during bad weather and during redecorating projects. They are
sometimes placed in the passage between the kitchen and dining area to catch spills and
debris.

· Hearth and bucket cloths: These are made up of thick fabrics and used to protect the carpet
and flooring when a fireplace is being cleaned or placed under buckets to prevent marks on
the surface they are kept on. They also catch splashes of water.
cloths is important for efficient cleaning and longer life. Care and cleaning recommendations
for various types of cloths are given in Table 7.1.

Table 7.1: Cloth care & cleaning recommendations

CLOTH CARE AND CLEANING

Dusters and cloth mittens Wash, rinse and dry thoroughly after use. If
cloth mittens are impregnated with mineral
oil after washing, keep them covered or they
will attract dust.
Swabs and wipes Wash in hot detergent water, rinse and dry
thoroughly after use. Those used on WCs
should be disinfected after washing.
Floor cloths Wash in hot detergent water, rinse, disinfect
(as floors may harbour many germs) and dry
thoroughly.
Scrim Wash, rinse and dry after use.
Glass cloths Wash, rinse and dry after use.
Rags and polishing cloths Rags should be disposed off after use.
Polishes with a strong odour may contain
flammable chemicals and storing rags and
polishing cloths used in their application may
prove a fire hazard.
Wet cloths Wash in hot detergent water, rinse and dry
thoroughly. Disinfect periodically to prevent
them from becoming unhygienic.
Chamois leather If not maintained properly, leather gets
cracked and is damaged easily. Remove
excess dirt from it with newspaper. Wash
only when necessary, in plain cold water.
Rinse and either store damp or dry flat.
When dry, rub to soften the leather again.
Dust sheets Shake well outdoors after use. Wash, rinse
and dry when necessary. Fold neatly and
store when not in use.
Druggets Shake well by tapping on the ground
outdoors, if made of plastic. Use a hard
brush to clean away stubborn dirt from
cloth. Wash rinse and dry canvas and linen
ones frequently. Plastic ones can be damp
wiped instead.
Hearth and bucket cloths Shake well after use. Wash, rinse and dry
thoroughly after use. Use a hard brush to
clean away stubborn soiling.
 Polish applicators

These are usually oblong in shape for efficiency of application. The polishing head should
slide out from the metal or plastic casing to enable easy replacement.

Types of polish applicators: There are 3 kinds of polish applicators:

a) Natural lambswool, with a built in polish reservoir or tray.

b) Synthetic wool, with a built in polish reservoir or tray.

c) Solid-wax pressurized applicators.

Care and cleaning of polish applicators:

Polish applicators should not be washed with water. Wiping away excess polish with
newspaper or rags before it dries should suffice. It is important to label the applicators with
the type of polish for which they are to be used so that each applicator is used with just one
kind of polish, to avoid mixing different products.

Containers

Work becomes much easier and efficient if the staff is given appropriate containers in which
to carry, transport, collect and store supplies and other items.

Types of containers: The various types of containers used are:

· Buckets: These may be made of plastic or galvanised iron. Plastic buckets are more popular
these days as they are lighter in weight, quieter to use and easier to clean. Buckets to be
used with mops may have one or two sections and may have a wringer device that can be
detached for easy cleaning. Twin buckets on a low trolley enabled the brush to be rinsed
more effectively each time. Larger buckets should have castor wheels which must be kept
free of hair, fluff and dust. Buckets should be thoroughly washed, inside and out, every time
they are used and then allowed to dry before being stored.

· Basins and bowls: These are used to carry small amounts of water, cleaning solutions and
powders for cleaning small areas.

· Dustpans: These are used in conjunction with a broom or brush for gathering dust. They may
be made of plastic or metal, plastic ones being the usual choice these days. Dustpans with
long handles that eliminate stooping are ideal. In order that the dustpans are effective, the
edge in contact with the floor must be thin, sharp and flat. They should always be emptied
after use and occasionally washed. They should never be stored resting on their flat edge, as
it will wear out and warp so that the pan becomes inefficient. Store dustpans suspended
from a hook or lying horizontally, sideways.

· Dustbins : The housekeeping department is concerned with dustbins in 5 areas:

 a) In guestrooms: These bins may be made of plastic or wood. Some properties
also use jute or wicker bins. Individual dustbins in guestrooms may be lined
with a disposable inner lining made of recycled paper or plastic. These bins
must be emptied and wiped daily. They should be washed once a week.
b) In the service rooms: These are used to collect waste from guestrooms,
brought in by the room attendants’ carts. The carts contain a sack called the
trash bag for guestroom trash. There should be 2 types of bins in the service
room, a metal bin for disposing of ash from guestroom ashtrays and a plastic
or thick paper bin for other types of trash. The latter can be incinerated
directly.
c) In public areas such as guest corridors and lobbies: These bins may have a
creative design since they are constantly on view. They should be emptied
daily.
d) In waste-collection areas: These are usually located outside the main building
and are hidden from view. These bins should be kept covered and emptied t
least every alternate day

· Sani-bins: These are metal or plastic bins with lids. They are found in toilets for the collection
of soiled sanitary towels. They should be lined with plastic or paper bags for easy cleaning.
The bins must be emptied and wiped daily for reasons of hygiene. Disposable paper bags
(sani-bags) should be provided in the guests’ toilets for wrapping sanitary towels, before
disposing in the sani-bin. Some metal sani-bins may be provided with incinerators, but these
are not available in India yet.

· Spray bottles: These are lightweight containers that deliver a fine mist or cleaning solution
through a fine nozzle, particularly used for spray cleaning. It is essential that the nozzle is
properly adjusted and free from any blockage. The nozzle must be kept clean, by spraying
clean, pure water through it after every use.

· Polish applicator trays: These are used in conjunction with a polish applicator mop for
polishing floors with a liquid polish. They should be labelled with the kind of polish that they
hold. Cleaning them after use is difficult. Pour any excess polish back into the polish
container. Soak the tray in a small amount of solvent used to remove that particular type of
polish. Wipe with rags and store.

· Hand caddies: Also called ‘cleaners’ boxes’, these were originally made of wood or metal but
are nowadays usually made of plastic. They consist of a box with a handle and fitted tray.
They are used by room attendants for carrying cleaning supplies from room to room for
guestroom cleaning. After each shift, they must be cleaned and topped up with replacement
supplies for use in the next shift.

Carts and trolleys:

These are more useful than hand caddies when a large amount of supplies and items are to
be carted or replaced. They are ideal for the efficient removal and carriage of smaller pieces
of cleaning equipment, cleaning agents, linen and rubbish. They eliminate the time wasted
in assembling equipment at the work location or moving them from one place to another.
 The various kinds of carts and trolleys that may be used in the housekeeping department
are discussed here.

· Maid’s cart/Room attendant’s cart: Also called a room attendant’s trolley, maid’s cart or
chambermaid’s trolley, this is perhaps the most significant piece of equipment in the
housekeeping department. It is like a giant tool box; stocked with everything necessary to
service a guestroom effectively such carts available are now made of metal, but sometimes
wooden carts may be in use. The cart should be spacious enough to carry all the supplies
needed for a GRA to complete half a day’s room assignments. Since the cart is large and
may be heavily loaded, it must be easily manoeuvrable as well. The ideal cart would have
fixed wheels at one end and castor-wheels at the other. The cart should be well organised
so that the GRAs do not have to waste time in searching for supplies or make frequent trips
back to the supply room. Also if the cart is not stacked neatly, it will look very unsightly
when in the guests’ view. There is usually one such cart for each room section and it is
stored in the floor pantry along with other housekeeping supplies. Fig 7.6 shows an
organized room attendant’s cart.

Most of these carts have 3 deep shelves – the lower 2 for linen and the top, partitioned
shelf for small supplies. The carts also have a sack for soiled linen, detachable trash bags,
storage space for a vacuum cleaner and a hand caddy. Many carts also contain a locked box
in which to store the guestroom keys, incase a floor master key is not being used. While
arranging the linen on the cart, it should be kept in mind that the heavier linens must be
placed on the lowermost shelf and the smaller, lighter ones on the top shelf. Housekeeping
supplies that are usually found in the room attendant’s cart are listed in the table below:

· Janitor’s trolley: This is used for carting and storing cleaning supplies. It is used during the
cleaning of public areas or any special cleaning projects scheduled for guestrooms. It
includes a detachable trash bag and a place for storing cleaning agents and small pieces of
cleaning equipment.

· Mop-wringer trolley: This piece of equipment consists of a mop and one or twin buckets with
an attached wringer, all mounted on a trolley with caster wheels. It may have provision for
holding cleaning agents as well as a trash bag.

· Linen trolley: These are used for the transfer of clean linen from the laundry to the linen room
or from the linen room to the floor pantries and so on. Linen trolleys may be made of
aluminium or steel.

· Laundry sacks: These, in fact, may or may not be mobile (and hence may not necessarily be
trolleys). They may be made of wicker, fibreglass or plastic. A very popular choice is the one
made of tough cotton with drawstrings, as it can be washed frequently.

All carts and trolleys need to be kept clean, wiped daily and stored in a locked, dry, well-
ventilated area when not in use. A thorough cleaning may be done once a week. The wheels
may be oiled during this cleaning. Carts or trolleys should never become general dumping
grounds when not in use.
 Sundry equipment

This includes other miscellaneous pieces of equipment used in the housekeeping

department – ladders, carpet beaters, and abrasive pads, rubber gloves, airing racks, fit
pumps and choke removers.

v Ladders

Ladders are generally made of wood or metals such as aluminium. These days, fibreglass
ladders are also available. The different parts of a ladder are the rungs (treads), stiles (side
rails), spreaders (the hinge-and-brace arrangement) and footpads.

When buying a ladder, one should primarily consider the following points:

ü What kind is needed for the work it is going to be used for – for occasional
work, it may be cheaper to hire a ladder than purchase one.
ü The weight that the ladder must bear.
ü The condition of the ladder.

ü The physical work environment it will be used in.

There are 5 main types of ladders used, based on hotel properties.

· Single-section standing ladders or stairladders: This is the simplest, old-

fashioned ladder with 2 straight stiles and rungs fixed across them at a
minimum of 254mm intervals. The ideal ones are those with both stiles
curved at the apex for safety.

· Stepladders: Various types of stepladders are available. A basic stepladder has

2 rectangular stiles fitted with treads that are a minimum of 76 mm in width.
The treads should lie horizontal, parallel to the ground when the ladder is
placed at an angle of 75 degrees. A platform stepladder gives a more stable
work position with a high-level platform for holding tools and materials in
use. It is available in various heights, or without a high-level handrail. The
platform must not be more than 3.85m above the ground. The A-type
platform ladder opens up like a pair of scissors to make a free-standing set of
steps with a small platform at the top, thus leaving the worker’s hands free
and eliminating the need to keep getting off to get tools and materials. It is
very stable and if fitted with a handrail above the platform, extra-safe. The
steps may be folded together for easy storage of the ladder. A swing-back
stepladder is self-supporting. Locking stays are fitted together to brace the
steps. When opened up, the treads of the ladder lie horizontal.
· Extension ladders: These are used for working at greater heights. These consist
of 2 or 3 parts that can be slid along each other to add the required height.
They are available with 2 or 3 extensions and in various ‘closed’ lengths of
2.5-3.5 m. A double extension ladder which can give a long length of about
8m should be sufficient for most 2-storey properties. Longer, 3-section
ladders can give lengths of up to about 10m. In the case of smaller extension
 ladders, the ladder may be extended by hand & secured by stay locks that
rest on a selected rung. On larger ladders, the sections are extended by
means of a roped loop running down the side of the ladder and secured upon
a cleat.
· Combination ladders: A combination ladder offers various arrangements to give
a stepladder, an extension ladder and a stair ladder in one piece of
equipment. The sections fold down to about the same size as a platform
stepladder.
· Roof ladders: This type of ladder is used when working on a pitched roof. The
roof ladder has 2 wheels at the upper end, which enables it to be pushed
along the slope of a roof without damaging the shingles. On the end opposite
to the wheels, the ladder forms a hook to fit over the top ridge of the roof,
which stops the ladder from slipping down.
ü Angle of inclination: Whichever ladder is used, if it leans at an angle, it
should be ensured that the bottom of the slanting section is about 1
foot away from the vertical support for every 4 feet of ladder height
between the foot and top support.

Maintenance and storage:

Ladders should be stored in a sheltered area, away from the sun and rain.
Wooden ladders especially are adversely affected by exposure to heat combined
with dampness. They need a dry, well-ventilated storage area. Wooden ladders
used outdoors should be treated with shellac, varnished or given 2 coats of
linseed oil as a protective treatment. A wooden ladder should never be painted,
as this can hide any defects that may arise, making the ladder potentially unsafe.
Straight (stair) and extension ladders should be stored horizontally on racks or
hooks, with support points at the top, middle and bottom of the ladder, to
prevent sagging and warping. All ladders should be kept scrupulously free of oil,
grease, wet paint and other slip hazards. Periodically tighten the reinforcing rods
under the steps of a stepladder, spreader hinges and other joints. Despite all the
precautions, ladders should nevertheless be carefully inspected for wear and
damage before each use. In case of any damage, it is always best to discard it.

v Carpet beaters:

Beating of carpets, although not recommended, sometimes becomes a necessity. Wire

beaters should be avoided as they may damage the rug. Instead, rattan beaters should be
used. While beating, it is best to place carpets and rugs with their naps down on the grass.
They should never be hung up and beaten.

v Abrasive pads:

These are available in the form of non-woven, nylon netting pads, suitable for the removal
of localized, heavily impacted soiling by abrasion. Pads with different abrasive properties are
produced. Wire-wool and steel-wool pads should be used with caution as they may damage
certain surfaces.
 Mechanical Equipment:

The various pieces of mechanical equipment used in the housekeeping department are
usually powered by electricity or gas. The staff should be well-trained in the operation of
these equipments since incorrect usage will not only lead to inefficient cleaning but may
also become a safety hazard.

Vacuum cleaners/ Suction cleaners:

Vacuum cleaners remove debris and soil and/or water from a surface by suction. All vacuum
cleaners work on the same operating principle. In all types, motor drives an impeller, which
sucks in air through an inlet, creating a difference in pressure between the air within and
outside the machine. Air drawn in from the inlet passes through and out of the machine. Air
drawn in from the inlet passes through and out of the machine. Usually the air is sucked in
together with soil, debris or water. The dust is collected into a container provided, which
may be within the body of the machine (as in cylindrical and canister models) or on the
outside in the form of a bag (as in upright models). The dust-collecting apparatus in the
heavy duty models used in hotel properties usually consists of 2 types of dust bags. The
inner bag is made of disposable paper and the outer one is made of fabric.

Types of vacuum cleaners: Various types of vacuum cleaners are available.

· Dry vacuum cleaners: These are used for removing dust and small pieces of debris from floors,
upholstery, furnishings, walls and ceilings. Those using a flexible hose come with
attachments, such as a floor-cleaning head, a power head, a crevice-cleaning head, an
upholstery-cleaning head, a dusting head and extension tubes. Many variations of the dry
vacuum cleaner are in use:

v Electric brooms: These are very lightweight vacuums without a motor-driven

beater brush. They are used only for light vacuuming and for touch-ups on
carpets and hard floors. In other words, they come in handy when a full
vacuuming is required.
v Dustettes: These are small, lightweight vacuum cleaners used for cleaning
curtains, upholstery edges, mattresses, computers and music systems. They
clean by brushing and suction and are very easy to handle. The may be
carried in hand or strapped to the back of the operator.
v Backpack vacuums: These are very efficient to clean high, hard-to-reach areas.
The vacuum unit in these machines can easily be strapped to the back of the
operator. These machines have hand-held wands that come with various
attachments for flexibility in cleaning. They are ideal for use on curtains,
drapes and ceiling corners. These vacuums are also referred to as piggyback
vacuums.
v Upright vacuums: These vacuums are the ones more frequently seen in hotels.
The main body of the vacuum lies horizontal on the floor and is driven by a
single motor. The dust-bag is outside the machine’s main body. There is a
belt-driven beater brush to facilitate removal of dust from thick-pile carpets.
In an improved variation, there is a dual-motor system – one motor drives
 the beater brush and the other provides the suction. The machine also has a
built-in hose for cleaning corners and upholstery. This machine is most
suitable for use on large carpeted areas.
v Cylindrical vacuums: These have no rotating brushes and work by suction only.
The term ‘suction cleaner’ is generally used for these kinds of vacuum
cleaners. A filter-cum-diffuser is fitted at the outlet which removes fine dust
and micro-organisms from the flow of air passing through the outlet. The
filter-cum-diffuser also reduces air disturbance and noise. The dust-bag is
inside the cylindrical body of the vacuum cleaner. A flexible hose along with
the different attachments is used to clean a variety of surfaces. These are the
type commonly used by GRAs in guestroom cleaning.
v Pile-lifter vacuums: These vacuum cleaners are used to groom long-pile
carpets. They lift up the carpet pile that has become packed down and
restore their vertical orientation. It is especially useful before shampooing
the carpet, more so if the soiling is heavy.
v Centralized vacuum: In this type of unit, suction is generated at one point in
the building. Meanwhile, soiling can be removed at vacuum points
somewhere else in the building by suitable nozzles connected to detachable
flexible hoses. The collected dirt is then conveyed by a network of pipes to a
central container. This unit is expensive to install and is generally done at the
building construction stage. The advantages of this kind of system are :
ü It is extremely hygienic, since all the dust is carried away from the point
of cleaning.
ü Maintenance costs are usually lower.
ü Operative fatigue is lower.
ü There are no frayed flexes to repair and no individual machines to go
wrong.

· Wet-and-dry vacuum cleaners: These are extremely useful in hotel housekeeping operations.
They can pick up spills and excess wash water when on the wet mode. When on the dry
mode, they help in removal of dust and debris. In hotels, these machines are usually used in
their wet mode to pick up spills. They are also required when large areas of floors are being
stripped of polish and cleaned. They have a flexible hose with attachments such as a
squeegee head. The waste water collects in a tank that needs to be emptied after use. A
variation of this is the large tank-type vacuum cleaners. These are also called canister-type
or industrial vacuum cleaners. They can be used for dry and wet pick-up or both. The waste
water is scooped up by a squeegee attachment through a nozzle and travels back into the
tank. They are used for cleaning large areas when time is a constraint. They are ideal for
cleaning lobbies, banquet halls and restaurants.

Points to consider while purchasing a vacuum cleaner:

The housekeeper needs to pose and find answers to the following questions while
purchasing a vacuum cleaner:

ü Is the suction power sufficient enough to dislodge dirt as well as remove dust
and debris?
 ü If the suction power on its own is not efficient enough, can a machine with a
rotating brush be selected instead?
ü Can the suction power be directed to where it is needed?
ü Is the machine portable enough for the staff and the layout of the building?
ü Does all the dust get trapped inside the air bag before the air passes out from
the outlet?
ü What attachments are available along with the machine?
ü How easy is it to empty the contents of the machine?
ü What is the noise level while operating the machine?

ü Is the cost of the machine within the budget?

Care and storage:

Vacuum cleaners will give maximum cleaning efficiency when they are
maintained well. Housekeeping staff need to be trained in the care and
maintenance of the machines. The wheels of the machine need to be oiled
periodically. After use, the dust bags should be checked and emptied. If the
machine is operated with the dust bags full, cleaning will not be operated,
the machine may heat up too much and the bags may get damaged. Wipe the
casing daily and check the hose and flex before use. Clean the attachment
heads after each use. Check the filter after use. If the machine is meant for
dry suction only, never use it to clear even a little amount of water, else the
dust bags will get damaged.

Incase of wet vacuums, the bucket should be washed, rinsed and dried. The
squeegee should be wiped clean and replaced whenever necessary. The hose
needs to be rinsed out, the casing and wheels wiped and the filter checked
after use. The wheels need oiling periodically.
The hoses should be stored hanging on hooks. The tubes and attachment
heads of a dry vacuum cleaner should be stored in boxes, drawers of shelves.
The hoses and attachment heads of wet vacuum cleaners should be stored
off the ground on a rack, in a well-ventilated place.

General-purpose floor machines (scrubbing and polishing

machines)

These are designed for scrubbing, buffing, burnishing, scarifying and spray maintenance.

· Scrubbing: The bristle tips of a brush or the surface of a pad abrade and cut the soiling to
remove it.

· Buffing: The bristle tips of a brush or the surface of a pad create a high-gloss finish on the floor
surface. In case of a surface on which a polish has been applied, it will involve generation of
a local heat to harden waxes and resins.
· Burnishing: The tips of a brush or the surface of a pad abrade and cut the floor surface to
create a smooth surface with a glossy finish. In case of a polished surface, it will involve the
removal of a surface layer of polish.

· Scarifying: The bristle tips or edge of a cutting tool, cut into impacted soiling and remove it by
means of a chisel-like action.

· Spray cleaning : This is similar to spray cleaning, but the term is applied to the maintenance of
floors where a buffable or semi-buffable polish has been applied and the bristle tips of a
brush or the surface of a pad remove both soiling and the surface layer of polish to leave a
smooth, glossy surface. Resins and waxes in the maintenance product form part of the
restored finish. These machines consist of one large or several small brushes that revolve
and scrub the floor. Water and detergent are released from a tank attached to the machine.
These machines can be used for shampooing carpets, polishing floors and spray
maintenance. Such general-purpose machines are preferred in many establishments as the
machine can be put to greater use due to its versatility. In some machines, coloured,
abrasive nylon pads replace the scrubbing brushes. For normal-speed machines:

v Beige pads are used for buffing;

v Green pads are used for scrubbing; and

v Black pads are used for stripping.

The lighter the colour of the pad, the lesser abrasive is the action. These machines
may come with or without the suction capacity to pick up water. If the machine is
one without a suction action, then the machine will have to be used in conjunction
with it while scrubbing. The usual attachments for these machines are brushes, drive
discs, coloured nylon pads, a water tank, a shampoo tank and a sprayer.

Care and storage of general-purpose machines:

The brushes and pads should never be left on the machine after cleaning. The
brushes should be detached after cleaning. The fluff should be removed from them
after washing. Wash, rinse and dry wet ones after use. The dry ones should be
washed occasionally, but dust should be tapped away after use regularly. The pads
should be washed, rinsed and dried thoroughly. The tanks should be emptied,
washed and dried. The wheels and casing should be wiped after use. The wheels
need oiling periodically. The flex should be checked for any fraying before each use.
Brushes and pads should be stored in a well-ventilated area, preferably on airing
racks or hooks. They should not be kept flat on the ground. The tops of the tanks
may be loosely fitted during storage.

Wet-extraction systems:

These machines are used to restore the surface appearance of carpets, upholstery
and curtains. They remove the more deeply embedded soilage not easily removed by
suction cleaning. They are also useful in the application of soil-retardant finishes on
carpets.
Types of wet-extraction systems: There are various types of wet-extraction
systems.

· Hot-water extraction machines: These are machines with no rotary action.

They carry a tank for hot water and detergent, which are used for deep
cleaning carpets. The hot water and detergent are shot into the carpet from
high-pressure spray nozzles. The dirt is thus flushed to the surface and this,
along with the soiled water is removed by suction into a container in the
machine.

· Solvent extraction machines: These machines are primarily used for cleaning
upholstery and curtains and to a lesser extent for carpets.

Carpet shampoo machines:

These machines, as indicated by the name, are designed for the deep cleaning of
carpets that are heavily soiled.

Types of carpet shampoo machines: There are 4 broad groups of these machines:

· Steam-extraction machines: Though these machines are universally called

steam extraction machines, there is in fact no generation of steam and the
cleaning agents are simply hot water and detergent. Hot water containing the
detergent is injected at a prescribed rate and subsequently extracted by a
wet vacuum system built into the machine.

· Cylindrical-brush dry-foam machines: This system has a cylindrical brush that

scrubs that scrubs and picks up in one pass, the foam generated by the
machine.
· Rotary-brush wet-shampoo machines: A rotary brush cleaner in conjunction
with a wet shampoo is employed for the cleaning of carpets here. The
machine comes with a range of accessories including vacuum and drying
equipment.

· Small rotary-brushes wet-shampoo machines: This is also a rotary brush

cleaner, but employs 2 brushes instead of 1 and is somewhat smaller than
the rotary-brush wet-shampoo machine.

Scrubber-drier-sweepers

These machines remove debris, soiling and/or water. They are suitable for large
areas where mechanical sweeping, scrubbing and drying are required.

Types of scrubber-drier-sweepers: The various types available are as follows:

· Power sweepers: These are self-propelled or manually propelled machines

designed to remove debris and loosen soiling from roads, pavements, carpets
and large areas of hard flooring.
 · Pedestrian-driven sweepers: These feature a battery or mains-operated
rotating broom that carries dirt back into a hopper. A side-broom suction unit
and filters may be included.
· Petrol or gas-driven sweepers: These have petrol or a gas-powered engine to
drive a suction unit and brush. Soiling is brushed back into the inflow and
collected in a large cloth sack situated behind the motor. These machines are
suitable for the sweeping of pavements, car parks and similar heavy-traffic
areas.
· Self-propelled sweepers: These machines may be petrol, gas or battery-
powered. The power is transferred to the drive wheels and a rotating broom,
which carries soiling away from a surface. Such machines typically contain:
v A side broom to carry debris from the floor edges into the path of the
main broom.
v A water spray or suction with the side broom to prevent rising of dust
clouds.
v A high volume suction-unit that sucks or blows air through a filter as
dust or dirt is deposited in the hopper.

v A filter shaker or air-flow reverser to prevent blockages.

High-pressure washers:

This type of equipment is designed to remove soiling by subjecting the

surface to water, steam and/or sand under pressure. Water under pressure
physically dislodges the dirt. The process can be assisted by the use of hot
water, steam or sand.

Scarifying machines:

Scarifying is the process by which heavy grease, mud, wet sawdust and thick
deposits are removed from the surface of floors. The process is employed
when simple scrubbing has been ineffective. Here dirt deposits are broken up
by the chisel-like action of a wire-brush cutting tool.

Types of scarifiers: 2 kinds are available -

· Heavy-duty scrubber polishers: These single-to-three-brush machines

can have a brush weight of 65kg or more. They are used in
conjunction with a scarifying assembly. Dislodged dirt is removed by a
second operation involving sweeping.

· Self-propelled scarifiers: These consist of a revolving tool, a hopper into

which the dirt is thrown up by the tool and suction-unit filter to
remove finer particles.

CLEANING MATERIALS
There are many materials and reagents, which help in cleaning, scrubbing and polishing
surfaces. Some of these are commercial preparations for cleaning and you may be already
familiar with some of them.

a)Water- Water is the simplest cleaning reagent available to us. Some dirt may be loosened
and dissolved in it. Although most of the time, some other cleaning agent is also used along
with it.
b) Detergents- Detergents are available in powder, solid (soap, soap flakes etc.) and liquid
form. These are used with water to clean various surfaces.
The basic ingredients in a detergent are surface active agents, known as surfactants. A
detergent may have more ingredients to make it more effective, like alkaline salts, bleaches,
foam boosters, germicides and perfumes. The exact nature and use of a detergent will actually
vary according to its ingredients.

However, there are a few points which should be kept in mind while choosing a detergent. It
should –
 be readily soluble in water
 be effective in all types of water and produce no scum
 have good wetting powers so that the solution penetrates between
the article and the dirt particles
 have good suspending powers to suspend dislocated dirt and not
allow it to settle back
 be effective over a wide range of temperatures
 be harmless to the article and the skin.
 clean quickly
 be easily rinsed away

c ) Abrasives- some of the common abrasives are sand, finely powdered brick, saw dust,
wheat bran, emery paper, fine ash, filtered chalk etc. Besides these, steel wool, nylon mesh,
coconut fibers are also used to scrub dirt. Their use depends on the surface to be cleaned and
the type of dirt to be removed. The extent of cleaning will depend upon the nature of the
abrasive used and on the scrubbing action.

d) Acids- strong acids are used to clean toilets (water closet and sinks) and are available in
crystals or liquid form. Milder forms of acids are also used to clean very dirty tiles. Acids
should be rinsed off as soon as possible after use and should be stored away from children.
Vinegar and lemon are used to clean stains on metals like brass and copper.

e) Alkalis- baking soda and ammonia are used as grease emulsifiers and stain removing
agents.

f) Bleaches- stains on fabrics are removed by bleaches such as sodium hypochlorite, sodium
perborate, hydrogen peroxide, sodium hydrosulphite etc.

g) Solvents – solvents such as methylated spirit, carbon tetrachloride, kerosene, petrol etc;
are used to remove grease, wax and other stains from the surfaces. You should keep
methylated spirit, kerosene, petrol, away from fire as they are inflammable.
Carbontetrachloride is harmful if inhaled.
h) Polishes- polishes are used on surfaces such as floors, furniture, leather and even metals.
When rubbed on a surface, they provide a protective covering to the surface and produce
shine. The article also gets cleaned in the process.
Ready-made polishes are expensive as compared to home-made ones.

Apart from these equipments and cleaning agents, there are other materials which are used in
a cleaning process, such as disinfectants, deodorants, antiseptics, etc.

Unit Task 3: Selection of Cleaning Equipment

It is the responsibility of the executive housekeeper to procure the ideal, most efficient
equipment for her staff to ensure maximum productivity.

The choice of equipment to be purchased is made after considering the following

factors:
ü Safety in operation.
ü Suitability to the type of area, surface, work, amount of obstruction and cleaning frequency.
ü Versatility to undertake various types of cleaning
ü Work performance in terms of capacity and machine and consumer reports on
performance.
ü Ease of handling in terms of size, weight and height of the machine and ease of
manoeuvring and operating.
ü Portability in terms of ease of transfer between floors and the provision of wheels and
detachable parts and consumer reports on life expectancy.
ü Noise level which is a more important consideration for hospitals than hotels.
ü Availability of spare parts, easy servicing conditions and lead time after booking of
equipment.
ü Protective design which may feature a protective edging to prevent damage to wall
furniture and fittings and no sharp edges.
ü Ease of storage in terms of ease of dismantling detachable parts and storage space required
(compactness).
ü Cost as a sum of initial costs, operating costs, maintenance and depreciation, as well as
hiring considerations as opposed to purchasing.

Evaluation questions
1. Find out and list the latest equipment and at least five cleaning materials/reagents available
in the market.
2. List the cleaning tools/ equipments and materials /reagents in your house.
3. Given below is a list of reagents. Specify their role in cleaning.
i. Lemon
ii. Jewellery rouge
iii. Sand
iv. Ammonia
v. Methylated spirit

Suggested Teaching/Learning Resources

- Text books
- Cleaning equipments and materials

9.1.05 CLEANING AND SPECIAL TREATMENT AGENTS

9.1.05 Specific Objectives
By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) define terms
b) classify cleaning agents and special treatment agents
c) state the properties of cleaning agents and special treatment agents
d) discuss choice, use and storage of cleaning agents and special treatment agents

UNIT TASKS

Unit Task 1: Definitions of terms

Cleaning agents- It is any chemical, including water, that will bring about or assist either
physically or chemically, the removal of soil from a surface.

Unit Task 2: Classification of cleaning agents and special treatment agents

Cleaning agents are classified according to the principal method by which soil or stains are
removed from a surface
The principle classes are:
 water
 detergents
 abrasives
 degreasers
 acid cleaners
 organic solvents
 other cleaning agents

Unit Task 3: Stating the properties of cleaning and special treatment agents

Water
Limitation of water as a cleaning agent
 wetting properties
 soil suspension
 emulsification of grease
 hardness

Unit Task 4: Choice, use and storage of cleaning and special treatment agents

Choice of cleaning agents

The choice of cleaning agents will depend on the following factors:
a) Type of soil
Different types of soiling will require different types of cleaning agents
b) Types of surface
No matter how effective, a cleaning agent must not damage the surface being cleaned.
Wrong choice may damage surfaces and injure the user
c) Method of cleaning
It must be established whether cleaning agents other than water will be required. The agent
selected must allow the least labour intensive method to be used.
d) Manufacturers recommendations
Although cleaning agents are frequently recommended for particular types of soiling or
surface, it must be noted that a recommendation does not necessarily make a particular agent
the most appropriate one to use.
e) Health and Safety
Always use the least harmful agent first before resolving to harsh products. If a harsh one
must be used, then thought must be given to the provision of protective clothing and training
on the use of the agent.
f) Cost
Cheap products may be a false economy because they may increase labour costs
considerably. Choose the best product for the money available.
g) Testing
Before purchasing a cleaning product, it must always be tested in a work situation. Then
select and purchase the best.

Use of cleaning agents

Once a cleaning agent has been selected for use, its effectiveness, efficiency and safety will
depend on the following:
a) Manufacturer’s instructions
Generally, these should be followed particularly with respect to dilution and safety warnings
b) Dilution
It is generally related to the amount of soiling and the method of cleaning used.
c) Protective clothing
Essentially, protective clothing must be worn when handling strong chemicals
d) Training
Staff must be trained in the correct method of use of all the cleaning agents within a building.
e) Contact time
Sufficient time must be allowed for the cleaning agent to act on soil. Many cleaning agents
will damage a surface if contact is prolonged.
f) Rinsing
Adequate rinsing is essential to remove all the soil and cleaning agents from a surface
g) Temperature
Most cleaning agents will work more effectively at a higher temperature, particularly when
removing grease, fats and oils.
h) Mixing
Cleaning agents when mixed may inactivate each other and may be hazardous. Never put
cleaning agents in dirty water.
i) Storage
Containers must be correctly and clearly labeled. When not in use, they must be kept in
locked stores.
Storage of cleaning agents
The following are the points to consider when storing cleaning agents:
a) Label all containers clearly and with water proof pens or labels
b) Indicate the dilution rate if necessary
c) Ensure the tops/covers are secure and containers are kept clean
d) Store all the containers neatly to avoid damage and spillage
e) Keep aerosol containers away from hot pipes and radiators
f) Ensure that shelves are strong to bear the weight of the cleaning agents
g) Keep the store locked when not in use
h) Keep the store well ventilated
i) Do not store heavy items very high on the shelves
j) Clean the store regularly
k) Use funnels for dispensing and pre-diluting
l) Rotate stock
m) Keep bin cards up to date
n) Check stock regularly

Assessment Questions
1.

Suggested/Learning Resources
1. Housekeeping Supervision, Jane Fellows 1984, Pitman
Publishing Ltd
2.

- Laundry agent
- Storage areas
- Manufacturer’s manuals

Evaluation questions

9.1.06 CLEANING

Theory

9.1.06T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) define terms
b) state the reasons for cleaning
c) state the types of soiling
d) explain different cleaning methods
e) explain factors that determine the frequency of cleaning a given area
f) classify and use of cleaning schedules
g) outline steps in work organisation
h) discuss types of cleaning systems
UNIT TASKS
Unit Task 1: Definition of terms

Cleaning
Cleaning is a process of removing dust, dirt or any other undesirable materials like stains,
spots, contents of an ashtray, etc.

Dust collectively refers to the loose particles, which are very easily moved by air and settle
on any surface. It is easily removed with the help of a dry cloth.

Dirt refers to dust which sticks to any surface with the help of moisture or grease.
It is more difficult to remove dirt as compared to dust. Dirt has to be removed either with a
detergent or any other cleaning agent.

Unit Task 2: Reasons for Cleaning

Cleaning will be required for five reasons:
1. Prevention of the spread of infection and disease. When maintaining a clean
environment prevention of the spread of the disease- causing bacterial and their
removal can be of paramount importance. Cleaning is the most important method of
achieving this.
2. Dust Control. In some situation dust control is of paramount importance. In
industries manufacturing hazardous materials or when hazardous dust and fumes are a
by- product of the process involved, levels of dust within the atmosphere must meet
specific levels In other industry, e.g. pharmaceuticals and electronics, dust may
interfere with the manufacturing process.
3. Preservation of the fabrics, fixtures, fittings and furnishings. Accumulation of
dust, grease and other types of soil will lead to a progressive deterioration of a
building and its furnishing. When cleaning is neglected, this process of deterioration
will accelerate and when eventually carried out may require drastic methods which
will cause further damage.
4. Provision of a socially acceptable environment. A clean and attractive environment
is essential to live and work in. guests are unlikely to return to a poorly maintained
and cleaned hotel. People using a building are more likely to respect one that is clean
and well maintained. Employees are also likely to be happy and productive.
5. Safety. Standards of cleaning and maintenance must be at least sufficient to meet the
requirements of the Health and Safety at Work Act 1974

Unit Task 3: Types of Soiling

Soil in a room or building may arise from four sources:

i. Carried into a room by the air
ii. Carried in on feet and peoples clothes
iii. Carried in on equipment
iv. Caused by activities or operations carried out in a building or by persons in it.

Types of soil
 Fumes and odours
 Caused by gases or particles which may enter a building through windows and doors,
or may arise within the building. They include fine soot and corrosive acid gases, or
odours caused by the presence of activities of other people.
 Dust
This enters a building through doors, windows, on clothes and footwear. Dust is one
of the most important agencies for the transfer of bacteria
 Grit
These are large particles which will enter a building on footwear or clothing and may
arise within a building as a result of manufacturing operation and deterioration of
building fabrics
 Litter
It includes any large debris e.g. cartons, papers and cigarette ends.
 Tarnishing
Silver will react with sulphites in the air to produce a dark discoloration of silver
sulphide. Copper reacts in moist atmosphere with oxygen to produce a green
discoloration.
 Stains and chemical soilage
These arise as a result of spillages, accidents, or vandalism, including localized
staining of floors, upholstery and carpets, urine and excreta.

Unit Task 4: Cleaning methods and procedures

The methods of cleaning and maintenance employed will depend on:

a) the type of surface (wall, ceiling, windows or door)
b) The nature of the surface (smooth, textured, porous, nonporous or abrasion
resistant) and the type of soil
c) The frequency will depend on the standards of frequency required

METHODS OF CLEANING

a) Dusting
When any surface is wiped with a piece of dry cloth, (duster), it
carries the loose dust with it and the process is known as dusting.

i) Low dusting
This is the removal of loose soil from surfaces within a stretched arm’s length of the worker,
e.g. furniture, doors and floors
Dust should be collected in a well folded dust control cloth or mop and should not be shaken.
Shaking and Beating
When you shake or beat any soft material, like a carpet/rug or a curtain, the dust falls out,
making the article dust free to a large extent. This is mostly done in open air so that other
things do not get dusty.

ii) High dusting

This is the removal of loose soil from ceilings, ledges, pipes and fittings beyond stretched
arm length.
Dry dust control mops, long brooms fitted with special soft headed bristles may be used.

iii) Damp dusting

This is the removal of dust from surfaces using a cloth wrung from plain water or water with
very little detergent, which does not necessitate rinsing. It is a quick process which follows
dry dusting in daily cleaning.

b) Sweeping
When a broom or a brush is used to carry the dust laterally along the
room, the process is known as sweeping. While sweeping any vertical surface as walls, you
should remember to start from the top and sweep downwards.
Similarly for lateral sweeping as for floors, start from one end of the room and move to
another, preferably a door, and carry the dust all along or collect in a dust pan. All the
movable articles kept on the floor should be lifted, swept under, and kept back in place.

c) Mopping
Mopping is mostly done on floors. Extra attention should be paid to nooks and corners
otherwise it gets tougher to remove fixed grime later on.
i) Dry mopping
This method is used on hard floors, for example cement, terrazzo, etc.
After wet cleaning, a soft mop can be used to give the floor a shine.

ii) Damp mopping

This is the removal of light soil with a well wrung mop. The mop should be rinsed
after every section cleaned.

iii) Wet mopping

This is the removal of moderately light to heavy solid from the floor with a wet
mop or floor cloth and a detergent.

d) Scrubbing/Scarifying
Scrubbing is the removal of impacted soil or surface layers of polish and abrasion
using a scrubbing brush or an abrasive pad and the action of a cleaning agent.
e) Stripping/Burnishing
This is essentially the same as deep scrubbing, but involves the complete removal
of polish from a floor. A hard abrasive pad or steel brush is used.

f) Polishing/Buffing
When some reagent is rubbed on a surface to bring out the shine, the process is
known as polishing and the reagent applied is known as the ‘polish’.
Similarly, many other articles/ decorative items made of brass, wood, marble etc, may
be polished.
h) suction cleaning;
This is the removal of loose soil from surfaces by use of a vacuum cleaner.different
attachments will be required for different surfaces.
i) Shampooing;
This is the removal of soil in a wet form from carpets and upholstery.

Cleaning Procedures
Dusting:
Using a dry, lint cloth or static mitten, systematically dust vertical surfaces from top to
bottom; and horizontal surfaces with straight,
overlapping strokes.
Re-fold duster as necessary to ensure that dust is not redeposited on cleaned surfaces.
Draw dust out of corners and away from the edges of horizontal surfaces.
Do not flick or shake out cloth.
Replace cloth as necessary.

Damp wiping:
Prepare cleaning solution according to manufacturer’s instructions. Using a damp cloth
wrung almost dry, wipe surface using smooth
strokes.
As necessary, rinse cloth in clean water, recharge with cleaning solution and wring out until
almost dry.

Polishing:
Apply polish sparingly to a surface previously cleaned and allowed to dry.
Take care to avoid applying polish to adjacent surfaces.
When polishing small items, or items over a hard floor, spray the polish on to a cloth rather
than directly on to the item.
Do not spray an aerosol polish containing silicone onto furniture on a hard floor, as some
polish may fall on to the floor causing slippery conditions.
When dry, buff to a high sheen.

Unit Task 5: Factors that determine frequency of cleaning

 Traffic
Cleaning when traffic is lightest will have a number of benefits;
a) Dust will settle and be removed more effectively
b) There will be fewer interruptions so cleaning an be completed more quickly
c) It will be more methodical allowing operatives to progress from one area to the rest
 Occupancy
It is easier to clean an empty building. Work should be carried out when the building
has been vacated, or between one period of use and another
 Other Services
Where operatives are required to provide other services at a set time, cleaning must be
scheduled around those times.

Unit Task 6: Cleaning schedules

The important question is how to do cleaning? You must have observed the cleaning process
at your own house. Do you clean your rooms completely by removing all the furniture etc,
every day? No, because that would require a lot of time and labour which can not be devoted
everyday.

Then how to do the cleaning? For this, it is important to follow a certain schedule of cleaning.
Everyday, a general cleaning of the open surfaces like floors, furniture and other such
surfaces is required. Once in a while some more time is given to cleaning and
you probably move heavy furniture and clean beneath it or beneath the carpets. Maybe once
in six months or a year you empty the room completely and give it a complete wash, polish
the floors, whitewash the walls, ceiling etc.

Thus we can basically divide cleaning into three types of schedules:

a) Daily clean
b) A weekly clean
c) A spring clean

A daily cleaning would be a general cleaning done every day; a weekly cleaning would be a
more thorough cleaning done periodically, depending on the frequency of use. In a guest
house, hotel, or a hospital, it may be done once a week or even earlier. Spring cleaning is
usually done once a year or when particularly needed. It may be earlier in the case of a
hospital.

A. General Procedure for Daily Cleaning

1. Once you enter the room, open all windows in order to let the fresh air come in.
2. Remove all unwanted articles like tea cups etc., and empty ash trays and dust bins.
3. Sweep the floor.
4. Dust all surfaces including furniture and fixtures.
5. Brush or vacuum clean the carpet.
6. Mop the whole area.
7. Replace linen wherever required, like in a bedroom, make the bed, in a restaurant cover the
tables, in bathrooms, check for towels, soaps etc.
8. In the end, adjust windows, do a general survey to see that everything is in order and to
your satisfaction.

B. General Procedure for Weekly Cleaning

Special cleaning is more thorough than daily cleaning.
1. Start in the same way as in a daily clean – that is, first open all the windows for fresh air.
2. Remove all unwanted articles like trays, teacups, bottles etc. Empty the ash tray and dust
bins.
3. Remove all dirty linen.
4. Remove stains from walls, doors, windows and furniture.
5. Check and clean thoroughly, all the drawers, furniture, fittings, all hangings or pictures,
lights, etc.
6. Wipe, dust or polish table lamps, accessories, telephone, if needed.
7. Vacuum clean the carpets and other upholstery. If vacuum cleaner is not available, use a
brush.
8. Sweep, dust and mop the surfaces.
9. Replace linen with clean linen
10. Survey the room for any discrepancy and adjust windows as desired.
20 Cleaning and Cleaning Materials

C. General Procedure for Spring Cleaning

Spring cleaning is done after long intervals, the frequency being as less as once a year. Thus,
it may also be called annual cleaning. It is the most thorough cleaning of a room.
1. Ventilate the room.
2. Take off all linen, including curtains and remove them from the room.
3. Remove all the movable articles including lamp shades, pictures, wall hangings etc., wipe
and clean everything.
4. If necessary, remove all furniture and furnishings from the room. At least remove soft
furnishings like carpets. Clean the cobwebs.
5. Sweep the floors.
6. If any maintenance work is required, this is the right time to do it.
7. Polish the furniture, decorative articles and floors.
8. Clean carpets thoroughly in the sun or send for dry cleaning.
9. Replace everything at the predetermined place, including all furniture and fixtures.
10. If desired, rearrange the heavy furniture to give a new look.
11. Dust and mop.
12. Adjust windows, survey the room to satisfaction.

Unit Task 7: Steps in Work Organization

Unit Task 8: Types of Cleaning Systems

There are Three types of cleaning systems:

1. Unit Cleaning
This is a type of cleaning system where work is done in a given sequence. Work is carried out
in one area and after completing, one moves to another area.

Advantages
a) Increased security as you do not have to move items from one area to another.
b) Training is simplified as work is carried out systematically
c) There is better organization as one follows a sequence
d) There is more job satisfaction in this method

Disadvantages
a) The work may be monotonous because it is repetitive in the different rooms
b) There is a lot of activity in one room for a period of time, thus disrupting the occupant
c) There is need for more equipment
d) There is the possibility of incomplete work

2. Block cleaning
It is where one particular job is done in one area and then the worker carries out the same
activity in another area, e.g. window cleaning from room to room.

Advantages
a) Less equipment is required for use
b) It is cheaper to operate

Disadvantages
a) Security is weakened
b) There is more disturbance to the guest
c) It is monotonous to the staff
d) Cleaning may not be done to the required standards
3. Team Cleaning
This is where a cleaning is done by a number of people who work in one area but performing
different tasks

Advantages
a) It is time and energy saving
b) It is not monotonous
c) Cleaning standards can be maintained

Disadvantages
a) The staff may not work well together
b) It is inconvenient to the staff due to lack of equipment
c) Carrying out a properly designed schedule of work may be difficult

Suggested Teaching/Learning Resources

- Text books
- Internet

Evaluation questions
- Assignments
- Reports
- Tests

9.1.07 CLEANING OF SURFACE FINISHES USED IN BUILDINGS

Theory

9.1.07 Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) Identify and describe different types of surface finishes
b) discuss the use, care and maintenance of surface finishes
c) identify different types of stains
d) explain and demonstrate stain removal process from a surface finish

UNIT TASKS
Unit Task 1: Identifying types of surface finishes

Interior Wall Finishes

Following are some questions that may help to get you started:

 What type of interior wall finish does the room have?

 What is it that you like about the color?

  How does the room make you feel?

 Does the room invite you to come in, or does it push you away?

 What type of material does the wall surface have? Is it smooth or textured, real or
faux?

Choices to consider for your interior wall finish

Brick or Stone-Solid or veneers, both make a beautiful interior wall finish, but will need to
be installed properly to last. Check with the manufacturer for proper installation and
structural reinforcement requirements. Once it's up, you won't need to apply a wall finish-
you're done.

Paint-is available in all types of colors and it even comes textured. There two basic types of
paints for your interior wall finish: oil based and water based.

Water based paint is usually less toxic and cleans up much easier. You can choose between
flat, eggshell, satin, semi-gloss and gloss finishes. The glossier finishes wash and wear better
than a flat paint, but you will end up with a shinier wall. The eggshell finish has almost no
sheen and washes much better than a flat paint.

Oil based paint, especially on trim, will usually wear longer and wash better than water
based paints.

Color-speaks volumes about a room. Where specific colors can make you feel calm,
energetic, or nervous. The perfect colors and tones for your home should be researched
wisely in order for your rooms to reflect the feelings you want them to.

Faûx Finish-a French term meaning a false finish. This finish can be made to look like
brick, stone, marble, granite, wood grain, leather, crackled paint, rusted iron, or verdigris and
much more.

Texturing Compound-is manufactured by many different companies. However, there are

specific types for different applications. If you are going to add texture to your walls, then
you need to make sure that it is compatible with the surface material you are applying it to.

Wall texturing is fun and the interior wall finish results can be quite astonishing. There are
endless design patterns that can be created. In addition, you can add other materials such as:
color tinting, glazes, and objects to the compound to make your walls truly unique.

There is a great non-toxic plaster product that utilizes natural clays, aggregates and
pigmentations that can be used in a number of different design styles. Whether you are
wanting to add that Tuscan, French Country, Southwest, or other, this clay plaster is versatile
in any décor.

Straw Thrown Plaster-is very popular in French Country walls. All you do is trowel on wet
plaster to your walls and literally throw a hand full of straw onto the wet plaster. Lightly
tamper the straw so that it embeds into the plaster with a clean trowel. Once it's dried apply
either one or two coats of an aged yellow tinted glaze to age and seal the wall at the same
time.

Sand, Pebbles, Glass, Artifacts-to give an artistic quality to your interior wall finish. Get
creative and be artistic! One of a kind walls can be created by just using your imagination.
But, before you attempt it-take a piece of scrap gypsum board and practice, practice, practice
to come up with the look that is uniquely yours.

Pigment-If you are looking for a true Old World textured wall, an easy way to achieve it is to
add pigmentation to your compound. Once it's put on the wall with a trowel and let dry, either
a glaze, or a wax is used to seal and age the wall.

Tile-comes in either porcelain, ceramic, terra-cotta, metals, glass, and natural stones, marble,
or granite. There is just about as wide of price range for tiles as there is different designs
available on the market. If you can't find what you are looking for you can have your own
designs custom made, or even make them yourself via a ceramic or pottery shop.

Wood-composed of either solid wood, plywood or veneers. It can be purchased in board

dimensions, flat or raised panels, shingles, or in large sheets. It is "WISE" to remember that if
you are wanting to install any type of wood product over a combustible wall system that an
approved fire stop is used between the wall structure and the wood surface for additional fire
protection.

Wall paper
Types
Vinyl coated paper —- As its name indicates, this wallpaper has been treated with acrylic
vinyl or polyvinyl chloride. These wallpapers are easy to clean and unaffected by long-term
exposure to humidity or grease. Vinyl coated wallpaper is especially recommended for
bathroom, kitchen and even basement walls for specifically this reason. This type of
wallpaper is scrubbable and strippable.

Coated fabric —- This type of wallpaper has an underlying layer of fabric also coated with a
liquid form of vinyl. This is not a good candidate for humid rooms such as bathrooms or
walls that will be exposed to grease, such as those in a kitchen. Coated fabric wallpaper
works best in low-humidity areas.

Paper backed vinyl or solid sheet vinyl —- This type of wallpaper has a layer of paper or pulp
backed to a decorative vinyl surface. Because of its vinyl surface, this is another good
candidate for high humidity areas. In fact, this type of wallpaper is good for almost any
climate. It's also easy to clean, scrubbable and peels off easily from the wall when it's time for
removal.

Fabric backed vinyl —- This wallpaper consists of a layer of fabric laminated to a layer of
solid vinyl. There are two types of wallpaper included in this category. Solid vinyl is simply a
layer of paper or fabric laminated to vinyl film. Since the applied vinyl is solid and not liquid,
it is considered more durable than most other wallpapers. If you're looking for wallpaper that
cleans easily and lasts for a long time, this type of wallpaper is for you. Paper wallpaper
consists of a layer of decorative paper that doesn't necessarily have a protective layer
laminated to it. Before purchasing this type of wallpaper, check the manufacturer's
instructions to be sure it works best for your situation.
FLOORING
There are so many choices in the floor covering industry that choosing the right floor
covering for your home may be a challenge. By looking at all the choices available and
weighing the pros and cons of each product, you should be able to pick a covering that works
best for each room in your home. Keep in mind that each room in your homes serves a
different function, so your floor covering should compliment each room’s function and
style.

The first decision you will need to make is whether you want to have your room done in a
soft surface such as carpeting or a hard surface such as hardwood, laminate or ceramic. Then
you will need to consider these factors - durability, longevity, cleaning ability and moisture
resistance.

Here are a list of today’s most popular surfaces:

Carpeting
Carpet comes in a wide variety of styles and constructions to fit almost any decor from
formal to casual, ranging from berbers, saxonies, textures, friezes and patterned cut/uncut
styles.

Berbers are made-up of a loop pile construction that are available with a pattern or without,
and patterns can range from small graphic designs such as diamonds or squares to larger,
more intricate patterns that resemble floral motifs.

Cut pile style carpets range from velvety saxonies, which are very formal and elegant, to
more popular textured styles, which are more casual in appearance. A characteristic of a
saxony is that it shows a natural shading of light and dark streaks - the kind made by
footprints and vacuum cleaners. Some people are fond of this natural shading, because it adds
a rich lushness to the overall appearance. There are a lot of casual styles on the market which
minimize these characteristics if you are not fond of seeing these marks.

One is a textured cut pile, which at first glance has a two-tone appearance to the yarns, but
what you are actually seeing is the reflection and absorption of light on the tips of the yarns.
The results is you see less tracking and vacuum marks. For even less shading, you might want
to check out a frieze style of carpeting. Frieze means "coarse, shaggy, woolen," and is
characterized by tall, thin yarns that are curled. It has a very casual, textured look, which
minimizes the tracking marks. This is a great texture for high traffic rooms, because it is very
durable and full of twists (the term used for what makes a carpet resilient). As for style, frieze
range from solid colors to jewel tone multi-colors, as well as "cut berbers," which are
generally offered in off whites with earth-toned flecks.

Fibre Facts
Before you make your final decision, you will need to understand some fiber facts. The most
widely used fiber is nylon because of its durability and resilience. The drawback to fiber is
that it can fade if exposed to direct sunlight and it is not naturally stain resistant. Most nylons
are treated with a topical stain to help resist stains, but overtime it will wear off. Brand name
fibers such as Anso, Wear-Dated and Dupont have a line of carpets that have added soil
protection.
Olefin is very stain and fade resistant and a good choice if you have children or pets. The
disadvantage to this yarn is that it is not a very resilient fiber and will pack down quicker. For
longer durability, pick one with a loop construction.

Polyester has a built in, permanent stain and fade resistance. It comes in variety of colors and
has a soft feel. However, the drawbacks are it is not very resilient and it is the most oil
absorbent fiber, which means it is difficult to clean. If you opt for polyester make sure it is
been treated with Scotchguard or a similar treatment for soil protection - otherwise plan on
having your carpet cleaned regularly.

The top fiber is wool because it is the most resilient (not to mention soft to the touch and
luxurious) and the only fiber that ages well. Because wool naturally has low absorption, spills
generally stay on the top - making cleanup a breeze.

The cost of carpet averages around $18 a square yard, but varies depending on the
manufacturer and construction.

Hard Surfaces

There are endless possibilities when it comes to hardwood, ceramic, laminate and vinyl.
Since they are generally considered permanent floor coverings – you will want to consider
durability, maintenance and noise levels.

Hardwood Floors
If you want to give your home the look of natural beauty than wood is definitely something
you should consider. With its many species and variety in color and grain, you should easily
find a wood that fits your decor. Feeling exotic - then check out the wide range of exotic
woods like Brazilian walnut and eucalyptus, Australian cypress or bamboo from China. Then
there are the species native to North America like maple, red and white oak, cherry, birch,
beech, ash and pecan. If you are looking to create a one-of-a-kind floor (and you have the
time), you can find reclaimed hardwood flooring from historic warehouses and barns in
species that are no longer available like heart pine, yellow pine and chestnut.

Generally all of these solid wood floors can be purchased unfinished or pre-finished and are
3/4 inch thick. Thanks to newer finishing technology (using aluminum oxide) pre-finished
hardwood floors are actually more durable and retain its natural beauty better than the sand-
and-finish variety. It will be hard to find an installer that will be able to apply a better finish
on-site than what a manufacturer can put on your pre-finished hardwood floor.

If you really want the look of solid wood, but not the weighty price tag, you should look into
engineered wood floors, which consists of two or more layers and a top layer (called the wear
layer) which is 1/8 inch thick and generally made of oak, maple or cherry, but can be stained
to match your decor.

Other economical alternatives are wood laminates which are plywood based with a layer of
veneer on top. Keep in mind that these floor are not nearly as thick as the real thing and can
only be sanded and refinished several times - after that you will need to have it replaced. It is
no wonder manufacturers only warranty the finish for five years. It is hard to beat the look of
wood, but it does have its drawbacks - it requires periodic refinishing, it can be scratched and
gouged and it does not resist water well. These floors tend to be noisy, so you might want to
consider using area rugs to muff some of the sound.

Finishing Your Floor

After you chosen your wood species, now it is time to finish it off. There is no limit to the
unique looks you can create using stains, glazes, paints and finishes. You can get really
creative by having your floor faux painted, distressed or stenciled. Be sure no matter what
finish you choose that it is well protected by a sealer and multiple coats of polyurethane -
how much shine is up to you.

Laminated Floors
The surface of a laminate floor is actually a plastic composition that is applied to the core
using heat and pressure. The core is usually made of high-density fiber or particleboard, and
the backing can be paper, or another layer of laminate. Laminate flooring comes in a variety
of styles that try to mimic the natural look of wood, stone, and tile. Some types are glued
together, while others have a mechanical locking system where you just snap the pieces
together. The wear layer is made of zinc oxide, which makes it almost impervious to
scratches and very durable, making them an ideal choice for high traffic areas. Picture this: If
you look closely at the pattern you’ll notice each pattern is identical – that’s because it’s
actually a picture of the real thing. You cannot sand or refinish these floors so when they
wear out (ten years or so) you need to replace them.

Ceramic Tile
Ceramic tile is a natural product made of clay, minerals and water that are designed and
formed into a multitude of shapes, sizes, colors and textures. They are very durable and easy
to clean, but beware the grout lines and scratching.
Most ceramic floor tiles have either a glazed, or unglazed surface.
The glazed tiles have a special ceramic coating that is applied to the body of the tile and then
fired under tremendous heat so that the glazing becomes hard and non-porous. The benefits
of glazing is that it creates a floor that is resistant to stains, scratches, slippage and fire.
An unglazed tile is simply one that retains the same color on its face as it does its back. The
most popular unglazed tiles are red quarry tiles or porcelain. The benefits of not glazing is
that dirt and other effects of daily living do not show up as vibrantly as they do on a glazed
tile.

Terrazzo is a mixture of marble and cement mixed together; two parts marble to one part
cement. When it is installed, marble chips are sprinkled on the surface so that a majority of
the surface is marble. Terrazzo was most popular during the 50's and 70's but is making its
come back over the past few years.

Vinyl
Vinyl is a very versatile choice for floor covering and is most commonly used in kitchens,
bath and laundry rooms. It comes in rolled sheets or one-foot-square tiles and is available as
an inlaid vinyl (pattern and color throughout the entire material) or rotogravure vinyl (knobby
texture with colors and patterns printed only on the finished surface). There are many designs
and patterns to choose from in each category, but they all have the same drawback - they can
dent, tear or become unglued.

Floor Trends

The trend in flooring these days is high performance - floors that can handle vigorous day-to-
day traffic and still look beautiful. Topping the durability list are concrete, cork, bamboo and
a limestone and vinyl composite. Concrete slab floors (usually used in basements and
garages) are finding their way into other rooms of the house. Not only are they durable, but
they come in an array of new colors. Limestone and vinyl composite is available in about 30
different colors and patterns. It has a lifetime wear and stain guarantee.

Another hot trend is cork tiles with a hi-tech finish that comes directly off of the tree bark
after the wine industry has harvested its grapes. Cork is installed piece by piece over an
adhesive and is said to last forever. The drawback to this soft, quiet and inexpensive covering
is that there is limited color and style choices and unless properly treated is susceptible to
water damage.

Bamboo is a new flooring option just beginning to grow in popularity because it is a nice
alternative to hardwood floors. Besides its aesthetic value, bamboo is very strong and stable,
even more so than many hardwoods because they will not swell or shrink.

Unit Task 2: Use, care and maintenance of different surface finishes

Floors

1. Cleaning of linoleum surfaces

Low degree of contamination and/or loose-lying dirt

• Remove by vacuum cleaning/ brushing and/or by moist mopping
Heavy, strongly sticking contamination
• Smaller areas: Spray until moist and collect loosened dirt with cleaning cloths
• Larger areas: use the twin-bucket mopping method or a suitable scouring vacuum cleaning
machine Scuff marks, heel marks
• First treat affected floor covering areas with spray cleaner
• Then machine polish

2. Cleaning Thermoplastic floors

They should be swept rather than vacuumed, as the end of some vacuums can scratch the
surface. Use undiluted cleaner to remove scuff marks. Do not use solvent products on this
surface. Wash with water and liquid floor cleaner and treat with water-emulsion wax.

3. Cleaning Ceramic Tile floors

Tile floors are both practical and beautiful. Here's how to care for and clean ceramic and
porcelain tile.
Dry Surface Tile Floor Cleaning
Sweep your floors frequently to remove loose dirt and dust. If possible, keep a pair of shoes
for house use only. Small stones and debris brought indoors on the bottoms of shoes can
scratch tile floors.

Spot Cleaning Floors

Clean spills immediately. Although most tiles are glazed and stain-resistant, the grouts are
porous.
Dry small drops and splashes since even clean water can leave dull marks.
To spot clean water marks and smears, wipe with a damp cloth and dry.
Keep a scraper handy to gently remove crayon marks, grease smudges and food droppings
that adhere to the tile. Always be careful to avoid scratching the tile.

Mopping Tile Floors

Many floor cleaners and bleach can leave a film on your tile floor’s surface. This may be
apparent when you view the floor from certain angles or under certain lighting conditions.
To avoid this dull residue, use only warm water when mopping and dry the floor afterwards.
If you do insist on using a cleaner, select a product which doesn’t require rinsing, and add
only a tiny amount to your bucket of water.

Tougher Stains
Sometimes stains or marks are resistant to mopping. A residue is especially common after a
new tile floor has been installed. Spot cleaning with a mild acid solution, followed by a
prompt and thorough rinsing, helps remove such residue and other stains.
Acid solutions can eat away grout, so rinse well. Remember to keep the room ventilated.
For floor grout stains, use a toothbrush to target the problem area. Use a mild acid solution
and rinse immediately. Resistant stains might require replacement of a small section of
grout.

Other Tile Care Tips

Ceramic and porcelain tile can chip. Be careful when moving furniture and handling heavy
objects.
A sealer applied to tile grout will help protect from stains and preserve color.
Keep a small squeegee in the bathroom to wipe excess water from tile walls after showers.
This helps prevent water marks and soap scum buildup.

4. Cleaning Marble
Marble Tile Floor Cleaning
If your polished marble is protected with floor finishing sealant, the finish should be buffed
or burnished in and reapplied periodically to keep the surface optimally protected and looking
good.
Because marble is so sensitive and very porous, only clean it with a neutral pH cleaning
solution. Wipe it dry to remove water spots.
Revive your scratched and dull marble surfaces with a neutral pH marble restorer.

How Should I Clean Marble?

Marble is very delicate and it does require maintenance to look its best.
Marble is a very soft stone and it is much softer than granite. It is also highly porous, so it is
very easily etched by acids. (vinegar, tomato juice, orange juice, etc) It's also prone to
develop water stains or spots, such as marks left by drinking glasses, or water spots after
mopping.
 Clean your marble stone surface with a soft cloth or mop using pH neutral cleaning
solution.
 Always wipe off any spills immediately as they happen.
 Never, ever clean this floor with vinegar, as you will destroy the finish.
 For stains, always seek professional help. Marble specific cleaning products are
available for removing stains.

5. Terrazzo Floor Cleaning Tips

To be able to clean the terrazzo floor you have to understand what it is made of. The marble
part of its surface is almost non-absorbent; however the cement binder is very porous and
absorbs stains easily. This is the part of the flooring which will cause you the most grief. In
older floors this seems to be the biggest problem; however if you are having a new terrazzo
floor installed, the last step of installation is to apply a penetrating sealant approved for
terrazzo. This sealant will be absorbed by the concrete pores, greatly reducing the absorption
quality of the concrete.

If you have an existing terrazzo floor that is stained, you will have to use several steps to
restore it.
 First you will want to remove the existing build-up with a plastic scraper (do not use
metal scrapers)
 Apply your floor cleaner over the surface with a mop. For stubborn yellow stains, use
a soft-bristled scrub brush.
 You will need to rinse the floor with a mop and water, rinsing the mop often. Be sure
to rinse well so that the floor can be sealed.
 Once your floor is rinsed, then dry, apply an approved sealant with a roll paint brush.
Allow plenty of time to dry.

If you have new terrazzo being installed, most of the work is done for you. With today's
products, the sealants will provide a beautiful and long lasting look for your floors. Terrazzo
is easy to clean as long as the installation process was performed according to the installation
instructions.

 It is important to keep sand and debris off the floor. Sweep the floor often as this
debris acts as an abrasive and can damage the floor.
 Use a cleaner designed or approved for a terrazzo floor.
 Wet mop the floor allowing the cleaner to remain on the floor for several minutes.
  For the best results, rinse the cleaner off the floor thoroughly. You may need to
change your rinse water a few times.
 Once the cleaner has been removed towel dry the floor to prevent water streak marks
from appearing and to restore the floors natural shine.
 Do not use any types of wax on your terrazzo floor.

As with any hard flooring you can use carpet mats to trap dirt from coming into your home
onto your clean terrazzo floor. You may also want to place carpet rugs in high traffic areas
and high use areas such as your kitchen. With daily sweeping, and weekly mopping, your
terrazzo floor will look as new as the day it was installed.

6. Cleaning Wood Floors

The very best thing for any wood floor is to always vacuum and dust mop it regularly. This
will prevent dirt from building up and scratching and allowing the dirt to settle and damage
the floor.
Never soak the floor with your cleaning solution. Always use the least amount of water to
remove the grime.
We usually use a vinegar and water solution by mixing 1 cup of plain white vinegar to 1
gallon of warm water to make a mild deodorizing cleaning solution that does not need rinsed
and leaves no streaks or residue.
1. Work on one small area at a time
2. Dip a cotton cleaning cloth or mop into the mixture and squeeze out most of the
liquid.
3. Wipe or mop the floor without spreading the liquid and getting it soaking wet.
4. Immediately dry with another cloth or towel bring out the shine and luster.
5. Do not allow your wood floors to get too wet and by wiping it dry you will not have
any water spots.
If you have Swedish finished wood floors, the finish will come off with time and wear. Do
not wax these floors, do not use wood polish. Call a specialty company and have the floor
surface refinished.

Waxing Hard Wood Floors

By hard wood, we mean older wood floors that have not been finished with an epoxy type
resin (called swedish finish wood) These floors are found in older buildings and though
incredibly beautify if properly maintained require a different type of cleaning than the newer
epoxy coated wood.
If your vacuum or dust mop does not restore the shine and luster to your wood floor, (again
not Swedish finish) try buffing the floor to restore the shine rather than applying more wax.
Buffing should always be tried first as it will often restore a nice shine and luster without
adding another layer of waxy build-up.
If buffing does not work, you will need to first apply a specific wood floor cleaner such as
murphy oil soap cleaner or other hardwood floor cleaner and a liquid wax that is made
specifically for wood floors. After the wax is applied, let it dry, and then buff it again.

Walls
1. Painted walls
They may be vertical surfaces, but your walls get dirty, too. When you get the notion, get
your wall cleaning in motion.

Things You'll Need:

 Dry-sponges
 Liquid Dish Soap
 Soft-bristled Brush
 Sponges
 Terry Cloth Towels
 Old Newspapers
 2 Buckets
 Ladders
 Sponges
 Terry cloth towels

1.Protect your floors with newspapers or towels.

2.Brush cobwebs and dust from the wall with a soft-bristled brush.
3.Remove any remaining dirt with a dry-sponge - a rubber sponge available at most
hardware stores. Rub the dry-sponge along the wall to lift dirt from it.
4.Fill a bucket about three-quarters full with warm water.
5.Add a small amount of dish soap - about as much as it takes to clean a sink full of dishes -
to the bucket. This will be the cleaning bucket.
6.Place a second, empty bucket near the cleaning bucket. (You'll use this when you wring
out the cleaning sponge.)
7.Dip a small portion of the flat face of a sponge into the cleaning bucket until it is damp.
8.Spread the cleaning solution on the wall with the sponge, beginning at the top and
working toward the bottom. Use a ladder to reach the high spots on the wall.
9.Squeeze - but do not wring out - the sponge over the empty bucket after wetting the entire
surface of the wall.
10. Blot the surface of the wall you've just cleaned to lift any further dirt from its surface.
11. Repeat this process until you have covered the wall.
12. Dry the wall using a terry cloth towel.

2. Use, care and maintenance of wall paper

Some wallpaper simply cannot be washed, especially that found in an older house that’s
been on the walls for many years. The key is in the surface material. If your wallpaper is
simply plain, old fashioned paper, it can’t be cleaned with water. If you are unsure, test your
wallpaper in an inconspicuous place, like behind furniture or in a dark corner.

 Wipe the paper with a fairly damp cloth; if the color or appearance doesn’t change, it
can probably be washed carefully with water. Hardware stores carry helpful materials
for cleaning older or paper wallpaper. One is a dry sponge that can be wiped along the
surface in long, gentle strokes.
 Another option is to buy a commercial wallpaper cleaning product. This material is
like play dough, and it doesn’t involve water. There are clear manufacturer’s
directions on how to use it, but always test an area first in an inconspicuous location.
Nowadays, wallpaper is made for easy clean up. Many newer wallpaper materials include
vinyl or plastic, which are much easier to clean, but still delicate, so be careful. You won’t
want to simply start scrubbing, as you would on a painted wall.

To clean vinyl wallpaper, first vacuum the walls and remove any cobwebs, insects, or
anything else that doesn’t belong. You’ll need a soft towel, two sponges, and two buckets:
one with warm water and a bit of dish washing detergent, and the second with cool water for
rinsing.

Simply wipe the walls with the sponge dampened with the detergent mixture. It shouldn’t be
sopping or dripping; even though vinyl wallpaper can be cleaned with water, it’s still paper
underneath and can be damaged with too much water. Scrub gently, if necessary, but wiping
will usually be enough.

After cleaning with the detergent solution, follow up immediately by rinsing it with a damp
sponge of cool water. Then pat dry with a clean, soft cloth. This process must be done
quickly or the detergent solution will dry on the walls or the water will sit there too long. If
the wallpaper is extremely dirty and requires a second cleaning, wait until it is completely dry
after the first washing, and then begin again.

Never use abrasive pads or powdered cleansers, even on vinyl surfaced wallpaper. These will
certainly clean the walls, but will often leave a dull mark or take of color, making the area
look worse and eliminating any chance of removing the spot. Remember, an ounce of
prevention is worth a pound of cure. Keep pets clean and remind children to wash their hands
often and keep their hands off the walls. But when your wallpaper does get dirty, as it
ultimately will, wash it carefully and gently, and it will be sparkling clean in no time.

3. Care and maintenance of Tiled walls

Soap Scum on Bathroom Tile Walls

The easiest way to remove soap buildup from ceramic tile is to use a dry, slightly abrasive
cloth on a dry tile surface. Try a plastic kitchen scrubber, plastic bristled brush, or even extra
fine steel wool pad. Test an inconspicuous area first to be sure the tile won’t scratch, and
then work in a circular motion The dry soap scum should fall to the floor as a powder which
can be rinsed away.
If you are worried about scratching, vinegar also works well, but it requires more elbow
grease and you'll need to ventilate the bathroom.

Cleaning Tile Grout in the Bathroom

Before buying commercial products or using bleach, try these solutions.
Vinegar is a safe, eco-friendly cleaner. Use a sponge to apply vinegar to the grout, and a
toothbrush to scrub stubborn areas. You can also try using a paste made from baking soda
and water or cleaning the grout with hydrogen peroxide.
Kitchen Tile Backsplashes
Wipe tile walls near the stove, sink and work areas frequently. When frying, clean the tile
before grease splatters have dried.
A scraper is helpful for gently removing dried-on grease and food splatters. Follow up with a
cleaning product safe for ceramic tile.
For general cleaning of large wall surfaces, dust the tiles with a dry or damp cloth. If tiles are
dirty or smudged, try a mild cleaning product. Buff dry.
Unit Task 3: Types of stains

Unit Task 4: Stain removal procedures

Removing Blood Stains

Cover the blood stained with paper towels and blot up as much as possible. Then pour some
liquid detergent or disinfectant and cold water on the paper towels. You should let the
solution sit for 30 minutes.
Use cold water and scrub to wipe up and remaining stain, then wipe the area dry with clean
paper towels.

Burn Marks
Gently rub the burn mark or spot with fine grade steel wool along with either cold water or a
detergent solution..

Ink Marks
Ink marks will come off easily with fine steel wool and an all-purpose detergent solution. If
the stain remains, try using ammonia on it for about 15 minutes and wipe it dry.
You can also try using denatured alcohol to remove ink stains if the tile is vinyl. There are
also ink stain removers commercially available, but be sure to check the product instructions
along with the recommended surfaces first.

How to Remove Carpet Stains

Water dissolves many stains, so you can remove them without hiring a carpet cleaning
professional or buying a commercial stain remover

Here are two important things to know about removing every type of carpet stain. The
longer you wait, the harder it is to remove the stain. Blot the stain; don’t rub it. Rubbing
can damage the carpet fibers and set the stain permanently.
Try These Methods First
For most liquid stains, blot the stain with a clean white cotton cloth or plain white paper
towel until you remove most of the liquid. Rinse the spot with water and blot again. Repeat
this step as many times as necessary.
For semi-solid spills such as peanut butter, scrape gently with a spoon to remove as much of
the solid material as possible. Then follow the steps above to remove the rest of the stain.
Vacuum dried solids first; then follow the steps above.
For stubborn stains, pour club soda on a clean white cloth and blot until the stain is
removed.
Stepping It Up
If the water and club soda methods don’t work, use a commercial carpet stain remover.
Read the directions carefully and test it in an inconspicuous area. Always apply the cleaner
to the cloth instead of the carpet. Blot the stain starting at the outside and work toward the
center to prevent the stain from spreading. Rinse the cloth thoroughly, add more solution
and blot again. Repeat until the stain is gone.
For some common but stubborn stains, an alternative cleaning solution works best. Try
these solutions on the following stains:
Specific Stains
Coffee. Heat the area with a hot, wet cloth. Pour white vinegar on the cloth and blot. Rinse
the cloth and repeat until clean. Dry the carpet thoroughly when you're done.
Fingernail polish. Apply non-acetate fingernail polish remover to a clean white cloth and
blot, working from the edges toward the center. Rinse the cloth and repeat until clean.
Red wine. Blot as much of the red wine with a clean white cloth as possible, rinsing often.
Apply white wine to the stain. Blot, rinse and repeat until clean. Dry the carpet thoroughly
when you’re done.
Removing stains from Painted walls
These can easily be removed using scouring powder indirectly on cleaning cloth. Work
round the stain from the outside towards the centre to prevent spreading the stain.
Rinse the area thoroughly after stain removal.

Suggested Teaching/Learning Resources

- Text books
- cleaning materials and agents

Suggested Teaching/Learning Activities

- Report Writing
- Cleaning
- Research

Evaluation questions
- Assignments
- Reports
- Tests

9.1.08 METHODS AND PROCEDURES FOR CLEANING DIFFERENT AREAS

9.1.08 Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
 a) Explain and carry out correct methods and procedures of cleaning different
area
b) State the factors to consider in the choice of cleaning methods for a different
area
c) Prepare and use a plan of work

UNIT TASKS
Unit Task 1: Procedures of cleaning different areas

1. Guest Rooms
CLEANING OF DIFFERENT GUESTROOMS

CLEANING A VACATED GUESTROOM AND BATHROOM

Trolley
Clean and neatly arranged.
NECESSARY AGENTS, MATERIALS, EQUIPMENTS AND MACHINES.
1. Cleaning Agents.
(a) Scouring powder
(b) Liquid soap
(c) Disinfectant
(d) Deodorizer/air freshener
(e) Furniture polish
(f) 3-way toilet cleaner
(g) Methylated spirit(for stain removal)
NOTE:
Insecticide should also be available
Cleaning materials
(a) Sponge cloths
(b) Floor cloths
(c) Yellow dusters
(d) Glass cloths
(e) Special cloths
(f) Drying cloths
(g) Scotch brite
(h) Newspaper (for steeping on when cleaning high areas)
(i) White rags
3. Cleaning equipment
(a) Deck scrubber
(b) Bath brush
(c) Bucket
(d) Hand broom
(e) Dust pan
(f) Sweeping broom
(g) Cobweb brush
(h) Room attendants box

Cleaning machines
1. Vacuum cleaner
5. Necessary supplies
a. D.N.D .cards
b. Toilet rolls/balls
c. Guest soap
d. Laundry bags
e. Water glasses
f. Ashtray
g. Curtain hooks
h. Shower curtain hooks
i. Coat hangers
j. Vape tablets
k. Laundry and dry-cleaning lists
l. Curtain runners and stoppers
m. Curtain stoppers
n. Hotel brochure and tariff
o. Candle-holder and candles
p. Matchboxes
q. Stationery
r. Door knob menu
s. Room service menu
t. Guest commentary card
u. Sunday buffet reservation sheet
v. T.V. programmes sheet
Procedure of work
1) Knock twice at the door (using knuckles) pause in between.
2) Open the door and place the door wedge.
3) Draw the curtains and ventilate the room.
Look at the condition of the room .If the linen, waste baskets, T.V., e.t.c. are missing or
furniture is damaged or broken report to the housekeeper immediately.
4) Check for any item the guest might have left behind;
i. In the balcony
ii. In the desk drawer
iii. In the fridge
iv. In and underneath the beds and pillows under the mattress
v. In the wardrobe
vi. Behind the bathroom door
vii. Other parts of the bathroom
viii. Behind the main door

5) Switch off all the lights, T.V., air conditioner and vape device left on .If not on,
check whether they are in good condition and switch off.
6) Remove waste and trays from bedroom, bathroom, clean ashtrays and waste
containers.
7) Strip the bed gently (remove them item by item) shaking it carefully off the
bed .Check for valuables .Remove dirty linen from the bathroom .Take it to the
trolley .Remove any bed board at this time.
8) Bring clean linen and place on clean surface i.e. the other bed.
9) Bring all the necessary cleaning materials and place near the balcony.
Agents.
(a) Methylated spirit( for stain removal mainly grease)
(b) Disinfectant
(c) Furniture polish
(d) Liquid detergent
(e) Scouring powder
(f) Deodorizer(air freshener)
(g) Scotch brite
Materials
(a) Floor cloths
(b) Glass cloths(2)
(c) Yellow duster
(d) Cleaning cloths( different colors)
Equipment
(a) Dust pan/dust pan brush
(b) Bucket with warm water
(c) Sweeping broom
(d) Deck scrubber
(e) Bath brush
(f) Room attendant’s box
1. Balcony
(a) Clean the inside of the balcony windows
(b) Clean the balcony furniture .Place in room.
(c) Clean the outside of the balcony widows.
(d) Clean the ceiling, walls, air conditioning unit.
(e) Sweep, clean and dry the balcony floor.
(f) Replace balcony furniture
(g) Place the cleaning materials, agents and equipment in the bathroom.
2. Make the bed.
(a) Pull out the bed –to have enough room
(b) Turn the mattress –to avoid sagging
(c) Place the under blanket .It should be clean and in place.
(d) Spread and tuck in the bottom sheet, smooth side up, middle fold along the centre
of the bed .Mitre the corners neatly .It should be tightened.
(e) Spread the top sheet .Should fall short by about 10” to 12” from top mattress.
(f) Turn the top sheet over the blanket .Tuck in the bottom side. Mitre the corners
neatly then tuck in all around.
(g) Insert pillow into pillow case .Fluff it up.
(h) Place pillow with the open side facing away from the view .The edge of the pillow
should be in line with the edge of the mattress.
(i) Spread the bedcover- level, straight, right side up, rounded edge to the bottom and
same level with the second bed. If too long tuck in at the head side. Iron it out with
your hand.
(j) Push bed back into position .It should not be too close to the bed side table.
(k) Neaten the second bed.

NOTE; All bedding should be clean without stains, tears and creases. Replace burnt blankets
and bedcovers.
3. Dry-dusting.
Dry dusting the following areas with a folded yellow duster-;
i. Systematically round the room.
ii. High to low
(a) Main door frame
(b) Door stopper
(c) Wardrobe doors and top shelf
(d) Skirting board and the wooden wall
(e) Connecting door frame
(f) Wallboard
(g) Pictures
(h) Luggage rack
(i) Bulbs and lamp shades
(j) Fittings,sicket and plugs in the bedroom
(k) Dressing table drawers
(l) Behind the refrigerator
(m) Chair frames, legs and underneath the cushions.
(n) The TV. screen and the rest of the body
(o) The top of the coffee table and legs.
(p) Bedside table – inside, back, and front.
(q) Bed frames
(r) Shelves .Do not forget the telephone directory and the Bible
(s) Bathroom door
4. Damp -wiping
1. Damp wipe and polish the following areas using a damp soapy sponge and a glass
cloth/white duster.
i. Work systematically around the room
ii. High to low
(a) Main door handles
(b) Wardrobe shelves, hanger rail, door hinge and hand grips
(c) Connecting door handle
(d) Dressing table top
(e) Vape machine- (may be cleaned with scotch brite pad)
(f) Inside and outside the fridge
(g) Coffee table and legs (if stained)
(h) Bedside lampshades (if stained)
(i) Telephone-disinfect it too
(j) Bedside table top
(k) Light switches
(l) Walls
2 Replace the supplies and change the unpresentable ones
(a) D.N.D card (behind the main door)
(b) Laundry bags(2) with 1 laundry and dry-cleaning list
(c) Coat hangers (6)
(d) Ash trays
(e) Candle in the candle holder plus a match box
(f) Folder
(g) Writing papers(6)
(h) Envelopes(3)
(i) Breakfast cards(2 in folder and 2 on the bedside table)
(j) Guest commentary card(1)
(k) Hotel brochure(1)
(l) Room service menu(1)
(m) Sunday buffet reservation information sheet.
(n) Hotel tariff
(o) T.V. programmes information sheet.
3. Note any repairs to be done
4. Replace missing curtain hooks, runners and stoppers.
5. Clean the bathroom
1. Equipment placed in the bathroom should include;-

(a) A bucket of water at least ½ full disinfectant, a floor cloth and 2 sponge
Cloths of different colours
(b) Deck scrubber
(c) Bathbrush/scotch brite pad
(d) Glass cloths
(e) Special cloths
(f) Methylated spirit
(g) Liquid soap
(h) Scouring powder
2. Flush the toilet and sprinkle the cleaning agent.
3. Clean the bathroom and surrounding.
(a) Clean the bathtub inlay, and hang to dry.
(b) Clean the tub, walls and soap dish using scotch brite and liquid detergent.
(c) Clean chain and plug
(d) Remove hairs and threads from the drain
(e) Clean the taps using liquid detergents
(f) Rinse, dry and shine the drying rack, walls shower head, tower rail, chromium
taps, bathtub and soap using a sponge cloth and polish with a glass cloth.
(g) Clean the shower curtain and rail using a sponge cloth and liquid detergent .Dry
using a glass cloth.
(h) Clean the bathroom door and its handle( The inside part)
4. Clean the wash hand basin and surrounding.
(a) Clean and rinse the wash hand basin, the taps ,chain plug,
overflow and the drainage.
(b) Clean, rinse and dry the left side of the side shelf and the nearest wall.
(c) Clean, rinse and polish the water glasses place them on the clean and dried shelf.
(d) Clean, rinse and dry the remaining side- shelf and the nearest wall.
(e) Dry the wash hand basins, the drain, and the overflow and polish chromium.
(f) Clean an polish the mirror
(g) Clean and dry the shaving socket.
(h) Clean and dry the pipes, the towel ring and rail beside and underneath the wash
hand basin and the wall.
5. Clean the toilet and the surrounding.
(a) Clean the inside of the toilet bowl, and underneath the rim. Flush the toilet and
clean the toilet brush.
(b) Clean rinse and dry the outside of the toilet bowl, seat, lid water pipe, and flush
handle.
(c) Clean the toilet brush holder
(d) Clean and dry the wall near the toilet including the vent
6. Replace the supplies in their proper positions .This should include;-
(a) Bath towels (2) )
(b) Hand towels (2) )
(c) Bath mats (1) )
(d) Face towels (2) if applicable )One should be able to read
(e) Soap (2) ) the Hotel’s name.
(f) Toilet rolls (3) )
(g) Water glasses (2) )
7. Replace any missing shower curtain hooks.
8. Scrub, rinse and dry the bath room floor paying attention to corners and the drain.
9. Remove cleaning materials, equipment and agents .Take them to the trolley
10. Give the bathroom a last glance, switch off light
11. Note down any repairs to be done.
Vacuum clean the carpet. (Use the hose to clean corners).
Move furniture to clean underneath.
(a) Beds
(b) Coffee table
(c) Fridge
(d) Luggage rack
(e) Cushions
Sometimes it may be necessary to sweep corners with a hand broom first.
12. Re-arrange the furniture neatly
13. Lock the balcony door, leave the curtains open.
14. Give the room a last glance
15. Remove the wedge and lock the main door.
Key points as you work
1) Observe quietness as you work.
2) Be alert and have an eye for details
3) Use systematic procedures to save time and steps. Avoid unnecessary steps.
4) Have respect for the responsibility which is yours to care for the most expensive
investment your management has-the guest room.
5) Concentrate on one room at a time and do your best with it before going to the
next one.
6) Change the cleaning up water after using it at the balcony.
7) Equipment should be kept together and out of the way
8) Work without spillages
9) Radio,t.v. and lights should be off and in working order
10) The door should be left open while working in the guest room
11) Furniture and equipment should be handled with care
12) Avoid the use of too much cleaning agents
13) All linen should be without tears ,creases, and stains
14) Remember to report any repairs noted immediately
15) The toilet paper in use should roll from the top .(Fold ends of the paper into a
‘V’ shape.
Additional information
Vacant rooms (unoccupied)
The vacant rooms in the hotel have to be dusted, aired damp-wiped and checked daily. Some
establishments have all their beds turned down in the evening .Whether the rooms
are going or not.
Occupied rooms
Daily cleaning procedure of occupied rooms is the same as the one used for checkout
(vacant) rooms. The only difference is that in a departure room, thorough cleaning
must be done and some of the supplies replaced i.e. soap, Depending on the policy
of the hotel, bedlinen in occupied rooms may or may not be changed daily. The
actual method of cleaning departure or occupied rooms varies from hotel to hotel.
Not slept in rooms
This room must be aired, dusted damp wiped and checked daily. The bedcovers must be
replaced as soon as possible –i.e. when taking the room report at 9:00 a.m. Draw
the curtains and switch off the bedside light.
V.I.P .Rooms
1) Change the water in the flowers everyday
2) Remove eaten fruits, the peels and clean the cutlery ,crockery, e.g.
3) If a guest has his own private fruits or flowers in the room do not remove anything
before asking whether you can do so or not.
Priority for cleaning rooms
1) Guest and supervisor requests
2) Checkouts
3) Vacant
4) V.I.P.’s
5) Not slept in ‘s (sleep outs)
6) Make ups
Cleaning service areas
All areas which fall under this group must be kept clean at all times .They are areas where
guests do not normally come into contact with but for the safety of the employees
who are just as equally important, they should be thoroughly cleaned every
day .This is so because of:
1) Hygienic reasons
2) Avoidance of accidents
3) Work simplication and
4) For creating a good impression
NOTE: The responsibility of the housekeeping department not only comprises cleaning, but
also their maintenance, repair, refurbishment and eventual replacement .It is
therefore, the duty of the housekeeping staff to report any areas needing minor or
major repairs to the engineering department immediately
NOTE- ADDITIONAL NOTES ON THE ROOM ATTENDANTS TROLLEY
The room attendants’ trolley is the ideal equipment for the room attendant to use in
transporting all the equipment required during the process of the cleaning guest
rooms.
The trolley is on constant display to guests who pass by it when moving along the corridors,
it must therefore be CLAEN and TIDY at all times

POINTS TO REMEMBER.
1. Arrange the clean linen neatly on the shelves provided .Take enough for the
number of rooms to be cleaned.
2. Make sure that all cleaning equipment i.e. deck scrubber and materials i.e. special
cloths are placed in their correct position on the trolley and in an organized
manner.
3. All equipment must be clean i.e. the caddie box .It is not acceptable to see buckets
which have grease rings inside them or full or dirty water ,or bits of used soap
scattered around.
4. Ensure that the rubbish container is clean .Empty it whenever necessary.
5. Remember to take the sack for soiled linen for washing in the laundry regularly .It
should be repaired whenever it s torn.
6. Remove soiled linen to the dirty linen trolley in the pantry as often as required .Do
not leave the soiled linen sack on the trolley “over flowing” with dirty linen.
7. Always keep the supplies i.e. soap, toilet paper, stationery, laundry bags, candles,
candle holder, vape mats, ash trays, coat hangers etc.on top of the trolley in an
orderly fashion .Remember that this is not the correct place to put used glass
cloths, sponge cloths, newspapers and magazines etc, should not be left to fill up
this part either .Take them to the House keeping office.
8. When pushing the trolley from one place to another, take care not to knock it on
walls, doors and corners .It scratches them.
9. Remember to position the trolley in a manner that you can be able to spot would
be thieves.
10. Do not leave the trolley in the corridor unattended .When going for break i.e.
lunch, tea etc ,or when going to the laundry ,remember to lock up the trolley in the
pantry.
The store or pantry.
This is where standards begin. An untidy or dirty store reflects the standards which may be
expected in the guest rooms. The guests may even wonder into these areas .It is
therefore essential that he /she forms a good impression .See to it that all areas are
not on general display to the front of the house e.g. guests and public .The
cupboards and trolleys MUST be neatly arranged at all times.
Cleaning methods.
1) Dusting-high dusting
-low dusting
2) Sweeping /vacuuming cleaning
3) Damp wiping
4) Mopping-dry
-damp
5) Scrubbing
6) Polishing
7) Shampooing
8) Stripping(extra polishing)
9) Buffing(shining surface)
Preparing a guest room for the night (Turning down)
This a practice performed in most hotels. It is usually done in the evenings between 6.00p.m
and 8.00 p.m or specifically when the guest(s) are out for dinner. Its purpose is to
freshen up the room and prepare it in readiness for the guest (s) to sleep.
The room attendant’s trolley should be stocked with bath linen, bed linen, glass
cloths, a bucket of water with 2 sponge cloths and floor cloth, a special cloth,
supplies, vape mats and a carpet sweeper.
Procedure
1) Knock twice at the door
2) Wedge the door open
3) Switch on the dressing table light
4) Close the windows and draw the curtains
5) Remove waste trays and bottles if any from bedroom, remove waste from
bathroom, clean ash trays and waste containers.
6) Remove soiled linen from bathroom .Bring in clean linen and place it on
convenient place
7) Remove the bedcover, fold it carefully and place on the top shelf of the wardrobe.
8) Unstuck one convenient side of the top sheet and blanket fold them back to form a
right –angled triangle or according to the hotel’s policy.
9) Place any night attire neatly on top of the bed and any slippers placed neatly by the
side of the bed.
10) Switch on the bedside light.
11) Place a breakfast card on the pillow
12) Open the mosquito net and tuck it in round the bed neatly if any.
13) Place the vape mat onto the machine and switch it on
14) Replace or change the supplies if necessary
15) Fold any clothing lying around and tidy up any other objects if necessary
16) Switch on the bathroom light, enter and flush the toilet.
17) Clean and dry the bath tub, wash basin, and toilet if necessary.
18) Replace the bath linen ,soap and toilet paper if necessary
19) Dry any wet patches which may be present on the floor
20) Spread the bath mat on the floor beside the bath tub
21) Give the bathroom a last glance and switch off the light .Leave the door ajar
22) Carpet sweep or vacuum if necessary
23) Close and lock the balcony door .Close the curtains neatly
24) Give the bedroom a last glance.
25) Switch off all the lights, expect the bedside light.
26) Remove the wedge and close the main door gently.

2. Cleaning Public Areas

Public areas include the reception area, lounges, restaurants, bars, reading rooms, banquet
rooms and halls, conference and meeting rooms, circulation areas (lifts, corridors and
staircases) and sanitary areas
The well cared for entrance and reception area gives a good first impression to anyone
entering the building. When corridors, staircases, lifts and sitting areas also look pleasant
and properly maintained, the work that goes into keeping the bedrooms, wards, leisure
areas and so forth clean, will be all the more appreciated and so will every service offered by
the establishment, from the food prepared in the kitchens to the medical treatment.
In general, the cleaning procedures for public areas will take into account three factors:
1. They are used by a greater number of people than any other room or area .This means
surfaces and furnishings get spoiled more quickly .Wear and tear will be considerable,
but even more rapid if soil is not removed effectively and regularly.
2. They should always look attractive and inviting and be safe to be in. (On the other
hand, hygiene considerations are not as important as they are in sleeping, washing and
food preparations areas.)
3. They have to be accessible at all times. This is particularly true of the entrance and
circulation areas such as corridors and staircases .Fortunately there are usually times
when all the building’s users are asleep ,or out ,or it is possible at quiet periods to
close parts of the area temporarily(for example ,by roping off half the foyer ,corridor
or staircase )or shut a room altogether (for example, a lounge) or take one facility out
of service (for example ,a lift).

Frequency and Method of Cleaning.

The heavy use that public areas receive and the importance attached to their
appearance means firstly that weekly cleaning routines will include items that in a
bedroom, for example, might only be cleaned periodically, such as
 o damp-dusting picture frames ,skirting boards ,tops of door frames and high
shelves
o suction –cleaning carpet edges
o cleaning backs of furniture

Secondly the more intensive cleaning methods will be used more frequently for
example:
o Upholstered furniture may require suction –cleaning daily.
o Alkali detergents may need to be used weekly on metal and glass surfaces of
main entrances door
o Windows ,mirrors, and picture glass may need to be cleaned weekly
o Carpets may have to be shampooed every month ,curtains and upholstered
furniture every six months
o Hard floor surfaces will need to be suction –cleaned and damp-mopped daily
scrubbed or spray –cleaned weekly ,and stripped and polished every 3 to 6
months
o Walls may need to be washed every six months

Points to watch during routine cleaning.

1. Follow carefully all safety procedures
2. Think of the needs of guests and other staff on duty and keep to the
minimum any disturbance or inconvenience to them.
3. Follow as far as possible the general procedures for reducing the
movement of dust and dirt .Start by collecting rubbish, emptying
ashtrays and waste bins, then damp-dust surfaces, then suction –clean
floors.
4. Keep the area free from unpleasant odours .If there is no air
–conditioning system, this will mean opening windows and doors for
short time.
5. Check thoroughly for:
 damaged ,faulty or missing items :report these in the
appropriate way
 stains on carpets, furniture and soft furnishings :deal with as
soon as they are noticed
 Lost property, particularly between cushions and under
furniture in sitting areas: hand this in with a note of the
circumstances in which it was found.
6. Pay attention to areas and items that will get soiled more quickly as a
result of heavy usage, for example door handles and armrests and
furniture.
7. Consider carefully the appearance of items:

 keep brass plates, knockers ,handrails and stair rails looking bright and
tarnish free
 Keep notices, direction signs and such things as menu display panels
free of finger marks, smears and accumulated dust.
 Where possible remove graffiti written or drawn on walls, signs,
posters Ector report it so that the defaced item can be replaced or re-
decorated.
 8. Pay particular attention to areas where rubbish might be dropped or
accumulate or be deliberately hidden by a naughty child ,for example:

 behind curtains
 down the backs chairs and under cushions
 in flower vases and ornamental pots

9. when cleaning has been completed ,check carefully that :

 all furniture is in its proper position

 cushions are plumped up an attractively arranged
 fittings are left as they should be, pictures level ,lamp shades straight
with the seams out of sight
 electric cables to light fittings are not caught under furniture or tangled
and plugs are properly pushed into sockets.
 sufficient ashtrays are available
 flower arrangements and indoor plants are looking their best
 curtains are hanging straight

10. follow specific cleaning procedures as necessary for door

mats ,lifts ,staircases and corridors

Cleaning of Corridors and staircases

Corridors
Corridors and staircases must be cleaned in such a way that anyone who has
to use them while cleaning is in progress can do so safely with the minimum
of inconvenience and without spoiling the appearance of the cleaned surface:
 Divide the corridor or staircases in half (lengthways) and clean one
half first .This means people can proceed safely down the other half
and their footmarks will not spoil the appearance of wet floors.
 If the corridor or staircases is a long one ,divide it into sections and
clean one half of each section first
 Start at the highest point of each stair landing and work down paying
attention to the skirting board and the wall hangings

The cleaning of staircases

Stairs may be closed carpeted, or the carpet may only cover about
two –thirds of the stair, in which case there are two surfaces to
clean .By using suitable attachments to a vacuum cleaner the two
surfaces and skirting board may be cleaned together.
Uncarpeted stairs should be swept daily and cleaned and /or
scrubbed according to the material, when necessary .If a staircase has
to be cleaned, while people are using it, then, provided that it is wide
 enough, half should be done at a time, enabling the people to walk up
and down on the dry part of the staircase.
It should be remembered that where the side of any staircase is open,
dust and dirt may fall through, therefore when sweeping the dust and
dirt should be swept towards the wall on each stair.
All bannisters and handrails should be dusted before vacuum
cleaning, or after sweeping, and washed or polished occasionally
according to material.
Stair rods of brass or polished wood may be still used but nowadays
the stair carpet may be held firmly in position by the use of the
‘tackles gripper’ which eliminates the use of rods and makes cleaning
much easier.

Cleaning Lifts
In hotel, cleaning of the lifts is rarely the concern of the housekeeping
staff but is usually done by the uniformed staff.
The call button panel and outside lift doors should be damp-dusted as
part of the corridor cleaning programmed .Check that no finger marks
remains.
The door track at each floor should also be suction –cleaned to
remove rubbish and cigarette ends which have collected in it. Call the
lift, and then turn it off with the doors open.
1. Place a notice on each floor to warn anyone wishing to call the
lift that it is out of service for cleaning.
2. Turn off the lift using the control key
3. Remove any rubbish and empty ashtrays
4. Damp-dust the control panel ,any pictures ,mirrors ,display
cases and the walls of the lift (unless they are upholstered or
carpeted)
5. Suction –clean the floor (and the walls if they are
carpeted).Damp –mop hard floors.
6. Close the lift doors and damp-dust the inside of the doors.
7. Return the lift to service and remove the notices.

PRINCIPLES OF CLEANING

The order of the cleaning tasks carried out should reflect the following:
 The job should be completed as quickly as possible, with the minimum
amount of effort. So, for example, the items to be carried in and out of
 the bedroom on each journey may be specified: ‘take the rubbish out,
return with the clean linen’.
 Methods should be standardized as far as possible, to establish
uniformity and consistency.
 The varieties of equipment and materials required in the establishment
should be kept to the minimum to help keep down maintenance and
supplies costs.
 Any tasks that will cause dust, for example, stripping the bed should be
completed first, and soiled items and rubbish which may carry bacteria
removed.
 When cleaning, start with the cleaner areas: if they are cleaned first
and the dirtiest last, then dirt is less likely to be transferred from dirty
to clean areas.

WHEN TO CLEAN
The frequency of cleaning, both routine and periodic, depends on three interrelated factors:
1. The amount of soil that builds up

This will depend on the type of usage (for example, washing in the bathroom, food
preparation in kitchens) and frequency of usage (for example, busy corridors and entrance
halls). It will also depend on the age, condition and design of the various areas and location
of the building. If it is in an industrial area, the atmosphere is likely to be polluted and by the
sea it is likely to be salty.
2. The required standard of cleanliness

Special areas such as bathrooms, toilets kitchens, operating theatres and intensive
care units will require a very high standard of cleanliness (referred to as clinical
standard) Five- star hotels will aim for higher standards of cleanliness than economy
tourist hotels. Corridors and administration offices will not require such high
standards as wards and bedrooms.
3. The cost of cleaning

Almost every type of accommodation establishment has to operate within certain

budgets and so the staffing, equipment and material allocated to cleaning will be
limited.
Normally it is only the proprietors or the senior management of the establishment
that can decide the balance of priorities. They will set the standards of cleanliness
which will reflect the customers’ expectations, ensure hygiene and safe conditions,
help prolong the life of decorations and furnishings, and keep with the financial
resources.
It is usual practice, for management to specify how often a task is carried out, by
stating, for example , whether it is daily, weekly, monthly, three- monthly, six-
monthly or annual task
 There may be occasions when it may be necessary to vary the frequency of cleaning,
for example if a room has had extra- heavy usage or it has been raining a great deal
and more soil than has been carried into the building on shoes.
Sometimes, however, a task can be carried out too often, to the detriment of the
item being cleaned, For example, if furniture is polished too often, the surface may
become sticky and attract excessive dust. Money has to be wasted through using too
much polish and the time might have been spent to better purpose cleaning
something else.

3. Sanitary areas
Toilets
There is a right way to begin cleaning a toilet. The right way prevents the spread of bacteria
and viruses. The right way of cleaning a toilet also saves time and energy.

Remove everything from around the toilet.

Cleaning the toilet is a messy job, and there's always the chance of splashing cleanser or toilet
water outside of the actual toilet. Prevent extra cleanup by removing all excess items from
around the toilet. Don't forget to remove anything on top of the tank to prevent dropping
items into the bowl during cleaning.

Flush and add cleaning solution.

Flush the toilet with the lid down to prevent splashing or spraying. Add your choice of
powdered, liquid, or gel cleanser to the bowl. Try to apply the cleaner as close to the toilet
rim as possible to prevent diluted cleanser.

Clean the exterior of the toilet.

While the cleansing solution soaks into the toilet grime in the bowl, clean the outside of the
toilet. Start at the top to prevent dripping on already clean surfaces. Spray the tank, handle,
and tank edges with cleaner and wipe down. Next do the outside lid of the toilet. Finally wipe
down the entire bowl. Start with the sides and front before cleaning the bottom edges of the
toilet where it meets the floor.

Clean the toilet seat.

The toilet seat should never be neglected. It is the part of the toilet that comes into actual
contact with people, and it needs to be cleaned thoroughly. Raise the seat. Spray the seat,
inside lid and the rim of the toilet with cleanser. Wipe down the lid, seat, and hinges at the
back of the toilet seat. Some toilets have hinges that will pop open to allow better access for
cleaning.

Clean the inside of the toilet bowl.

Begin cleaning the bowl from the top down. Always begin scrubbing under the rim first.
Look under the rim to get all the stains and grime scrubbed away. Next scrub the bowl.
Finally scrub the hole at the bottom of the toilet. Flush the toilet with the lid down.

Wipe up any drips or spills.

Wipe up any drips of cleanser or water that may have occurred. Put away tools and trash.
Replace the items removed in step 1. Enjoy a clean toilet.

Tips:
Wear eye protection when cleaning a toilet. It prevents splatters of toilet water and cleaner.
You may also want to use gloves to prevent contact with your hands.
Flush the toilet with the seat lid down to prevent splattering and splashing.
Do not use sponges when you scrub a toilet. Sponges are a great way to breed bacteria, and
there are already enough in bathroom. Paper towels are a great options because they are
thrown away. If you use reusable cloths, wash them immediately in their own load on hot
water with bleach.

Bathrooms
Bathrooms get dirty very easily and can require a great effort to clean up. The following tips
will guide you through how to clean your bathroom in the most effective way.
Firstly, remove any bathmats, towels and body care products out of the area to avoid
damage by the cleaning products used. It's very important for you to wear protective gloves,
a mask and apron as some chemical is very harmful to your body as well as your clothes,
particularly mould killers and bleach.
Start cleaning from shower room. Spray mold-killer on the tile wall and shower glass before
you scrub the whole surface with sponge. Do not use too hard scrubbing material as it may
leave some mark on the tile wall and shower glass. Make sure you also scrub the soap
holder, shower hose and its holder as well. Then pour bathroom floor cleaner all over the
floor and scrub the area with a brush.
Then it's time to clean the hand basin. rub cleaning cream all over the basin and tap, use a
small toothbrush to brush around the base of the tap and any hard to reach areas. Leave the
cleaning cream on the basin while you move to the toilet bowl. Put toilet bowl liquid all
around the bowl and spray the outside surface with some disinfectant.
Next is the bathtub. Rub the cleaning cream all over the bathtub and the tap as well. If
there's a soap holder nearby. Make sure you also scrub it thoroughly as well.
Now it's time to wash the cleaning products off all of the areas. For the shower room, it can
be easier just run the shower hose and rinse the whole area. With the hand-basin, use a
soaking small piece of towel help you wash the chemical away. You can do the same thing
for the bath tub - rinse the major area with a bucket of water and use an old soaking towel
on the edge of the tub as you may not want get too much water on the floor. Dry the edge
and outside area of the tub with a piece of cloth.
Use the toilet brush and brush all around the toilet bowl and inside before you flush it away.
Then get a piece of dry cloth to wipe the toilet bowl surface dry and clean.
To clean the mirror and shower glass, spray glass cleaner on the mirror and/or shower glass,
scrub the surface with a window cleaner wiper or a sponge. To wipe the surface dry & clear,
scrape the rubber side of the window wiper down the surface by holding it 45 degree
against the surface. Wipe the rubber side dry with a piece of cloth before you start another
round of surface scraping. For the perfect touch-up, rub a piece of soft dry cloth on the
surface again. You can also use a piece of newspaper as it has some chemical in the
printing ink that will bring brightness to the mirror and glass surface. However, please be
aware that newspaper will leave a black stain on your hand. Make sure you wear protective
gloves to avoid getting black stains on your hands that you could then leave elsewhere.
After finishing with the mirror and shower glass, wipe the vanity top & tidy up. Use multi-
purpose cleaner or a disinfected spray on the surface before you wipe it dry and clean. Use
another piece of cloth to wipe the tap and basin to produce a nice shine.
Distill floor cleaner liquid into a bucket of hot water at an appropriate measurement and
mop the floor all over. Use a piece of dry cloth to wipe the floor dry if you prefer your
bathroom floor to be dry and ready immediately.
Lastly, fold the end of the toilet paper into triangle shape for the perfect presentation. This
is also a subtle sign that you have been there and cleaned the room.
4. Cleaning a sickroom
Before beginning to clean the room, collect all your equipment and materials and place them
near the door on the outside.
The worker should protect himself with an overall or a dust coat, preferably, one who has
been immunized against the disease.

Making the patient’s bed

If the patient is very weak, the bed can be made while he is still lying in it. If the patient is
able to sit up, he can be placed on a chair on one side of the room, but must be warmly
dressed.
If it is a daily routine, straighten out the sheets under the patient, tucking in the ends well.
Straighten out the top sheet and then the blankets, turning them back just below the chin of
the patient and tucking in the sides.
When changing the sheets while the patient is in bed, first remove the ends of the bottom
sheet from under the mattress and fold back the sheet lengthwise, till it is in line with the
patient’s body
With the right side of the clean sheet uppermost, place the sheet neatly up to the fold of the
old one. Tuck in the bottom and the top parts that are clear and make mitred corners on the
top corners.
Tuck in the one side, smoothening out the sheet.
Gently roll the patient to part of the bed with the clean sheet while still covered with the top
sheet.
Move to the other side of the bed and pull out the old sheet. Straighten the clean one out,
tucking in the other ends.
Roll the patient back to the middle of the bed and place the clean top sheet over him with
enough to fold back but all gathered just below the chin.
Gently pull out the old top sheet and tuck in the new one neatly.
Place blankets gently and neatly, ensuring that none covers the head of the patient.
Finally, fold back the sheet and blankets neatly below the chin and tuck in well. The bed
cover should be folded back to the bottom of the bed and left as a neat panel.

Procedure for cleaning the room

After making the bed, the room should be cleaned quickly and quietly.
Throughout the cleaning process, effort should be made not to raise any dust that may make
the patient uncomfortable. Avoid draught caused by the windows and doors open at the same
time.
1. Use disinfected warm water in a bucket or basin and a clean floor mop
2. Wipe the floor systematically towards the door, picking up as much dirt as possible with
the mop. If the mop is not available, a floor cloth can be used.
 3. Use clean disinfected water and a soft cloth for damp dusting the rest of the
surfaces in the room
4. Wring out the water from the cloth and wipe carefully and methodically like for
dry dusting.
5. Polish surfaces such as the furniture.
6. Tidy the room and articles used by the patient.
7. Provide a small attractive arrangement of flowers to make the surroundings more
pleasant
8. Place the little things required by the patient close by for convenience e.g. books,
play things, magazines, etc.
9. Place a container of clean drinking water with a cover on a small tray.
10. A basin with clean disinfected water should be placed on a stool or stand near the door
for washing hands by the person who is attending to the patient. A mild household
disinfectant or antiseptic will do for this purpose, as well as a hand towel and soap.

Unit Task 2: Factors to consider in selection of cleaning methods

 Type of surface
 Degree of soiling
 Type of equipment available
 Manpower available
 Time available to clean
 Type of cleaning, e.g. daily or weekly

Unit Task 3: Plan of work

The following is a sample plan of work for cleaning a guest room.

Contents
 Previous preparation
 Work to be covered
 List of equipment and materials and list of others
 Actual plan of work/order of work and timing

Previous preparation activities

 Collect cleaning equipment and materials
 Set up work centre
 Remove excess furniture from the room
 Open windows for ventilation
 Strip and air the beddings
 Erect cleaning and warning signs
 Identify cleaning areas
 Change into housekeeping uniform
 Writing a plan of work

Work to be covered
 Carry out previous preparation activities
 Make the beds
 Sweep the room
 Low dusting of the surfaces
  Damp dusting of the surfaces
 Mopping/Scrubbing the floor
 Tidying the room
 Cleaning equipment, wiping material containers and setting them up for final
checking

List of equipment and materials

Equipment Number
Brooms 1
Mops 3
Mop buckets 3
Dust pan 1
Dust Pan brush 1
Buckets 2
Cleaning cloths 4
Yellow dusters 1
Basins 3

Materials Quantities
Warm water Enough
Cold water Enough
Detergent 200ml

Others
Newspapers
Masking tape
Labels
Cleaning/Warning
signs

Actual Plan of Work

Time Activity
8.00-9.00 Carry out previous preparation activities
9.00-9.15 Make the bed by turning the mattress to give it even
wear.
Place the bottom blanket and bottom sheet right side up
and mitre the corners
Place the top sheet and top blanket wrong side up and
mitre the lower corner
Turn down the top beddings to leave a space of about
60cm for the pillow
Place the pillow in position
Place the bed cover to cover the beddings and leave the
sides loose for easy turn down
Place newspapers or old sheet to protect the bed from
dust during cleaning

9.15-9.25 Sweep the room using a long handled broom with short
 even strokes from the furthest corner towards the exit.
Collect dust and dispose appropriately

9.25-9.40 Dry dust all the horizontal surfaces using a yellow duster
folded into a pad, starting from high to low areas, using
the L-stroke motion portion by portion

9.40-9.55 Damp dust the dry dusted surfaces using a cloth wrung
from clean water or water with little detergent, followed
by drying with a dry cloth

9.55- Mop the floor using a mop wrung from warm soapy
10.05 water using the figure 8 motion, portion by portion,
followed by a thorough rinsing and drying
10.05- Rearrange the room and leave it ready for use
10.15
10.15- Clean and dry the equipment used, wipe material
10.30 containers and set them up in readiness for final checking

Suggested Teaching/Learning Resources

- Text books
- Cleaning materials and equipment
- Manufacturer’s manuals

Evaluation questions
- Assignments
- Reports
- Tests

9.1.09 INTERIOR DECORATION

Specific Objectives
By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) define terms in interior decoration
b) discuss the principles of interior decoration
c) explain the function of plants and flowers in interior decoration

UNIT TASKS
Unit Task 1: Definitions of terms of interior decoration

Interior decoration
Interior decoration is the art of decorating a room so that it is attractive, easy to use, and
functions well with the existing architecture. The goal of interior decoration is to provide a
certain "feel" for the room; it encompasses applying wallpaper, painting walls and other
surfaces, choosing furniture and fittings, such as light fixtures, and providing other
decorations for the area such as paintings and sculptures. Interior decorating is done
professionally by interior decorators. It is considered a design field.
There is a distinct difference between interior decorating and interior design. Interior
decorating is generally focused on finishes, such as wallpaper, paint, window coverings, and
furnishings. Interior design involves manipulating the architectural integrity of the interior
space as well as the creation of a lifestyle experience through the study of environmental
psychology.

Unit Task 2: Principles of Interior decoration

PROPORTION and SCALE

Proportion is about the relationships of one object to another, and how they look when placed
near each other. Some items of furniture, or paintings look good next to each other, and some
don't. The reason why some rooms "feel right" is often because some simple guidelines about
proportions were used.

HARMONY - The overall result

A well-decorated room is a unified whole that encompasses all the other elements and
principles of design. Put yourself in a visitors shoes and try and decide whether they would
feel relaxed and at home in your room. This is the ultimate goal.
There should be a consistency of sizes and shapes, and a harmony of color and pattern. The
feel of a room will be right, if it reflects unity, harmony and a sense of rhythm. Repeating the
elements, and balancing them throughout the room, accomplishes this.

EMPHASIS - A Focal Point

Emphasis is the focal point of the room. The focal point should be obvious as you enter the
room; it is the area to which your eye is attracted. Without a focal point a room will appear
disorganised or maybe even too busy.
Examples may be a fireplace, a window with a beautiful view, a large brass bed, a piano, or
an entertainment area. Whatever is featured, as the center of interest, must be sufficiently
emphasized so that everything else leads the eye toward the featured area. You can add
emphasis to a natural focal point or create one in a room through effective use of line, form,
color and texture.

RHYTHM
This is about pulling a room together by using color, pattern, shape or motif. It is the visual
equivalent of the beat associated with music. Rhythm is the important quality that results in
the feeling of harmony. It helps your eye move easily about the room, and give the
impression that everything in the room belongs to a unified whole. Planning in advance is the
key here.

A THEME AND A PLAN

These are the two most important things in decorating a room or your home. It applies
whether you are starting from scratch, or doing a makeover. If you don't have a co-ordinated
plan, the end result will reflect an unplanned look.
Balance is about giving a room a visual equilibrium. It gives a sense of repose and a feeling
of completion.

Symmetrical balance
Nature gives us symmetrical balance in abundance. We have two arms, two, legs, two eyes,
and so on. In decorating, this refers to arrangements where the majority of the objects within
the grouping are placed in even patterns about a focal point. When you draw an imaginary
line down the center of a symmetrical grouping, each side mirrors the other.
This is the balance that comes more naturally to us, the grouping of things in pairs. There are
some "built in" examples of symmetrical balance which we accept as normal. For example, a
window has a pair of curtains.
Two ornaments on a mantlepiece, or a pair of wall lamps on either side of a display cabinet,
are both examples of symmetrical balance. This type of balance is regarded as more formal
and conservative.
It is quite in order to have a different theme in different rooms, but within one room, the aim
is that the interior decor should look as if it were part of an overall harmonious plan. A room
should project a relaxed atmosphere, and make your visitors feel at ease, and at home.

Asymmetrical balance
This is more interesting to the eye. However, asymmetrical groupings must still appear to be
balanced. If we were to draw an imaginary line through the middle of the group, each side
must be of similar size, even though the sides are not mirror images of the other. An example
would be a console table with a floral arrangement on one end, and a grouping of
candlesticks on the other.
SCALE is how the size of the items in a room relates to the size of the room. A lot of home
decorating is common sense when it comes to Proportion and Scale.
For instance a grand piano would be out of scale in a small sitting room. A delicate side table
with spindly legs would be out of proportion, if it were placed next to a large chunky sofa.
Large heavy pieces of furniture should not be grouped together on the same wall, as this will
give the room a 'lop-sided' appearance. Give a room more balance by spacing larger items of
furniture. If you have two large items of furniture, try placing them opposite each other. This
will appear to have more balance, than placing them in random positions.

Balance is about the placing of objects according to their visual weight.

Here's an example of common sense, but it does illustrate a proportion rule. Say you have a
painting, but it is narrow and must be hung vertically.
It will look out of proportion hung above the sofa. Rather hang another painting which has
the correct dimensions in relation to the sofa, as the drawing on the right illustrates. If you
have quite a number of items, don't fall into the trap that you have to find a place for
everything. Your room may look cluttered, and have an uncoordinated feel.

Rhythm - repetition
Perhaps this is best illustrated by some examples.
Color repetition. Cover a few scatter cushions for your sofa in the same material as your
curtains. Or pick the dominant colour from your curtains, and cover some scatter cushions in
material of the same color.
Shape repetition. If your windows were to have an arched top, then this shape can be repeated
by incorporating round back chairs in your room.

You can achieve a feeling of harmony in rhythm, by "echoing" a color, pattern or shape in
another part of a room. Using the same or recognizably similar table lamps and shades in
different parts of a room, will probably look better than two totally different lamps.

Rhythm - graduation
This is also known as Progressive Rhythm. It is about using the same object in different sizes.
Some examples might be the use of different sizes of framed mirrors, pictures or candlesticks.
You may also use graduation in colour, by using two colours of the same hue.

HANGING AND GROUPING PICTURES

The rule used to be that the center of the picture should be at the "nose" height of a standing
person.
A more modern guideline is that pictures can be hung lower than that - about 5cm (2 inches)
above a table, for example.
When you group pictures, hang them at least two inches apart so the eye can take in each
separate object, and can see that there is a grouping at the same time.

Unit Task 3: Functions of plants and flowers in interior decorations

Interior Decorating with Houseplants

Plants bring movement and life to every room in your home. However, you will be
pleased by the whole picture only if there is harmony in the arrangement and color of
the plants you have chosen. Once you have learned how to take these things into
account when choosing your indoor plants, you can let your taste and imagination plan
the plant decor you have living in your home.
The larger the room you are working with, the bigger and more numerous the plants can be.
Let’s face it, a single small green plant looks lost in a large empty space. Several flowering
plants in a basket or arranged in small pots on the same table can serve as a beautifully
colorful accent to a room. Treelike plants have great importance in the sense of decorating.
Large-leafed species like dracaena, philodendron or the banyan tree (Ficus benghalensis)
can really fill up a sparsely furnished room or entrance hall and leave their mark.
In a small room, large plants are oppressive and take up way too much space. To get the
best effect, you should choose mid-size or small plants with large delicate leaves. Put the
plants where they are going to be visible. Don’t put too many plants in a small space or it
will get too crowded and your individual plants won’t make their full impact on the room.
Plants always look best against simple backgrounds. If they have large foliage they should
be placed in front of wallpaper with a small pattern. Large patterned wallpaper calls out for
filigreed leaves or ferns. Even the umbrella sedge (Cyperus) would work for that. Wood-
paneled walls like climbing plants arranged on a wood or bamboo support. These also look
great by brightly painted walls.
Make sure your decorative scheme takes into account the way light enters your room. If
you put the plants in front of a bright, sunny wall, their shadows can create interesting and
unusual patterns on the wall or ceiling or even plain carpeting.
Make sure the colors of leaves and flowers you choose don’t clash with your decor. You
don’t want to take expensive furnishings and wall coverings and reduce them by the wrong
 colored flowers in your pots. Place your plants by each other where they can compliment
each other. Put larger plants in the background of smaller plant groupings. A little bit of
ivy (Hedera helix) growing over the edge of a pretty bowl looks nicely casual.
Not only do plants affect your decorating sense and help you pretty up your home, they all
have some sort of way of improving your room climate. Abutilon hybrids, Aphelandra,
Asplenium nidus, Cissus rhombifolia, Cyperus papyrus, Fatsia japonica, Hibiscus rosa-
sinensis, Musa oriana, Nephrolepis exaltata, Pandanus veitchii, Rhododenron-simsii hybrids,
Schefflera and Sparmannia africana all increase the humidity in your home. Some plants
reduce the chemicals in the air. Aglaonema, Aloe barbadensis, Aphelandra, Asplenium
nidus, Chamaedorea, Chrysanthemum morifolum, Dracaena, Epipremnum pinnatum, Ficus
benjamina, Gerbera jamesonil, Hedera helix, Musa oriana, Philodendron, Sanseveria
trifasciata, and Spathiphyllum all reduce things like benzol, TCE, and formaldehyde.
Different furnishing styles take on different plants. It’s important that you put the right
plants into your decor to “complete the picture”. Yucca, Schefflera and rubber trees (Ficus)
fit in well with wooden furniture. Flowering plants look great with a country style decor.
Bulbs and primulas in the spring and special geraniums in the summer work great here. If
you like the straight or gently curved forms of steel, glass, marble and varnished wood,
things like the snake plant (Sansevieria trifasciata), Swiss cheese plant (Monstera deliciosa),
Dracaena and Guzmania work wonderfully.
Plants with simple gently curving lines work in art nouveau and art deco settings. The
flamingo flower (Anthurium) and peace lily (Spathphyllum) are perfect. Furniture made of
bamboo and rattan and oriental style shapes are perfect for exotic hanging plants like string
of pearls (Senecio royleyanus) or wax plant (Hoya). Traditional English or French styles go
well with bushy, vigorously flowering plants like the cyclamen, carnellias, gloxinias (Sinningia
hybrids) or begonias.
All you have to do is play around creatively with plants and figure out what enhances your
style. It’s really not that hard. Once you start placing plants, you will know what goes with
what and what doesn’t.
.
How to maintain Silk flowers?
Silk Flowers are a good investment. They add beauty to a room and make it look prettier.
They last way longer than natural flowers and are extremely low maintenance. However, they
do need to be cleaned at regular intervals to make them look cheery and last longer. While
purchasing silk flower arrangements, be sure to select an item pre-treated for dust-resistance
to minimize maintenance effort.
Here are some ways in which you can take care of artificial flowers in your house:
 Clean the flowers every 1-2 months, so that they do not need a thorough cleaning after 3-6
months.
 Never clean silk flowers with hair spray. It may do more harm to your arrangement than help
clean it.
 Commercial spray cleaners exist, in both aerosol and pump varieties. You can get them at
craft stores. It is not suggested that you blow your silk flower arrangements with a
compressor blower, a hairdryer, or even an aerosol can as that will only send the dust and
dirt in a hundred other directions, and it can also disrupt the shape and arrangement of your
flowers.
 There are some other methods by which you can clean silk flowers. Here are a few ...
Cleaning with Rice or Salt
You can clean an artificial flower bouquet by putting it in a paper bag along with handful of
rice grains. Put the flowers in head first and shake vigorously. In just a few minutes, your
arrangement will be sparkly clean.
After fluffing the bouquet, make sure all the flowers are in the right position. Using the back
of your hand lightly push the flowers back into position, to plump up the bouquet.
You can also substitute rice with salt to the same effect. Just remember to dust of the salt
properly.
All the best!
Do's and Don’ts in an arrangement
Do's
 DO use inexpensive, in season flowers..
 Do match the body of the container/vase to the body of the flower..
 Do give the arrangement a correct position in the house..
 Do give flower food according to the type of the flower..
Eg., Rounded gerberas fits best in round rather than square vases. Pretty Peonies, fragrant
sweet peas and scintillating roses look wonderful in pretty vases such as cut glass or delicate
ceramics. Buds like lily buds can stand up but not lily flowers, they ought to sit in the vase.
The flowers cannot overflow the vase.
Dont's
 DON'T mix myriad colours..
 DON'T supplement greens just for fun..
 DON'T overwater the arrangements..
Eg., Do not use plenty of colors which emits gaudyness. Just do not fill up the empty place
with foliage, but be meaningful in arranging.
Flowers and arrangements
Flowers are used to make special occasions beautiful. But they can also form an integral part
of day-to-day beautification of the house.
Arranging flowers can be a really fun activity. There are some basic patterns in an
arrangement. They include vertical, horizontal, triangular, crescent, and oval
arrangements, S and free-standing arrangements.
The basic raw material used can also vary from one design to another, like 1. line materials,
which are the first pieces placed in a design to establish the overall width and height. 2.
Dominant flowers which can be flowers, such as lilies, irises or peonies. 3. Filler flowers or
mass flowers, placed in between the dominant flowers, such as moss or vines.
Tape, clay, and floral wire, floral tape covers wire and flower stems, Clay anchors foam,
Wire supports flower heads help in completing an arrangement.
A suitable vase is also important. It need not be expensive but simple and elegant will do.
Decorating a Living Room
Bright flowers in yellow best suit a living room, as yellow color is associated with the sun,
the source of life and warmth. Sunflower, Daisies, Gerberas etc. add cheer to a living room
space. Anthuriums symbolize hospitality, happiness and abundance and are a lovely flower.
A Birds of Paradise flower arrangement looks exotic and adds a tropical ambience.
A square shaped table can have a circle shaped flower arrangement, whereas if it is a
rectangular shaped table, it an arc shaped flower arrangement would be suitable.A fireplace
in a living room, can accommodate 2 mini topiaries on the mantle, or even a corner of a
living room can have a topiary.
Decorating a Bedroom
A bedroom is a very special, personal intimate place. To decorate the same, a lot of factors
need to be taken into consideration, like a person's likes and dislikes in colors, and shapes.
Roses are considered as the symbol of love. Though roses are universally used for almost all
occasions, they are highly preferred for adorning bedrooms. Peonies can also be used as they
symbolize a happy life and happy marriage, good health and prosperity. A dressing table can
be adorned with an arc shaped or circle shaped arrangement, with Roses and Peonies. Mini
topiaries on side tables create a romantic atmosphere.
Decorating a Dining room
A dining table can accommodate different types of arrangements, but especially broad based
arrangements with distinct colored shortly arranged flowers are most suitable. A round or a
square dining table can have a rounded flower arrangement while a rectangular table calls for
a an arc shaped flower arrangement at the centre.
Decorating a Kitchen
Windowsills can be adorned with lush greens. One can place terra cotta pots on a windowsill
planted by combining herbs and sun loving plants like primroses, African violets and
kalanchoe. Even old pitchers, teapots or clay pots can substitute a proper container in a
flower arrangement.

Suggested Teaching/Learning Resources

- Text books
- Flowers
- Tools and equipment for flower arrangements
- Linen
- Magazines
- Internet

Evaluation questions
- Assignments
- Reports
- Tests

9.1.10 FURNISHINGS

Theory

9.1.10T Specific Objectives

By the end of the sub-module unit, the trainees should be able to:
a) define terms in furnishing
b) state the factors to consider when selecting different furnishings
 c) discuss the choice, use and care of different furnishings

UNIT TASKS
Unit Task 1: Definition of terms
Unit Task 2: Factors to consider in selection of furnishings

Unit Task 3: Use, care and maintenance of:

- furniture
- fittings
- fixtures
- soft furnishing

Caring for Your Upholstered Furnishings

Furnishings turn rooms into a comfortable home. Proper care will also keep your
furnishings looking good while they add enjoyment to your home. Although families
with young children and houses pets often have extra work to maintain upholstered
furnishings in particular, prudent care is worth the effort.
It is also worthwhile to note that it may be fairly simple to avoid some types of
damage to upholstered furniture. To reduce fabric fadin, for instance, avoid letting
full sun shine on textiles. Control the light with shades, blinds, or draperies. In
addition, stashing a few paper towels or a small terry towel underneath seat
cushions will give you a quick way to deal with spills.
Vacuuming
Frequent vacuuming is the best way to clean and maintain upholstery. Vacuuming
helps prevent dust, dirt, and stains from embedding in the fibers of upholstered
pieces and keeps them looking new.
Here are a few quick tips on vacuuming:
 Check for loose buttons and threads, weak spots in the fabric, or debris that
could clog the vacuum.
 Clip threads and repair or tighten buttons before vacuuming.
  Use the soft brush attachment on the vacuum. Be sure to keep it clean and free
of oily residue. Or, buy two of these attachments and label one for use only
with upholstery.
 Use a crevice tool for corners and tight spots.

Deep Cleaning

 Important Tip: Read and carefully follow the furniture manufacturer's and
cleaner label directions before applying any product to upholstery.
 Deep-clean upholstered furniture every year or two, depending on the use,
color, and pattern. Commercial cleaning, do-it-yourself cleaning, and foam
cleaners all work.
 Do not soak the fabric or furniture structure with upholstery cleaners.
 Remove all soap residue to avoid attracting dirt to the clean upholstery.
 Use a cleaning product that contains a soil retardant to prevent future
staining. If in doubt, check label directions or consult a professional cleaner
about soil retardants.
 If frequent soiling is a problem, use a spray-silicon soil retardant to prevent
dirt and stains from setting. If your fabric was treated at the time of
manufacture or purchase (with a finish such as Teflon or Scotchgard), it is
important that you use compatible products whenever cleaning the piece.
 See spot cleaning tips on the following page.

Spot Cleaning
 Spills are inevitable, especially when there are children in the house. Look at
furniture labels for care instructions or keep printed instructions in a
household notebook.
 Always test your cleaning method first on an inconspicuous spot. If a ring
remains around the stain after cleaning, you'll need to deep clean the entire
cushion or chair.
 Gently blot spills -- don't rub -- as quickly as possible with a white towel or
paper towel. Don't use colored towels or printed paper towels because they
may transfer dye or ink to the upholstery.
 If a large amount is spilled, remove as much as possible with clean toweling,
a scraper, or spoon; blot up the rest, then treat the remaining stain.
 It's generally best to remove slipcovers to spot-clean, to make sure the
upholstery underneath is not affected. Or, place a clean folded towel under the
slipcover to protect the upholstery while you work on spot-cleaning the
slipcover. >
Removing Pet Hair

 Use a clothes brush with either a bristle head or napped fabric head to collect
pet hair.
 Use a clothes lint remover with a refillable sticky tape to pick up pet hair. Or
look for a similar brush sold in pet stores.
 In a pinch, wrap masking tape around your hand, sticky side out, to pick up
loose hair and fuzz.

Choosing Fabrics

Cotton fabrics are commonly used for upholstery, however their durability depends
on the weave and finish. If a cotton fabric has been pre-washed (as is often the case
with slipcovers), then it should be fine to clean with soap and water, however, it is
always wise to check the manufacturer's recommended cleaning method. Cotton
fabrics will fade in direct sunlight.
Cotton Blends can be a sturdy, family-friendly product. A stain-resistant finish should
be applied for everyday use.
Canvas can be a good choice for family rooms because it is especially durable. The
flat surface shows grime and holds dirt particles, however, so frequent vacuuming is
a must. Pre-washing before fabrication can make it easy to pop smaller canvas
slipcovers into the washing machine for cleaning.
Damask weaves are formal. They should be brushed and vacuumed gently to avoid
breaking threads.
Linen is best suited for formal living rooms or adult areas. Have soiled pieces
professionally cleaned. Keep linen out of direct exposure to sunlight whenever
possible.
Microfibers are a new addition to home furnishings. Offering a soft hand and a vast
color range, they also resist most stains and can easily be cleaned with soap and
water. This fabric is a good choice for households with children.
 Wools and wool blends are sturdy and durable to use for sofas and chairs. Blends
can be spot cleaned when necessary. Check manufacturer's recommended cleaning
method.
Silk is a delicate fabric only suitable for adult areas, such as formal living rooms. It
must be professionally cleaned if soiled. Keep silks out of direct exposure to sunlight
whenever possible.
Sunbrella fabrics are being seen both indoors and out. They offer superior resistance
to stains and fading which makes them a good choice for busy families.
Leather furniture should be gently vacuumed and damp wiped as needed, using as
little water as possible. Clean with leather conditioner or saddle soap, buffing
thoroughly to remove residue.
Suede can be vacuumed with a soft brush attachment. Use only made-for-suede
leather cleaners. Remove small spots with art gum erasers. Never clean with water.

Suggested Teaching/Learning Resources

- Text books
- Furnishings
- Magazines
- Internet

Suggested Teaching/Learning Activities

- Report Writing
- Visits
- Observing
- Research

Evaluation questions
- Assignments
- Reports
- Tests

9.1.11 SECURITY IN HOUSE KEEPING

Theory

9.1.11T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) define the term security
b) state the importance of security
c) state the security measures applied in housekeeping

9.1.11 C Competence
The trainee should have the ability to:
i) practice security measures during operation
ii) identify and use security devices
iii) keep audit trails
 UNIT TASKS
Unit task 1 Definition of security
11. Freedom from risk or danger; safety
12. Measures adopted, as by a business or institution to prevent a crime such as
burglary or assault.

Unit task 2 Importance of Security

 Protection of guests and associates
 Protection of the business
 Protection of the brand
 Investor confidence
 Shareholder value

Unit task 3 Security measures applied against

- pilferage
- forgery
- attacks
- murder
- fire
- accidents

SECURITY IN THE HOTEL

Security

Security is not the prerogative of any one person an establishment; all staff should be
Security minded and report anything of a suspicious nature. Staff should realize the necessity
of not giving information regarding internal matters to such persons as enquiry agents,
newspaper reporters, etc.

Most large establishments ,e.g. hotels and hospitals ,have one or more security officers on
their staff to prevent crime and to protect guests and their staff from such dangers as theft,
bomb threat ,fire or assault .In smaller hotels the responsibility fro Security will be the
manager’s and in other establishments will be that of the manager’s equivalent.

A Security officer, often an ex –policeman ,keeps in touch with other Security officers and
any information gained is shared among them .He should have sufficient seniority to
command respect from the staff and to ensure that the necessary measures are carried
out .The Security officer moves inconspicuously among the guest and is responsible for the
arrangements regarding:

1. Suspicious persons or behavior;

2. Keys, electronic locks and window locks;
3. Bomb threats, fire precautions and the evacuation of the building if necessary;
4. Inspection tours of the building to check for Security hazards, suspicious objects and
to deal with them accordingly;
5. The number of unlocked entrances and exits;
6. Closed TV for identification of persons entering the building;
 7. Searching of staff bags and body searches;
8. Adequate watch on the premises to prevent prostitution;
9. Lost property procedures;
10. Investigation of reports of guests’ loses;
11. Provision of safety deposit boxes in guests’ rooms and ‘peep’ holes in the doors;
12. The safeguard of money when large amounts are being moved from place to place e.g.
to and from the bank.

The Security officer may or may not also be the safety officer and so may or may not be
responsible for safety precautions.

Good hall porters, by experience, get to recognize people with furtive air or remember those
who have given trouble in the past .Head hall porters in a hotel may belong to an association
through which they exchange information regarding undesirable characters.

Entrance halls of all establishments are vulnerable places .In large places ,hotels, hostels,
hospitals etc, there can at certain times be many people about and thieves and terrorists may
take advantage of this ,e.g. picking up unguarded articles or taking the opportunity of getting
further into the building .In small establishments the entrance hall is often not ‘manned’
and unless the door is locked ,anyone may enter .The time –keeper keeps an eye on the back
door and staff comings and goings, and at times may inspect parcels an cases according to
house custom.

There should be as few unattended doors to the street as possible, and at night all outside
doors, except fire doors which should only operate from the inside, should be locked and late
staff should enter by the front door .Ground floor windows and French windows should have
safety catches, and these should be firmly secured at night.

The housekeeper and her staff are about the building perhaps more than many other staff an
dust be aware of the ways in which they can be Security minded .If a thief wants to get into a
room ,he may gain admittance by telling the maid he has;

1. A repair to carry out;

2. Come to collect the television set or other articles;
3. Flowers to deliver to a certain room;
4. Forgotten his key.

Therefore ,a maid should be instructed to keep a look out for ,and report as soon as
possible ,any suspicious characters and be warned against opening doors for strangers ;when
such requests are made she must say that she cannot unlock the door ,but will fetch the
housekeeper who should check the name of the guest with the reception .Maids should be
instructed to lock all doors immediately they are seen and hand them to the housekeeper who
will return them according to house custom.

Keys

Since management has certain responsibilities for the safety of the guests’ belongings, the
proper care of keys is a very important aspect of Security.
Individual heads of departments are responsible for all the keys in their areas and the
housekeeper probably has control of more keys than any other departmental head .In a hotel
there are grandmaster, master, sub master and individual room keys.

Grandmaster key

This key opens all doors and, in addition, double locks them against all other keys;

Overrides the catch put on by the guest for privacy in the room –a precaution necessary in
case of an emergency, e.g. illness or injury;

i. Is used when access to a room has to be prevented, e.g. in the case of death;
ii. Is used when a guest leaves his belongings in his room and goes away for a
night or two;
iii. Is used when a guest does not leave his key at the reception and the guest
needs to be seen by the manager for some special reason;
iv. Is held by the Security officer, general manager, duty manager and sometimes
by the housekeeper.

Master key

This key opens all rooms in the house,

Is carried by the assistant housekeepers and floor service waiters while on duty, and
sometimes by maintenance staff.

Sub-master Key

This key opens all rooms in a maid’s section;

i. Is signed for at the start of the work;

ii. Is attached to a belt round the maid’s waist and should never leave her
person;
iii. Should never be lent to anyone;
iv. Is handed in when the maid goes off duty.
v. Last thing at night, the duty housekeeper checks the return of all keys and
locks them away for the night.

It is generally written into staff terms of contract that the loss of any master key will lead to
dismissal of the employee.

Individual room key

On being shown to a room a guest is given a key with a room number and the name of the
hotel on the tag. Guests are asked to hand in their keys when they go out and the keys are
then put on a key-board which should be out of view of passers-by as another security
precaution .A key not on the key-board should indicate that the guest is in the hotel ;this
information can be useful in the case of an emergency.
The mastering of locks is necessary but it should be realized that when locks are mastered a
certain amount of security is lost and great care should be taken in the allocation of keys to
responsible persons, emphasizing the need for the utmost care in their protection and use at
all times .It may be possible to zone rooms so that not all parts of the establishments are in
jeopardy should a master key be lost.

Key thefts

The locks in hotels are generally spring operated mortise locks but to overcome the problem
of key thefts ,keyless lock systems have been devised .They are expensive but are in use in
some hotels .They may be computerized but there is also a less expensive battery-powered
lock system, with an infra-red device which reads the guests’ cards. A disposable plastic
card about the size of a conventional credit card replaces the normal metal room key. One of
these cards is given to each guest on checking in .In the computerized system the card is
coded by perforations at random from a pool of more than four billion potential codes
available from a master computer console at the front desk .The random code is then
transmitted electronically to the specific guest’s room lock an only this particular card can
open that room door. When the guest checks out ,the code on that room is changed and a new
guest will receive a new code on his new check –in card; the old card automatically becomes
useless .Similar cards may be coded as master keys fro the maids and housekeepers and
changed at frequent intervals at reception.

Re-keying lock systems may also help to overcome the problem of key thefts and a new
system allows the lock to be changed quickly and easily without having to take the tumbler
apart, without removing the lock from the door and without entering the room .The lock is
changed by using a special key which instantly changes the tumbler.

Lost property

It is general practice that any lost property found in rooms should be handed in to the
housekeeper’s office immediately (or other place according to house custom),and the
appropriate details should be entered in a lost property book, after which the articles should
be labeled and will usually be kept for a period of six months .Great tact should be exercised
in dealing with lost property and it is advocated that guests are not notified of the articles
found in rooms unless they are still in the building .Precautions need to be taken to ensure
that articles are only handed over to the rightful owner and not to any would –be claimant.

Valuables

Hotels have a safe or a safe deposit boxes and notices are displayed asking guests not to leave
their valuables in their rooms but to have them locked away in the safe .Should a maid come
into an occupied room and find valuables left there ,she should inform the housekeeper who
will deal with them according to house custom .It is less likely that guests will leave
valuables about when personal safes are provided in their rooms .Peepholes which allow
guests to see who is outside their door are considered standard security equipment in some
hotels .
On being admitted to hospital unexpectedly a patient may have valuables or a large sum of
money which should be put into safe keeping .Similarly on the death of a patient there may
be articles to be kept until claimed by the next of kin, so suitable security arrangements need
to be made in all places .In some establishments (e.g. college halls of residence) residents are
advised to take out personal insurance against theft.

Other security measures

The housekeeper is responsible for the reporting of faulty window catches etc and at night
should ensure that all French windows and balcony doors are securely locked and that panic
bars on fire exit doors are adjusted to enable no entry from outside. In hotels baby sitters may
be arranged by the housekeeper and may be members of the staff or from an agency and both
should have a written permit from the housekeeper authorizing them to be ‘on the floors’;
those from an agency will normally collect the permit from the hall porter as they come into
the hotel.

Inventories, stock lists e.t.c. kept by the housekeeper should help in discovering the loss of
items, e.g. linen, cleaning equipment e.t.c through pilfering and as a result investigations
should take place. The housekeeper and her staff should co-operate fully with the security
officer over house security regulations. All should realize the need to refrain from gossiping
to outside friends and from giving information regarding internal matters to such persons as
enquiry agents, newspaper reporters e.t.c.

For security reasons the housekeeper selects her staff carefully and prospective new members
of staff should be asked for the names and addresses of one or two persons to whom
reference can be made, and testimonials should not be relied on. In taking up references, it is
wise, if possible, to talk on the telephone rather than to expect former employers to commit
themselves on paper

Identifying and using security devices

Keeping audit trails

Suggested Teaching/Learning Resources

- Text books
- Magazines
- Internet
- Security devices

Suggested Teaching/Learning Activities

- Report Writing
- Visits
- Research

Evaluation questions
1. Explain in detail about lost and found procedure. (10)
2. Explain the role of key control in front office department. (10)
3. Write short notes on:
 (i) Electronic key.
(ii) No show.
(iii) House count.
(iv) Master key. (10)

9 .1.12 INTRODUCTION TO FRONT OFFICE

Theory

9 .1.12T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) define terms
b) describe types of offices
c) describe the layout of front office
d) list the functions of the front office
e) sketch the organisational structure of the front office in different
establishments
f) state the qualities of front office personnel
g) state the duties and responsibilities of front office staff

UNIT TASKS
Unit task 1: Definition of terms
Front office: Marketing, sales, and service departments that come in direct contact with the
customers, and liaise with the back-office (administrative) departments to maintain a two-
way flow of information.
Lobby : 1. A hall, foyer, or waiting room at or near the entrance to a building, such as a hotel
.

Hotel Front Offices

The Front Office Department comprise of the Reception, Guest Service Offices, Bell Services,
Reservation, Operators, Executive Club, Health and Recreation Center and Business Center.
The purpose of the Front Office Department is to provide guests assistance with luggage,
transportation, information concerning the hotel and the city, and any other service
arrangements needed during their stay.
Employees of the Front Office Department often provide the first and last impression of the
hotel to our guests. It is therefore vitally important that employees display a prompt and
courteous attitude to all guests and demonstrate the excellence in service.
The Front Office Manager who comes under the direct supervision of the Director of Rooms
and supervises the Front Office Department
Important of Front Office Department to the Hotel
.Hospitality, warm welcome
.Often provide first and last impression.
.Often have longest contact with guest.
.Continuity: Long term service, recognition of repeat guests, remember names, guest
histories.
.Acquaint guest with hotel.
.Sell hotel food and beverage outlets.
.Upsell: Suggest deluxe and suites.
.Smoother over disgruntled guests.

Unit task 2 Types of offices

Unit task 3 Layout of offices

Unit task 4 Functions of the front office

The main function of the Front Office is to support and facilitate guest transactions and
services.

The FRONT OFFICE is the nerve center of a hotel. Members of the front-office staff
welcome the guests, carry their luggage, help them register, give them their room keys
and mail, answer questions about the activities in the hotel and surrounding area, and
finally check them out. In fact, the only direct contact most guests have with hotel
employees, other than in the restaurants, is with members of the front-office staff.

The front office functions can be divided into five general areas:

1. reception
2. bell service
3. mail and information
4. concierge
5. cashiers and night auditors

Two major departments are represented in this list. The employees staffing the first four
areas are in the rooms department. The fifth is the financial area, where guest charges are
accumulated and posted to the bills, and all cash transactions are consummated. These
are all accounting-department functions, and so the cashiers and night auditors are in that
department.

The Front Office function of a Hotel is to act as the public face of the hotel, primarily by
greeting hotel patrons and checking in guests.
It also provides assistance to guests during their stay, completes their accommodation,
food and beverage, accounts and receives payment from guests.
Department is typically composed of
1. Reception
2. Reservation
3. Concierge
4. PBX (phone service system)
5. Telephone
 a) Front Office: Sell guestrooms; register guests and design guestrooms
Maintain accurate Provide information  Coordinate guest services guestrooms
Maintain guest account statementsroom statistics, and room key inventories and
complete proper financial settlements
Receive and process reservation requests for futureb) Reservation: With technology
development, the Reservationovernight accommodations. Department can, on real
time, access the number and types of rooms available, various room rates, and
furnishings, along with the various facilities existing in the hotel Edgar Dsouza Goa
It also provides assistance to guests during their stay, completes their accommodation,
food and beverage accounts and receives payment from guests.

Unit task 5: Organizational structure

The Front Office is one of the most important departments in a hotel, as it often offers
the only contact between guests and staff. A hotel’s Front Office is where guests are
greeted when they arrive, where they are registered and assigned to a room, and where
they check out.
Usually, the telephone operator, other guest communications functions, and the bell
staff or those employees responsible for delivering luggage and messages and
attending to special guest requests also fall under the Front Office umbrella. The
reservations department takes and tracks the hotel’s future bookings. The
housekeeping department is responsible for cleaning guest rooms and public spaces.

ORGANIZATION CHART.

Unit task 6 Qualities of front office personnel

The Front Office personnel should have the following attributes
 A high sense of personal grooming `
 Personal hygiene
 Self confident
 Communication must be correct and clear
 Diplomacy is the greatest attribute required
 Ability to remember names and faces
 Ready smile
 Physical fitness
 Quick decision making ability
Unit task 7 Duties and responsibilities of front office personnel

Duties and responsibilities of a front desk are as follows:

1. To welcome the arriving guests.
2. Providing information service.
3. Receiving and processing reservations
4. Filling of the arrival and departure register.
5. Dealing with complaints and handling them.
6. Communication and coordination with other departments.

Specific Duties:
Receptionist
The front desk receptionist, has to play a very important role vis-a-vis the clients in
not only selling rooms and services but also the image of the hotel as well.
When checking in guests, you should perform these tasks:-
 assign rooms and issue room keys;
 check with the housekeeping departments that rooms are ready for occupation;
 liaise with the bell desk to deliver luggage to the rooms;
 note requests for wake-up calls, transport arrangements and other general
enquiries;
 settle guests’ complaints with tack and diplomacy;
 communicate with other departments regarding group and VIP check-ins.

Reservations Clerk
The reservations clerk has to handle and process reservation requests and maintain
reservation records.
Main duties:-
 keep a record of guests’ arrivals, day and time of check-in, length of stay, and
their special needs and preferences;
 liaise with other departments such as housekeeping, restaurants and security,
regarding VIP and group check-ins;
 manage the booking of rooms.

Cashier
The cashier has to maintain accurate account balances for hotel expenses and collect
payment from guests. Hotel expenses include room charges, overseas telephone calls,
meals and laundry.
Should be able to:-
 transact foreign exchange, for example, converting foreign currencies and
travelers cheques into local currency;
 settle bill payments and expenses quickly and accurately for guests who are
checking out;
 maintain safe deposit boxes.

Practice
9 .1.12P Specific Objectives
By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) identify types of offices and their functions
b) identify areas of front office
c) sketch a front office layout
d) draw the front office organisational structure

UNIT TASKS
9 .1.12P 1 Identify types of offices and their functions
9 .1.12P 2 Identify areas of front office
9 .1.12P 3 Sketch front office layout
9 .1.12P 4 Draw front office organisational structure

Suggested Teaching/Learning Resources

- Textbooks
- Offices
- Front office equipment
- Front office supplies
- Safe deposits
- Keys
- Front office records
- Communication devices
- Magazines
- Internet
- Television

Suggested Evaluation Questions

1. Name the major functional sections of the Front office.
2. List the different categories of staff involved in the reception section of the Front Office
3. Distinguish between the duties of a reservation clerk and a receptionist
4. Explain the duties of a head hall porter

9.1.13 FRONT OFFICE EQUIPMENT AND SUPPLIES

Theory

9.1.13T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) identify front office equipment and supplies
b) state factors to consider when selecting front office equipment and supplies
c) explain the use, care and maintenance of front office equipment and supplies

9.1.13 C Competence
The trainee should have the ability to:
i) identify front office equipment and their components
ii) operate, care and maintain front office equipment
 iii) identify types of supplies used in the front office

UNIT TASKS
Unit task 1 Types of front office equipment and supplies

Unit task 2 Factors to consider when selecting front office equipment and supplies

Unit task 3 Use, care and maintenance of front office equipment

Practice

9.1.13P Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) identify front office equipment and their components
b) operate front office equipment
c) care and maintain front office equipment
d) identify types of supplies used in the front office

UNIT TASKS
9.1.13P 1 Identification of front office equipment and supplies
9.1.13P 2 Operating front office equipment
9.1.13P 3 Care and maintenance front office equipment and supplies
9.1.13P 4 Identify types of supplies

Suggested Teaching/Learning Resources

- Textbooks
- Front office equipment
- Front office supplies
- Manuals
- Resource persons
- Office records
- Magazines
- Internet

Suggested Teaching/Learning Activities

- Visits
- Using equipment and supplies
- Role playing
- Report writing

Evaluation questions
- Assignments
- Reports
- Tests

9.1.14 SECURITY IN FRONT OFFICE OPERATIONS

Theory
9.1.14T Specific Objectives
By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) identify the role of the front office in the security of premises
b) explain the confidentiality of information in the front office
c) discuss the protection of guests property in an establishment
d) discus ways of minimizing pilferage

UNIT TASKS
Unit Task 1: The role of Front Office in the Security of premises
A security program is most effective when all employees participate in the
hotel's security efforts. Front office staff plays a particularly important role.
Front desk agent, door attendants, bell persons, and parking attendants have the
opportunity to observe all persons entering or departing the premises.
Suspicious activities or circumstances involving a guest or visitor should be
reported to the hotel's security department or a designated staff member.

Several procedures front desk agents should use to protect guests and property
have already been mentioned. For example, front desk agents should never give
keys, room numbers, messages, or mail to anyone requesting them without first
requiring appropriate identification. Front office staff may also inform guest's of
personal precautions they may take. For example, front desk agents may suggest
that guests hide and secure any valuables left in their cars.
Bell persons accompanying the guest to a room generally provide instructions on
the operation of in-room equipment. The bell persons may also review any decals
or notices in the room relating to guest security. This should always include
emergency evacuation paths and procedures.

Unit task 2: Confidentiality of information at the Front Office

The front desk agent should not announce an arriving guest's room number.
Guest's may be further protected if the front office prohibits staff members from
providing guest information to callers or visitors.
Generally, front desk agent should not mention guest room numbers. People
calling guest's at the hotel should be directly connected to the appropriate
guestroom without being informed of the room number. Conversely, someone
asking for a specific room number over the telephone should never be connected
until the caller identifies whom he or she is calling and the hotel employee verifies
the identity of the person in the room requested.
A person inquiring at the front desk about a guest may be asked to use the house
phones so that they connect only to the hotel operator. The caller can then be
properly screened to provide additional security.

Unit Task 3: Protection of guests’ property

The Hotel Proprietors Act states that the hotel management is liable for the safety
of guest property while they are resident. Depositing guest valuables in Safe
Deposit boxes is one method of security.
The security of guest clothes and luggage in the guest rooms is also of great
importance. Therefore, a well controlled system of handling guest keys is essential
at the Front Office.
 Unit Task 4: Ways of minimizing pilferage
 carrying out spot checks
 installing cctvs at the front office
 stock control
 inspection of staff when they check out
 Staff identification

Suggested Teaching/Learning Resources

- Textbooks
- Safe deposits
- Keys
- Office records
- Communication devices
- Internet
- Television

Evaluation questions
- Assignments
- Reports
- Tests

9.1.15 FRONT OFFICE PROCEDURES

Theory

9.1.15T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) define terms
b) state the importance of front office procedures
c) explain front office procedures

9.1.15 C Competence
The trainee should have the ability to:
i) perform front office tasks
ii) identify different systems in the front office
iii) carry out simple work study
iv) design front office document

UNIT TASKS
Unit task 1:Definitions of terms
Check in
Check-in is the process of announcing your arrival at a hotel
At hotels, Check-in is normally required in order to obtain a room key and provide a
credit card guarantee to cover potential costs such as Room Service for the duration of
the stay.
 Check out
This is the process of settling one's account in a hotel and leaving

Reservation
This is an agreement to have some accommodation at a hotel held for one's
future use

Unit Task 2: Importance of front office procedures

Unit Task 3: Front office procedures

 Advance booking

To complete a booking request, you have to provide the following information on

the Hotel Request Form:
• Your name, email, and contact phone number.
• Guests' names, at least one name per room required.
• Hotel name. (You may simply put in "any one" if you don't have the
name.)
• City and country of the hotel.
• Room category.
• Room type.
• Number of rooms requested.
• Check-in and check-out dates.
 Check in and related issues

Guest checking-in procedure.

- Guests are greeted and welcomed on arrival by the guest relation officer and
receptionists
- Guest luggage is taken to the lounge by the porters
- Guests are issued with face towels at the reception lobby
- Guests are escorted to the bar lounge by the guest relation officer
- While seated they are issued with welcome drink, requested to register,
thereafter issued with room keys
- Guest officer briefs them about meals time, available hotel facilities and
activities
- Guest relation officer wishes them a good stay and introduces them to porters
who escort them to their rooms.

Guest Accounting
A guest account is a record of all financial transactions between the hotel and
the guest. Front Office accounting procedure can be divided into three main
phases:
 Creation of accounts
 Maintenance of accounts
 Settlement of accounts

 Security
 Suggested Teaching/Learning Resources
- Textbooks
- Resource persons
- Office records
- Internet
Suggested Teaching/Learning Activities
- Visits
- Role playing
- Perform front office tasks
- Researching
- Report writing

Suggested Evaluation Method

Define the term reservation.
Explain in detail about types of reservation.
Explain the procedure for basic check-in
activities.
Write short notes on :
(i) Room status.
(ii) Guest history card.
(iii) Credit card.
(iv) Group reservation.
Explain in detail about the duties of
reception department.
Write short notes on the following :
(i) Discrepancy report.
(ii) Skipper.
(iii) Bill to company.
(iv) Late charges
Explain basic check-out procedure.
Draw the neat sketch of ‘C’ form. (10)
Explain briefly about arrival and departure lists

9.1.16 COMMUNICATION

Theory

9.1.16T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) define relevant terms
b) explain the importance of communication in front office
c) explain forms of communication
d) identify communication devices used in front office

UNIT TASKS
Unit Task 1 Definition of relevant terms

Communication
 Communication can be defined as the exchange of information, thought and
emotion between individuals of groups, in other words, communication plays a
fundamental role in balancing individual and organizational objectives.

Unit Task 2 Importance of communication in front office

Unit Task 3 Forms of communication

Unit Task 4 Communication devices in front office

o Telephones- They may be fixed or mobile
o Walkie talkies
o Pagers

Practice
9.1.16P Specific Objectives
By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) practice communication skills
b) use, care and maintain communication devices

UNIT TASKS
9.1.16P 1 Practice communication skills
9.1.16P 2 Use, care and maintain communication devices

Suggested Teaching/Learning Resources

- Textbooks
- Resource persons
- Communication devices
- Magazines
- Internet
- Television

Suggested Teaching/Learning Activities

- Role playing
- Practice use of devices
- Browsing
- Researching
- Report writing

Evaluation questions

9.1.17 WORK CONTROL

Theory

9.1.17T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) define terms
b) explain the importance of work control measures
c) explain measures applied in work control
9.1.17 C Competence
The trainee should have the ability to:
i) perform front office tasks within the time allocated
ii) practice work control measures in performing front office tasks

UNIT TASKS
9.1.17T 1 Definition of terms
9.1.17T 2 Importance of work control
9.1.17T 3 Control measures in front office procedures
9.1.17T 4 Work control measures

Practice

9.1.17P Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) perform front office tasks within the time allocated
b) practice work control measures in performing front office tasks

UNIT TASKS
9.1.17P 1 Perform front office tasks
9.1.17P 2 Practice work control measures

Suggested Teaching/Learning Resources

- Textbooks
- Front office equipment
- Front office supplies
- Manuals
- Resource persons
- Safe deposits
- Keys
- Office records
- Communication devices
- Magazines
- Internet
- Television

Suggested Teaching/Learning Activities

- Using equipment and supplies
- Role playing
- Practice use of devices
- Browsing
- Perform front office tasks
- Researching
- Report writing

Evaluation questions
- Assignments
- Reports
- Tests
9.1.18 INTRODUCTION TO LAUNDRY

9.1.18 Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) define terms used in laundry
b) outline the scope of the laundry
c) state the importance of laundry
d) describe the layout of a laundry plan
e) explain the factors to consider when planning the laundry layout

UNIT TASKS
Unit Task 1: Definition of terms

Laundry
This is the process of washing and finishing or articles.

Washing
This is the process of using water, detergent and action in the removal of dirt from
articles

Dry cleaning
This is the process of ‘washing’ articles in solvents and absorbents.

Spot cleaning
This is the process of removing dirt from a soiled part of an article. It is also
known as local treatment.

Sponging
This is the treatment given to articles using various laundry agents that happen to
be soiled on the surface.

Finishing
This is the process of removing creases from articles by either ironing or pressing.

Unit Task 2: Scope of laundry

 Valeting
 Pleating
 Carpet cleaning
 Dyeing

Unit Task 3: Importance of laundry

 To preserve the article
 For hygiene reasons
 For aesthetic purposes
 Unit Task 4: Laundry plan layout

Unit Task 5: Factors to consider when planning the laundry layout

 Ventilation
 Space
 Drainage
 Lighting

Suggested Teaching/Learning Resources

- Laundry room
- Charts
- Text books
- Laundry equipment and tools
- Magazines
- Manufacturer’s manuals

Evaluation questions
- Assignments
- Reports
- Tests

9.1.19 HYGIENE AND SAFETY

Theory

9.1.19 Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) explain hygiene requirements in the laundry area and linen room
b) explain the importance of safety in the laundry area
c) explain safety measures applied in the laundry area

UNIT TASKS

Unit task 1: Hygiene requirements in the laundry area and linen room

Definition of terms
 Hygiene

Hygiene refers to the set of practices associated with the preservation of health
and healthy living. Hygiene is a concept related to medicine, as well as to personal
and professional care practices related to most aspects of living, although it is
most often associated with cleanliness and preventative measures.
  Safety

This is the condition of being safe; freedom from danger, risk, or injury

General Hygiene Practices

 Staff should wear gloves when in contact with any used or worn laundry items,
whether obvious contamination is visible or not.
 Gowns or aprons should be worn whenever it is likely that a staff person’s clothing
could come in contact with laundry.
 The staff should be made aware of the basic principles of personal hygiene to help
reduce infection among staff. To achieve this, the following rules should be observed:
a) Keep fingernails short and clean
b) Wash hands after going to the toilet, sneezing or smoking.
c) Use paper handkerchiefs and dispose of them immediately.
d) Keep cuts and abrasions covered with suitable dressing.
e) Never smoke while working.
f) Wear rubber gloves if skin is sensitive.

Unit task 2: Importance of safety in the laundry area

Unit task 3: Safety measures in the laundry area

1. All cleaning agent containers should be clearly labeled as to their contents and
dilution ratios.
2. Stain removal agents should be kept locked in a metal cupboard or box.
3. Electrical equipments should be inspected regularly for worn or frayed flexes and
damaged plugs.
4. Aerosol containers should be stored away from heat and disposed off with care
(not incinerated)
5. Cleaning materials should be stored well and the store kept clean, tidy, well
ventilated and locked when not in use.
6. Staff should be well instructed on any new equipment they are issued.
7. All staff should know the whereabouts of the nearest first aid box
8. Every first aid box should be well supplied with waterproof adhesive tape,
scissors, safety pins, antiseptic cream, eye bath, pain killers, cotton wool, gauze and roller
bandage.

Dryer
Your clothes dryer looks safe enough but it can turn into a real killer if you do not watch out.
Whether electric or gas, dryers collect lint, which is highly combustible. Lint buildup--on the
inside of the exhaust pipe, where the pipe connects at the back of the dryer and outside at the
vent--also reduces air flow and the drying efficiency of the appliance. Preventing disaster
though is easy.
A simple check out and cleaning of your dryer can often make it safe to use. The first area to
clean is the lint trap. It should be cleaned after every load. Peel lint from the screen and
wipe the edges and the trap drawer with a damp cloth. A shop vacuum is handy for sucking
out any lint stuck inside the trap drawer.
Next, unplug the dryer. Check the back, where the exhaust pipe connects to the appliance.
The pipe is held in place by a clip or a steel clamp that can be loosened by pliers or a
screwdriver. After removing the pipe, reach inside the dryer opening to remove as much lint
as possible. Again, use a damp cloth to wipe away lint.

Clean the inside of the exhaust pipe, too. Reach in to wipe away any buildup. Replace the
exhaust pipe if it is made of vinyl or foil. Building codes usually prohibit vinyl and foil exhaust
pipes, which can ignite and cause fires. Instead, use flexible metal pipe, which includes snap-
lock fittings, and comes in a variety of lengths.
Flexible metal is more durable, too, so it won't puncture or rip. Don't allow dryer exhaust to
vent inside your home or attic; dryer exhaust contains too much humid air and can cause
problems with mold and mildew.
Also, don't store flammable materials--paints, solvents, household cleaners and paper--near
your dryer. Some liquids can emit vapors that can ignite.
Further, clean the exterior vent which might entail using a step ladder because some dryers
vent upward from ground-level floors. The cleaning process is similar to the interior, except
you might need a screwdriver or scraper blade to hold the vent flap open. Wipe away as
much lint buildup as possible. A shop vacuum can be used to suck out any excess lint.
And, remove lint and visually inspect the exhaust pipe at least once a year, more often if you
use your dryer twice weekly.

General Laundry Safety

Wherever you install your washer and dryer - whether it's in the basement or another room
- make sure you install a smoke alarm as well. Like all major appliances, your washer and
dryer should be properly grounded. Ensure you have the proper sized fuse or breaker switch
installed. Washing means water, of course, and if not already in place, you should install an
outlet with a ground fault circuit interrupter.
If your laundry room shares the basement with the furnace, avoid hanging clothes, or
storing laundry products, such as bleach near the furnace where they can create fire.
Water, electrical appliances, tight spaces are all present dangers to children, so make the
laundry room off limits as a play area. Also, the iron should also be kept out of reach of
children - young tots can pull on the cord and pull a heavy iron down on themselves causing
injury. When finished ironing, unplug the iron, and never leave a hot iron unattended.
And, watch your step while carrying laundry, especially if you have to take the stairs. It's
better to take two small loads so you can see where you're going over the top of the laundry
basket and avoid tripping. It's also not a good idea to locate the laundry hamper or basket
on the stairs.
 Use of fire fighting equipment

9.1.20 LAUNDRY TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT

9.1.20 Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) classify laundry tools and equipment
b) state factors to consider in the selection of laundry tools and equipment.
c) discuss use, care and maintenance of laundry tools and equipment

UNIT TASKS

Unit task 1 Classification of laundry tools and equipment

Laundry equipment can be classified into four different categories
a) washing equipment
b) drying equipment
c) finishing equipment
d) storage equipment

a) Washing equipment

Washing machines
This is a real necessity where a lot of washing is done to save time and energy. There are
different types in the market, ranging from simple washers to fully automatic ones. The
cleaning action is either by agitation or pulsator.
The machines are either top loading or continuous batch machines.

There are a variety of sizes in the market ranging from 45kg to 450kg for industrial machines.

Laundry sinks
This should be located at a height that allows worker to work with the back straight.
They should not be too deep as this leads to waste of water and detergent.

Basins
These are used for hand washing of clothes and articles. They should be large enough to hold
the washing water.
Buckets
These are used to store/hold washing water.

b) Drying equipment

Spin drier
It is an equipment used to extract water from articles. It is very gentle to fabrics and extracts
about 50% of moisture from articles.
The machine stops quickly and automatically where the lid is opened.
Tumble dryer
This is used to dry the articles completely. It has three heat settings – low, medium and high.
The choice of right timing is very important to completely dry the articles. The machine
consists of a perforated drum through which hot air blows to dry the articles.

Pegs
These are used to hold articles on the line firmly to prevent them from being blown by the
wind

Clothes line
Clothes are hang outdoors on the line to dry. There are different types of materials used to
make clothe lines. It includes metal, nylon and sisal.

c) Finishing equipment

These include:

Calenders
This is a device used to finish flat articles. It is a real necessity in large establishments where
a lot of flat articles are handled. There are two types of calenders;
- the bed ironer
- the roller ironer

Steam presses/Foamers
These are used to finish dust coats and uniforms. They make use of heated steam which is
blown to remove creases.

Irons
These are used for finishing items with details. These are two types of electric irons in the
market:
- Dry iron
- Steam iron
Both are thermostatically controlled

Folding Machines
This machine does not actually fold the laundry, but holds one end of the item to be folded so
that he staff can fold it more easily.

Unit task 2 Factors to consider in the selection of laundry tools and equipment

1.Possible savings on energy and power

Another consideration to keep in mind when it comes to front loading machines is that in
most specimen these appliances are far more energy efficient than their upright machines.
2. Features/Benefits
A decision can be made on a specific model after considering their features and price. The
energy saving is a major advantage because it translates to huge savings on cost over time.
Also, front loading washing machines are preferred not only because of the power savings
but because it uses only 60% of water consumption compared to the older models. Thus,
people will be happy to realize a great keep on energy bills after their research.
3. Popular brands/models
4. Budget.
You need to keep in mind that there are varieties of these types of equipment in a wide
spectrum of prices.
Initial cost, running, maintenance and depreciation should be considered.

5. Size

6. Portability

Unit Task 3: Use, care and maintenance of laundry tools and equipment

1. Wash, rinse and dry the equipment and tools thoroughly after use.
2. Use the tools and equipment for the correct purpose.
3. Service the equipment regularly.
4. Plastic tools and equipments should be stored away from heat and direct sunlight.
5. Metal tools and equipment should be stored in a dry place to avoid rusting.

9.1.21 LAUNDRY AGENTS

Theory

9.1.21T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) define terms
b) classify laundry agents
c) explain the properties of laundry agents
d) state the factors to consider in selecting laundry agents
e) discuss the preparation, use and storage of laundry agents

UNIT TASKS
Unit Task 1: Definition of terms

Laundry Agent
This is an active substance that is capable of effectively removing dirt.

Unit Task 2: Classification of laundry agents

Types of laundry agents

Water
The contents of water are determined by their source. Rain water is soft if collected directly
before passing through rocks and soil collecting minerals that harden it. Water is the simplest
cleaning agent and some form of dirt will be dissolved by it.
Water can be classified into hard and soft water. Soft water is the best for laundry work
because it lathers easily and does not stain articles
Temporary hardness can be removed by boiling or use of chemicals like borax, ammonia or
washing soda.
Permanent hardness can be removed by addition of washing soda or commercial agents like
Calgan

Detergents
These are substances used with water for easy removal of dirt. They enhance the wetting of
clothes and improve the emulsification of grease and other dirt by holding it in suspension so
that it is not re-deposited back into the fabric.
Detergents can be classified into two groups - soaps and soapless detergents.

Soaps
These are made from animal fat or vegetable oil and an alkaline substance such as strong
caustic soda, water and salt .They can come in form of powder, flakes ,cake bar or liquid.

Soapless detergents
These are synthetic soaps or syndets. They are manufactured from chemical substances and
certain ingredients added during the manufacture to improve the performance. They are
available in form of powder and liquid.

General properties
 should have good wetting power to lower the surface tension of water
 good emulsifying power to break up grease
 good suspending power to prevent re-deposition of the soiling
 must be soluble in cold water
 should be effective in hard water
 should be economical in use
 should rinse easily without leaving streaks or scum
 should be harmless to the user and fabric

Bleaches
They are either natural or chemical substances used on an article to improve their colour,
remove stains and disinfect. These are the most damaging of all laundry agents hence careful
use in laundry is very important. There are two categories;
 oxidizing bleaches
 reducing bleaches

Fabric conditioners
These have special agents which adhere to the surface of clothes and articles with the
following advantages
 they help to revitalize fabrics
 They give fabrics a softer feel
 They reduce the amount of creasing on fabrics
 They reduce the electrostatic effect generated by synthetic fabrics
 They give fabrics a softer feel
 They have a sanitizing effect on baby wear
They are added in the last rinsing water.

Laundry Starch
This is a laundry agent made from natural or synthetic material. They are available in the
market in powder, liquid, and spray form. It is used to;
 Improve the appearance of fabrics
 Restore natural stiffness of fabrics
 Stiffens fabrics
 Gives a glossy finish which prevents the fabric from catching dirt easily

Laundry Blue
Blue is a solid powder produced in form of a cube, block or liquid form. It is mixed with cold
water to form a light blue colour and stirred continuously because if left to stand, the blue
settles in the water.
It is used for white cottons, linen and silk fabrics to improve the colour of the fabrics. It has
also qualities that help to hide unpleasant discoloration, but if used too much, will leave a
blue stain. Blue is always used in the final rinse.

Unit task 3: Properties of laundry agents

Unit Task 4: Selection of laundry agents

Unit Task 5: Preparation, use and storage of laundry agents

Preparation of boiling water starch

Requirements
1 heaped teaspoonful of starch powder.
2 teaspoonfuls of cold water.
½ Litre boiling water.

Method:
1. Measure starch in a bowl.
2. Add cold water to the starch and mix with a wooden spoon or a smooth stick till smooth.
3. Add boiling water while stirring all the time to prevent lumps forming.
If there is no appropriate measure for 1/2litre available just pour the boiling water slowly
while stirring until the water changes. The colour change is an indication that the starch
grains are cooked and the solution thickened in the process.
Starch grains absorb moisture to start with, then swell and on coming into contact
with the heat, they burst open thus letting out the granules which mix with water and
consequently form a thick solution.
This process is called gelatinization of starch. In making boiling water starch therefore the
water must be boiling and not just hot to ensure that the starch grains are properly cooked.
4. The solution obtained after the addition of boiling water is referred to as full strength
starch. This too strong and is not suitable for stiffening any article. It requires some
degree of dilution to obtain a suitable strength. Therefore measure this starch solution
using any container and mark the level. Pour into a large bowl or basin.
5. Add the same amount of warm water as the starch solution to dilute. This is referred to 1:1
strength i.e. one part of starch to an equal part of water. To make 1:2 strength add the same
as original amount of water again to the solution. Continue with this method of diluting
until the required strength is obtained which depends on the article being stiffened.
If the starch is not to be used immediately, leave it covered in 1:1 strength.
A guide to the use of boiling water starch.
1 part starch to 1 part water (1:1 strength) – too strong for use
1:2 strength – articles made of thin fabrics required very stiff but this strength is hardly used
1:3 strength – articles required very stiff e.g. table mats, aprons, overalls, etc
1:4-5 strength – table linen e.g. napkins, tablecloths, tray cloths, chair backs, etc
1:6-7 strength – curtains
1:8 strength – bed linen and personal garments

Note
The above strengths may be varied depending on the stiffness required, the type and use
of the article to be stiffened. Starch first the articles required to be very stiff, and then
continue to dilute as necessary. Remember however that after each article has been immersed
into the solution, the starch becomes weaker and therefore the amount of water used towards
the end may be reduced. After immersing the article in the starch solution, squeeze the starch
into the fabric to ensure even distribution. Then wring the article out and dry in the normal
manner

Cold water starch

This is often referred to as instant starch and is used for articles required to be very stiff, e.g.
belts, caps and very thin muslin articles. It is also suitable for men’s collars and cuffs.

Requirements
2 Tablespoons starch (preferably rice starch)
½ teaspoon borax
1 tablespoon boiling water
½ litre cold water

Method
1. Measure the starch and put in the bowl
2. Dissolve the borax in the boiling water then mix with starch. Stir to mix.
3. Add cold water to the starch, stir well, cover and leave for at least 30 minutes to
enable the starch grains to soften.
4. Stir well before use and then immerse the article and squeeze starch into the mesh of
the fabric.
5. Remove and squeeze out the starch. Rub lightly with a cloth to remove starch grains
from the surface of the fabric. Thicker fabrics may be rolled in a cloth for a few minutes
before ironing.
6. Iron immediately with a hot clean iron, applying even pressure all through. The heat
bursts the already swollen starch grains and immediately sets it into the fabric. The articles
become very stiff and feel like paper.

Preparation and use of laundry blue

1. Make blue solution in a white enamel or plastic container which will show the true
colour of the solution.
2. Tie the block of powdered blue in a piece of clean white cloth or blue bag before
putting it into the water to prevent sediment in the solution.
3. Squeeze the blue in water until it is pale blue in colour.
4. Test a small piece of white cloth in the solution before using it in the garment.
5. Rinse garments one at a time; open out the garment, immerse it into the water and see
that it is evenly blued.
6. Turn out pockets so that blue does not settle in folds or seams
7. Squeeze out as much moisture as possible
8. Stir the solution well before putting another garment in.
9. To get good results, hang white fabrics out in bright sunshine.

Note
Never rinse coloured garments in blue.
If accidentally is badly blued or over-blued, rinse it in water to which you can also add
colourless vinegar.

9.1.22 FIBRES AND FABRICS

9.1.22 Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit the trainee should be able to:
a) define terms
b) classify textile fibres
c) state the properties of textile fibres
d) discuss the methods of fabric construction
e) explain types of fabric finishes
f) discuss the procedure of laundering fabrics

UNIT TASKS

Unit Task 1: Definition of Terms

Fibre
This is a slender and greatly elongated substance capable of being spun into yarn
It can also be defined as a natural or synthetic filament that may be spun into yarn, such as
cotton or nylon.
A textile is a flexible material consisting of a network of natural or artificial fibres often
referred to as thread or yarn. Yarn is produced by spinning raw wool fibres, linen, cotton, or
other material on a spinning wheel to produce long strands.
Textiles are formed by weaving, knitting, crocheting, knotting, or pressing fibres together
(felt).
The words fabric and cloth are used in textile assembly trades (such as tailoring and
dressmaking) as synonyms for textile. However, there are subtle differences in these terms in
specialized usage. Textile refers to any material made of interlacing fibres. Fabric refers to
any material made through weaving, knitting, crocheting, or bonding. Cloth refers to a
finished piece of fabric that can be used for a purpose such as covering a bed.

Unit Task 2: Classification of textile fibres

Natural Fibre.
a) Vegetable Origin:
1. Bast Fibres like Jute, Flax, Hemp, Kenaf, Sunn, Urena, and Nettle.
2. Seed & Fruit fibres like Coir, Cotton.
3. Leaf Fibres like Sisal, Manila.

b) Animal Origin:
 1. Wool and Hair Fibres,
2. Silk and other filaments.

c) Mineral Origin:
Asbestos

2. Man-made Fibre/ Chemical Fibre/ Artificial Fibre:

a) Natural Polymer Based.

1. Cellulose
2. Cellulose Ester
3. Protein
4. Miscellaneous.

b) Synthetic Polymer Based.

1. Polyamides
2. Polyesters fibres
3. Polyolefins
4. Poly-urethanes
5. Polyvinyl Derivatives like Poly-acrylonitrile (PAN), Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC),
Polyvinylidence Chloride

Unit Task 3: Properties of textile fibres

Properties of silk fibres

Silk fibers are smooth, translucent, rod-like filaments with occasional swellings along their
length. The raw silk fiber actually consists of two filaments called fibroin bound by a soluble
silk gum called sericin. Fibroin and sericin are made up of carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, and
oxygen.

Silk has several important qualities:

(1) It is lower in density than wool, cotton, or rayon.
(2) It is a poor conductor of heat and electricity.
(3) It is capable of soaking up to 30% of its weight in moisture.
(4) It is extremely strong, with a breaking strength as high as 65,000 psi.
(5) It will stretch to as much as 20% of its length without breaking.
(6) It is thermally stable; it is able to withstand temperatures as high as 284°F (140°C). (7) It
becomes smooth, lustrous, and luxurious when processed.
(8) It is remarkably resilient, and shows excellent wrinkle recovery.

Properties of cotton fibres

Cotton, as a natural cellulosic fiber, has a lot of characteristics, such as;

 Comfortable Soft feel

 It readily absorbs moisture which makes it suitable for clothing
 Absorbs dyes readily and will take a variety of special finishes
  It is not damaged by alkalis
 Machine-washable
 Dry-cleanable
 Stronger when wet than when dry
 It is very hard wearing (durable)even in its finest form.
 Cotton fibres have little resilience therefore fabrics made from them tends to crease
badly
 Drapes well
 Easy to handle and sew
 If stored while damp, it is easily attacked by mildew
 It shrinks, unless it has been sanforised
 It rots due to long exposure to sunlight
 It is a good conductor of heat

Production of cotton:
When cotton arrives at a textile mill, several blenders feed cotton into cleaning machines,
which mix the cotton, break it into smaller pieces and remove trash. The cotton is sucked
through a pipe into picking machines. Beaters in these machines strike the cotton repeatedly
to knock out dirt and separate lumps of cotton into smaller pieces.
Cotton then goes to the carding machine, where the fibers are
separated. Trash and short fibers are removed. Some cotton goes
through a comber that removes more short fibers and makes a
stronger, more lustrous yarn.
This is followed by spinning processes which do three jobs: draft
the cotton, or reduce it to smaller structures, straighten and parallel
the fibers and lastly, put twist into the yarn. The yarns are then made
into cloth by weaving, knitting or other processes.
After inspectors check the cloth, it is passed through a gas flame
that singes the fuzz off its surface. Boiling the cloth in an alkaline
solution removes natural waxes, coloured substances or
discolorations. Then the cloth is bleached in hypochlorite or
peroxide. The cloth may then pass through a machine that prints designs on it. Cloth intended
to be solid-coloured goes through a dye bath.

End Uses of Cotton:

Apparel - Wide range of wearing apparel: blouses, shirts, dresses, children’s wear, active
wear, swimwear, suits, jackets, skirts, pants, sweaters, hosiery, neckwear.
Home Fashion - curtains, draperies, bedspreads, comforters, sheets, towels, table cloths, table
mats, napkins

Linen fabric characteristics

Linen is one of the oldest textiles sorts in the world which is produced from linen fiber. Linen
is an annual and perennial grasses and sub-shrubs; the stem is vertical up to 150 cm. Linen is
stronger and more glossy than cotton.
 The linen fabric does not turn yellowish, it becomes whiter and gentler after time.
 Linen fibre goes damp and dry very soon, that is why the fabric warms during cold
night and cools the body during hot midday.
  Linen fibres are firm
 The fibres are lustrous
 Linen is strong – it is three times stronger than cotton fabrics.
 Linen fabrics are five times more resistant to rubbing than cotton fabrics.
 Linen fabrics absorb dampness and sweat better than cotton fabrics.
 Acids and alkalis affect linen as they do cotton
 Over-bleaching weakens the fibre
 It takes dyes readily
 It has low resiliency and therefore creases readily unless treated
 Under damp conditions, it is easily attacked by mildew
 It is a good conductor of heat
 It is absorbent
 It is a durable fabric

Wool
Woolen fabric is made from the fleece of sheep.
There are 40 different breeds of sheep in the world producing a rough estimate of 200 types
of wool with varying standards. The major wool producers in the world are Australia,
Argentina, China and South Africa.

Production of Wool:
The processing of wool involves four major steps.
First comes shearing, followed by sorting and grading, making yarn and lastly, making fabric.
In most parts of the world, sheep are sheared once a year, in early spring or early summer.
The best wool comes from the shoulders and sides of the sheep.
This is followed by grading and sorting, where workers remove any stained, damaged or
inferior wool from each fleece and sort the rest of the wool according to the quality of the
fibers. Wool fibers are judged not only on the basis of their strength but also by their fineness
(diameter), length, crimp (waviness) and colour.
The wool is then scoured with detergents to remove the yolk and such impurities as sand and
dust.
After the wool dries, it is carded. The carding process involves passing the wool through
rollers that have thin wire teeth. The teeth untangle the fibers and arrange them into a flat
sheet called a web. The web is then formed into narrow ropes known as silvers.

After carding, the processes used in making yarn vary slightly, depending on the length of the
fibers. Carding length fibers are used to make woolen yarn. Combing length fibers and
French combing length fibers are made into worsted yarn.
- Woolen yarn, which feels soft, has a fuzzy surface and is heavier than worsted. While
worsted wool is lighter and highly twisted, it is also smoother, and is not as bulky, thus
making it easier to carry or transport about.
- Making worsted wool requires a greater number of processes, during which the fibers are
arranged parallel to each other. The smoother the hard-surface worsted yarns, the smoother
the wool it produces, meaning, less fuzziness. Fine worsted wool can be used in the making
of athletics attire, because it is not as hot as polyester, and the weave of the fabric allows
wool to absorb perspiration, allowing the body to "breathe".
Properties of the wool:
1. It is a bad conductor of heat, therefore can maintain body temperature.
2. The fibres have an inner part or core enclosed in an outer skin which is made up of
several irregular overlapping scales. These are capable of holding pockets of air in
them which act as insulators. They also give the fibre a natural crimp.
3. It is water-repellant, owing to the natural oil in the fibre.
4. The elasticity and resilience of the fibres make the finished cloth naturally crease
resistant.
5. Wool is non-inflammable. Therefore it is a safe material for children wear.
6. When wet, the fibres become soft and will easily stretch if not carefully handled.
7. Shrinkage is brought about by extremes of temperature, rubbing when wet and by the
use of alkalis.
8. Wool is attacked by moths and insects unless it has been treated.
9. It can also be attacked by mildew, if kept moist and damp.
10.Wool does not wrinkle easily.

Uses:
Wool is used to make sweaters, dresses, coats, suits, jackets, pants and the lining of boots. It
can also be made into blankets and carpets.

Silk
Silk is the fine strong soft lustrous fiber produced by silkworms.

Production of silk:
Silkworms are cultivated and fed with mulberry leaves. Some of these eggs are hatched by
artificial means such as an incubator.
Silkworms that feed on smaller, domestic tree leaves produce the finer silk, while the coarser
silk is produced by silkworms that have fed on oak leaves.
From the time they hatch to the time they start to spin cocoons, they are very carefully tended
to. Noise is believed to affect the process, thus the cultivators try not to startle the silkworms.
Their cocoons are spun from the tops of loose straw. It will be completed in two to three days'
time. The cultivators then gather the cocoons and the chrysalis are killed by heating and
drying the cocoons.

Properties of silk:
1. It is very lustrous – has a luxurious appearance
2. It is warm
3. It drapes well
4. It is soft to handle and slippery
5. It is very strong
6. It is very elastic
7. It absorbs moisture.
8. It is resistant to mildew
9. It is resistant to moth attacks
10. It does not felt
11. It is damaged by long exposure to sunlight
12. It is not resistant to high temperatures
Uses:
Silk is used to make blouses, dresses, scarves, pants and ties. It can also be made into
curtains, draperies, cushion covers and sofa covers.

Polyester
Polyester is the general name for any group of widely used synthetic products. Polyesters are
strong, tough materials that are manufactured in a variety of colours, shapes and sizes.
Production of polyester:
Polyesters are made from chemical substances found mainly in petroleum. Polyesters are
manufactured in three basic forms - fibers, films and plastics.
Polyester fibers are used to make fabrics. Poly (ethylene terephthalate, or simply PET) is the
most common polyester used for fiber purposes. This is the polymer used for making soft
drink bottles.

Properties of the polyester:

1. It is strong, tough and wears well.
2. It is strong both when wet and when dry.
3. It resists bleaches and alkalis.
4. It is not absorbent.
5. It is thermoplastic and can be permanently pleated.
6. It is flame- resistant
7. It is resists wrinkling.
8. It can be dry-cleaned safely.
9. It is not attacked by moths, mildew, fungi or bacteria.
10. It is not harmed by sunlight, and is therefore suitable for curtains.
11. It resists abrasion.
12. It is not easy to dye unless special methods are used.
13. It is resistant to stretching and shrinking.

Uses:
Polyester is used to make most forms of clothing like shirts, running shorts, track pants,
windbreakers, and lingerie. It can also be made into curtains and draperies.

Nylon
Nylon is a strong, light synthetic fiber. It is a man-made.

Production of nylon:
Nylon is made by forcing molten nylon through very small holes in a device called a
spinneret. The streams of nylon harden into filament once they come in contact with air. They
are then wound onto bobbins. These fibers are drawn (stretched) after they cool.
Drawing involves unwinding the yarn or filaments and then winding it around another spool.
Drawing makes the molecules in each filament fall into parallel lines. This gives the nylon
fiber strength and elasticity.
After the whole drawing process, the yarn may be twisted a few turns per yard or metres as it
is wound onto spools. Further treatment to it can give it a different texture or bulk.

Properties of the nylon:

1. It is strong and elastic.
2. It is easy to launder.
3. It dries quickly because it is not absorbent.
4. It retains its shape – it neither shrinks nor stretches.
5. It is resilient and responsive to heat setting. It can therefore be permanently pleated
6. It is resistant to abrasion
7. When rubbed, nylon materials acquire static electricity
8. It rots due to long exposure to sunlight.
9. It is crease resistant therefore requires little ironing
10. It can be dry-cleaned safely with benzene and carbon tetrachloride
11. It is not affected by acids and alkalis, but bleaches can harm it.

Uses:
Nylon is popular for hosiery and is used to make track pants, shorts, swimwear, active wear,
windbreakers, bedspread and draperies. It can also be made into parachutes, flak vests,
combat uniforms, tires and life vests, or used as the netting of bridal veils, umbrellas and
luggage.

Regenerated Fibres
Regenerated fibres are produced from raw materials that form fibres naturally, for example
wood pulp or cotton linter. These raw materials are reformed to produce fibres or filaments
suitable for making into yarns. The first commercial regenerated synthetic fibre was rayon,
also known as ‘artificial silk’, and was made from modified cellulose / wood pulp, later
known as viscose. Acetate is a regenerated fibre made from cotton linters (very short cotton
fibres) combined with acetic acid.

Characteristics of Rayon
Rayon’s cellulosic base contributes many properties similar to those of cotton or other
natural cellulosic fibers.
 Rayon is moisture absorbent (more so than cotton), breathable, comfortable to wear,
and easily dyed in vivid colors.
 It does not build up static electricity, nor will it pill unless the fabric is made from
short, low-twist yarns.
 Rayon is comfortable, soft to the skin, and has moderate dry strength and abrasion
resistance.
 Like other cellulosic fibers, it is not resilient, which means that it will wrinkle.
 Rayon withstands ironing temperatures slightly less than those of cotton.
 It may be attacked by silverfish and termites, but generally resists insect damage.
 It is attacked by mildew
 One of rayon’s strengths is its versatility and ability to blend easily with many
fibers—sometimes to reduce cost, other times for lustre, softness, or absorbency and
resulting comfort.
 Rayons readily take finishes such as mercerization, Sanforization (shrink resistance),
and permanent press.
 Rayon has moderate resistance to acids and alkalis and generally the fiber itself is not
damaged by bleaches; however, dyes used in the fabric may experience color change.
 As a cellulosic fiber, rayon will burn, but flame retardant finishes can be applied.
Unit Task 4: Fabric construction methods

Fabric may be constructed by three basics methods: knitting, weaving, and the interlocking of
fibers by felting or bonding. Lacemaking and netting are two less frequently used methods of
producing cloth.

Knitted Fabrics
Knitted fabrics are made from one continuous thread. Knitting consists of rows of
interlocking loops done by hand or machine. Knit fabrics are comfortable and wrinkle-
resistant, but they snag. They give or stretch as you wear them. They must be stretched as you
sew them so they keep this "give."

Woven Fabrics
Weaving is the interlacing of yarns to form fabrics.

There are some terms which are frequently used in weaving. These include:
Selvedge: When you examine a fabric, you see two long finished edges, one on
each side along the length of the fabric. These edges are called selvedge and give
strength to the edges which is important in further processing of the fabric.
Warp: They are the yarns along the length of the fabrics or parallel to the selvedge.
They are also called ends.
Weft: When you see a woven fabric, besides warps, another set of yarns move
perpendicular to warps. They are called wefts. They are interlaced with warps in
a crosswise direction to make a fabric. They are also called picks or fillings.
Thread Count: You must have noticed that some woven fabrics look dense and
compact whereas others open. This difference is due to the thread count which
refers to the total number of warps and wefts per square inch of a woven fabric.
Thread count tells us about the fabric quality and durability. Fabric with a higher
thread count is better than fabric with lower thread count. Also, for good quality
fabric, warps and wefts should be more or less equal in number.

Process of Weaving
The weaving process is carried out on a loom. Warp yarns are laid parallel and very close to
each other. Then, with hands or some other device some warps are lifted and others remain as
such and the weft on a shuttle is then passed through them to complete the interlacement. For
example alternate warps could be lifted to get a plain weave fabric. To make the weave
compact, the wefts are beaten with a comb like device called reed.

There are several weaves of fabric.

The plain weave is the most basic of all weaves, with one weft yarn going over and under
one warp yarn. Many fabrics are produced in the plain weave. These weaves have no right
and wrong side unless they are printed.

Characteristics of the plain weave

 It has more warps than wefts per inch.
 It has no right or wrong side unless if printed.
 It is compact and feels firm unless if loosely woven.
 It is cool to touch.
 The hopsack weave is a variation of the plain weave where two weft yarns pass over and
under to warps, producing a firmer cloth.

The twill weave is made by passing thread over one or more warp threads and then under a
group of weft, skipping or stepping one yarn in between to the right. This gives a definite
diagonal ridge across the fabric.

Characteristics of the twill weave

 It has diagonal ridges that run from the left to the right and are more prominent on one
side.
 It has a right and wrong side.
 It is compact, firm and durable.
 It is warm.
 It is decorative.

The satin/sateen weave is made by floating several warp or weft threads over the surface of
the fabric under one.

Characteristics of the satin/sateen weave

 The warp floats in satin, while the weft floats in sateen
 Filament yarns are used in both, hence both are lustrous and have a soft feel.
 They have a luxurious appearance.
 They are smooth and do not get dirty easily.
 They are not very strong as the floating threads can easily be pulled out, thus
damaging the appearance of the fabric.

Nonwoven Fabrics
These type fabrics are formed when heat, moisture, and pressure are applied to fibers, forcing
them to interlock. Sometimes chemicals are used to maintain this process. Many interfacings,
fleece, and felt are examples of this process

Bonded fabrics
These are made up of two separate cloths, namely a face fabric and a lining, held together
with an adhesive.
Fabrics made by this method are used for various purposes e.g. interlining materials, surgical
goods, etc

Nets
They are open-mesh fabrics with geometrical shapes. These yarns may be knotted at the point
of intersection.

Laces
Yarns are criss-crossed to create intricate designs. Yarns may be interloped, interlaced or
knotted to give open-mesh structure. Beautiful decorative designs can be created through lace
making. Laces are very important trimmings that are used to decorate a garment.

Unit Task 5: Fabric Finishes

A fabric finish is a treatment that changes fabric behavior and appearance. The finish may be
temporary or permanent.

Regular or basic finishes (such as napping, brushing, shearing, or calendaring) make fabric
suitable to sell.
Functional or special finishes contribute a special feature to the fabric. Permanent press, stain
resistance, and water repellency are functional finishes.

Remember the following points about finishes when selecting fabrics:

 Finishes may be applied for beauty or service.
 Finishes may be durable or nondurable.
 Each finish means added cost.
 Proper care prolongs finish life.

Unit Task 6: Procedure of laundering fabrics

Care of your cotton garment:

For fabrics made of 100% cotton:

1) Set your washing machine to the low setting.
2) Wash the cloth in cold water.
3) Set your iron to Medium to iron it.
4) Do not bleach the cloth.
5) Hang to dry but do not tumble dry.

50% Cotton and 50% Polyester:

1) Turn it inside out and machine wash with warm water.
2) Wash with fabrics that are of light colours.
3) Use only non-chlorine bleach to bleach the cloth.
4) Tumble dry with a medium setting.
5) Set your iron to medium for ironing.

Linen
Washing is recommended because the more linen is washed, the softer, more absorbent and
more luminous it becomes. One can use either hand or machine washing, but observe the
following points:
 Be gentle when laundering linen: use a gentle wash cycle or hand-wash and use just a
little gentle soap. Whatever you use, follow the package directions. Place delicate,
embroidered or fringed linens in a lingerie bag before putting them into a washing
machine.
 Use cool to warm, not hot, water. Wash colored linens in cool water. Soft water is
important because hard water forms a soap scum that make linen stiff and dull.
 Launder stains when fresh. If allowed to set, stains may be permanent.
Use oxygen bleaches (hydrogen peroxide) for white linen. Chlorine bleaches can cause
yellowing.
 If hand washing, rinse very thoroughly. Removal of all soap will help prevent large
brown spots on linen, which are caused by oxidation of cellulose by residual soap.
Drying
Several drying methods are recommended for linen
 Line drying,
 Machine drying ,
 Rolling in terry towels
Whatever method you use, bring the linen in while it is still damp. If linen dries thoroughly, it
may become brittle, taking several hours to recover its natural moisture and flexibility. Don't
wring wet or damp linen before drying, it breaks the fibers.

Rejuvenating
Linen is more difficult to dye than other fibers, especially in dark shades. We have found that
you can renew the color and sheen of black linen by washing black linen with a good dose of
fabric bluing (normally used to brighten white cottons) in the rinse water. Then give it a final
rinse in clear water before drying. You can still find bluing in the laundry detergent section at
many grocery and dime stores.

Ironing
Ironing is often optional when dried flat or tumbled at low heat. Ironing linen is a great deal
easier if you do it when the linen is damp. And if linen is removed from drying while still
damp and ironed immediately, it is easier still. Steam ironing dry linen is less effective and
requires more effort
Use spray starch (if desired) and iron with lots of steam at a medium-to-hot setting. Starch
provides extra crispness, particularly for folded napkins.
Iron on the wrong side first, then on the right side to bring out the sheen, especially damasks
and light-colored linens. Iron dark linens on the wrong side only. Heavier fabrics may need a
slightly higher temperature setting. Pure linen can withstand the highest temperature setting
on your iron, but test an inconspicuous corner first.

Iron linen until smooth but not dry. Once wrinkles are gone, hang the linen item until it is
bone dry.
When ironing embroidered linen, keep the embroidery stitches rounded and dimensional by
pressing item on the wrong side atop a soft towel. Use a press cloth to safeguard delicate lace
and cutwork. A press cloth also helps to avoid press marks over seams, hems and pockets.
Place a table next to the ironing board when ironing large tablecloths. Roll finished sections
of the cloth over the table rather than letting it pile up under the ironing board. Minimize
creasing ironed tablecloths by rolling them around a tube or hanging them.

Storing Linen
 Always clean linen items before storing: dirty linen encourages mildew.
 Good ventilation, light and lack of available bacterial food discourage mildew growth.
 If you discover mildew on your linens, brush the mold off outdoors to avoid scattering
spores in your house. Then soak the linen item in a weak solution of hydrogen
peroxide and water before laundering. Wash as above, dry in the sun, then store in a
cool, dry, well-ventilated area.

Care of your woolen garment:

It is better to hand wash your woolen products.
Be careful of what softener you use because softeners may add products to your wool. Some
types of softeners may leave a coating on the fiber making it feel softer and smoother, but at
the same time causing your wool to lose its absorbency.

Care of your silk garment:

It is best to dry clean your silk garment either by individual or bulk method, in order to
maintain the characteristic of the silk.

Dry clean: Sending it to the dry cleaners may be done but make sure that you inform the dry
cleaner that your garment is made of silk.

Hand wash:
1) Make sure you wash in cool water.
2) Use a small amount of soap or mild detergent to wash the silk.
3) After washing it, rinse in cold water.
4) Hang it or lay it flat in a shaded area to dry.
5) If pressing is needed, use an all cotton iron board cover, a low or moderate steam setting,
and press on the wrong side of the fabric while ironing.

Other Tips:
 To keep white silk white, add peroxide and ammonia to the wash.
 Do not use bleach or any washing detergent with bleach
 To remove yellow from white silk, add a few teaspoons of white vinegar to the wash.

Care of polyester:
1) Machine-wash your fabric in cold water.
2) Wash with light colours.
3) Use a gentle cycle while washing.
4) Tumble dry with the setting low.
5) Do not bleach.
6) If needed, iron with a cool iron.

Care of your nylon garment:

1) Machine wash in cold water.
2) Wash it separately from other types of fabric.
3) If needed, use only non-chlorine bleach to bleach your nylon garment.
4) Turn the setting to low before tumbling dry.
5) Remove your nylon garment promptly from the tumbler.

Other Tips:
 Extensive washing and drying in an automatic dryer can lead to piling.
 White nylon should be washed separately to avoid it turning grey.
 To avoid yellowing of your white nylon, you should bleach it frequently with Sodium
Perborate bleach.

Rayon
Consumers should be aware of several cautions in relation to proper use and care of fabrics
made from rayon fiber. Regular or viscose rayon has low wet strength, resulting in loss of
stability or the tendency to shrink or stretch easily when wet. Although resin-treated rayons
can sometimes be hand or machine washed with success, regular rayon normally requires dry
cleaning to maintain appearance and shape.
There is a finish that can be applied to make viscose rayon fabrics washable and limit
shrinkage to 3 percent. It is formaldehyde-free and will not affect the hand, width, or length
of treated fabrics.

Care of Rayon
The critical element in successful care of rayon is the type of fiber.
- Regular or viscose rayons usually require dry cleaning for best results
- High wet modulus, high wet strength or polynosic rayons, will normally machine wash
and tumble dry satisfactorily
The low wet strength of untreated viscose rayon is likely to cause shrinkage and loss of body
if fabrics made from these fibers are hand or machine washed. Viscose rayons are usually
labeled “dry clean only.”
Since many dyes and finishes applied to viscose rayon are moisture-sensitive, consumers
should protect garments from contact with moisture
Avoid spilling acid or alkali, such as foodstuffs or perfume, as certain dyes used on rayon are
especially sensitive to these substances.
Use caution or avoid treating stained areas with water. Take the garment to a dry cleaner for
stain removal.
When viscose rayons can be hand washed, do so with care.
 Always support wet fabrics, since rayon has low wet strength and is unstable when
wet.
 Avoid wringing moisture from fabrics. Gently squeeze out moisture and roll in a
towel.
 Smooth and shape, then lay flat to dry.
 If the garments are not too heavy when wet, they can be hung on a non-rusting
hanger.
 When pressing regular rayon garments at home, guard against spitting by steam irons
that may cause water spots. Also, if possible, press on the wrong side or use a press
cloth on the right side to avoid shine or iron imprints.
 Use a rayon or synthetic setting on the iron.
 When pressing blends, use the iron temperature for the most heat-sensitive fiber.
Normally, a synthetic setting will be satisfactory.

Suggested Teaching/Learning Resources

- Text books
- Laundry articles
- Laundry agent
- Textile fibres
- Magazines

Evaluation questions
1. Enumerate the various methods of fabric making.
2. Discuss how designs can be created by weaving.
3. Compare and contrast weaving and knitting.
4. Why are knitted garments considered appropriate for winter wear?
5. Why is satin weave not as strong as plain or twill weave?
6. Why is twill weave used for your jeans?
9.1.23 LAUNDRY PROCESSES

9.1.23 Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit the trainee should be able to:
a) define the terms in laundry process
b) explain the laundry process
c) state the aims of a given laundry process
d) state the qualities of a well laundered article
e) explain the procedures of costing and pricing a given laundered article

UNIT TASKS
Unit Task 1: Definition of terms

Unit Task 2: The Laundry process

The relationship between chemical action, detergents, water, hot and cold, and time taken for
the wash process, affects the final outcome of your wash process.

Mechanical Action the number one factor for cleaning in how-to-do-laundry

1 The First and most important in how-to-do-laundry is Mechanical Action, this could
be physically brushing, beating, squeezing, to remove dirt particles from any desired
surface or object. Any physical method of removing dirt is mechanical action.
In a Front Loading automatic washing machine the mechanical action is created by the drum
rotation. The paddles on the inside of the drum lifts the washing to the top of the drum from
where it falls to the bottom of the drum with a thump.
This creates the squeezing action on the fabrics in the washing machine which removes the
dirt and soiling from the fibres.
These particles and grease globules are then held in the wash water and detergent in solution,
until the drain cycle.
If you were to observe your machine during its program, you would hear a thump as the
washing falls to the bottom of the drum during the cottons wash.
This will be much less evident during a delicates or woollens wash where the mechanical
action is reduced to just movement in the drum, with a high level of wash water and a diluted
detergent mix.
Next time you have your washing machine on a cottons hot wash take a look inside the
porthole to see how much of a squeezing action is taking place and how small the amount of
suds in the drum.how-to-do-laundry, brings you the insider knowledge on everything
Laundry & Dish-washing.
Time Factor, the length of any one process.
2 The second factor in how-to-do-laundry is Time, the longer you beat, sweep or
squeeze, the cleaner the object.
In a modern washing machine "Time" is controlled by either a mechanical clock timer or a
modern micro-processor, which can be updated with the latest programs at any future date,
which also means you always have the latest machine.
In a cottons wash, the time taken to complete the main wash portion of the wash process is
normally ten minutes after reaching the desired temperature chosen on your front panel
temperature selector switch. How-to-do-laundry shows you the way.
Chemical Action the third factor for all cleaning problems in how-to-do-laundry.
3. Chemical Action is the third factor in how-to-do-laundry, this can be adding water,
detergents, solvents etc.,
As in most wash processes with water and detergent, bleach etc.
The chemical action in the modern washing machine removes the soiling and holds it in
suspension until being drained out at the end of the wash and rinse cycles, so that it is not re-
deposited back onto the fabric.
The modern fully built biological detergent has brighteners that are held in the wash water
unused until the temperature goes over 60 degrees Celcius.
So if you use a lot of low temperature programs you may get a build up of unused detergent
in the pipes and pump of your machine.
It is best to use a hot wash on a regular basis to clear out any unused detergents lurking in the
bottom of your machine.
The temperature is the most important element in the disinfecting and killing any nasty
pathogens that may be in the laundry.
This is most important when dealing with foul laundry in the nursery or in hospital and care
operations.
There are now special sluice programs available on commercial machines to deal with this
type of soiling so that everything that is washed is thermal-disinfected at a temperature of at
least 65 degrees Celcius held for at least two minutes.
This provides the time to kill most known bacteria and viruses, but in certain circumstances a
boil wash of at least 82 degrees C is required, Hepatitis A & C for example.
This is a specialist subject and the rules differ depending on where in the world you are. how-
to-do-laundry shows the way.
Temperature the final factor for the cleaning process in how-to-do-laundry.
4 Temperature is the final and in some circumstances the most important factor in how
to do laundry,
but they are all dependent on each other.
Where grease or wax soils are concerned a high temperature will be needed to dissolve them
so that they can be held in the detergent solution.
Think of the steam cleaner for degreasing kitchens and kitchen equipment or engines.
High temperatures are required in all medical and care based cleaning operations to kill
pathogens and bacteria.
In clothing, bedding, dressings, instruments, crockery etc., high temperatures will be the
order of the day.
All these four factors in the cleaning process can be represented in a diagrammatic form,
which we call the "Sinners Vector Diagram".
See below.
The length of the line indicates the amount of any one factor in the cleaning process. And if
you need to reduce any one factor and end up with the same cleaning power you will have to
increase one or all of the others to compensate for the reduction.
Always check your laundry wash care labels, for extra guidance go to Wash Care Labels and
Symbols a Quick Guide
Henry the Happy Hippo shows you the Four Factors of the cleaning process at bath
time
As you can see Henry is demonstrating all Four of the Factors of the cleaning process,
involved in his bath time ritual.
The Brush is the Mechanical Action, the Water and Soap are the Chemical Action, the
Temperature is the the hot African Sun heating his pool. And finally the Time is how long
Henry the Happy Hippo spends doing his ablutions.
The Sinners Diagram shows how for a hot cottons wash for heavy soiling all lines are of
maximum length.

Cottons, Boil Wash or Heavily Soiled Washing

how-to-do-laundry,
If we think of the wash program for Cottons or heavily soiled, robust fabrics, we will require
Maximum Mechanical Action, with the strongest Chemical solution, for the longest Time, at
the Highest Temperature, say a boil wash for cottons.
All four factors at maximum setting on your washing machine.
All the lines in the Sinners Diagram will be the longest or at their maximum.
This wash may be incorporated into a boil wash for thermal disinfecting foul laundry. More
on this later.
For Bedding, sheets, pillows for men, women, teens, kids and babies as well as bedroom
furniture and decor go to one of our SBI partner sites at ......Bedding sets
Luxury bedding collections dot com

The Front Loading washing machine in how-to-do-laundry brings you the best insider
knowledge.
how-to-do-laundry. In a Front loading washing machine this is easily achieved by bringing in
just enough water to wet the clothes inside the drum and cover the heater elements.
A modern machine will take cold water in first, to release the stains before taking the
temperature up slowly to the high temperature. which could even be a boil wash.
Never put hot water on stained fabrics it will fix many of the stains permanently, especially
blood.
At the end of the main wash cycle cold water should be brought in to reduce the temperature
inside the drum and dilute the detergent liquor.
This will prevent heat shock on the way up and down during the move from wash to rinse
cycles.
Frequently when you look inside your washing machine porthole during the main wash cycle
of your machine you wil notice how little water is in the machine.
This means a strong chemical liquor of low suds detergent at high temperature.
The drop height from the top of the drum to the floor is maximum to provide the maximum
mechanical action.
Because a small amount of water is used, it is cheaper to heat to the high temperatures
required than perhaps using a high water level delicates program on its highest temperature
selection.
This type of program if provided by a high quality machine will be very efficient and
ecologically sound, as all the energy, water, and chemicals are kept to a minimum.
There is no better way of dealing with heavily soiled items than in a modern, front loading,
high spin, washing machine.
A top loading washing machine has to be filled with water for all types of wash process, so
for a hot wash with high detergent mix this would be very expensive to run, and would
normally cost in the region of five times the cost per wash.
Which is why the top loader machine encourages the use of low temperature detergents,
warm washes, and the use of stain removers and pre-treatments, with biological detergents.
The Top Loader has a fraction of the control over the wash process that is built into the
modern front loading machine.
It is not safe to put woollens or delicates in a top loading washing machine as the mechanical
action is too vigorous and would damage the fabric with shrinkage and felting. Go to my
Woollen wash page now for a quick guide In how-to-do-laundry and Laundry and dish-
washing info, I hope we bring you useful stuff to help your understanding of the cleaning
process you may wish to have a quick look at my Washing Silk page It will give you a quick
run down on the criteria for washing silks and delicates in some detail.
The Front Loading washing machine on a Woollens or Delicates Program

How to do Laundry the Woollens and Delicates program

how-to-do-laundry, for woollens.
For a woollens and a delicate wash, all that has to be done to the wash program in the
machine to accommodate the non iron, synthetic, delicate, and woollen materials is to
increase the level of the wash water in the tank incrementally, so that the water is cooler, the
chemicals are diluted, and the drop from top of the drum to the bottom is reduced, which
ensures the mechanical action is reduced.
At the same time the rotation of the drum is also slowed and shortened until a wool wash
agitates for 2.5 seconds and rests for 28 seconds for a 5 minute main wash.
This means you can safely place your favourite cashmere and lambswool sweaters in the
wool wash program of your modern front loading washing machine with complete
confidence.

Care Labels
To help you understand the reason for wash care symbols and labels you have to understand
how the wash process works and what to expect from your washing machine. It's worth
taking the extra time to read this page through to understand how the wash care labels work.
Or you can go straight to the symbols explanation below.
I hope it helps if you have questions or comments please make contact using contacts page.
The fundamentals of cleaning.
Sorting the clothes.
Laundry-Symbols aims to bring you all the information on wash care labels and symbols in
most common use.
What ever you need to know about Laundry-Symbols, Wash, care, Label, Detergent,
cleaning, program, pre-spotting, solvents,stain remover, here at Laundry-Symbols I will bring
you the answers.
You will understand them and be able to match them to the cleaning process best suited to the
fabrics and dyes in your garments or soft funishings.
All clothes and items to be washed should be sorted into like products and colours.
White cottons heavily soiled items which will require the hottest wash with the most
mechanical action should be collected and placed in the washing machine with enough space
left in the drum to allow for the maximum drop from top to bottom of the drum.
If they are not too bulky they will settle when water is brought in to the machine which will
give them extra space to get the mechanical action they require.
Heavily soiled items may be improved by pre-spotting with a proprietary stain remover for
the particular type of soiling.
Coloured items or dark fabrics should be washed separately, and depending on the type of
fibres and soiling should be washed as cottons, non-iron, delicates, after checking on the
wash care label.
Wash items with similar labels together after separating them.
Pre Spotting
Laundry-Symbols
Heavily soiled items may be improved by pre-spotting with a proprietary stain remover for
the particular type of soiling.
Pre-spotting can be as simple as brushing caked mud or spraying a solution of detergent and
water to help the wash process.
By brushing and spraying the liquid into the stain before the wash process the detergents can
start softening the soiling so that it can be removed and floated off during the wash process in
the machine.
Where there are stains of blood, ink with a wax base, tar oil from the beach or garage and
paint you will require a spotter containing a solvent, these can be purchased and kept in the
cupboard ready for the day that you need them.
Grass stains are one common stain which will be removed more easily in the wash if it has
been pre-spotted with a light brushing to get the softening process started.
With blood always try to wash out with cold water before it dries hard, dried on blood is quite
difficult to remove and may leave a rust mark after washing which will be fixed permanently
by the hot water in the wash.
Always Check your Laundry-Symbols for the correct program.
If you have some knowledge or expertise you would like to share with the world wide web
that would help someone, click on the link and take a look at how easy it is with site build it
and all their free books to download, Share my knowledge with the web the easy way.
If in doubt always use your Pre-wash selector button on your machine.
Laundry-Symbols If you are in any doubt about a stain always use your pre-wash button on
your machine. Always check your Laundry-Symbol first.
This is normally an add-on program at the front end before the main wash and is normally a
very cool wash with light mechanical action with quite a high water level.
This is important for blood stains, grass stains, and any stain of an unknown origin.
Use a biological detergent in this section so that the enzymes can set to work on the stain.
Then you can drop back to non-biological for the rest of the wash program if you wish, but
biological detergents will always deal with stains better than a non-bio, especially blood.
Learn more about detergent basics
Soiling can be put into groups:
Laundry-Symbols
What this means is that 10% of soiling is water soluble -salts, sugars, sweat-
15% is solvent soluble-oils, greases, waxes, finishing agents.
The bulk of the soiling or 75% are insoluble-soot, dust, pigments these have to be held in
suspension during the wash then rinsed out and drained away during the wash process.
This means that a modern detergent has to dissolve or remove the soiling from the fibres of
the material being washed and then hold the greases and insoluble particles in suspension so
that they do not get re-deposited back onto the garment before rinsing and draining.
This is why clothes are fresher smelling after washing than when dry cleaned.
This is because a lot of the soils are diluted and not removed completely during the draining
and filtering of the cleaning fluid, which means a small amount is retained within the fibres.
This is prevalent when dealing with urine and sweat on clothing such as trousers which have
been dry cleaned.
Where there is a regular problem with bladder weakness it is always best to wear washable
clothing, which can be washed thoroughly and left fresh and free from any odour.
This also applies for sports clothing which is best washed to rid the garment of sweat as
opposed to just diluting it across the garment.
In fact where sweat has stained the underarm area of a garment washing is the best policy in
the long term.
There are now available chemical additives for washing woollen suitings which enable the
protection of fibres during the wash process from the swelling and felting.
These silicon products adhere to the fibres which allows them to slip past each other without
the damage which would cause shrinkage in a normal wash.
An analogy we can use is, if you take a fresh cabbage leaf - which is after all vegetable fibres
in the raw- after placing a leaf in boiling water for a short time the fibres swell and become
soft and malleable.
This is exactly what happens to the fibres of your garment, and if the wash is too harsh the
damage is permanent. So a balance has to be drawn so that the soiling can be swollen and
desolved without permanent damage to the fabric of your garment.
Laundry-Symbols follow the guidelines all the time and you will not go wrong.
Wash Care Labels
This is where the Laundry-Symbol comes in, these are the labels on garments or soft
furnishings which will help you decide the correct wash cycle for the fabric being washed,
detergent, softener/fabric conditioner, tumble drying, ironing temperature that you can safely
use.
The Circle Symbol for Dry Cleaning guide
The circle sign is the guide for which Dry Cleaning fluid to be used or if at all.
An A within the circle means cleaning with all conventional solvents is OK.
A P within the circle means use Perchlorethylene and mild solvents.
An F within the circle means cleaning only in mild solvents (the old CFC113) or a white
spirit.
An X through the circle means do not dry clean.
The Hand Ironing Symbol

The Next symbol is the Iron Sign, this includes rotary irons and presses.
One dot means low temperature ironing for delicates or synthetics 120°C
Two dots means Woollens and silks 150°C
Three dots means Cottons and Linen at 200°C
A large X through the Iron means non Iron or do not Iron.
The Bath Symbol or wash temperature label

The next and most important sign in Laundry-symbols is for laundry care is the washing vat
or bath sign.
This is the most important Laundry-Symbol when it comes to choosing your wash program
for your washing machine.
This gives the different temperatures for wet wash processing which will effect the dyes and
fibres of the fabric.
If there is a line underneath the bath sign or the circle sign it means low mechanical action is
required or a deep water level like a woollens program on your washing machine.
It means that for woollens the fabrics are gently agitated for short times with long rests
between agitation so as to allow the fibres to recover. This prevents shrinkage and felting.
felting is where the garment tightens up so that the material changes from normal cloth to felt
as in a felt hat.
For More Information on How to do Laundry
Follow the links for How to do laundry for more useful information on the wash process Use
this link for more information on how to do laundry
The Triangle or chloride bleach Laundry-symbols
The next item Laundry-symbols is a triangle sign on the label with the letters CL inside
which means chloride bleaches can be used without damaging the fabric.
If there is large X through the triangle this means do not use bleaching agents in the wash or
penultimate rinse which is where the bleach is normally introduced into your washing
machine. Care should be taken that undiluted bleach does not touch the clothing or damage to
the colour and fabric wil be permanent and final.
If you follow all these guidelines your wash day blues will all be golden, and your fabrics
will last for many years longer than they would have if you had ignored the advice.
The Tumble Dryer Symbol
Laundry-Symbols Tumble Dryer
There is also a tumble dryer symbol which will show the temperature or may have a large X
through it which means do not tumble dry.
Laundry-Symbols Here is a Typical washcare label for a Woollen Garment.

Laundry-Symbols.
As you can see this typical wash care label ia for a woollen garment, which means if you look
at the symbols starting at the top right hand side the wash bath symbol. This says hand hot
water with a picture of a hand in the wash bath.
The Triangle with a cross through it means no bleaching agents and the text adds that a non
biological detergent should be used.
The Cross through the Tumble dryer means dry on the line which also explained in the text,
preferably flat.
The iron sign with one dot means low temperature or minimum setting 120 degres Celcius on
your steam iron.
The drycleaning symbol with the P in the middlle means cleaning with Perchlorethylene or
mild solvents.

Unit Task 3: Qualities of a well laundered article

Unit Task 4: Costing and pricing a laundered article

Practice

9.1.23P Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) practice the laundry processes
b) practice costing and pricing of laundered articles

UNIT TASKS
9.1.23P 1 Practicing laundry process
9.1.23P 2 Practicing costing and pricing of laundered articles

Suggested Teaching/Learning Resources

- Laundry room
- Text books
- Laundry articles
- Laundry agents
- Storage areas
- Laundry equipment and tools

Evaluation questions
- Assignments
- Reports
- Tests

9.1.24 STAINS AND STAIN REMOVAL PROCESSES

9.1.24 Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit the trainee should be able to:
a) define terms
b) identify different types of stains
c) classify stain removal agents
d) state the general rules for stain removal
e) explain the methods and procedures of removing different stains

UNIT TASKS

Unit Task 1: Definition of terms

A stain is dirt or discoloration which may be present on a fabric but does not yield readily to
the normal washing methods. It is not like the ordinary dirt which attaches itself to the fabric.
It is more like a dye which penetrates into the fabric. Many common stains can be removed
during soaking and washing using ordinary detergents.

There are some stains which cannot be removed during above processes and therefore require
treatments. Such stains are best removed BEFORE washing or dry-cleaning. This procedure
is technically known as Pre-spotting.

Unit Task 2: Types of stains

Stain removal is also known as Spotting. It calls for a high degree of skill and knowledge of
fibre content.
Agents employed in spotting must be very carefully selected. They must not affect the colour
of the fabric, damage, weaken or change the appearance of the fibres and must not leave a
residual mark or swells after the stain has been removed.
The spotter requires a good understanding of the constituent of stains to be able to determine
the correct method and procedure of removal.
A few stains will always be found that cannot be removed. This is usually because of the
limitations of the fabric. Examples include Oxidation, rendering the stain insoluble, or
limitations in the dyed fabric properties.

Types of Stains
Stains are usually encountered in three main forms:
a) Built up stains
Here, the main substance is on the surface of the fabric like a crust, but adheres
very firmly. Dried solid food stains and many paint stains, together with some adhesives
are put in this class.

b) Absorbed stains
In this case, the staining substance has been absorbed by the fabric and has penetrated
into it or even through it. This type of stain is generally caused by liquids, e.g. beer, tea,
ink, etc, which have come into contact with the fabric and have been absorbed or
blotted up by it and then dried.

c) Compound Stains
This type of stain is a mixture of the above two, with part of the staining substance
penetrating into the fabric, whilst another part remains as a layer on the surface. Some
paint stains are often blood are in this category.

Identification of Stains
The efficient removal of stains requires not only the use of appropriate equipment and the
application for the correct temperature, but also care in the preliminary stages before stain
removal is attempted.
It is important to consider what the staining matter is and what type and colour of fabrics is
involved. Adequate examination of the garments and detection of the staining matter is
essential. It is also necessary to understand the general nature of the stain which may be
present on garments and the methods that are available for its removal.

To summarize the stages involved in the identification of stains, the mnemonic word FOCAL
is used to memorize the stages. This reminds us of Feel, Odour, Colour, Appearance and
Location.
 a) Feel
It should be noted whether the stain feels hard or soft, sticky or smooth, gritty of tacky; as
this will often give a good indication as to the nature of the stain. For example, hardness
may indicate lacquer or certain glues; tacky or slightly soft stains may be toffee or even
sugar stains.

b) Odour
Many substances have characteristic odours, e.g. Perfume, salad dressing, fish paste, beer,
urine, etc.
These odours may become more evident if the stain is steamed before spotting.

d) Colour
Colour is not always as useful as it may seem to be. Many staining materials, although
having recognizable colours, will not always exhibit them because of the colour of the
fabric on which they appear. Never jump to a conclusion or make an assumption based only
on the stain colour as this can be misleading.

e) Appearance
Stains can often be categorized by their appearance. The stain may be in the form of splash
marks or a smear, it may be shiny or dull, absorbed or built up. These observations can
often suggest the nature of the staining and the manner in which it was applied.
Many stains exhibit dark perimeters e.g. beer. It is relatively easy to establish by looking at
a stain whether it has been caused by a liquid, whether the staining material has been
smeared on, or whether it has been applied accidentally. Appearance therefore is an
extremely important point and must not be overlooked.

e) Location
The position of stains on a garment should always be noted since it may often be a guide to
the origin of the stain. E.g. mud and road tar are found on lower hems and trouser turn-ups.
Perfume is often found on the bust area or underarms of dresses. Small food stains and
drink splashes are usually observed on the front of garments and quite often, hair dye on the
back of dresses, blouses, etc.

Unit Task 3: Classification of stain removal agents

Stain removal agents can be classified into the following groups:

i) Alkaline agents.
a) Washing soda (sodium carbonate)
It is employed in treating cotton and linen as follows:
i) to remove vegetable or slight scotch stain - The fabric is treated for 15mins in a hot
solution of 1-4 tablespoons of soda to 1pint of water.
ii) to facilitate the removal of grease stain by emulfsying the grease - Steep overnight
in a bath containing 2 tablespoons of soda to 1 gallon of water.
iii) to neutralize after treatment with acid - Saturate in a solution containing 1-4
teaspoons of soda.

b) Sodium sequicarbonate
It is a mixture of soda and sodium bicarbonate.
 It is suitable for coloured fabrics and useful when soda cannot be employed and used in
the same proportion.
i) Borax (sodium tetraborate) - it is a milder alkali than washing soda. It can be used
on any fiber. It is often used in concentrated form for spotting.
ii) Sodium bicarbonate- it is only used when a stronger alkaline agent might
damage a delicate fabric.
iii) Rock ammonia (ammonia carbonate) - it is a mild alkali and can be used as a
substitute for borax in washing new woolens.
iv) Ammonia (ammonia hydroxide) - it is an aqueous solution of ammonia gas. If is
concentrated it has a strong pungent smell. It is used for treating vegetable, grease and
slight stains of scotch on animal fabrics. The solution should be 1-4 teaspoons to 1
pint of warm water.

ii) Acid agents

 Oxalic acid is used to remove iron rusts and ink and to clean straw bats. It also
removes obstinate fruit stain and the browning stains left after the potassium
permanganate bleach. Oxalic acid is poisonous so the jar containing it should be
labeled and stored and used with great care. A wooden spoon and wooden, enameled
or glass vessel should be used as it wears metals. Solution- 1 table sppon to 1 pint of
water.
 Salts of lemon- it is a comound of potassium oxalate and oxalic acid. It has the same
use as oxalic acid and poisonous and should be stored in a safe palce and well labeled.
 Acetic acid- it has the same characteristic as vinegar . it decomposes ultra marine
blue and may be used to remove overblueing. It dissolves acetate rayons.
 Vinegar- it is a suitable solvent for medicine, varnish and grass stains. It can be used
in place of acetic acid as it contains 6percent of acetic acid.

iii) Solvents
These can be used for – dry cleaning, spotting or removing stains.
 Cleaning benzene- removes stains containing grease. It is inexpensive but highly
inflammable. It must not be kept or used to indoors and must never be used near in a
fire.
 Carbon tetrachloride- is non- flammable and removes stains containing grease.
 Acetone- suitable for cellulose paint stains. It must never be applied to acetate rayon
as it destroys the fiber and dissolves it. It is inflammable. One part of acetone well
mixed with 2 parts of warmed glycerin can be safely used as a spotting agent for
acetic rayon because the addition of glycerin counteracts the property of the spirit to
dissolve the fibre. Other substances that destroys the rayon can be employed in the
same way.
 Methylated spirit- removes wax. It is however not very effective solvent. It can
sometimes be used with soap.
 Paraffin- removes paint stains. Used also to clean rubber fittings in laundry
appliances.
 Turpentine- removes paint stains and grease stains. Used to clean rubber rollers and
more expensive than paraffin.

iv)Absorbent
Are not widely used in stain removal except when the treated article which can only be
cleaned satisfactorily by the method e.g. tapestry , furs and hats. At time they are used
effectively with solvent.
The absorbents that are commonly used are:
 Common salts
 Bran ( the outer husk of wheat )
 Fullers earth
 Magnesia
 French chalk
 Blotting paper

Unit Task 4: General rules on stain removal

The following are the general rules to be followed when removing stains:
a) Remove stains when they are fresh as they become fixed with time and more difficult
to treat.
b) If the nature and composition of the stain is unknown, try the least harmful method
first, e.g. steeping in cold water, warm water steep, normal washing. Etc.
c) Use specific stain removal agents that are clearly identified e.g. a solvent for grease
solvents.
d) When treating stains, try several weak application of the agent rather than one full
strength application, e.g. household applications. The weak applications will be less
harmful to the fabric.
e) Stain removal agents must be in solution when used on coloured fabrics of all types as
some have the tendency to fade and sometimes remove the colour.
f)When fabric is immersed in solution, it should not be allowed to stay longer than is
necessary as some solutions may weaken the fibres.
g) Once the stain is removed or it is believed that enough treatment has been done, the
garment should be washed immediately to remove all traces of the agent. If the agent is
allowed to dry on the fabric, it will have a harmful effect.
h) When acid stain removal agents or solutions are used to remove specific stains, their
effects should be neutralized by the use of alkaline rinse, e.g. oxalic acid should be
neutralized by the use of household ammonia or soap.
i) If the agent is suspected is suspected to be strong for the fabric, first try it on a hidden part
of the garment such as the wrong side of a seam. Whatever the agent used, the colour of
the fabric must not be affected, neither should it leave another stain after the original one
has been removed.
j) Before stains are removed, one must study the general appearance of the stain and the
manner in which it is fixed on the fabric.

Unit Task 5: Methods and procedures of removing stains

S/No STAIN AGENT METHOD OF
REMOVING STAIN
1 Coffee, Tea, Fruit a) Hydrogen Soak for more than 30
Juice, Wine Peroxide minutes.
White articles may be
soaked overnight.
Use correct proportion (as
per manufacturers’
directions e.g.1:4
b) Bongo Hydrogen peroxide/cold
water
c) Borax
Direct application

Soak for 10-15 min in a

solution of 103 dessert
spoons of borax to ½ pt.
warm water on cotton,
linen and nylon. It is
possible to use a more
concentrated solution
2 Blood, Egg, Milk, a) Hydrogen
Cream, Cocoa, Peroxide +
Chocolate, Gravy, Ammonia Soak first in cold water,
Ice cream and then treat as per
b) Qwikgo directions for the agent
used
c) Grease
Solvents
3. Ball point Ink, a) Methylated As the agent Chart
marking Ink, Felt Spirit
tip pen, Carbon b) Targo As the agent Chart
Paper and Ordinary c) Castor Oil Direct Application
Ink
4. Shoe Polish soot a) Targo Direct Application
b) White Direct Application
Spirit Direct Application
c) Methylated
Spirit Direct Appplication
d) Grease
Solvent
5. Lipstick a) Grease According to directions
Face Cream Solvent given by the manufacturers
b) Targo Direct Application
6. Eye brow Pencil Grease Apply solvent and a few
Solvent drops of Ammonia
+Ammonia
7. Nail Varnish a) Acetate To remove hair lacquer
Hair Lacquer b) Acetone from a mirror, wipe with a
c) Methylated clean rag and Methylated
Spirit Spirit
8. Grass Methylated Best results are achieved if
Spirit the garment is moistened
with glycerine first. For
bad stains, warm the spirit
before use by placing in an
open container in a bowl of
hot water.
9. Perspiration Hydrogen Wash normally. If the stain
Peroxide does not come out, treat
with hydrogen peroxide.
Storage of Stain removal Agents

9.1.25 SPECIAL LAUNDRY PROCESSES

9.1.25 Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit the trainee should be able to:
a) define terms used in special laundry processes
b) state reasons for special laundry processes
c) explain the procedures of carrying of special laundry processes

UNIT TASKS

Unit task 1: Definition of terms

Dry cleaning – it is the process of washing articles and garments in special solvents

Sponging- it is the cleaning of articles in special solutions. It is meant to cut down on dry
cleaning bills.

Unit task 2: Reasons for carrying out special laundry processes

 To maintain colour of articles and garments
 To maintain texture of fabrics
 To retain size of articles and garments.
 To preserve fabric finishes

Unit task 3 Procedure of special laundry processes

Dry Cleaning
Dry cleaning is a process that cleans clothes without water. The cleaning fluid that is used is
a liquid, and all garments are immersed and cleaned in a liquid solvent -- the fact that there
is no water is why the process is called "dry."
The Process
 Tagging and inspection - Some method, whether it is small paper tags or little labels
written on a shirt collar, is used to identify your clothes so they don't get mixed up with
everyone else's. Clothes are also examined for missing buttons, tears, etc. that the dry
cleaner might get blamed for otherwise.
 Pre-treatment - The cleaner looks for stains on your clothes and treats them to make
removal easier and more complete.
 Dry cleaning - The clothes are put in a machine and cleaned with a solvent.
 Post-spotting - Any lingering stains are removed.
 Finishing - This includes pressing, folding, packaging and other finishing touches
Pre-treating Stains
Pre-treating stains is similar to the procedure used at home when you apply a stain remover
to stains prior to washing them. The idea is to try to remove the stain or make its removal
easier using chemicals.
Simply apply water for wet stains (a stain that had water in it) and solvent for dry stains (a
stain that has grease or oil in it). Then, gently tap and blot both sides of the fabric with a soft
cloth so the stain "bleeds off" onto the cloth. Then, rinse the fabric, let it dry and your
cleaner will do the rest.
Spot Treatment Technique (Sponging) for Apparel Fabrics
A spot treatment confines the stain to a small area and keeps it from spreading. This method
is sometimes called "sponging." For spot treatment you need a supply of absorbent material
such as, clean rags or paper towels, and a dry-cleaning solvent, spot remover, or aerosol
pretreatment spray.
Follow these steps:
 Pad the working surface with clean rags or paper towels that can be stained as you
work.
 Place the stained area or spot on the garment face-down over the padded surface.
 Dampen a small white cloth with solvent.
Use the dampened cloth to pat the stain from the wrong side. Feather the edges of the
stain working from the outside toward the center to keep the stained area from getting
larger.
As the stain transfers to the absorbent material beneath, move it to a different place on
the absorbent material so the stain has a clean place to exit into.
 Repeat this procedure until all traces of stain are gone. Launder to remove any ring
that might be left by the solvent.

9.1.26 LINEN ROOM

9.1.26 Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit the trainee should be able to:
a) define terms used in linen room
b) list the equipment found in the linen room
c) state the qualities of a good linen room
d) explain methods used in exchange of linen
e) explain the importance of linen room documentation
f) calculate the linen requirements for a given establishment
g) state points to consider in the storage of linen
h) state the importance of linen control
i) explain points to consider when buying linen

UNIT TASKS
Unit task 1 Definition of terms

Linen room- it is the central depot for all linen.

Unit task 2: Linen room equipment
Equipment found in the linen room are:
 trolley or basket on wheels to move linen around
 sewing machines for repairing
 steps for reaching high surfaces
 electric irons and ironing board
 baskets for placing soiled linen
 table used as a working surface
 Telephone
 Chairs for those who may work seated
 Broom, dustpan and brush

Unit task 3: Qualities of a good linen room

 Be large enough for necessary work to be carried on without overcrowding
 Have an easily cleaned floor
 Walls and ceilings of light color
 Have windows if possible
 Lighting should be free from glare
 Have a counter or a stable type door
 Slatted wooden shelves
 Door that is strong for security reasons

Unit task 4: Methods of linen exchange

Linen can be exchanged in the following ways:
 Clean for dirty – where the staff from different departments bring in dirty linen and
in exchange get clean ones.
 Requisition – where the members of staff write a requisition list and they as issued
the linen as per their requisition.

Unit task 5: Linen room documentation

Unit task 6: Calculation of Linen requirements

The amount of linen required will depend on the type and size of hotel and trade carried on.
The frequency in which the laundry collects and deliver will also affect the amount of linen
required.
Re-sheeting will also affect the amount of linen needed. If a hotel re-sheets every day then
the linen required will be more

Calculate the linen requirements, putting in mind the following points:

a) Calculate the number of beds and the amount of linen on each.
b) Decide the number of times per week the linen will be changed.
c) Allow for at least one set of linen to be at the laundry, one set in the linen room or
cupboard and one set on the bed.
d) In many establishments there is a quick changeover of one- night guests, so it could
be necessary to allow 5-8 sets of linen per bed. This then makes allowances for delays
in delivery due to bad weather, holidays or strikes.
e) Towels allowed are usually one or two per day.
 f) Hospitals have 4-6 sets of linen per bed, plus an emergency stock including uniforms.
The allowance is not so critical as in other establishments, as linen is laundered on the
premises and therefore a quick turnover ensures clean linen is always available.
g) Non-residential establishments calculate linen needs according to the number of
guests, standards required, and the type of operations carried out.

Unit task 7: Points to consider in linen storage

 Linen should be stored on slated shelves. The large linen should be stored on the
lower shelves and light linen stored on high shelves.
 Allow linen to rest between uses to allow even wear.
 Store linen so that they are easy to remove from the shelves.

Unit task 8: Importance of linen control

Linen is controlled to minimize theft, to control stocks and ensure that the all discarded linen
is documented thus facilitate stock control.

Unit task 9: Buying linen

When buying linen consider the following points:
 Obtain samples and test the quality and strength by:
- Rubbing the material between the hands over dark materials and noting the
amount of dressing e.g. starch which falls on it. If too much falls it means it is
poor quality.
- Looking at the material under magnifying glass to note the closeness and
evenness of the weave
- Noting the firmness of the selvage and finish of the machining especially the
corners.
- Sending a sample of material to the laundry to be washed a given number of
times and comparing it with a once washed sample.
 Buy the best quality for the purpose.
 Buy as a large quantity at one time as possible in order to get the cheapest rates.
 Place orders in good time so that exact requirement can be met, particularly regarding
size and marking .
9.1.27 HANDLING INFECTED LINEN

9.1.27 Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit the trainee should be able to:
a) define terms
b) explain hospital laundering procedure
c) explain the protective measures to be taken when handling infected linen

UNIT TASKS
Unit Task 1: Definition of Terms

Unit Task 2: Hospital laundering procedure

Handling Arrangements for Infected Linen

Isolation Room
  Carefully remove dirty bed linen from bed.
 Bagging of linen should be carried out immediately on removal from the bed.
 Dirty linen should be carefully handled and not shaken prior to bagging.
 Carefully place infected linen into a hot water soluble bag.
 The bag should then be sealed using the cold water soluble tie attached to the bag

Staff Changing Room

 Staff changing rooms should have designated dirty/clean areas if possible.
 Carefully place Scrubs into a hot water soluble bag immediately following removal in
the dirty area.
 The bag should then be sealed using the cold water soluble tie attached to the bag.
 A RED colour-coded bag in accordance with HSG(95)18, supported by a suitable bag
holder, will be kept in the staff changing room dirty side.
 Place the sealed bag in the RED colour-coded bag. The RED colour- coded bag shall
be securely fastened when it is two-thirds full and an identification tag attached.
The RED colour-coded bag shall remain in the staff changing room to await collection by
support staff.

Collection at Staff Changing Room

Support staff will collect RED colour-coded bags from the staff changing facility and handle
carefully on to the open mesh type trolleys.

Isolation Room Lobby/Anteroom

 A polythene or nylon/polyester laundry bag, RED colour-coded in accordance with
HSG(95)18 supported by a suitable bag holder will be kept in the isolation room
lobby/anteroom.
 The sealed bag shall be placed in the RED colour-coded bag.
 The RED colour- coded bag shall be securely fastened when it is two-thirds full and
an identification tag attached.
 The RED colour- coded bag shall remain in the lobby/anteroom to await collection by
support staff.
 If the isolation room does not have a lobby, the member of staff who is working in the
isolation room should place the water soluble bag into a RED colour-coded bag that is
being held open by another member of staff who is directly outside the room. The
RED colour-coded bag shall then be securely fastened and tagged and taken to the
ward infected linen holding area.

Collection at Storage Area

If a vehicle is used to transport infected linen to the laundry, simultaneous transport of clean
linen (or other goods) and infected linen is not permitted.
The loaded trolleys will be transferred to the vehicle for onward transfer to the laundry with
trolleys being restrained in the vehicle to restrict movement

Laundry Process at the Infected Linen Area

 The loaded trolleys will be transferred from the vehicle directly into the laundry.
 Under no circumstances should RED colour-coded bags be opened in the laundry and
laundry sorted.
 The RED colour-coded bag must be transferred to the designated washer extractor
before opening. This can be achieved by tipping the inner bag/s out of the outer
colour-coded bag directly into the machine. The RED colour-coded bag (if washable)
 can then be placed in the machine followed by the trolley covers. If polythene RED
colour-coded bags are used, these should be disposed off as Clinical Waste.
 After each transfer, the vehicle interior and trolleys must be disinfected by an
approved infection control technique i.e. steam cleaning, at a suitable cleaning station.

Unit Task 3: Protective measures

 Staff handling used, unwashed linen should wear protective clothing e.g. disposable,
waterproof aprons and gloves.
 Any exposed lesions on the body should always be covered with a waterproof
dressing.
 Effective hand hygiene must always be implemented.
 Staff should be fully trained in all laundry operations

HOME NURSING AND FIRST AID

9.1.27 INTRODUCTION TO HOME NURSING

This module unit is designed to provide competencies relevant to the understanding of home
nursing and functions of a home nurse
Specific Objectives
a) define terms
b) explain the importance of home nursing
c) State the reasons for caring for the sick at home.
d) state the factors to consider when recommending home nursing
e) state the qualities of a good home nurse
f) identify the duties and responsibilities of a home nurse
g) identify challenges in home nursing

UNIT TASKS
TASK 1: DEFINITION OF TERMS
Nurse: this is a healthcare professional who, in collaboration with other members of a health
care team, is responsible for treatment, safety, and recovery of ill individuals; health
promotion and maintenance within families, communities and populations; and, treatment of
life-threatening emergencies in a wide range of health care settings.
Home nurse: this is a health care professional trained to take care of patients in their home
settings. He or she performs a range of clinical and non clinic al work to ensure the recovery
of the patient concerned in a familiar environment.
Home nursing: this is a profession where a skilled individual engages in the taking care of
patients in their homes instead of a hospital or other institutions. There is a wide range of
reasons why home nursing would be preferred in some cases including severity of disease
being low, lack of money for hospitalization e.t.c.
Clinical care: These are the activities done by a health care professional specifically
targeting the elimination or reduction in severity of the disease. This could include dispensing
medicine, cleaning and dressing wounds e.t.c.

TASK 2: EXPLAINING THE SCOPE OF HOME NURSING

Home nursing involves the following :-
 Assessment of nursing requirement
 Assist in discharge of waste
 Assist in feeding
  Assist in leaving and returning to the house
 Bathing
 Consultation and coaching in special handling skills
 House calls
 Mobilization
 Morning / evening toilet
 Night attendance
 Positioning in bed (bedsore prophylaxis)
 Post-natal nursing (domiciliary after care – penjagaan selepas bersalin)
 Nursing of HIV/AIDS patients

(REFER TO THE TABLE BELOW)

Basic Nursing Includes: assistance in leaving and returning to bed. Shower or

lapping, washing of hair, cleaning and cutting of finger nails,
assistance in leaving and returning to bed, dressing and undressing
with special consideration to medical conditions or handicaps, oral
hygiene, combing and shaving.

2 Complete Toilet Includes: assistance in leaving and returning to bed. Shower or

lapping, washing of hair, cleaning and cutting of finger nails,
assistance in leaving and returning to bed, dressing and undressing,
oral hygiene, combing and shaving.

3 Partial Toilet Includes: assistance in leaving and returning to bed, dressing and
undressing, shower or bath, oral hygiene and combing.

4 Bathing Includes: assistance in leaving and returning to bed, dressing and

undressing, preparing the long bath (bath tub), assisting in bathing
and leaving the long bath, oral hygiene, shaving and combing

5 Assistance in Includes: Dressing and undressing, support in the discharge of urine

Discharge of or faeces inclusive of emptying of urine bag or stoma bag, removing
Waste and replacing of diapers or pads, cleaning the intimate area

6 Positioning in Includes: Organising the bed sheets, positioning as required,

Bed prevention of pressure ulcer, eventually with skin care.

7 Mobilisation Includes: Specific movement of the limbs as prophylaxis in the

(Integrated) prevention of contractures.
8 Mobilisation To be carried out: On special advice of a physician, or according to a
(Special service) specific mobilisation plan.

9 Assistance in This includes: preparation of the food (not cooking), assisting in the
Feeding intake of food and drink, as well as all hygienic measures pertaining
to it.

10 Enteral Includes: The preparation and the dispensing of the enteral food
Feeding preparation, supervision of apparatus if applicable.
via PEG

11 Assistance in Includes: Dressing and undressing, supporting at staircases, and

Leaving the assisting to the transporting vehicle and transportation of walking
House aids.

12 Assistance in Accompanying Includes: The constant presence near the patient, his
Leaving Outside safety, assistance in discharge of waste, assisting in the transport,
the House handling of walking or transport aids, accompanying to home, and
safe handing over to the home care taker.

13 Changing of Includes: The stripping and replacing of bed sheets and pillow
Bed Sheets covers, discharging the dirty clothing for recycling according to
hygienic practise.

14 Attendance by Includes: The continual supervision of the patient, attends to the

Nurse/Nurses Aid normal needs, registers observations and communicates the same as
appropriate. Takes care of the safety of the patient and intake of
nourishment and medication (Other services are excluded).

The Nursing person shall keep a detailed report of any special happenings during the nursing
attention period. In case of any unusual occurrence or conflict, sudden worsening of
patient's condition, etc. inform the Home Nursing Providers Director/Nursing Officer

TASK 3: IMPORTANCEOF HOME NURSING SKILLS

  It saves on funds :-Lack of enough funds for hospitalization may necessitate home
care which is cheaper.
 It eases congestion in hospitals:-
a) Diseases that are not life threatening or patients are nearly healed for example
minor wounds could be taken care of at home
b) Disease states that are long term but not requiring constant attention from doctors
in hospitals e.g. already fixed fractures can be take care of at home
 One may chose home care to avoid the inevitable contracting of infections from long
stays in hospitals.
 People who are emotionally vulnerable and part of their therapy requires emotional
support will benefit more with home care than hospitalizations.
 Terminally ill patients in cases of cancer and AIDS spend their last days at home
receiving palliative care.

TASK 4: FUNDAMENTALS OF HOME NURSING

Basic nursing skills include the knowledge necessary for a nurse to perform the basic duties
of obtaining vital statistics, changing bandages, cleaning wounds, bathing patients, and
performing CPR.
a) Vital Signs
The basic skills that a nurse will learn include how to take patients' temperatures, how to
take their blood pressure readings, how to find and measuring their pulses and take their
respiration readings.

b) Changing Bandages

A nurse must learn the basic skill of how to remove and correctly apply bandages.

C) Cleaning Wounds

Cleaning wounds properly is another basic nursing skill. This basic skill includes the
knowledge of how to treat different types of wounds.

d) Bathing Patients

Basic nursing courses cover proper methods of bathing patients including how to be gentle,
make patients feel comfortable, and how to bathe patients who suffer from different ailments
or have special bathing needs.

e) CPR

Learning to perform cardio-pulmonary resuscitation, or CPR, is a basic skill that nurses must
learn.
f) Hygiene

Nurses also must have basic skills in proper hygiene, not only for patients but also for
themselves. Nurses must learn how to properly protect themselves from infection from sick
patients, and also to prevent spreading disease from patient to patient

TASK 5: QUALITIES OF A HOME NURSE

 Honesty: the home nurse is entrusted with taking care of individuals who may not be
in a position to take care of their valuables and he/she is expected to take care of
them. They are also entrusted by the family with the home as they take care of their
patients. The home nurse therefore has to be an honest person who will not steal from
the patient or harm the patient.
 Sympathy/ empathy: the home nurse should be a person capable of putting
themselves in the suffering patient’s shoes. He/she should treat the patient like they
would want to be treated when they are most vulnerable and helpless. This applies in
performing clinical or non clinical duties to help the patient feel that someone cares
for them.
 Politeness: calmness when talking to the patient, not raising ones voice even when
the patient becomes annoying is a quality that helps the patient compliant in terms of
taking medications, being cooperative with the home nurse and also helps calm an
agitated patient.
 Patience: the patients, most of them in pain need a person who will not be in a hurry
to complete their tasks in caring for them. The home nurse needs to perform his duties
taking into consideration the feelings of the patient. Other patients especially the
mentally ill, the elderly and children may be uncooperative or non responsive to
instructions one gives. The home nurse has to cultivate tolerance with these patients
so as to serve them.
 Cheerfulness: a dull home nurse makes the patient retreat to themselves and their
illness. Being cheerful influences the patients to also be cheerful and for a while
forget their illness. It aids in recovery of the patient especially in patients with mental
disorders especially depression.
 Carefulness: this is an important quality. This is more so in dispensing of drugs. One
who will give a dose of medicine without looking at the label on the bottle; or will
spill out twenty drops when ten were ordered; or will upset a. breakfast tray on the
bed; or leave a vessel under the bed for hours uncovered: or oversleep when the
patient should have food or medicine, or let the fire go out; such an one is entirely
unfit to have charge of a sick person.
 Exactness in carrying out the orders of the physician is the first duty of a nurse. The
doctor is responsible for the treatment of the case, and the patient and family are
responsible for the choice of the doctor. The nurse should follow strictly the
instructions of the doctor whether in dispensing of drugs or in diet since the doctor
id better trained. Any suggestions on hoe to improve the patient’s condition should
be made to the doctor and family to make a decision on.
TASK 6: DUTIES AND RESPONSIBILITIES OF A HOME NURSE
The home nurse is employed to fulfil the needs of a patient. This will include:
 Feeding the patient: this also includes ensuring the meals are of the right quality,
balanced diet or recommended diet is given.
  Grooming the patient. Keeping the patient clean and smart is part of the job of the
home nurse. They will be required to dress and undress the patient and keep the
patient covered and warm.
 The home nurse is expected to provide a secure environment for the sick.
Unnecessary disturbances to the patient should be avoided, and the room should be
free of hazardous materials that could injure the patient.
 The home nurse should also provide emotional support to the patient as this enables
the patient to achieve quick recovery.
 Administration of drugs, cleaning of wounds and other simple medical procedures are
in a home setting performed by the home nurse.

LEARNING RESOURCES
 Text books
 Journals
 Magazines
 Video shows
 Resource persons

EVALUATION
1. Define the following terms
a) Home nursing
b) Clinical care
c) nurse
2. Explain the scope of home nursing.
3. Discuss the importance of home nursing skills.
4. Explain the fundamentals of home nursing.
5. List qualities of a home nurse
6. Discuss the duties and responsibilities of a home nurse.

9.1.28 UNDERSTANDING THE SICK AND THE INFIRM

This module unit is designed to provide competencies relevant to the understanding of the
needs of the sick and the infirm.
Specific Objectives
a) define terms
b) explain the basic human needs and their fulfillment
c) Explain effects of illness on an individual
d) State the importance of patient motivation
e) Explain patient motivation techniques

UNIT TASKS
TASK 1: DEFINING TERMS
Infirm: This includes the elderly, the weak and the handicapped.

Patient: The word originally meant 'one who suffers'. A patient is any person who receives
medical attention, care, or treatment. The person is most often ill or injured and in need of
treatment by a doctor or other health care professional. However, one who is visiting a
physician for a routine check-up may also be viewed as a patient.

Invalid: this is a person with an illness (patient) or a disability even if not currently ill.
Convalescent: this is a person recovering from an illness. The patient is in the final stages of
recovery from the illness.

Terminal illness: this term describes an active disease that cannot be cured or adequately
treated and that is reasonably expected to result in the death of the patient

Palliative care: is any form of medical care or treatment that concentrates on reducing the
severity of disease symptoms, rather than provide a cure. The goal is to prevent and relieve
suffering and to improve quality of life for people facing serious, complex illness.

Motivation: It is a general term referring to the entire class of drives, desires, needs, wishes
and similar forces.

TASK 2: BASIC HUMAN NEEDS AND THEIR FULFILLMENT

Maslow's hierarchy of needs

Abraham Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs motivational model

Abraham Maslow developed the Hierarchy of Needs model in 1940-50's USA, and the
Hierarchy of Needs theory remains valid today for understanding human motivation,
management training, and personal development. Abraham Maslow's book Motivation and
Personality, published in 1954 (second edition 1970) introduced the Hierarchy of Needs, and
Maslow extended his ideas in other work, notably his later book Toward A Psychology Of
Being, a significant and relevant commentary, which has been revised in recent times by
Richard Lowry, who is in his own right a leading academic in the field of motivational
psychology.
Each of us is motivated by needs. Our most basic needs are inborn, having evolved over tens
of thousands of years. Abraham Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs helps to explain how these
needs motivate us all.
Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs states that we must satisfy each need in turn, starting with the
first, which deals with the most obvious needs for survival itself.
Only when the lower order needs of physical and emotional well-being are satisfied are we
concerned with the higher order needs of influence and personal development.
Conversely, if the things that satisfy our lower order needs are swept away, we are no
longer concerned about the maintenance of our higher order needs.
Maslow's original Hierarchy of Needs model was developed between 1943-1954, and first
widely published in Motivation and Personality in 1954. At this time the Hierarchy of Needs
model comprised five needs. This original version remains for most people the definitive
Hierarchy of Needs.

TASK 3: EXPLAINING EFFECTS OF ILLNESS ON AN INDIVIDUAL

- low productivity:- a person becomes less productive they do not have the
energy to work due to the effects of the illness
 - increased expenditure: this will accrue from the cost of accessing medical care
- Poor feeding due to lack of appetite which can lead to malnutrition and poor
health
- Trauma: the trauma that accompanies some illnesses may make one to be
socially withdrawn
- Reduces life-expectancy of an individual:-severe, recurrent or prolonged
illnesses may reduce ones life expectancy

TASK 4: STATING THE IMPORTANCE OF PATIENT MOTIVATION

a) Compliance
The patient’s cooperation with the home nurse and doctors will mostly depend on how well
they are motivated. Making the patient comfortable and promptly providing aid when
required makes them respect the health care giver and will also want to play their role in
restoring their health. This includes taking medication as prescribed, being courteous to the
home nurse and doctor and taking care of injuries e.t.c.
b) Quick recovery
Motivating the patient helps in recovery from illness faster. Providing the medication in time
and as required, providing a balanced diet, providing emotional and social support all go a
long way in helping cure the patient of physical and emotional illnesses.
c) Psychological health
A patient feeling that they are a bother to those taking care of them will make them hide their
discomforts and complaints and this affects them adversely in recovery. The patient needs to
feel loved by those around them. Apart from compliance, it will also help the patient relax.
For patients with depression, anxiety and other mental illnesses, this is paramount.

TASK 5: EXPLAINING PATIENT MOTIVATION TECHNIQUES

Patients motivation can be achieved by taking care of the following:
- Physical needs
- Nutritional needs
- Emotional needs
- Social needs
- Psychological needs
- Spiritual needs
A) Physical needs
These include rest and sleep in a comfortable well made bed and a clean environment,
bathing and dressing, caring for the mouth and dealing with excretion.
1) Rest and sleep
The patient spends a lot of time in bed and therefore needs to be as comfortable as possible.
The bed should be made daily and the bedding changed frequently.
Items required for bed making
 2 clean bed sheets
 2 blankets
 1 or 2 pillow cases
 A draw sheet
 Mackintosh: this is a form of waterproof garment made out of rubberized fabric. The
Mackintosh is named after its Scottish
 Bed cover

Procedure for making a bed

  Open the window and strip the beddings from the bed fold into three or four screens,
place onto a chair and leave to air
Picture
 Turn the mattress
 Replace the underblanket
 Place the bottom sheet, right up and tuck in all round making a mitre at all four
corners.
How to make a mitred corner
 Tuck in along the head of the mattress
 Lift a flap of sheet from a point along the side about 30 cm from the corner
and tuck in.
 Drop the flap and tuck in along the side.
 Place the mackintosh on the lower side of the bed.
 Place a draw sheet on the mackintosh and tuck.
Picture
 Put on the top sheet, wrong side up, to reach just beyond the head of the mattress.
 Put on blankets separately, to reach just short of the top sheet.
 Make a fold at the centre, along the length of the bed and tuck along the bottom
 Fold back all the bedding from the top sheet down to the width of the pillow.
Picture
 Tuck in the sides. Leave one side untucked for ease of putting the patient to bed.
 Place the pillow in the pillow cases
 Put the pillow on the bed with open ends away from the door.
 The patient lying on a pillow on his back is a resting position allowing turning from
side to side.

Resting positions in bed

The recovery position
This position is used for the unconscious patients who lies with his lower leg stretched
out behind him, and his upper leg bent infront of him. His shoulders are tilted so that the
lower arm is behind him while the upper arm is bent infront of him. His head is turned to
prevent the tongue from blocking the airway.
Note that there are no pillows. This is to prevent the patient from chocking on his own
vomit and to keep the neck comfortable.
Picture
The prone position
The patent lies face down supported with pillows. This position is used for a sore back or
buttocks.
Picture
The recumbent position
The patient lies flat on 1 or 2 pillows. This is a restful position allowing turning from side
to side.
Picture
The semi-recumbent position
3 or 4 pillows support the patient’s back. This is a comfortable position that allows the
patient to see surroundings, to eat and drink and converse without straining.
Picture
The upright position
Here the patient sits up with the back supported by several pillows and a backrest. Two of
the
 Pyjama suits can be adjusted to ease movement
Pyjamas to be worn for a long time should have a U shaped crotch and raglan sleeve to
make movement easier.
Picture
Helping with trousers
For a patient needing assistance to wear trousers, slide the t rousers over one foot, then the
other with the patient lying on the bed.
Pull them up, helping the patient lift his buttocks off the bed while you try ease the trousers
up the waist. Tuck in the shirt and fasten trousers.
Picture
Garment over the head
If patient is lying down, slip her arms into the garment first, then ease the neck opening over
the head.
Picture
If the patient’s arms are strong enough, slip the garment over the head first then help her into
the sleeves.
Picture
4) Caring for the mouth
The patient’s mouth should be cleaned regularly to remove food particles that can bring an
unpleasant taste and odor which cause mouth infections.
 Provide the patient with a toothbrush and toothpaste of his choice. Also provide a
glass of water (warm or cold) and a bowl to spit in.
 Provide a jug of water and encourage the patient to drink regularly unless the doctor
indicates otherwise
 Use mouthwashes to refreshing the mouth. Alternatively, especially with children
give juices with sharp tastes like grape juice or orange juice to cause secretion of
saliva which is an antiseptic that keep the mouth clean.
Patient who is too ill and young children will need the home nurse to do the cleaning of the
mouth for them.
Requirements
 A tray and towel
 A child’s soft toothbrush
 Toothpaste
 A small container holding bicarbonate of soda solution (one 5ml spoonful of powder
to 600ml of water).
 A small container of water or mouthwash.
 A bowl to spit into.
 Vaseline, lip saline or cream for dry lips.

Procedure
1. Help the patient into a comfortable position and tell him what you are going to do.
2. Wash your hands before tucking the towel under the patient’s chin
3. Tuck the towel under the patients chin
4. Using toothbrush and toothpaste, or bicarbonate of soda solution, clean all the
surfaces of the mouth.
5. Help the patient to rinse the mouth with water or mouthwash.
6. Apply the lip saline, if lips are dry.
7. Return the patient to a comfortable position.
5) Helping the patient deal with excretion
This is usually a difficult and embarrassing procedure for the patient to accept. He or she
therefore should not sense that the home nurse is finding it difficult or embarrassing to help.
One should provide privacy and be decent even for patients who are unconscious. Ensure the
doors are locked in the lavatory the sickroom if the patient has to have a bowel movement
there.

It is important to know what the patient can do for themselves and only assist when
necessary. The aids to help in the lavatory can be bought or rented from hospitals.
Picture (pg 12 kioko 3)
a) Lend a hand to steady the patient and give support to the toilet.
b) One may be required to help the patient in cleaning themselves up after using the
lavatory.
c) Encourage the patient to cleaning hands after using the toilet and help where required.
d) Cover the pan or aid used and empty down the lavatory.
e) Always use gloves when helping the patient in this exercise. Wash your hands too
when you are through.
f) Use a freshener to rid of the smell and rearrange the sickroom to be as normal as
possible.

b) Nutritional needs
General guidelines on healthy feeding of patients
Unless a doctor has prescribed a special diet, the food should be nutritionally balanced
(i.e. containing body building, energy and protective foods).
Reduce sugars and other carbohydrates since the patient is not very active and thus not
requiring a lot of energy.
Fat intake should be reduced since they are difficult to digest and assimilate. The food
may be boiled or steamed rather than fried.
Increase fibre intake to improve bowel movement.
The food should be tender to avoid too much chewing
The food should be served attractively and in small amounts at a time. Food served
untidily and in large portions often makes the patient to hate eating.
Offer varieties to avoid monotony which would make the patient lose appetite.
Give freshly cooked foods whenever possible.
Do not overfeed the patient to avoid them becoming overweight.
Reduce salt intake especially in patients with high blood pressure since excess salt intake
increases blood pressure.
The patient should be supplied with plenty of fluids to drink e.g. water, juice, porridge.
Fresh fruit juice is preferable and nutritional than sodas and squashes.
The utensils used in a sick room should be sterilized to prevent the patient from spreading
infection to other family members.
Diets prescribed by the doctor should be adhered to strictly.

Special diets
Special diet are prescribed either temporarily to help the patient recover from an illness
they have presently or permanently, usually to avoid diet related diseases. They include:
a. Foods for the obese and overweight:
They should contain less fats and simple sugars and starches like potatoes and replaced
with more fibre, salads and fresh fruit. Too much fat in the blood can cause heard diseases
 and diabetes mellitus. Too much weight can result in back aches, joint aches and
limitations in movement and work.
b. Foods for diabetics
They should contain negligible amounts of simple sugars like cakes and instead replaced
with fibre and low amounts of starch. This is because their bodies cannot utilize a lot of
sugar in the blood. Heavier starches will take time to be digested and thus the release of
sugar into the blood will be slower. Fruits, vegetables, protein and more fluids are
indicated (diabetics lose a lot of water through urine)
Larger portions of protein are indicated for patients being treated with kwashiorkor, and
those who have had fractures and other injuries. This is because protein will be
required for the repair of the injured areas.
Helping the patient to eat
Eating should be done in a well lit, pleasant and agreeable surrounding
 The table and tray should be thoughtfully and conveniently laid so as to appeal to the
patient. Include an appropriate flower arrangement.
 Make the patient as comfortable as possible. Give the patient an opportunity to empty
the bladder and wash hand s before the meal.
 For the blind, explain where what food is using a clock face i.e. ugali at 12 o’clock,
sukuma at 6 o’clock, soup at 3 o’clock. Most of them can feed them selves.
 Carry out conversation to avoid tension during the meal.
 The toothless should have a very soft serving.
 For patients who cannot get out of bed, serve their food on a tray. Ensure you protect
the bedding and support the patient to a comfortable position with pillows. Encourage
the patient to feed themselves and only assist if necessary.
C) Social needs
The patient like everyone else needs to socialize with other people. Adequate interaction with
other people; whether relatives, other patients or pastors will help in the process of recovery.
The home nurse should therefore strive to:
a) Allow the patient to meet visitors and also spend time with the relatives. This should
however be restricted to avoid exhaustion of the patient. The home nurse should
discuss with the family members on the number of visitors allowed to see the patient
depending on the patient’s condition.
b) Television and radio stop boredom. They should be placed on a convenient position
easily accessible and not too far or in a difficult angle such that the patient strains to
see.
c) For school going children, one can arrange with their teachers when they could see
the child and cover with the child some work. This is especially so for disease states
that are disabling and take a long time to heal but still allow for such an interaction to
take place.
d) Emotional needs
Sickness of any nature places some emotional distress to the patient and sometimes to the
family members. It is imperative that a home nurse takes steps to address the emotional needs
of their patient as emotional distress can derail the healing of the patient. Note the following:
 The patient feels vulnerable and needs to feel valued, recognized and respected.
Maintain the patient’s self esteem by encouraging as much independence as is
possible.
 Consider the patient’s age, background and both physical and mental condition. This
will help you adjust your approach to the patient accordingly in providing care to the
patient.
  Ensure privacy whenever the patient requires it e.g. when he needs to talk to his
lawyer, pastor or close friend.
 Be alert to the patient’s feeling of insecurity or any other emotional state e.g.
depression, apprehension, fear e.t.c
 If the patient needs to talk, be a keen listener not appearing to be in a hurry or bored.
Show concern and care. Specialist help can be offered by counsellors.
 Reliability is a key element when giving home based care. Information given to you
by the patient is confidential and can only be discussed with the doctor if it is relevant
to their medical care.

e) Spiritual needs
During illness, most people’s religious and spirituality is rekindled. It is important to respect
and facilitate these needs.
 Visits by a pastor, kadhi or any other religious leader should be arranged if the patient
requests so. A quiet environment should be offered in these sessions.
 The patient should be facilitated to watch or listen to their favourite religious shows.
 If a religious group wants to visit an underage patient, the parent’s consent should be
sort.
 If the patient does not want visits by religious people, this should be respected

LEARNING RESOURCES
 Text books
 Resource persons (nurse).
 Internet

EVALUATION
1) Define the following terms
 Patient
 Infirm
 Invalid
 Convalescent
 motivation

2) Explain the basic human needs and their fulfillment

3) Explain the effects of illness on an individual

4) State the importance of patient motivation
5) Explain patient motivation techniques.

9.1.20 THE SICK ROOM

This module unit is designed to provide competencies relevant to the understanding of the
importance of a sick room, how to set it up and how to take care of it.

Specific Objectives
a) Explain the essential features of a sick room
b) state the essential equipment and furniture in a sick room
c) explain the use and care of essential equipments and furniture in a sick room
d) outline the procedures of cleaning and preparing a sick room

TASK 1: EXPLAINING ESSENTIAL FEATURES OF SICKROOM

Sick room
This is a room where a person is confined due to illness. At home it normally is the bedroom
which is slightly modified to cater for the sick person.

Essential features of a sick room are:-

Ventilation
This is the movement of air within a room, house or any other building, which is achieved
naturally by opening windows and doors and artificially by use of fans and air conditioners.
Reasons for adequate ventilation
1. Extracts stale air from the sick room especially if patient is having aided excretion in
the sick room
2. Allows for circulation of fresh air with extraction of carbon dioxide. This facilitates
smooth non laboured respiration.
3. Provides for cooling on hot days.
4. Proper air circulation and reduced moisture ensures that air borne infections like TB
are not easily spread.
5. Discourages the infestation of household pests that thrive well in poorly ventilated
damp conditions.
6. If carbon fuels are being used to warm the room, carbon monoxide, a toxic gas, is
produced if the ventilation is poor.
7. A stuffy environment causes increased sweating and thus loss of water from the body.

Lighting
Good lighting in a sick room is essential. Natural light from the sun will be preferred by most
people. It also has the advantage of being free unlike light from electric bulbs and kerosene
lamps. The natural light can be got though keeping windows and doors open. Houses with
rooftops that are translucent (light can pass through them partially) will provide natural
lighting too.
Reasons for good lighting in a sick room
1. To provide for clear vision so as to minimize the occurrence of accidents and ease of
movements.
2. To avoid contrast with the background that can cause a glare and strain the eye.
3. To provide a pleasant atmosphere. This reduces fatigue.

Cleanliness
Cleaning the sick room regularly is essential. This is made necessary for the following
reasons
1. To prevent spread of infections like typhoid, cholera, diarrhoea and other diseases that
spread in dirty environments.
2. To keep the room smelling fresh and thus making the patient feel relaxed.
3. Disorganized rooms are not pleasant to the eye and could keep the patient
uncomfortable
Accessibility
The sickroom should be easily accessible by the patient and also the home nurse and the
family members. When the patient for example goes out, he/she should easily be able to go
back or is taken back to the room.
Preferably, the room should not require the climbing of stairs or negotiating many corners to
get to.
Inside the room, the most essential items and equipments used by the patient e.g. bed pans,
clothes, radio should be in places that do not require too much effort to reach and manipulate
e.g. opening of wardrobes, starting the radio e.t.c.

TASK 2 : STATING THE ESSENTIAL EQUIPMENT AND FURNITURE IN A SICK

ROOM
A well organized sick room should have the following items to be able to keep the room
clean and serve the immediate needs to the patient.
 A bed
 Bed sheets
 Blankets
 Mackintosh
 Bedcover
 A draw sheet
 A bed pan to assist in excretion
 Furniture

TASK 3: EXPLAINING THE USE AND CARE OF ESSENTIAL EQUIPMENTS AND

FURNITURE IN
A SICK ROOM
It should be noted the sick room could be contaminated with many infections. In the care of
the equipment in the sick room, the general procedures in house keeping should be followed.
 The most important addition is the consistent use of protection and the use of
disinfectants to avid spread of infection either from patient or to the patient.
 The bed pan should be cleaned immediately it is used and disinfected.
 The mackintosh should be wiped too often especially is the patient is incontinent and
thus wets the bed.
 The bed and furniture should also be disinfected since the patient could be touching
them and thus transferring the infectious agents. He/ she could also be getting
infections from the furniture if visitors leave infectious agents on the furniture. Note
that the immune system of the patient could be very low.
 The bedding must be aired daily. The bed sheets should be changed everyday or as
soon as they are soiled. They should be washed and thoroughly disinfected and left to
dry in direct sunshine.
 The blankets should also be occasionally washed and disinfected most importantly
before any one else uses them after the sick person has recovered.

TASK 4: OUTLINING THE PROCEDURES OF CLEANING AND

PREPARING A SICK ROOM

1. Collect all materials and equipment needed to clean the room and gather them neatly
outside the door.
2. Put protective clothing such as overall, good flat soled shoes and gloves
3. If the patient can sit up, let him/her to do so on a comfortable chair outside the room.
Cover them well to protect from chills and draught.
4. Make the bed methodically and proceed to the cleaning process ensuring you
thoroughly clean every surface
5. Do not raise dust. Use damp dusting and mopping in removal of dirt and dust.
6. Avoid having doors and windows open at the same time to keep out draught.
7. Use warm disinfected water to clean and rinse systematically
 8. After cleaning, tidy the room and rearrange items used by the patient. Provide a
suitable flower arrangement to make the room look attractive.
9. Ensure that things the patient may require are placed close and conveniently
10. Place a basin with clean disinfected water, a hand towel and antiseptic soap on a stand
or stool near the door for use by those attending to the patients.

PREVENTIVE MEASURES IN THE SPREAD OF INFECTIONS

When caring for patients with infectious diseases, it is important to take precautions to avoid
being infected as the home nurse or even spread to family members. The following should be
observed.
1. Wearing of protective clothing like overalls, gloves nose and mouth masks when
attending to a patient.
2. Turn away if the patient sneezes or coughs when attending to him or her. A
respiratory disease like TB, cold can be transmitted in this manner.
3. Provide the patient with disposable handkerchiefs that can be put in a paper bag and
burned.
4. The room should have proper ventilation to prevent warm and moist environment
which promotes infection spread.
5. Take bed pans and urinals to the toilet and flush away their contents immediately.
Wash your hands using soap and a disinfectant after this exercise.
6. Food left over by the patient should be disposed off immediately to avoid attracting
flies which spread diarrhoeal diseases.
7. Use a fly repellent spray to keep the room and toilet free from flies and other insects.
8. Children should use toys that are clean and can be cleaned regularly.
9. The patient’s bedding should be cleaned and disinfected regularly and more so
before anyone else uses them.
10. Only those people immune to some diseases like chicken pox, measles should be
allowed to visit the sick room.
11. Destroying reservoirs of the infective agents e.g. rats in the house.
12. Destroying breeding places of infective agents and vectors e.g. stagnant water where
mosquitoes breed and thus spread malaria.

LEARNING RESOURCES
 Textbooks
 Sick room in an institution e.g. those caring for the elderly.
 internet

EVALUATION
1. Define the following terms
a) Sick room
b) Ventilation
2. Explain the essential features of a sick room
3. State the essential equipments and furniture in a sick room
4. Explain the use and care of essential equipment and furniture in a sick room
5. Outline the procedure of cleaning and preparation of a sick room
8.1.07 INTRODUCTION TO FIRST AID
This module is designed to provide competence relevant to understanding first aid, principles
of first aid, the guidelines and responsibilities of a first aider
Specific objectives
- Define the terms
- Explain the importance of first aid
- State the principles of first aid
- State the scope of first aid
- List the responsibilities of a first aider worker
- State the qualities of a first aid worker.

UNIT TASKS
Task 1 - Definition of terms
- First aid: First treatment given to a patient before being taken to a doctor
to reduce pain and to save life.
- First aid kit: it is a kit that contains first aid equipments and requirements
- First aider: The person who offers first aid to a patient or casualty injured
person

Task 2 - Importance of first aid

- Saving life
- Prevention of further injuries
- Helping the casualties to recover from the injury
- Carrying out measures to relief pain or reduce pain to the patient
- Presenting of the injured to a medical practitioner for treatment

Task 3 - Scope of first aid

i. Assessing the situation
a. Appear calm
b. Take charge
c. Ensure safety
d. Use bystanders
ii. Diagnosis
a. Listen
b. Smell
c. Look
d. Touch

iii. Treatment
a. Calm the person and be sympathetic
b. Reduce pain and discomfort
c. Handle gently to avoid more harm and pain
d. Protect from cold and damp

iv. after treatment dispose the casualty to hospital

Task 5 - qualities of a first aider

- Observant: Symptoms and signs
- Tactful: Find history and symptoms
- Resourceful: Use whatever is at hand
 - Dextrous: Handle person gentle and use equipment efficiently
- Explicit: be clear in your instructions to the casualty and or bystanders
- Discriminating: choose priorities
- Preserving: Keep on trying to help the casualty
- Sympathetic: Encourage and comfort the person

LEARNING RESOURCES
- Text books
- Resource person (e.g from St. John Ambulance)

EVALUATION
i. Define the following terms
a. First aid
b. First aid kit
c. First aider

ii. Explain the importance of first aid

iii. Explain the principles and scope of first aid
iv. Give the qualities of a first aider

8.1.08 First aid supplies

This module unit is designed to provide competencies relevant to the understanding of first
aid supplies, the use and care of first aid supplies, the improvisation of first aid supplies.

Specific objectives
- List first aid supplies.
- Explain the use and care of first aid supplies
- Describe how to improve first aid supplies

UNIT TASKS
Task 1 - First aid supplies

- Bandages, cotton wool, gauze pads, safety pins, scissors, adhesive tape,
antiseptic tape, triangular bandage, pain relievers, petroleum jelly, tweezers
ointments, dissecting forceps

Task 2 - Use and care of first aid supplies

- Cotton wool, antiseptic are used for cleaning the wound
- Bandages: used for wrapping wounds
- Safety pins, tweezers: used for removing anything logged in the skin
- Pain relievers e.g panadols: used to relief or reduce pain on the patient
- Triangular bandage: supporting the arm to prevent more pain
- Razorblades, scissors, surgical blades: used for cutting
- Petroleum jelly, ointments

CARE: All the first aid supplies should be stored in a clean place e.g a
lockable box to protect them from dust and other services of germs

Task 3- Improvisation of first aid supplies

 - Clean cloths can be used for bandages
- Sharp strong thorns for safety pins
- Tree backs and banana fibres for strings

LEARNING RESOURCES
- First aid kit
- Text books
- Charts
- Resource person

EVALUATION
i. give the components of a first aid kit and explain their uses.
ii. Explain the care given to the first aid supplies
iii. Explain ways in which one can improves first aid supplies

8.1.09 common accidents and ailments in the home

This module unit is designed to provide competencies relevant to the understanding of
first aid.

Specific objectives
- define terms
- list common accidents in the home
- state cause of common accidents
- explain prevention of common accidents
- outline first aid procedures for common ailments in the home
- identify common ailments in the home
- describe the management of common ailments
- explain prevention of common ailments

UNIT TASKS
Task 1- Definition of terms
i. ailments: an illness that is not very serious
ii. Accidents: A sudden, unexpected and planned occurrence which results in
an injury of one form or another

Task 2 - Common accidents in the home

i. Sprains: This is when the ligaments and tissues at a joint are wrenched
or torn

Symptoms & signs:

- Pain and tenderness at the joint which increase the movement. Swelling and
later bruising
ii. Choking: caused by a large lump of food which sticks at the back of the
throat thus stopping breathing. It blocks the air passage making one
unconscious.

Signs: Victim cannot talk or breathe and may not be able to explain what is
happening. A person who is choking will look faint and become unconscious
due to lack of oxygen.
iii. Nose bleeding; it can occur after a punch, sneezing, blowing or picking
the nose. The person can swallow or breath the blood

iv. Cuts and bruises: wounds are abnormal break in the skin which lets blood
escape. If wound is on outside germs can get in and cause infection.
- Bruises are caused by a fail or punch.

v. Fainting: brief loss of consciousness caused by the person temporarily

not having enough oxygen flowing to the brain. Caused by sudden pain, fright
or emotion, lack of food, or standing still for a long time.
Signs: Pulse slow and weak and the person looks pale

vi. Fractures: A broken or cracked bone. A closed fracture has no physible

wound where as an open fracture has a wound close to it.
Signs: Pain on the injured part especially when touched
- Swelling of the injured part
- Lack of control if fractured part is limb
- Some deformity such as a depression on the skull or limb, shortening or
abnormal rotation of the limb.

vii. Burns and scalds: burns are caused by dry heat while scalds are the result
of stream or boiling liquids on the skin.
viii. Objects in the eye, nose and ears.
ix. Epileptic fits: problems with the normal electrical activity of the brain.
Signs: day dreaming staring blankly in the distance.
- person behaves strangely
- loss of memory

x. Bites and stings: insects cause stings which are more painful and
alarming. Dogs bite and cause wounds.
Signs
 Unexpected sharp pain
 Swelling around the area with central reddened puncture point. Some people
who are allergic may have severe shock or difficulty in breathing.

Task 3- causes of common accidents

- Sharp objects or tools in the house especially those found in the kitchen such
as knives, razer blades, edges of utensils etc
- Hard or sharp objects in the compound such as stones, broken bottles and
glasses, old tins, splinters, thorns etc
- Wet floors can be slippery and therefore cause sudden falls.
- Fires started accidentally or unguarded open fires used in or outside the house
can cause damage not only to people but also to properly.
- Steam from boiling liquids or food can cause serious scalds
- Insect bites or stings from some pets such as spiders, bees and ticks
- Dog bites are common where dogs are kept as pets and watch dogs as well as
from stray dogs in the neighborhood
- Snake bites in the area where snakes are found
- Exposed electric wires or some house hold appliances or faulty wiring system
in the house.
- Poisoning by chemical substances used or stored in the home such as
medicines as well as gases and contaminated foods.
- Suffocation through lack of adequate air with a pillow on the face, charcoal
jikos are left burning in a room without adequate ventilation or plastic bags
pulled over heads by young children.
- Improper use of kitchen tools and utensils and other equipments

Task 4 - Prevention of common accidents

- Ensure that all sharp objects and tools such as knives, pangas and needles
are used and stored correctly and out of the reach of children. Edges of
utensils that are likely to cut should be blunted or smoothened
appropriately.
- The house and the compound should be cleared of all sharp objects such as
broken bottles, glass, pieces of wood etc. All these should be collected and
disposed of appropriately. Holes and pits not in use should be filled up or
covered
- Fires should be used correctly and guarded as much as possible. Avoid
starting fires unnecessarily. Keep lighters and match boxes safely, out of
the reach of young children. Cigarettes should be properly extinguished.
Fire extinguishers are essential in buildings
- Children should be taught the ganger of fires
- Floors in the house should be kept clean and dry all the time. Wet and
slippery floors can cause nasty falls. Special attention should be given to
kitchen and bathroom floors. Wipe and spill off food, water and other
liquids immediately.
- Hot boiling water should be covered. Boiling or cooking foods should be
well covered and when removed from heat containers should be placed in
a safe place. Handles of pans and pots should be turned to the side of the
cooker to prevent tipping over due to accidental handling.
- Protect the house and its surrounding from harmful insects and animals.
Keep the house and the surrounding clean to discourage pets. Clear
undesirable vegetation to discourage mosquitoes, rats and snakes. Train
and control dogs in the homes
- All substances that are likely to cause poisoning should be stored
separately and out of the reach of children. These include medicines, home
chemicals and insecticides as well as some cleaning substances such as
paraffin, turpentine, bleach etc. They should be stored in well labeled
containers with fitting covers.
- Inflammable substances such as paraffin petrol and mentholated spirit
should be sealed when not in use and stored away from food. Cooking gas
should be used correctly and turned off when not in use.
- Insulation on electric cords should be checked and repaired regularly to
prevent shock and electrocution. All large electric equipment should be
properly earthed. All electrical switches switched off when not in use.
- Ventilate rooms well and discourage use of incomplete burning charcoal in
closed rooms. Discourage children from using pillows or cushions, to
 cover their faces when playing or sleeping. Keep polythene bags out of
children reach and teach them not to slip them over their heads.

Task 5 First aid procedures for the common accidents in the home.
i. Sprains: Rest and support the joint and if the sprain is recent
apply an ice bag or a cold compress for 30min or a firm bandage over a
good layer of cotton wool.
- elevate the injured limb
- if symptoms persist, seek medical aid

ii. chocking:
- Cough with some force to expel choking object. Lean forward on the back
of chair the edge of a sink to produce a quick upward thrust on the upper
part of the abdomen to expel the object.
-
- If the victim is conscious ask him or her to cough forcefully to dislodge the
food or whatever is causing the obstruction.
- If coughing does not help stand behind the affected person and place your
closed fist at the abdomen where the ribs divide. Grasp the fist with the
other hand and press suddenly and sharply into the patient’s abdomen
using an upward throst as well. Repeat this several times if necessary.
These dislodge the obstruction.
- If the victim is unconscious, turn him or her to one side , kneel across the
victim and put your hand on top of the other over the upper part of the
abdomen. Then press suddenly and sharply into the victim’s abdomen.
Repeat several times if necessary.
- When the food is dislodged, remove it carefully from the victims mouth.
- Finally turn the victim into the recovery position as treat as
unconsciousness
- If the obstruction does not dislodge, call for help immediately and send the
victim to the hospital.

iii. Nose bleeding

- Get the person to sit with the head forward
- Loosen the tight clothing around the neck and chest
- Get casualty to breath through the mouth and pinch the soft part of the
nose firmly
- Advice not to swallow any blood
- Do not let the person lift the head
- Do not plug the nose but clean around it.
- When bleeding stops tell the casualty not to blow the nose for at least an
hour.
- Get the medical help if bleeding starts again
- If bleeding does not stop within an hour, seek medical help.

iv. Cuts and bruises

- Bleeding of small wounds usually stops as the blood clots at the part where the
skin is broken
- If clotting does not occur, make an effort to stop bleeding by pressing where
the blood comes from lift up limbs and kept the injured part at rest.
- Prevent infection by not touching the wound and using sterile equipment and
dressing to clean and dress the wound
- Clean the wound with cotton wool dipped in sterile, weak salt solution and
clean boiled water. Remove only the dirty that must be removed. Clean
outwards and away from the wound.
- Cover the wound with clean gauze and then bandage carefully but correctly
avoiding pressure on the wound. Elastoplasts may be used for small wounds.
- For more serious wounds whose bleeding will not stop, place a pad and
bandage on the side of the wound nester of the heart of the patient. If pad is
not available use a handkerchief or anything that will apply pressure to reduce
bleeding. Take the patient to the hospital immediately for further attention.
- Grazes and bruises may not need to be covered with bandages. Cover bruises
with cols pad and raise the affected limb. If there is a swelling seek medical
advice.
v. Fainting:
- If the person feels unsteady advise to sit and lean forward with the head
between the knees. Get the person to take deep breaths.
- If the person is standing in a crowd advice to tighten and relax the leg muscles
and move the toes until air circulation improves.
- If unconscious lay the person down raise the leg muscles and open airways
- Loosen and tight clothing around the neck, chest and waist.
- Make sure they have enough fresh air around them and if necessary place in
the shade.
- Check breathing rate, pulse and levels of responsiveness

vi Fractures
- Do not move the patient as movement could cause more damage.
- If there is bleeding, stop it and cover the wound with sterile dressing to
prevent infect ion.
- A splint or sling may be used depending on the part of the limb or body
affected for easier transportation to hospital. The split also ensures that the
injured part is well supported thus inducing chances of further damage.
- Put patient on the stretcher and take him or her to the hospital

vi. Burns and scalds:

- Prevent further damage by removing affected person from the source of the
burn or scald
- Cool the burned areas as quickly as possible after burning by pouring cold
water in the burn using a tap, bucket, basin or any other suitable container
- In the case of chemical burns, wash the burns immediately under a running tap
or shower so as to remove the chemical and dilute any remaining chemical.
- To prevent infection cover the burn quickly with a sterile dressing which
covers more than the affected area. Sterilized and well ironed handkerchiefs or
sheets can also be used.
- Do not burst or break blisters and do not apply lotion grease or antiseptic
- Minor burns and scalds can be covered with sterile gauze and bandaged lightly
with clean bandage
- Do nor touch the burned area with your hands
 - Avoid handling or undressing the patient on the burned or scolded area with
your hands.
- Avoid handling or undressing the patient on the burned or scolded area unless
it is absolutely necessary
- Help minimize the effects of loss of fluids from affected tissues by giving
plenty of fluids and drinks.
- Conscious patients with burns should be given water or milk regularly until
they are at hospital for treatment. No drinks should be given to unconscious
person
- Remain calm and keep reassuring the patient from time to time to relieve
anxiety.
- Take the patient to the hospital as soon as possible.

NB. All heat burns must be cooled immediately for at least 10 minutes.

vii. Objects in the eye, nose and ears.

Eye
- Tell the person not to rub the eye. Ask to sit facing the light and lean back.
Stand behind and hold chin steady with one hand use thumb or fore finger of
the other hand to separate the eye lid. Ask person to look right, left, up and
down. If the foreign body is seen use sterile water solution. Tilt the head
towards injured side so that water drips. If the foreign body do not wash away
or if no water is available then lift it with a wet swap or corner of a wet
handkerchief.

Ear
- Reassure the person, seek medical advice. If an insect, pour water through the
ear.

Nose
- Make the person blow their nose hard for the object to come out. If it doesn’t
come out, take the person to the hospital.

Epileptic fits
Minor:
- Keep the person safe
- Keep other people away
- Talk calm and quietly to the person
- Stay with the casualty until the person has recovered and can get home.
- Advice to see a doctor
- Watch for symptoms and signs of a major fir

Major
- Help the person down if falling
- If possible loosen cloths round the neck and something under the head
- Do not move the person unless there is danger
- Do not try to hold the person down
- Do not put anything in the mouth or try to open it.
 - When the jerking movements (convulsions) have finished, place the person in
the recovery position
- Do no t wake the person.
- Stay with the person until they have recovered

x. Bites and stings

Stings:
- remove stings using a tweezers holding them near the skin. To relief pain
apply cold compress, surgical spirit or solution of bi-carbonate of soda.
- If pain increase the person should seek medical advice
- Dog bites and other animal bites should be attended to immediately at a
hospital by a doctor.

Task 6 common ailments in the home

i. Common cold:
Lasts for a few days
Signs:
- runny nose
- loss of appetite cough
- begins with fever

ii. Highly contagious respiratory infection. Airborne disease covered by droplets from
infected people.
Signs
- sore throat
- weakness
- fever
- chill
- muscular pain
- coughs
- sudden on set

iii. Coughs
Trouble cough indicates bronchitis which is infection of the bronchial tubes
iv. Tonsillitis
Causes the swelling of tonsils. The person has difficulty swallowing
v. Asthma
The person may be very anxious and have difficult breathing out and have blueness of
face
vi. Diarrhoea
Frequent passage of loose watery stool and is usually a symptom of a disease. Stool may
have abnormal crumps and general body weakness. Caused by micro organisms that get
into the child’s body through the food or drinking water.

vii. vomiting
it is the expulsion of stomach contents through the mouth. The content may contain blood
viii. worms
These are the parasites which live in the intestines where they feed on the food eaten or
suck on blood e.g. hook worms, tape worms, round worms.
ix. jigger infestation
 These are parasites caused by fleas. They enter the body especially toes and such blood of
the victims.
x. fungal infection

Task 7 prevention of common ailments

- Practicing proper hygiene measures that is personal, food and environment.
- Dressing according to weather especially dressing warm during cold weather
- Ensuring that there are no dusty areas in the surroundings.

Task 6 - Management of common ailments

i. Common cold:
- give the child plenty of fluids
- give the child enough rest
- keep him warm
- If the baby develops fever, persistent coughing, vomiting, loss of appetite,
laboured breathing, he or she should be taken to a doctor.
ii. influenza
- bed rest
- adequate fluids
iii. coughs
- the child should be taken for medical attention when there is fever and lack of
appetite.
iv. pneumonia
- give plenty of fluids to avoid dehydration
- spounge to reduce fever
- consult a doctor immediately
v. Tonsillitis
- seek medical advice
- gurgle salt to relief the pain
vi. Asthma
- reassure and calm the person
- get the person to sit down and lean forward resting on a support
- provide good supply of air
- let casualty take any medication they have to treat an attack.
vii. Diarrhea
- give plenty of fluids
- give the child water with sugar and salt
- consult a doctor
viii. vomiting
- give plenty of fluids
ix. worms
- a person infested with any of these worms should seek medical treatment
immediately.
x. jigger infestation
- wash the infested area with disinfectant water and soap for a few minutes until
the jiggers float in the water.
xi. fungal infections
- keep the toes dry all the time.
- Air the feet
- Use antifungal cream or powder
LEARNING RESOURCES
- text books
- journals
- magazines
- first aid supplies
- resource person

EVALUATION
- define the terms
 ailments
 first aid
- give the management of
 common accidents in the home
 common ailments
- explain how to prevent common ailments in the home
10.1.0 CATERING AND ACCOMMODATION CONTROL I

10.1.1 Introduction
This module unit is intended to equip the trainee with knowledge, skills and attitudes
conducive to effective control of operations within the hospitality industry.

10.1.2 General Objectives

By the end of this module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) appreciate the importance of position and sales control
b) understand the process of purchasing, receiving, storing and issuing
c) acquire knowledge in use, care and maintenance of materials and equipment.

10.1.01 INTRODUCTION TO COST CONTROL

10.1.01T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) define catering and accommodation cost control
b) explain the importance of catering and accommodation cost control
c) describe the process of cost control
d) explain the role of the control office
e) describe the cost control cycle

Unit Tasks
Unit Task 1: Definining catering and accommodation control

Catering and accommodation control is the guidance and regulation of the costs and revenue of
operating the catering and accommodation activities in hotels, restaurants, hospitals, schools,
employee restaurants and other establishments.

Unit Task 2 Explaining the importance of catering and accommodation control

 Objectives
- Analysis of income and expenditure
- Pricing and Quotation
- Prevention of waste
- Prevention of fraud
- Data for Management report
 Problems in Catering Cost control
- Unpredictability of volume of sales
- Perishability of supplies
- Daily variation in production
- Short cycle of operations
- High degree of departmentalization
- Multiplicity of low value transactions

Unit Task 3Describing the process of control
 Phase 1-Basic Policy Decisions
- Financial Policy

716
 - Marketing and Catering Policy
 Phase 2-Operational control
- Buying
- Receiving
- Storing and Issuing
- Preparing
- Selling
 Phase 3 – Control after the Event
- Catering reporting
- Accommodation reporting
- Assessment of results
- Corrective action where appropriate
Unit Task 4Explaining the role of the control office
 Formulation of Budgets
 Formulation of Marketing Policy
 Formulation of Catering & Accommodation Policy
 Preparation of Catering and Accommodation reports
 Analysis of Catering and accommodation reports
 Taking corrective action where appropriate

Unit Task 5 Describing The Control cycle

The control cycle of daily operation

Suggested questions
1. Explain what you understand by food and beverage control
2. Explain the objectives of food and beverage control
3. Enumerate the main obstacles to food and beverage control.
4. What are the three main phases of food and beverage control

10.1.02 EQUIPMENT AND MATERIALS USED IN COST CONTROL

Specific Objectives
By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
717
 a) Identify equipment and materials used in cost control
b) Explain the use of equipment and materials

Unit task 1 Identifying equipment and materials used in cost control

 Calculator
 Weighing scales
 Measuring jugs

Unit task 2 explaining the use of cost control equipment and material

10.1.03 PURCHASING

10.1.03T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) define terms
b) explain the importance of purchasing function
c) state the duties of the purchasing personnel
d) explain standard purchase specification
e) discuss methods of purchasing.

Unit Tasks
Unit Task 1 Defining terms
 Purchasing
This is a function concerned with the search, selection, purchase, receipt, storage and final use
of goods in an establishment.
 Purchasing Officer
This is the person employed by the establishment to purchase, receive, store and issue
commodities.
 Purchasing Research
- Market and materials
- Cost analysis

Unit Task2Explaining the Importance of purchasing function

Policies - determine what market segment is aimed at.
Determines price to be paid for purchases (re-quality)and prices that
items are to sold at.
Determines the quality to be purchased

Menu - Determines the choice of items available to customers

Volume forecasting determines the quantity to be purchased

Requisition - Indicates the particular requirements of each

outlet

Purchasing - Selects suppliers, contracts, quantities to be

purchased, specifications for individual items
- Ensures continuity of supply

718
Receiving - Inspects for quantity and quality

Storing - Correct storage for each item

- Maintenance of stock records
- Security of items
- Correct stock levels
- Correct issuing

Production - Preparation of items purchased

Selling - Provision of satisfactory products at the correct selling

Price/cost
Control - The measurement of performance of all outlets involved.
- Feedback of information to management.
Unit Task3Stating the duties of the purchasing personnel
Purchasing Officer
1. Responsibility for the management of the purchasing office, the receiving, storage and
cellar areas
2. the purchasing of all commodities
3. Ensuring continuity of supply of all items to user departments
4. finding cheaper (for same quality) and more efficient sources of supply
5. Keeping up to date with all the market being dealt with and evaluating new products
6. Research into products, markets, price trends etc.
7. Co-coordinating with production department to standardize commodities and therefore
reduce stock levels
8. Liaising with production, control, accounts and marketing departments
9. Reporting to senior management.

Unit task4Explaining standard purchase specification

 Definition
A concise description of the quality, size and weight or count factors required for a
particular item
 Objectives
- To establish a buying standard for a particular commodity for an establishment
- To inform the supplier in writing precisely what the purchaser requires
- To establish a common denominator between the purchasing officer and the
approved suppliers for settling the price of a commodity
- To inform the receiving clerks and the store man what to accept
- To obtain a standard product for the production and selling departments
- To obtain a standard product so that the measurement of performance of
department can be more accurate.

SAMPLE: Standard Purchase Specification

Ref. No. Name of Operation Date
(for easy (State name and address) (When prepared)
reference)
1. Product Name

719
This must be the exact and specific name as used in the trade e.g. Red Cabbage

2. Product Use(s)
Clearly indicate the product use, e.g. to be used for making red cabbage salad

3. Product General Description

Provide general quality information about the desired product. For example,
Red Cabbage: Heads to be deep red in colour, firm, without spoilage,
excessive dirt or damage.
4. Detailed Description
State other quality factors that help to clearly identify the desired product.
Specific factors may include some or all of the following:
 Geographical origin – a particular country or region in the same
country
 Variety or type- specify where different varieties are available
 Brand name – applicable for processed products with several
brands in the market
 Package size e.g. Red cabbage heads of medium size, packed 12
heads per case

5. Product Test Procedures

Specify to the supplier what procedures will be used to test for product
quality and quantity at the time of receiving or when the product is being
prepared or used. Thus Red cabbage packed 24 heads per case can be
counted, while products delivered under refrigeration can be checked for
temperature using a thermometer.
6. Special Instructions and Requirements
Include any additional information to clearly communicate to the supplier
the quality expectations of the product, e.g. labeling, packaging and
delivery requirements like delivery date after placing order.

Unit Task5Discussing methods of purchasing

 The Purchasing Procedure

- The initiation of a request to purchase goods by an authorized member of the
staff
- Determining of the source of supply from which goods are to be purchased and
the price to be paid
- Entering into a contract with the firm/supplier selected
- Obtaining a satisfactory delivery performance from the supplier with regard to
time, date and place of delivery
- The acceptance of goods ordered and the adjustment of any discrepancies in
quality or quantity of goods delivered
- The transfer of commodities to the ordering department or to the stores or cellar.

720
  Selection of a supplier
- Price performance
- Quality performance
- Delivery performance
- Supplier rating

 Methods of purchasing
- Cash and carry
- Purchasing by contract
- Daily quotation sheets (daily market lists)
- Weekly/fortnightly quotation sheets
- Purchasing by paid reserve
- Total supply
- Cost plus
 Documents used in purchasing
- Purchase order form
- Purchase requisition sheets
- Price Quotations/ Price Lists
- Purchase Specification

SAMPLE OF A PURCHASE ORDER FORM

721
 PURCHASE ORDER

TO: (supplier) Order date: -------

Address-------------------------- From/Deliver to:
---------------------
(Name of F&B
operation)

Address-------------------
Please Supply: Delivery
date--------------
No. Description Qty unit Size Unit Amount
Required Price

Total Cost
Important
This purchase order expressly limits acceptance to the terms and conditions
stated above, and any additional terms and conditions affixed hereto or
otherwise referenced. Any additional conditions proposed by seller are
objected to and rejected.

-------------------------------

Authorized Signature

SAMPLE FORMAT OF A QUOTATION

From ----------------------- Quote No.

-------------------
(Supplier)
Address --------------------- Date
------------------------
To: -----------------------------
----------------------------------- Terms:
No Descriptio Quantity Unit Size Unit 10% Net Unit Price
. n Pric Trade
e Discou
nt

722
Total

Conditions e.g.
1. All prices quoted are valid for 30 days.
2. Prices are inclusive of 10% VAT

723
 SAMPLE: PURCHASE REQUISITION FORM

FOOD PURCHASE REQUISITION

Name of F& B Operation

---------------------------------------------------- Serial No.
--------------

From: ------------------- To: Purchasing Date ------------- Date Required

-----------------
(Kitchen or food stores)
Col. 1 Col. 2 C Col. Co Col. Col. 7 Col. 8 Col. 9 Col. col.
ol. 4 l. 5 6 10 11
3
Previ Produc Si On Qty. Suggested supplier previ purch
ous t ze Unit ha requi ous ase
price Descri nd red name name name
paid ption price price price Qty Date

Purc Stores Kg, Sto Store Purcha Name Name Purc Purc
hase Bin Lt, re s or sing: of of hase hase
index Cards Ml, Bi dept. Former altern altern suppl suppl
& & pc n need supplie ative ative ier ier
quote Price car r index index
s Lists d

Prepared By -----------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------

Head of Dept./ Storekeeper

PURCHASING OF BEVERAGES

The purchasing of beverages is similar in many ways to the purchasing of

food, that is, buying the best possible products for the established standards as
laid down in the catering policy. As beverages can frequently contribute more
to profits than food does, it is essential that adequate attention is given to this
area.

724
 When operating a wine list of any standard, it is important to ensure
beforehand that suppliers are able to guarantee the caterer continuity of supply
for at least six months, or else the wine list need to be printed too frequently.

The major sources of supply of beverages are:

a. Wine shippers: these are firms that buy wine in the country of origin and
supervise the shipment of it to the country in which it will be sold. The
Shipper is often a specialist of just one region, and so is an expert for that
region. To the purchasing officer, a Shipper is able to offer a limited range
of high quality products as well as specialist advice. The accepted
drawbacks to using Shippers are that normally they will only deal with the
large catering companies or prestigious establishments, the product range
is limited, the minimum order level is too large for the storage facilities
available to most catering establishments, and the frequency of delivery
and post-sales service is limited.
b. Wholesalers: these are either independent or subsidiary companies of a
large brewery. They will usually sell any proprietary beverage product that
is required, but as a first preference will sell their own label products.
Wholesalers offer a very wide range of products, a good and regular
delivery service, a good after sale service and also offer fringe services
such as free printing of wine lists and promotional material for both bars
and table service. The accepted disadvantage to this method is the
anonymity of the service, as usually only a sales representative is seen by
the caterer as a lack of specialist knowledge and prices not being as
competitive.
c. Cash and Carry: these establishments offer a limited range of wines,
spirits, and beers at very keen prices, but do not offer any specialist advice
on the products or any post-sales service. Cash and carry establishments
are useful in emergencies, or for catering units with a limited demand for
beverages.
d. Suspended Debt: This method is operated by some wine and spirit
companies. The company invoices the caterer for his initial opening stock,
but requests payment only on subsequent invoices, the first being
“suspended” until the account is closed. This method is useful to small
catering concerns when opening up in business or new units, as it frees
cash which would otherwise have been tied up in stock. The main
disadvantage is that of being tied to one supplier.
e. Cellar Stocks and Suspended Debt Accounts: this method is similar to
the one above. The supplier agrees with the caterer as to what his monthly
par stock should be. The supplier then stocks the cellar free of charge, all
opening stock levels being recorded in a cellar ledger. Stock is then taken
at the end of the month, and all items issued from the cellar are charged to
the caterer. The par stock is then made good by the supplier. The main
advantage is that the initial cellar stock is not charged against the caterer,
only that part of it that is issued during the month. The main drawback is
that of being tied to one supplier.
PURCHASING SPECIFICATION FOR BEVERAGES

The purchasing specifications for beverages are much simpler to understand due to
the fact that beverages are sold and purchased by the brand name label of the

725
product, each having a consistent quality and quantity standard of content for each
selling unit e.g. bottles, barrels. As the specification is brief, it can always be
written in full on a purchase order. However specifications for wines would also
include details of vintage and supplier. It should be noted that as the quality,
consistency and quantity are virtually guaranteed, the price to pay for the product
is important as it is one factor that is not constant. It is for this reason that close
attention is given by the purchasers to offers by suppliers of special discounts

Sample Purchase Specification for Beverages

Pointer Hotels (UK) ltd

Beverage Purchase
specification year: 2008

Size
V Specification Magnum Bottle Hal
i f
n Bot
t tle
a
g
e
Champagne:

1 Bollinger, extra quality, √ √ √

9 brut
7
0
1 Moet & Chandon, √ √ -
9 Cuvee Dom Perignon
6
9
1 Tattinger, Blanc de - √ -
9 Blancs, brut
6
9
---------------

Suggested Questions

1. Explain the importance of the purchasing function in a catering control system

2. Prepare a job specification for a purchasing officer for a new large luxury hotel.
3. Explain the objectives of preparing a standard purchase specification.

10.1.04 RECEIVING

726
10.1.04T Specific Objectives
By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) define terms
b) explain the aims of receiving goods
c) describe the records and documents used in receiving goods
d) outline the procedures of receiving goods
e) explain the importance of time tabling deliveries
f) describe the process of tagging

Unit Tasks
Unit Task 1Defining terms
 Receiving.

Administrative function that involves checking of the quality, quantity, and condition of
the incoming goods followed by their proper storage.

Point at which the possession (but not necessarily the title) of goods is transferred from
the seller to the buyer

 Blind receiving
Is a method of receiving whereby the receiving clerk is compelled to count and weigh all
goods coming into the establishment. He uses a purchase order which lists all the goods
purchased but does not show the quantities of such goods.

 Returnable containers
They are reusable containers that must be returned to the supplier failure to which the
establishment is surcharged.

Unit Task2 Explaining aims of receiving

 To ensure that:
-The quantity of goods delivered matches the quantity which has been ordered.
-The quality of goods delivered is in accordance with the specification stated on
the purchase form
-The prices stated on the delivery note are in accordance with the prices on the purchase
order form
-When the quality or quantity (or both) of goods delivered is not in accordance with the
purchase order or an item is omitted from the order a request for credit note is raised by
the receiving clerk.
-An accurate record is made in the goods received book recording details of the delivery

Unit Task3Describing records and documents used in receiving goods

-Purchase orders
-Delivery note
-Goods received books
-Credit note
-Meat tag

727
Sample format of Delivery Note

DELIVERY NOTE
From: ________________________ Serial No. ___________
(Supplier)
Address: ______________________
Purchase Order
______________________ No. ___________

To: ________________________
(Name of F&B Operation) Date: _______________
Address: ______________________
______________________

Unit Date
NO. Product Description Unit Size Qty Price Delivered

728
Remarks:

Goods Received By: ______________________ __________________

Name Signature

729
Sample format of Goods Returned Form

GOODS RETURNED NOTE (FORM)

(REQUEST-FOR-CREDIT MEMO)
________________________
(Name of F&B Operation)
Serial
Address: ______________________ No. _______________

______________________

To: ________________________ Date: _______________

(Supplier)
Address: ______________________
______________________

Invoice No. _______________ Invoice Date: _______________

Product Unit Amount

NO. Description Unit Size Qty Price (P) Reason(s)

Total

Delivery Person: ______________________ __________________

Authorizing Officer: ______________________ __________________

Name Signature

730
 Sample format of Delivery Invoice

DELIVERY INVOICE

Serial
From: ________________________ No. _______________
(Supplier)
Address: ______________________
______________________

Purchase Order
To: ________________________ No. __________
(Name of F&B Operation)
Address: ______________________
______________________ Date: _______________

Unit Amount
NO. Product Description Unit Size Qty Price (P)

Total

731
A SAMPLE OF A FOOD TAG
Item: --------------------
Cut: ----------------------
Total wt. ----------------
Price per kg. ------------
Total value --------------
Dealer -------------------
Date ---------------------

Food control copy No: 11970

-------------------------------------------------------------------
-
-------------------------------------------------------------------
-

Item: --------------------------
Cut: ---------------------------
Total: -------------------------
Price per kg. -----------------
Total value -------------------
Dealer -------------------------
Date ---------------------------

Food store room copy

Return to Food Control on
Issues from stores
No: 11970

Unit Task 4 Outlining the receiving procedure of goods

-A quick check is made against the delivery note and a copy of the order to
check that majority of the goods has been delivered. If there is a major
difference between the delivery note and the order placed, this must be queried
immediately.
-The goods, on being unloaded are checked for quantity.
-The goods are checked for quality in accordance with the purchasing
specifications wherever possible.

Unit Task5 Explaining the importance of time tabling deliveries

- To ensure the delivery staff do not waste time queuing up to make a
delivery.
- To ensure that the receiving clerk has a succession of delivery being made
instead of several being made at the same time
- To ensure the receiving clerk has more time to do his job thoroughly
Unit Task6Describing the tagging process
 Definition
- Tagging refers to the process of identifying expensive food commodities
(animal proteins) through labelling
 Reasons for tagging
- It aids the control of expensive foods

732
 - It requires the receiving clerk to weigh and record each item and to check
against the specific purchase specification weight range
- It assists in obtaining a more accurate daily food cost percentage figure
- It assists in controlling the stock level of these items
 Procedure of tagging
- on receiving the item they are checked against the purchase specification
as to being acceptable or not
- If suitable a tag is made out for each item received with the main
information being taken from the invoice or delivery note. The weight
recorded on the tag is obtained by actually weighing each item individually
- The tag is then separated along the perforation with control office copies
being sent direct to the control with the invoice or delivery note and the
kitchen copy being attached by string or wire to the food item
- When the item is issued at a later date to the kitchen for use the tag
attached to the item is removed and sent to control with the date of issue
filled in.
- The control office will usually operate a reconciliation of meat tags form,
recording the tags received from the receiving department and from the
kitchen.

Suggested Questions
1. Prepare a purchase order for a three course meal for 25 people.
2. Explain what is meant by the term blind receiving
3. Given examples of situations that may require the receiving clerk to reject the
delivery or part delivery of goods.

10.1.05 STORING AND ISSUING

10.1.05T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) describe types of stores
b) explain stock-taking
c) explain stock levels
d) explain methods of pricing issues
e) describe details of records and documents used in issuing goods

Unit Tasks
Unit Task1Describing types of stores
 Centralized Stores
This is whereby materials are kept in one central warehouse and are issued from one
central point only.
 Decentralized Stores
This is whereby materials are held and issued by sub-stores in each department or branch
 Imprest stores
This is whereby the materials are received and held by the central stores but some of them
are issued to some sub-stores on the basis of imprest system. This system operates in a
similar way to a petty cash imprest system. A specific quantity of each item of material is

733
issued to the store keeper of a specific department at the start of any period. At the end of
his period the storekeeper will inform about the number of items of any material used for
production.

Unit Task2 Explaining stock taking

o Definition
Stock taking means to physically check the stock item in order to ensure that stock
quantities shown on stock records and actual quantities are the same.
o Methods of stocktaking
Perpetual Inventory
Periodic stocktaking
Continuous Stocktaking
o Stock Control
This means making sure that the business has the right quantity of goods, in the right
place and at the right time. Stock control has the following objectives:
-To ensure the availability of goods when required.
-To account for the goods which have been purchased
-To reduce the storage costs as much as possible.
-To minimise the risks of deterioration, waste and theft.
-To maintain accurate records.
-To avoid overstocking or under stocking.

Unit Task3 Explaining stock levels

o Definition
This is the level at which any item of stock is to be held. Stock levels should neither
be too high nor too low.
o Main determinants of stock levels
1. The maximum and minimum forecast usage figures for the trading period, which
would based on the forecast volume of sales and past histories
2. The re-ordering time for the item.
3. The economic ordering quantity.
4. Market trends, including changes in delivery, price and scarcity.
5. The storage space available.
6. The shelf-life of the item.
7. Budget available for purchasing.

o Setting stock levels

Some stock levels are set up by an enterprise as a policy matter. These are as under:
1. Maximum stock level – This is the level beyond which the stock should not be
allowed to rise. It is desirable that the level should be as low as possible but it must be
adequate according to the requirements of the enterprise.(MAXIMUM STOCK
LEVEL= MINIMUM STOCK LEVEL + RE-ORDER QUANTITY + (RE-ORDER
QUANTITY + MIN CONSUMPTION x MIN RE-ORDER PERIOD)
2. Minimum stock level _ this is the level below which stocks should not be allowed to
fall. If stock falls below this level then there is possibility of production stoppages
due to lack of material. This level is also called a buffer stock. (RE-ORDER LEVEL
– (NORMAL CONSUMPTION x NORMAL RE-ORDER PERIOD)
3. Re-order level – This is the point at which a purchase order must be sent to the
supplier for the supply of more materials. This level is higher than minimum stock
734
 level but lower than the maximum stock level. (Max CONSUMPTION x MAX RE-
ORDER PERIOD)
4. Re-order quantity – This is the quantity for which a purchase order is placed.
5. Average stock level – This is the average of maximum and minimum stock levels.
(MAX STOCK LEVEL + MIN STOCK LEVEL/2 )

Unit Task4Explaining methods of pricing issues

1. First in first out (FIFO)
This method assumes that the goods issued are those which have been longest on hand
and that those remaining in stock represent the latest purchases or production. The stocks
whose cost is to be carried forward were acquired most recently. The materials are
normally issued at the cost price of that consignment which was received first. When this
consignment is finished then the cost price of the next consignment is charged to value the
material issues. This procedure is followed continuously.

2. Last in First out (LIFO)

This method assumes that the goods issued on any particular date are those which were
most recently acquired and therefore stocks whose cost is to be carried forward are those
which were acquired earliest. The procedure of this method is exactly reverse of the FIFO
method. Materials are issued at the cost price of that consignment which was received
most recently.

3. Simple Average
In this method, a simple average of prices of all consignments in stock is calculated and
this average price is used to value material issues. When the first consignment is
exhausted then the price of that consignment is eliminated and a simple average of the
remaining prices is calculated.

4. Weighted Average
This means weighted average price. Under this method, the total value of goods in stock
is divided by the number of unit of stock. The resultant figure is the weighted average
price.

5. Base Stock
Under this method, a fixed quantity is carried as base stock. It is assumed that a fixed
minimum stock of the material is always carried at original cost. This minimum stock is
also known as base stock because it is kept for emergencies. The stock is not allowed to
fall below this level

6. Replacement Cost
This method is also known as Next in First Out (nifo). Under this method, material issues
are valued at replacement cost or market value. It means that materials issued are valued
according to cost incurred to replace those materials. This method ensures the valuation of
material issues at market or current prices.

7. Standard Price
This means a pre-determined price. A standard price is ascertained taking into
consideration a number of factors e.g. consumption of materials and expected changes in

735
the price of the materials. Under this method, all material issues are valued at a standard
price.

Unit Task5Describing records and documentations used in storing goods

o Stores ledger
This is a record that shows the quantities and the monetary value of items held in stock.
There are three main columns in this ledger. These are for receipts, issues and stock
balance in hand
o Bin cards
A bin card is a stiff card which is kept where the relevant stock item is stored.
Goods/materials are stored in drawers, shelves or racks. A separate bin card is used for
each kind of goods. The bin card shows the details of all receipts, issues and stock in
hand. The bin card helps to find out the number of various items in stores on a particular
date.
o Perpetual Inventory Records
Perpetual inventory means the checking of stock items from one day to another. An
inventory control card or record is maintained in the control office for each item held in
stock. All quantities of the item received and issued are recorded with the appropriate
date. The information is obtained from the invoices of suppliers which have been checked
for accuracy against the purchase order, delivery note, goods received sheet and signed
requisitions from the departmental stores.
o Transfer Notes
This is an internal form of requisition note which is used when a department requisitions
something from another other than the stores or cellar e.g. the kitchen may make out a
transfer note to the dispense bar for items such as white wine and sherry. The dispense bar
may make out a transfer note to the kitchen for oranges and lemons
o Empties Outward Book
This is a record used to strictly control containers of commodities e.g. crates, barrels,
bottles e.t.c. a record on such containers is kept and updated once they are returned to the
suppliers

ADD FORMULAE

Suggested Questions
1. What is meant by storekeeping?
2. Explain the main features of effective storekeeping
3. Distinguish between centralized and decentralized stores
4. Explain the advantages and disadvantages of centralized stores
5. The following information was obtained from the books of Samaki hotel with regard
to the consumption of wheat flour
Consumption per week: Minimum 600 units
Normal 800 units
Maximum 1200 units
Re-order period Minimum 2 weeks
Normal 3 weeks
Maximum 5 weeks
Re-order Quantity 5000 units
Calculate
i) Re-order level
ii) Minimum stock level
736
 iii) Maximum stock level

10.1.06 PORTION CONTROL

10.1.06T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) define portion control
b) explain the importance of portion control
c) explain portion control techniques.

Unit Tasks
Unit Task1Defining terms
 Portion control
This is the process of controlling the amount of food or beverage served to a
customer in relation to the food or beverage cost and the selling price of an
item.
 Standard recipe
This is a written formula for producing a food or beverage item of a specified
quality or quantity for use in a particular establishment.
 Standard portion size
This is the established amount of a food or beverage item to be served to
customer
in relation to the food or beverage cost and the selling price of an item.
 Standard yield
This is the edible part of a food or beverage product after preparation and
cooking.

Unit Task2Explaining the importance of portion control

- To maximize profit
- To avoid wastage
- To prevent customer dissatisfaction due to under portioning
- To aid food costing as once the standard portion size has been established
the gross profit may be calculated for that dish.
-

Unit Task3Explaining portion control techniques

- Use of standard recipes in production
- Use of portion control equipment e.g. soup ladles, scoops, glasses etc
- Use of pre-portioned commodities e.g. sugar sachets, coffee sachets, butter
pats e.t.c

Suggested Questions

1. Discuss the role of each of the following in food and beverage control:
 Standard Yield
 Standard recipe
 Standard portion size
2. Explain the importance of portion control to a commercial catering
establishment

737
10.1.07 COSTING AND PRICING

10.1.07T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) explain elements of costs
b) discuss methods of pricing products and services

Unit Tasks
Unit Task1 Explaining the elements of costs
 Material cost - It consist of cost of food, beverages and sundry sales such as
cigarettes and tobacco. Food cost consists of the cost of food consumed less the cost
of staff meals.

(Material Cost = Opening Stock + Purchases – Closing Stock – Staff Meals)

 Labour Cost – It consist of all the remunerations of the employees both in the form of
cash and in kind, e.g. wages, salaries, bonuses, commissions, staff meals, staff
accommodation

 Overhead Cost – These are all other costs apart from material and labour costs e.g.
rent, rates, depreciation, insurance, repair, stationery etc.

 Total Costs – this is the total of material, labour and overhead costs.

 Gross profit – is the excess of sales over the cost of materials

G.P. = Sales – Material Cost

 Net Margin – This is the excess of sales over the cost of materials and labour

N.M. = Sales – (Material + Labour Costs)

 Net Profit – This is the excess of sales over the total costs

N.P. = Sales – Total Costs

Unit Task2Discussing methods of pricing products and services

 Methods of pricing
- Pricing based on cost
- Pricing based on the market

 Factors to consider when pricing

-The nature of the demand for the product/service
-The level of the demand for the product/service
-The level of the competition for the product/service
 Pricing objectives
-Maximize profit on the short and long run.
-To increase sales volume
-To increase market share

738
 - To obtain the targeted rate of return on investment
-Stabilize the market prices.
-To maintain market leadership

 The pricing problems

- The basic price level of the establishment and the overall percentage gross
profit on products and services.
- The overall gross profit margin for each revenue producing department.
- The gross profit differentials within departments, menus and wine lists.
- Other related matters such as cover charges, minimum charges, service
charges e.t.c

Suggested Questions
1. Explain what you understand by :
-Material cost
-Labour cost
-Overhead cost
-Gross profit
-Net margin
-Net profit

2. The following information was obtained from the books of a restaurant in respect
of June 2009.
Sh Cts
Sales 26 000 00
Opening stock_1 JUNE 09 2500 00
Closing stock_30 JUNE 09 3200 00
Purchases 12300 00
Wages and salaries 5600 00
National insurance 300 00
Gas and electricity 800 00
Repairs and renewals 1000 00
Rent and rates 1800 00
Insurance 400 00
Postage and telephone 200 00
Printing and stationery 300 00
Depreciation 2000 00

You are required:

-To calculate the elements of cost and to express each as a percentage of sales,
assuming Ksh.800 of the food consumed has been used for staff meals.
-To calculate the gross profit, net margin profit and net profit.
-To calculate the average spending power per customer, assuming that 5900 customers
were served in June 1979

10.1.08 CATERING COST CONTROL

739
10.1.08T Specific Objectives
By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) explain the importance of control in food and beverage production
b) discuss control measures during preparation, production and presentation

Unit Tasks
Unit task 1Explaining the importance of cost control in food and beverage production
The principal purpose of food and beverage planning and control systems is
• To avoid excessive costs by reducing waste and other forms of loss to a
minimum, without sacrificing the quality or quantity of the food which
goes to the customer
An effective control procedure will serve other purposes as well:
• aid in developing popular menus
• aid in improving the quality of the product
• aid in pricing for profit

Unit task2 Discussing control measures during preparation, production and presentation
 Control measures during preparation
- Accurate weighing
- Use of standard recipes
- Correct preparation methods
- Use of correct tools and equipment
 Control measures during production
- Use of standard recipe
- Use of efficient equipment e.g. non-stick pans
- Strict observation of cooking duration
- Strict observation of cooking temperature
- Choice of the correct production methods
 Control measures during presentation
- Use of correct service equipment
- Use of portion control aids
Suggested Questions
Discuss by use of specific examples the control procedures that chefs should employ
when preparing and cooking foods to avoid wastage thus control food costs.

10.1.09 ACCOMMODATION COST CONTROL

10.1.09T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) explain the importance of control in housekeeping, laundry and front office
b) discuss cost control measures used in housekeeping, laundry and front
office

Unit Tasks

740
Unit task1 Explaining the importance of cost control in housekeeping, laundry and front
office
 to make operations more efficient and cost effective
 to evaluate the degree to which departmental objectives are being met
 to take preventive measure against theft, pilferage and misuse of material and
equipment
 to prevent wastage of materials

Unit task 2 Discussing cost control measures

 Costs of cleaning and maintenance
- Careful selection, induction and training of all staff
- Standardization of surfaces, furniture, fittings, equipment and cleaning
materials
- Use of mechanization- providing sufficient equipment for all staff so that
time is not wasted waiting for equipment to be available.
- Good planning and layout of premises
- Good planning and organization of staff
- Good supervision and means of checking work standards
- Use of standard times for various tasks-- use of job analysis
- Use of work study, method study and work measurement
- Careful purchasing, stores and stock control procedures to prevent abuse
and wastage of materials e.t.c.
- Use of contract services especially for very specialized work.
- Use of preventive and planned maintenance
- Effective use of preventive devices – e.g. mats, bin liners, ashtrays, seals,
e.t.c.
- Good communications system
- Keeping up to date with modern technology – being prepared to accept
change

10.1.10 CONTROL OF SALES

10.1.10T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) explain checking methods
b) describe the distribution of cheques
c) explain billing methods
d) describe methods of payment.

Unit Tasks
Unit Task 1 Explaining checking methods
 Importance of checking systems
o To provide the cashier with the information to make up the bills
o To keep a record of all food and drinks used
o To keep a check on stores so that wastage can be minimized and pilferage
discovered
o To store information so that the cost of each menu item can be calculated
accurately and the profit made on it worked out

741
 o To provide a breakdown of sales and financial statistics

 Checking methods
o Triplicate checking system
o Duplicate checking system
o Electronic billing machines
o Computerized checking systems
Unit Task2Describing the distribution of checks
 For control purposes the following information must filled on a food check
-Table number
-Number of covers
-Date
-Signature of the waiter/waitress taking the order

Sample food check before and after order is taken

(Name of Establishment)
Table No. --------- No. of Covers --------------

Top copy

Date ----------------- Signed ----------------------

(Name of Establishment)
Table No. ----------4------------- No. of Covers -----------2-------

1 Tomato juice
1 Crème Dubary
*****
1 Beef stew
1 Roast chicken
2 P.fondant
Date 2/02/2010 Signed Joy

 Distribution of checks in the triplicate system

- The top copy of the food order goes to the kitchen and is handed to the
aboyeur
- The duplicate goes to the cashier who makes out the guest’s bill.
- The third copy is retained by the waiter at his/her sideboard as a means of
reference.

742
  Distribution of checks in the duplicate system
- The top copy of the food order goes to the kitchen and is handed to the
aboyeur at the hotplate.
- The duplicate goes to the cashier who makes out the guest’s bill.

Unit Task 3 Explaining billing methods

1. Bill as check Second copy of order used as a bill

2. Separate bill Bill made up from duplicate check and presented to customer
3. Bill with order Service to order and billing at the same time e.g. bar or takeaway
method
4. Prepaid Prepaid customers purchase tickets or cards in advance
either for specific meal or specific value.
5. Voucher Customer has credit issued by third party for either specific
meal or specific value e.g. luncheon voucher or tourist
agency voucher.
6. No charge Customers not paying i.e. credit transaction
7. Deferred Refers to, for example function-type catering where the bill
is paid by the organizer
Unit Task4Describing the methods of payment
1. Cash
The amount of cash received by the operator should always be checked in front of the
customer and change given be counted back to the client. It should be accompanied by
an itemized and receipted bill.
2. Cheque
This payment should always be accompanied by a cheque card. The cashier should
confirm the following points in the cheque;
- Dated correctly
- Made payable to the correct company
- Filled in with the correct amount.
- Signed by the person indicated on the cheque.
The operator should also check that the card is valid.
3. Credit cards
On receipt of a credit card it should be checked for validity. A voucher is then made
out and the appropriate details filled in. The customer is then requested to sign the
voucher, which is then counter checked with the credit card. The customer receives a
copy of the voucher as a receipt. Credit cards also be checked for validity by passing
it through an electronic machine after which details of the transaction are printed.
4. Debit cards
Used in a similar manner to credit cards but results in the amount due being
immediately deducted from the customer’s bank account.

5. Charge cards
Here the customer is normally invoiced once a month for all services rendered during
that month. The account must then be paid up in total and no is allowed. Examples
include Diners club card.

6. Vouchers and tokens

743
 Vouchers such as luncheon vouchers may be offered in exchange for food in those
establishments accepting such vouchers. These vouchers have an expiry date. Should
food be purchased over the value of the voucher the difference would be paid for in
cash.
Tokens may be exchanged for specific meals or for certain values. If food purchased
is more than the value of the token, then the difference is again paid in cash.

Suggested Questions
3. Explain the importance of revenue control in a market oriented
catering establishment
4. What are the functions of a restaurant checking system?

10.1.11 EMERGING TRENDS

10.1.11T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) identify trends in catering and accommodation cost control
b) identify challenges in catering and accommodation cost control
c) explain ways of coping with challenges in catering and accommodation cost
control.

Unit Tasks
Unit Task 1 Identification of trends
Unit Task 2 Challenges
Unit Task 3 Coping with challenges

10.1.11T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) discuss challenges in catering and accommodation cost control
b) outline ways of coping with challenges in catering and accommodation cost
control

11.1.0 CATERING AND ACCOMMODATION PREMISE

11.1.1 Introduction
This module unit is intended to impart in the trainee knowledge skills and attitudes
that are necessary for the location of catering and accommodation premises. It
will also enable the trainee to utilize such premises for maximum benefit without
compromising their care and maintenance.

11.1.2 General Objectives

By the end of this module unit, the trainee should be able to:

744
a) appreciate the catering and accommodate layout
b) handle and care catering and accommodation equipment and facilitate
appropriately.
c) maintain catering and accommodation premises and equipment
d) acquire and source for appropriate catering and accommodation equipment
e) appreciate good organisation and control of catering and accommodation
premises and equipment

745
11.1.01 INTRODUCTION TO CATERING AND
ACCOMMODATION
PREMISES

11.1.01T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) define relevant terms used
b) classify catering and accommodation premises

Unit tasks

Unit task 1: Defining relevant terms used premises

Premises are land and buildings together considered as a property. This usage
arose from property owners finding the word in their title deeds.
A building or facility, including the fenced or walled (or demarcated or segregated) space
surrounding it
Unit task 2: Classification of catering and accommodation premises
The classification falls under two categories i.e. commercial and non-commercial catering
and accommodation operations

A. Commercial Catering and accommodation Operations

1. Hotels
They offer food, drink and accommodation. Their standards vary according to
the type of hotel and type of customer that it intends to attract. Many hotels
offer additional Facilities to their guests such as office services.

2. Motels
It is characteristic of motels that customer stay only for a night or two. The
motel may provide meals in a restaurant attached to the operation and/or supply
self catering facilities

3. Guests houses, bed and breakfast and farm houses

These tend to cater for much smaller number of people than hotels, and the
services they provide are likely to be somewhat limited

4. Holiday Camps
Many holiday camps are only open for part of the year, usually the summer
season. Their customers often stay for set periods such as a week or a fortnight.
The food is often self service or cafeteria style. The type of accommodation
may range from basic to good.

5. Public Houses
Licensed houses and inns are all licensed to sell alcoholic beverages within the
law. Very many of them also sell food and operate restaurant within the
premises. Some licensed houses also offer accommodation

6. Restaurants

746
 The aim of a restaurant is to sell food and drinks. Many restaurants are also
licensed to sell alcoholic beverages. Some restaurants limit their opening hours
to coincide with meal times while others are open all hours. A restaurant may
be a member of a chain of restaurants owned by the same company

7. Fast-Food Outlets
It is common for these to have a very restricted menu, to enable the food to be
dispensed quickly. If they form part of a chain, they are likely to have the same
menu and the same décor and restaurant layout as the other members of the
chain. Some of them have takeaway facilities

8. Wine and Cocktail bars

These tend to sell a wide range of alcoholic beverages but most of them do also
provide food, although the choice may be limited.

9. Transport Catering
Food and drink may be provided while the customer is on the move – as on
trains, boats or aeroplanes – or at appropriate stopping point such as stations,
ports or airline terminals.

10. Conference Centres

They provide the space and facilities for addressing a large number of people
and/or a number of small groups of people at the same time. Food and drink are
usually provided, and many of the purpose-built centres are also able to offer
residential accommodation

11. Clubs
The main purpose of clubs is to provide sporting or social facilities and/or
entertainments to those who have paid a membership fee. In addition, most
clubs provide drinks. Some will provide food as well, and a few provide
accommodation.

12. Leisure Complexes

As with clubs, their main aim is to offer a variety of leisure activities, but
membership is not usually required. They may also supply food and drink to
their patrons

B. Non-commercial catering and accommodation operations

1. Hospital and welfare catering

Hospitals have to provide food, drink and accommodation for a constantly
changing range of people within a strictly controlled budget.

2. House of residence and Hostels

These provide accommodation for people living away from home for
educational or training purposes. Food and drink may be available, or self
catering facilities may be provided

3. Education Establishments

747
 The schools meals service is the responsibility of the local education authority
and is responsible for supplying reasonably priced lunches in schools

4. Industrial Catering
This sector provides food and drink to employees while at work.

Assessment Questions
1. Discuss the different types of catering premises

11.1.02 PREMISE’S LOCATION AND LAYOUT

11.1.02T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) explain factors to consider when selecting location of catering and
accommodation premises
b) explain factors to consider when planning the layout of catering and
accommodation premises
c) state the legislation governing catering and accommodation premises.
d) describe furniture fittings and equipment

Unit tasks

Unit task 1: Explaining factors in the selection of location of catering and accommodation
premises
Below are the factors to consider:
i) Security
ii) Accessibility
iii) Availability of raw materials
iv) Infrastructure
v) Availability of the main services i.e. water, electricity, gas

Unit task 2: Explaining factors influencing layout of catering and accommodation

premises
i) Type of establishment.
ii) Cost implications
iii) Space available
iv) Type of clientele

Unit task 3 Stating the legal aspects of catering and accommodation premises

CHAPTER 494 - Hotels and Restaurants Act

An Act of Parliament to make provision for die licensing of hotels, hotel managers, and
restaurants; for the regulation of hotels and restaurants; for the imposition of a levy for
training persons to be employed in hotels and restaurants; and for matters incidental to
and connected with the foregoing

PART I—PRELIMINARY

1. This Act may be cited as the Hotels and Restaurants Act.

748
Interpretation
12 of 1984,Sch.
2. In this Act, unless the context otherwise requires—
"the Authority" means the Hotels and Restaurants Authority established by section 3;
"charge" means a charge made for accommodation, food or drink, or any combination
thereof, in a hotel or restaurant, and a service charge imposed in respect of the supply of
the accommodation, food or drink;
"hotel" means premises on which accommodation is supplied or available for supply,
with or without food or services, to five or more adult persons at one time in exchange
for money or money's worth, and includes premises known as "service flats", "service
apartments", "beach cottages", "holiday cottages", "game lodges", and "bandas"; but
does not include premises on which the only accommodation supplied or available for
supply is under a lease or licence of not less than one month, unless by prior
arrangement the occupier may, without penalty, terminate that lease or licence on less
than one month's notice;
"hotel licence" means a licence to keep or use any premises as a hotel;
"hotel manager's licence" means a licence to exercise overall control over the day-to-day
operations of a hotel;
"licence" means a licence granted underlie provisions of section 5, and "licensed" shall
be construed accordingly;

"licensee" means the holder of a hotel licence, restaurant licence or hotel manager's
licence as the context may require;
"Minister" means the Minister for the time being responsible for matters connected with
tourism, and Ministry" shall be construed accordingly;
"restaurant" means any premises on which is carried on the business of supplying for
reward any food or drink but does not include—
(a) a bona fide works or staff canteen maintained, for the use of persons employed in
any particular undertaking. by that undertaking; or
(b) any premises where food or drink is supplied only to persons who reside or board at,
or work at, such premises; or
(c) any portion of a licensed hotel;
"restaurant licence" means a licence to keep or use any premises as a restaurant;
"tariff order" means an order fixing maximum charges made under section 14;
"the Tribunal" means the Hotels and Restaurants Appeal Tribunal established by section
10.

PART II—THE HOTELS AND RESTAURANTS AUTHORITY

Establishment of Authority
3. (l) There is hereby established an authority, to be known as the Hotels and
Restaurants Authority, which shall consist of the following members—
(a)a chairman appointed by the Minister;
(b)not less than seven and not more than nine persons appointed by the Minister, of
whom—

749
(i) at least one shall be appointed by reason of his knowledge of the hotel industry and
international tourism;
(ii) at least one shall be appointed to represent the interests of hotel keepers;
(iii) at least one shall be appointed to represent the interests of restaurant keepers;
(iv) at least one shall be appointed to represent the interests of hotel and restaurant
employees; and
(c) the Permanent Secretary of the Ministry, or a person deputed by him in writing to
take his place as a member of the Authority.
(2) Before the Minister makes an appointment under this section, he shall require the
person to be appointed to declare whether he has any, and if so what, financial interest
in any hotel or restaurant.
(3) It shall be the duty of. the Authority to keep under review the standards of hotels and
restaurants and to advise the Minister on the improvement and development of hotels
and restaurants and on any other matters which may be
referred to it by the Minister.
(4) The Authority shall have power—
(a)to issue licences in accordance with section 5;
(b)to investigate and determine complaints in accordance with section 7;
(c)to vary, suspend and cancel licences in accordance with section 8;
(d )no person shall exercise overall control over the day-to-day operation of the
restaurant, whether is the owner or the manager of the restaurant, unless he is the
holder of the restaurant licence.
(5) In the exercise of its functions under this Act, the Authority shall be guided by the
consideration of promoting the well-being and development of the hotel and restaurant
industries as a whole, as well as the interests of persons using hotels and restaurants.
(6) The First Schedule shall have effect with respect to the Authority.

PART III—LICENSING

Licences required

4. (1) After the appointed day—

(a) no premises shall be used or kept as a hotel unless there is in force a valid hotel
licence in respect of such hotel;
(b) no person shall exercise overall control over the day-to-day operation of a hotel,
whether he is the owner or the manager of such hotel, unless he is the holder of a hotel
manager's licence;
(c) no premises shall be used or kept as a restaurant unless there is in force a valid
restaurant licence in respect of such premises.
(2) In this section, "the appointed day" means such date as the Minister may, by notice
in the Gazette, appoint for the purposes of this section, and different dates may be so
appointed in respect of different licences or in respect of different areas or of different
classes of premises.

750
(3) In the event of any contravention—
(a) of paragraph(a)or(c)of subsection (1), the owner, and manager (if any) of the
premises concerned;
(b) of paragraph(b)of subsection (1), the person concerned, shall be guilty of an offence
and liable to a fine not exceeding ten thousand shillings or to imprisonment for a term
not exceeding twelve months or to both.
Application for, and grant of, licences
12 of 1984,Sch.
Cap.242.

5. (1) Any person desirous of obtaining a licence, or of obtaining any variation of a

licence held by him, shall make application to the Authority in such form, accompanied
by such information, as may be prescribed.
(2) An application for the grant of a licence which is in continuation of an existing licence
shall be made at least two months before the expiry date of the existing licence.
(3) On receipt of an application under this section, the Authority may make such
investigation or require the submission of such declaration or further information as it
may deem necessary in order to enable it to consider the application.
(4) The Authority shall not consider an application under this section for the grant of a
hotel licence or a restaurant licence unless the application is accompanied by a
certificate, signed by a medical officer of health (as defined in the Public Health Act) and
dated not more than three months before the receipt by the Authority of the
application, to the effect that—
(a) where food will be supplied proper provision has been made of the sanitation of the
premises in respect of which the application is made, for the storage, preparation,
cooking and serving of food and drink on the premises, and for the health and comfort of
persons using the premises; and that the premises conform in all respects with the
provisions of any written law relating to sanitation and public health which apply
thereto.
(5) After considering an application under this section and all matters appearing relevant
thereto the Authority may, subject to the succeeding provisions of this section, grant to
the applicant the licence or variation applied for or may refuse
such grant, and may attach to any licence so granted such conditions as the authority
may deem expedient.
(6) The Authority shall not grant a hotel licence or a restaurant licence unless it is
satisfied that—
(a) the premises in respect of which the application is made are structurally suitable for
the use proposed; and
(b)either—

(i) where no tariff order has been made which is applicable to the hotel or restaurant
concerned the charges are reasonable having regard to the standards of
accommodation, food and service, and to such other matters as the Authority considers
relevant; or
(ii) where such a tariff order has been made the charges are not in excess of those
authorized by such order

751
(7) The Authority shall grant a hotel manager's licence unless it is satisfied that the
applicant is not a fit and proper person to manage a hotel, proper
(8) Any person who makes or causes to be made either orally or in writing, any
declaration or representation which he knows or has reason to believe to be false for the
purpose of obtaining a licence or the variation of a licence shall be guilty of an offence
and liable to imprisonment for a term not exceeding six months, or to a fine not
exceeding five thousand shillings or both.
Provisions concerning licences
14 of 1974,Sch.

6.(1) Every licence shall expire on 31st December of the year in respect of which it is
issued.
(2) A hotel licence or restaurant licence shall state the precise name, location and extent
of the premises to which it relates, shall be endorsed with every condition imposed by
the Authority, and shall be displayed prominently on such premises in a part thereof to
which public have access, and where a licence is not so displayed the holder thereof shall
be guilty of an offence.
(3) Where hotels have been classified by regulations under section 29, a hotel manager's
licence shall state the class of hotel which the licensee is licensed to manage.

(4) A licence shall not be capable of being transferred from the licensee to any other
person, and any person who attests or purports to transfer a licence shall be guilty of an
offence.
(5) On the cancellation of a licence, the Authority shall forthwith notify the licensee
thereof and the licensee shall, within fourteen days of the receipt by him of the
notification, surrender his licence to the Authority, and if without reasonable cause he
fails to do so he shall be guilty of an offence.
(6) A person guilty of an offence under subsection (2), (4) or (5) shall be liable to a fine
not exceeding two thousand shillings or to imprisonment for a term not exceeding two
months or to both.
Complaints

7. (1) Any person who is dissatified with the manner in which a hotel or restaurant is
conducted may make a written complaint in that behalf to the Authority:
Provided that no such complaint shall be accepted by the Authority unless it is made
within twenty-eight days after the matter complained of first came to the notice of the
complainant.
(2) Upon receipt of a complaint under this section, the Authority—
(a)if it is satisfied that the complaint is frivolous, vexatious or merely trivial, shall reject
the complaint summarily; or
(b)otherwise shall investigate and determine the same.
(3) In any investigation under this section—
(a)the Authority shall inform the licensee concerned of the nature of the complaint and
afford him the opportunity of being heard in person;
(b)the Authority may act on general evidence or information relating to the manner in
which the business of the licensee is conducted, and shall not be confined to receiving
and considering only evidence admissible in a court of law;

752
(c)the chairman or other person presiding shall have power to administer oaths;
(d)the chairman may, by notice under his hand, summon any person to attend and give
evidence and to produce any relevant document.
(4) Any person who, after payment or tender to him of his reasonable expenses, without
reasonable excuse fails, when summoned by the Authority, to attend and give evidence
or to attend and produce any document which he is required to produce shall be guilty
of an offence and liable to a fine not exceeding five thousand shillings or to
imprisonment for a term not exceeding six months or to both.
(5) Where, as a result of a complaint made against a licensee the Authority finds after
investigation that the complaint is frivolous or vexatious, the Authority may order the
person making the complaint to pay to the Authority or the licensee such sum as the
Authority considers equitable in relation to expenses incurred and attributable to the
complaint, and any sum so ordered shall be recoverable as a civil debt.
Authority may require licensee to remedy matters and may suspend or cancel license for
default.
8.(1) Where it appears to the Authority that—

(a)the holder of a hotel manager's licence has ceased to be a fit and proper person to
manage a hotel; or

(b)a hotel or restaurant is being conducted in an unclean or unsanitary manner; or

(c)a hotel or restaurant is not being conducted in an efficient manner; or

(d)a hotel or restaurant is being so conducted as to constitute a nuisance or annoyance

to persons in the neighbourhood or in an improper manner; or

(e)the food served in a hotel or restaurant is not properly prepared, cooked or served; or

(f)any condition specified in subsection (6),or attached to a licence under subsection (5),
of section 5 is not being, or has ceased to be complied with; or

(g)any notice given under section 23 is not being complied with, the Authority, after
giving the licensee the opportunity of being heard, may give notice in writing to the
licensee concerned specifying the matters which it considers require to be remedied,
and requiring him to remedy them to its satisfaction before a specified date.

(2) If a licensee fails to comply with the requirements of a notice given to him under
subsection 1), the Authority may without prejudice to any liability on the part of the
licensee to be prosecuted for an offence under this Act, call upon the licensee to show
cause why his licence should not be suspended, varied or cancelled, and thereafter, if
the licensee fails to show good cause, the Authority may suspend, vary or cancel the
licence.

(3) Where an employee of a licensee has his employment prematurely terminated by

reason of a requirement made under this section, no action shall lie in any court against
the Authority in respect of the termination.

753
Appeals
9.(1) Any person who is aggrieved by—
(a)the refusal of the Authority to grant or vary a licence; or
(b)the attaching of any condition to a licence; or
(c)the variation, suspension or cancellation of a licence, may, within fourteen days of the
notification of the act complained of being received by him, appeal in writing to the
Tribunal, whose decision shall be final.

(2) Where the Authority has suspended, varied or cancelled a licence, the suspension,
variation or cancellation shall not have effect until the end of the time within which an
appeal may be made to the Tribunal or, if an appeal has
been made, until the appeal has been heard and determined.

(3) Where a person's application for a licence or for the variation of a licence is refused,
or where a person's licence is suspended, varied or cancelled, or a person is aggrieved by
the decision of the Authority, that person may in writing require the Authority to give
the reasons for its decision, and the Authority shall give its reasons in writing
accordingly.
Appeal Tribunal
10. (1) There is hereby established an appeal tribunal, to be known as the Hotels and
Restaurants Appeal Tribunal, which shall consider and determine appeals under section
9.

(2) The Tribunal shall consist of—

(a)a chairman appointed by the Minister; and
(b)not less than two and not more than four other members appointed by the Minister.

(3) A person shall not be qualified to be appointed a member of the Tribunal if he is a

member of the Authority.

(4) There shall be an assessor to the Tribunal, who shall be an advocate of not less than
five years' standing, appointed by the Tribunal with the approval of the Minister, and the
assessor, when the Tribunal so requires, shall attend the proceedings of the Tribunal and
advise it on questions of law.
(5) For the purposes of the hearing and determination of appeals by the Tribunal—
(a)the chairman or other person presiding may administer oaths;
(b)the chairman may, by notice under his hand, summon any person to attend and give
evidence and to produce any relevant document.

(6) The costs of an appeal shall be in the discretion of the Tribunal, which may make such
order as to costs as appear to it just; and any such costs shall be recoverable as a civil
debt.

(7) Any person who, after payment or tender to him of his reasonable expenses, without
reasonable excuse fails, when summoned by the Tribunal, to attend and give evidence or
to attend and produce any document which he is required to produce shall be guilty of
an offence and liable to a fine not exceeding five thousand shillings or to imprisonment

754
for a term not exceeding six months or to both.

(8) The Second Schedule shall have effect with respect to the Tribunal.

PART IV—DUTIES, LIABILITIES AND PRIVILEGES OF HOTEL KEEPERS

Register and book to be kept by licensee

11.(1) Every holder of a hotel licence shall keep a register in his hotel and shall enter or
cause to be entered in the register the name and address of every guest who stays at the
hotel and such other particulars as may be prescribed.
(2) Every holder of a hotel licence shall enter or cause to be entered regularly in a book
kept for the purpose all such particulars (other than particulars prescribed in respect of
the register required by subsection (1) to be kept) as may be prescribed.
(3) Any person who fails to comply with this section, or who makes or causes or permits
to be made in any register or book required by this section to be kept any entry which he
knows or has reason to believe to be false, shall be guilty of an offence and liable to a
fine not exceeding five thousand shillings or to imprisonment for a term not exceeding
six months or to both.
Liability to guests

12.(1) The liability of an innkeeper at common law shall be subject to the modifications
hereinafter contained in this section.

(2) Without prejudice to any other liability incurred by him with respect thereto, the
holder of a hotel licence shall not be liable to make good to a guest any loss of or damage
to property brought to the hotel except where—
(a)at the time the loss or damage occurred, sleeping accommodation at the hotel had
been engaged for the guest; and
(b)the loss or damage occurred between the midnight immediately preceding and the
midnight immediately following a period during which the guest was entitled to use the
accommodation so engaged.
(3) Without prejudice to any other liability or right of his with respect thereto, the holder
of a hotel licence shall not be liable to make good to a guest any loss of or damage to nor
shall he have any lien upon, any vehicle, or any property left in a vehicle, or any live
animal or its harness or other equipment.
(4) Where the holder of a hotel licence is liable in the circumstances described in
paragraphs (a) and (b) of sub-section (2) to make good any loss of or damage to property
brought to the hotel, then, subject to section 13, his liability to any one guest shall not
exceed five hundred shillings in respect of any one article or one thousand shillings in the
aggregate, except where—
(a)the property was stolen, lost or damaged through the default, neglect or wilful act of
the licensee or a person in his employ; or
(b)the property was deposited by or on behalf of the guest expressly for safe custody
with the licensee or a person in his employ authorized, or appearing to be authorized,
for the purpose and, if so required by the licensee or the person in his employ, in a
container fastened or sealed by the depositor; or

755
(c)at the time after the guest had arrived at the hotel, after the property in question was
offered for deposit as aforesaid and the licensee or a person in his employ refused to
receive it, or the guest or some other guest acting on his behalf wished so to offer the
property in question but, through the default of the licensee or a person in his employ,
was unable to do so.

(5) Every holder of a hotel licence shall cause a notice in the form in the Third Schedule,
printed in plain type in Kiswahili, English, French, German, Italian and any other language
which may be prescribed, to be displayed prominently at a place where it can
conveniently be read by the guests at or near the hotel reception office or desk or where
there is no reception office or desk, at or near the main entrance of the hotel; and he
shall be entitled to the benefit of this section in respect of property brought to his hotel
only while such notice is so displayed.
Right of sale
13.(1) The holder of a hotel licence shall, in addition to the ordinary lien of an innkeeper
at common law have the right absolutely to sell by public auction any property deposited
or left with him or in his hotel or in any premises appurtenant or belonging to the hotel,
where the person depositing or leaving the property is or becomes indebted to him for
accommodation, food or drink at the hotel:
Provided that—
(i) no such sale shall be made until after the property has been for a period of six weeks
in his charge or custody or in or upon his premises, without the debt
having been paid or satisfied;
(ii) the debt for the payment of which a sale is made under this section shall not be any
other or greater debt than the debt for which the property could have been retained by
the holder of a hotel licence under his lien at common law as an innkeeper; and
(iii) at least one month before the sale is effected, the holder of a hotel licence shall
cause to be inserted in a national newspaper an advertisement giving
notice of the intended sale and a short description of the property intended to be sold,
together with the name (if known) of the owner or person who
deposited or left it, and if the address of such owner or person is known to him he shall
send a copy of the notice to such owner or person.
(2) The holder of a hotel licence shall, out of the proceeds of the sale of any property
sold pursuant to subsection (1), after retaining the amount of his debt and the costs and
expenses of the sale, pay on demand to the person who
deposited or left the property any surplus money remaining thereafter.
PART V—REGULATION OF PRICES

Minister may impose tariff

12 of 1984, Sch.

14.(1) The Minister may at any time carry out a review of the charges made by hotels or
restaurants in any area, and as a result of such a review he may, after giving not less than
one month's notice in the Gazette of his intention to do so, by order, fix minimum or
maximum charges which may be made by any hotel or restaurant, in that area.

(2) An order under subsection (1) may—

756
(a)either specify the charges themselves or prescribe the method by which they are to be
calculated;

(b)be made applicable to specified hotels or restaurants or to hotels or restaurants of a

specified class.

(3) Where any charge is made in a hotel or restaurant which exceeds the maximum charge
or which is below the minimum charge fixed by a tariff order relevant to that hotel or
restaurant, the holder of the restaurant licence or, as the case may be, the manager of the
hotel shall be guilty of an offence and liable to a fine not exceeding one thousand shillings
or to imprisonment for a term not exceeding one month or to both, or in the case of a
second or subsequent offence to a fine not exceeding five thousand shillings or to
imprisonment for a term not exceeding six months or to both.

PART VI—CATERING TRAINING AND TOURISM DEVELOPMENT LEVY

Interpretation
15. In this Part—
"the Fund" means the training and tourism development levy fund established by
section 17;

"levy" means a catering training and tourism development levy imposed by an order
under section 16, and "levy order" means that order;

"the Trustees" means the Catering Tourism Development Levy Trustees established by
section 18.
Training levy
15 of 2003, s. 55.

16.(1) The Minister may, by order, require payment by the owners of hotels and
restaurants of a catering training levy.

(2) A levy order may provide for the amendment of any previous levy order and may
make different provisions in relation to hotels and restaurants and in relation to different
classes of hotels or restaurants.

(3) A levy order may contain provisions as to the evidence by which a person's liability to
the levy, or his discharge of that liability, may be established, and as to the time at which
any amount payable by any person by way of the levy shall become due.

(4) All moneys received in respect of the levy shall be paid into the Fund and, if not paid
on or before the date prescribed by the levy order, the money and any sum payable under
subsection (5) shall be a civil debt recoverable summarily by the Trustees.

(5) If any person fails to pay any amount payable by him by way of the levy on or before
the date prescribed by the levy order, such person shall be liable to a penalty of five
thousand shillings and thereafter to an additional penalty of three per centum of the
amount of the levy due, for each month or part thereof during which the amount due
remains unpaid.

757
(6) Any person who fails to comply with any provision of a levy order shall be guilty of an
offence, and liable to a fine not exceeding twenty thousand shillings, or to imprisonment
for a period not exceeding twelve months or to both.
Training levy fund

17.(1) There is hereby established a training and tourism development levy fund which
shall be vested in the Trustees and into which shall be paid—

(a)all proceeds of the levy;

(b)any moneys derived from the sale of surplus assets of the Trustees;
(c)all moneys, from any other source, provided for or donated or lent to the Trustees.

(2) Any moneys in the Fund not immediately required for the purposes of the Trustees
may be placed on deposit at a bank or invested by the Trustees in any securities in which
trustees may, for the time being, by law invest or in any other securities approved for the
purpose by the Treasury.

Establishment of Trustees Cap. 494

18. (1) There is hereby established a body of trustees, to be known as the Catering and
Tourism Develop Levy Trustees, which shall consist of six persons appointed by the
Minister who shall nominate one of such persons as the chairman of the Trustees.

(2) The Catering and Tourism Development Levy Trustees shall, by that name, be a body
corporate having perpetual succession and a common seal, and may, in its corporate name
sue and be sued, and, for the purposes of its functions, may purchase or otherwise acquire,
hold, manage and dispose of property, movable or immovable, and may enter into such
contracts as the Trustees may deem necessary or expedient.

(3) Subject to subsection (4), a trustee shall hold office for such period, not exceeding five
years, as the Minister may specify in his appointment and at the expiration of such period
shall be eligible for reappointment.

(4) The office of a trustee shall become vacant—

(a)if he resigns his office by notice in writing addressed to the Minister;
(b)if he dies;
(c)if he is adjudicated bankrupt;
(d)if he is made the subject of a reception order under Part VI of the Mental Treatment
Act;
(e)if he is sentenced to a term of imprisonment by any court; or

(f)if the Minister is satisfied that the trustee is physically incapable of fulfilling, or by
reason of misconduct is unsuitable to exercise, the functions of his office
and terminates the appointment of the trustee.
Functions of Trustees
19. (1) The functions of the Trustees shall be-
(a) to control and administer the Fund;

(b) to establish, equip and control such establishments for the training of persons for
employment in hotels and restaurants as the Minister may approve;
758
(c) establishment and develop national standards for testing the skills required by the
tourism industry;

(d) Make such payments out of the Fund as may be necessary to enable the Kenya
Tourist Board promote Kenya as a tourist destination both locally and internationally
Procedure of Trustees
20. (1) The Trustees may meet together for the despatch of their business and otherwise
regulate their meetings as they may think fit.

(2) The quorum necessary for the transaction of the business of the Trustees shall be four.
(3) If the chairman of the Trustees is absent from any meeting the trustees present at
the meeting shall elect one of their number to preside thereat, and the chairman or
person so presiding shall have a casting in addition to his deliberative vote.

(4) Any document, other than one required by law to be under seal, may be signified
under the hand of one of the Trustees.
Appointment of agents
15 of 2003, s. 56.

20A.(1) The Trustees may, by written notice addressed to any person-

(a) appoint such person to be the agent of a licensee for the purposes of the collection
and recovery of the levy due from such licensee; and
(b) specify the amount of levy to be collected and recovered by such agent.
(2) An agent shall pay the levy specified in his appointment notice out of any moneys
which may, at any time during the twelve months following the date of the notice, be
held by him for, or due from him to the licensee.
(3) Where a person appointed under subsection (2) claims to be, or to have become
unable to comply with subsection (2) by reason of the lack of moneys held by or due
from him, he shall, as soon as may be practicable, notify the trustees accordingly in
writing setting out fully the reasons for his inability so to comply and the Trustees may-
(a) accept the notification and cancel or amend the appointment notice accordingly; or
(b) if they are not satisfied with the reasons, reject the notification in writing.
(4) Unless and until a notification is given by an agent under subsection (3)-
(a) sufficient money for the payment of the levy specified in his appointment notice shall
be presumed to be held by him for, or due from him to, the licensee; and
(b) in any proceedings for the collection or recovery of that levy, he shall be estopped
from asserting the lack of those moneys.
(5) For the purposes of this section, the Trustees may, by notice in writing, at any time
require any person to furnish them within a reasonable time, not being less than thirty
days from the date of service of the notice, with a return showing any moneys which
may be held by that person for, or due from him to, a licensee from whom a levy is due.
(6) A person who has paid the levy under this section shall, for all purposes, be deemed
to have acted with the authority of the licensee, and shall be indemnified in respect of
that payment against all proceedings, civil or criminal, and all process, judicial or
extrajudicial, notwithstanding any provisions to the contrary in any written law, contract
or agreement.

759
(7) Any person who, without lawful cause or excuse-
(a) fails to comply within thirty days, with a notice given by the Trustees under this
section; or
(b) discharges any liability to a licensee in disregard of such notice;
shall be guilty of an offence and liable to a fine not exceeding five thousand shillings or
to imprisonment for a term not exceeding six months, or to both, and shall, in addition,
be liable to pay to the Trustees the amount of any liability discharged.
Trustees may refrain from recovering levy in certain cases
15 of 2003, s. 56.

20B.(1) Notwithstanding the provisions of this Act, in any case where the Trustees are of
the opinion that they should refrain from recovering levy from any licensee by reason of
impossibility, or undue difficulty or expense of the recovery of the levy, the Trustees may
refrain from recovering the levy in question and thereupon liability to the levy shall be
deemed to be extinguished or abandoned.
(2) Where the Trustees have decided to refrain from recovery of the levy under
subsection (1), they shall report that decision in writing to the Minister within three
months next following the decision.
(3) Where a case has been referred to the Minister, and where he considers it
appropriate, he may, in writing, direct the Trustees to-
(a) take such action under this section as the Minister may deem fit; or
(b) obtain the direction of the court upon the case.
Accounts
Cap.412

21. (1) The Trustees shall cause to be kept all proper books of account and other books
and records in relation to the Fund and to all their undertakings, activities and property,
and shall, within a period of four months after the
end of the financial year, cause to be prepared—

(a)a balance sheet showing in detail the assets and liabilities of the Fund as at the end of
that financial year;

(b)such other statements of account as may be necessary to indicate the financial status of
the Trustees as at the end of that year.

(2) The accounts of the Trustees shall be examined audited and reported upon annually by
the and Auditor- General (Corporations).

Cap. 237 not to apply

22.Notwithstanding anything contained in the Industrial Training Act no training

committee shall be set up in relation to training in, and no training levy order shall be
made in respect of, hotels and restaurants under that Act.

PART VII—SUPPLEMENTARY

Centralized booking

760
23(1) The Minister may, by notice in the Gazette, direct that the manager of any hotel
shall not receive any guest therein except with the written authority of the Minister or
such person, officer or bureau, as the Minister may designate for the purpose.

(2) A notice under subsection (1) may be given with regard to a particular hotel, or to a
particular class of hotel or to hotels within a specified area.

Temporary licence where licence refused or cancelled

24. Where the holder of a hotel licence or restaurant licence has such licence cancelled,
or has his application for a renewal of such licence (to take effect upon the expiration of
such licence) refused, he shall be entitled, on payment of a proportionate part of the
prescribed fee, to be granted a licence of the kind cancelled or refused for such period,
not exceeding six months, as the Authority considers adequate to enable the business to
be wound up or disposed of.
Power to enter and inspect premises
25.(1) Any person authorized in writing by the Authority for the purpose, may, at all
reasonable times—
(a)enter without warrant any premises on which he has reasonable ground for believing
that a hotel business or restaurant business is being carried on, to see whether this Act
and any other written law is being complied with, and—
(i) examine and take copies of any register, book, account or document found on the
premises relating to or appearing to relate to any hotel or restaurant;
(ii) take possession of any register, book, account or document found on those premises
which he has reasonable grounds for suspecting to be or to contain evidence of an
offence under this Act or any other written law;

(b)require any person who appears to be carrying on or employed in any hotel business
or restaurant business on those premises to render such explanation and give such
information relating to that business as he may reasonably require in the performance of
his duties;
(c)require any person who appears to be carrying on any hotel business or restaurant
business on those premises by notice in writing to that person introduce to him, at a
particular time and place, of the registers, books, accounts and documents relating or
appearing to relate to that business:
Provided that nothing in this subsection shall authorize entry into any bedroom in a
hotel without the prior permission of its current occupier.
(2) Any person who—
(a)resists, hinders or obstructs any person acting in pursuance of subsection (1); or
(b)fails to comply fully and truthfully with a requirement made of him under the said
subsection,
shall be guilty of an offence and liable to imprisonment for a term not exceeding six
months or to a fine not exceeding five thousand shillings or to both.
Liability of licensee for acts of agents and servants
26. Any licensing who employs any agent, clerk, servant or shall be answerable for the
acts and omissions of the agent, clerk, servant or other person in so far as such acts or
omissions concern the business of the licensee; and if the agent, clerk, servant or other
person commits any act or makes any omission which is an offence under this Act, or

761
which will be an offence if committed or made by such licensee, the licensee and his
agent, clerk, servant or other person shall be jointly and severally guilty of the offence
and liable to the penalties provided by this Act:
Provided that it shall be a defence for the licensee to prove he did not know and could
not reasonably be expected to know that the act or omission was taking or was to take
place and that he took all reasonable steps to ensure that the relevant provisions of this
Act were being compiled with.
Finance
27.(1) The Minister may, out of moneys provided by Parliament, and with the consent of
the Treasury—
(a)pay to the Authority and the Tribunal such sums of money as may be necessary to
enable those bodies to discharge their functions under this Act;
(b)pay to the members of the Authority and the Tribunal (other than a member who is a
public officer in receipt of a salary) remuneration and traveling and other allowances;
(c)make such other payments as may be necessary to give effect to this Act.
(2)All moneys received or recovered under this Act by or on behalf of the Authority or
the Tribunal shall be paid into the Consolidated Fund.
Premises to be excluded 13 of 1978, Sch.
28.(1) This Act shall not apply to any premises of a class specified in the Fourth Schedule
or any person managing those premises.
(2) The Minister may, from time to time, review the operation of this Act in relation to its
operation to hotels and restaurants and, for the purpose of including or excluding any
class of hotel or restaurant from the provisions of this Act, may, by notice in the Gazette,
amend the Fourth Schedule.
Regulations

29.(1) The Minister may make regulations generally for the better carrying out of the
provisions and purposes of this Act.
(2) Without prejudice to the generality of subsection (1), regulations under this section
may—
(a)make provision for the classification of hotels and restaurants and the standards
appropriate to each class;
(b)prescribe the minimum size of rooms in hotels or in particular classes of hotels either
absolutely or in relation to the number of persons permitted to be
accommodated in those rooms;

(c)prescribe the duties and obligations of licensees in relation to the carrying on or

management of hotel businesses or restaurant businesses, whether generally or in
respect of any class of hotel or restaurant;
(d)provide for the display of tariffs in hotels or restaurants showing particulars of the
maximum charges to be made therein, and for the languages in which the tariffs are to
be expressed;
(e)provide for returns to be submitted to the Authority by hotels and restaurants
including returns relating to business accepted by hotels from or in respect of persons
resident outside Kenya;
(f)prescribe the procedure to be followed by the Authority in the performance of its
functions under this Act;

762
(g)prescribe the procedure to be followed on appeals under this Act;
(h)make provision for requiring persons to supply information relevant to the provisions
of this Act or the regulations:
(i)prescribe the forms to be used under this Act and the fees to be paid for things to be
done under this Act or the regulations;
(j)prescribe anything which under this Act is to be prescribed.
Application of written laws.
Cap.495.
L.N.11/1964 (Kenya Gazette Supp.88 of 1964). L.N. 8/1964 (Kenya Gazette Supp.97 of
1964). No. 10 of 1964 (Kenya Gazette Supp. 132 of 1964). L.N.19/1964 (Kenya Gazette
Supp.126 of 1964). L.N. 9/1964 (Kenya Gazette Supp.129 of 1964).

30.The following written laws and all subsidiary legislation made thereunder shall not
apply to any premises governed by this Act, that is to say—
(a)the Innkeepers Liability Act, 1863, of the United Kingdom;
(b)the Innkeepers Act, 1878, of the United Kingdom;
(c)the Hotels (Nairobi Area) Act (both in relation to the Nairobi Area and in relation to all
other areas);
(d)the Nyanza Province (Amendment of Laws) (Hotels Act and Regulations) Order, 1964;
(e)the Coast Province (Amendment of Laws) (Hotels Act and Regulations) Order, 1964;
(f)the Hotels Enactment of the Central Province;
(g)the Rift Valley Province (Amendment of Laws) (Hotels Act and Regulations) Order,
1964;
(h)the Eastern Province (Amendment of Laws) (Hotels Act and Regulations) Order, 1964;

FIRST SCHEDULE (s. 3 (6))

THE HOTELS AND CATERING AUTHORITY
1. (1) The chairman and other members of the Authority who are appointed by the
Minister shall hold office for such period not exceeding three years as may be specified
in their instruments of appointment, and shall be eligible for reappointment.
(2) The chairman and any other member appointed by the Minister may at any time
resign his office by notice in writing addressed to the Minister.
(3) The Minister may cancel the appointment of the chairman or any other member
appointed by the Minister on the ground of his infirmity, incapacity or misbehaviour, or
if he is absent from two consecutive meetings of the Authority without the leave of the
authority.
2. (1) Meetings of the Authority shall be convened by the chairman at such times and
places as the chairman determines, but not less than four times in a year.
(2) The chairman may at any time, and shall at the request in writing of not less than
three members, convene a special meeting of the Authority.
(3) A notice convening a special meeting of the Authority shall state the purposes for
which the special meeting is convened.
3. (1) If the chairman is absent from a meeting of the Authority, the members present
shall choose one of their number to preside at that meeting.

763
(2) At every meeting of the Authority, the chairman or other member presiding shall
have a casting as well as a deliberative vote.
(3) The quorum for a meeting of the Authority shall be six members.
(4) Save as otherwise expressly provided, all orders, directions and decisions of the
Authority shall be made, given and notified under the hand of the chairman or other
person presiding, or, if thereto authorized by the Authority, under the hand of a member
or the secretary.
(5) The Authority may authorize the chairman to exercise on its behalf, at any time when
it is not meeting, such of its powers as it may from time to time specify:
Provided that the exercise of such powers shall, to the extent required by the Authority,
be reported by the chairman without unreasonable delay to a meeting of the authority.
(6) Minutes of the proceedings of every meeting of the Authority shall be regularly
entered by the secretary in a minute book, and the book shall be kept so as to show
proper tabulated details of the business conducted or transacted at each meeting.
(7) Subject to this Act and to any general or special directions of the Minister, the
Authority shall regulate its procedure as it considers proper.
4. A member shall not at a meeting of the Authority take part
in the discussion of or vote upon—
(a) an application by a person who is related to that member within the third degree of
affinity or consanguinity;
(b) an application by a person who is a debtor or creditor of that member or in whose
business that member has a financial interest.
5. The Minister shall appoint a public officer to act as secretary of the Authority, and may
appoint such other public officers to act as staff of the Authority as he may consider
necessary.

SECOND SCHEDULE (s. 10(8)

THE HOTELS AND RESTAURANTS APPEAL TRIBUNAL
1. (1) Each member of the Tribunal shall hold office for such period not exceeding three
years as may be specified in his instrument of appointment, and shall be eligible for
reappointment.
(2) A member of the Tribunal may at any time resign his office by notice in writing
addressed to the Minister.
(3) The Minister may cancel the appointment of a member of the Tribunal on the ground
of his infirmity, incapacity or misbehaviour, or if he is absent from three consecutive
meetings of the Tribunal without the leave of the Tribunal.
2. Meetings of the Tribunal shall be convened by the chairman as occasion requires the
Tribunal shall regulate its procedure as it considers proper.
4. A member shall not at a meeting of the Tribunal take part in the discussion of or vote
upon—
(a) an application by a person who is related to that member within the third degree of
affinity or consanguinity;
(b) an application by a person who is a debtor or creditor of that member or in whose
business that member has a financial interest.
5. The Minister shall appoint a public officer to act as secretary of the Tribunal, and may
appoint such other public officers to act as taff of the Tribunal as he may consider
necessary

764
THIRD SCHEDULE (s. 12(5))
NOTICE
THE HOTELS AND RESTAURANTS ACT
(Cap. 494)
LOSS OF OR DAMAGE TO GUESTS' PROPERTY
Under the Hotels and Restaurants Act, the owner of a hotel may in certain circumstances
be liable to make good any loss of or damage to a guest's property, even though it is not
due to any fault at his or of his staff.
This liability however—
(a)extends only to the property of guests who have engaged sleeping accommodation at
the hotel;
(b)is .limited to five hundred shiMin'BS for any article and a total of one thousand
shillings in the case of any one finest, except in the ca'se of .property which has .been
deposited or offered for deposit, for safe custody;
(c)does not cover motor cars or other vehicles of any kind or any property left in them,
or live animals.
This notice does not constitute an admission that liability under
the Act attaches to the proprietor of this hotel in any particular case.

FOURTH SCHEDULE
(s. 28)
PREMISES EXCLUDED
1.Any premises run by the Government , a local authority, a Charitable institution or
religious organization or an Nation or a religious institution
2.Any premises run by a society, members club, institution or other organization and
used exclusively by and for the benefit of the members of that society, club, institution
or other organization which does not provide for daily membership.
3.Any hote1 at which the maximum total charge per night including provision of
accommodation, breakfast or any other mea or service, is less than forty shillings per
person.

4. Any restaurant at which the gross receipts derived from all sales amount to less than
£12-000 per annum- or- in the case of a restaurant that has not previously traded, less
than an average of Sh. 20,000 per month for the first three months of trading.
5. For the purposes of paragraph 4 gross receipts sales shall be determined-by reference
to the accounts kept by the restaurant for the period of months- or three months- as the
case may be ending at the end of the month immediately before a lawful request under
section 25(1) for their production, and by reference to such other information lawfully
required under section as the authority may deem fit
Provided that nothing in this paragraph shall prevent the Authority from disputing those
accounts or other information or calling evidence, in the course of proceedings for an
offence under this Act, tending to disprove such accounts or information

Unit task 4 Furniture, fittings and equipments in catering and accommodation premises

765
 Weight scale or weighing scale – equipment used in weighing raw
materials based on weight

 Grinders – equipment involves in reducing size of raw materials e.g. maize

to desirable sizes or end product e.g. flour

 Small kitchen equipment e.g. cutlery, crockery

 Large kitchen equipment e.g. fridge, cooker, freezer

Fridge

 Mechanical (energy saving) kitchen equipment e.g. juice maker, mixer,

toaster, sandwich maker etc.

766
 Juice Maker
Toaster
Kitchen equipments are made from different materials which make the equipment
functional or decorative or both. Materials used include metals, glass, plastics, wood and
earthen ware. It is important to understand the basic qualities; care and cleaning of each
materials to ensure equipment are at their best all the time.

A. METALS
1. Aluminum
This is used for making household utensils such as sufurias, saucepans, bowls,
frying pans, baking tins etc.

Made of Aluminium used

for cooking and mixing

Sufuria

Qualities of Aluminium
 It has a silvery appearance
 It is light in weight
 It is a good conductor of heat
 It does not break upon impact but it can be dented.
 It does not rust although it can be affected by food that is acidic e.g. kunde leaves.
 Prolonged cooking/boiling or heavily salted food or salty water will cause
discolouration of cooking utensils.

Care
 Clean in hot soapy water
 Rub any stains with a steel wool along the direction of the grain
 Rinse thoroughly in clean water
 Dry well on a rack or use a dry clean cloth.

2. Steel
This is used for making knife blades because it takes and maintains very sharp
edges.

Qualities
 It is strong and last long.
 It has a darkish colour
 It is light in weight
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 It rusts in moist conditions hence is protected with paint enamel, tin, zinc, plastic to
make it rust – proof

Care
 Clean using hot soapy water
 Rinse thoroughly
 Dry completely before storage to avoid rusting
 Use steel polish to remove stains.
3. Stainless steel

This is widely used for cutlery, utensils, sinks, tableware etc

Qualities
 It is durable – lasts long
 Not easily scratched or dented
 It has a glossy or shinny appearance
 It has the capability to take and maintain a sharp edge
 It turns dark if overheated

Care
 Clean in hot soapy water
 Rinse thoroughly
 Dry completely
 Avoid excessive dry heat

4. Silver
It is used to make cutlery, serving trays, tea and coffee sets, wine glasses,
ornaments etc

Wine Glasses
made of
silver

Qualities
 It is affected by normal atmospheric conditions and turns darkish.
 It takes high polish.

Care
 Wash in hot soapy water
 Rinse and dry thoroughly
 If stained, rub with a little salt or soak in a strong solution of soda ash.

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5. Iron
It is used to make nails, jikos, cans, pans etc

A stainless steel
sauce pan

Qualities
 It is dark grey.
 It is heavy in weight
 Conducts heat evenly and retains most of it
 It rusts readily when exposed to most air/water
 It cracks if subjected to heavy falls or pressure
 Items made from iron are protected/finished with a coat of enamel, paint, plastic or
zinc to improve its appearance and durability.

Care
 Clean in hot, soapy water
 Rinse thoroughly
 Dry completely
 Avoid excessive dry heat

Some finishes give to iron are:-

 Borderizing
It is a chemical treatment given to make iron rust- resistant.
 Galvanized iron
Is coated with a layer of zinc to prevent contact with air. Items made from this iron
include pails, cans, buckets etc
5. Zinc
It is mainly used to cover and protect metals that corrode e.g. galvanized iron
which is used for making buckets, rubbish bins, laundry trays pipes etc.

Qualities
 It is fairly hard
 It is grey in colour
 Does not tarnish or corrode in moist air

6. Chromium
It is a hard shiny metal used to coat other metals e.g. nickel or steel. It is used to
make items like coffee percolators, toasters, kitchen knives, towel rails etc
Qualities
 Is white and bright

769
 Not affected by atmospheric conditions
 Can be easily scratched
 Attractive in appearance

Care
 Wash in hot soapy water
 Rinse thoroughly
 Dry well
 Polish using a soft dry cloth
 Avoid use of harsh abrasives e.g. sand, steel wool, as it scratches and removes
chromium

7. Tin
This is used for coating other metals to prevent them from rusting.
Qualities
 Is affected by acids in foods e.g. lemon, salt
 It darkens with use
 Light in weight
 Is soft thus makes it easy to cut.
 Has a low melting point.
Tinned steel
Is steel coated with tin. It is used for making tins, jelly cans, baking utensils

Care
 Clean with warm soapy water
 Rinse well and dry thoroughly
 Avoid scratching with sharp objects

B. GLASS
Glass in the home is classified into 3 groups;
Lead, lime and borosilicate
 Lead and lime are used for making table ware
 Borosilicate glass is used in making kitchen utensils, oven, dishes etc.

1. Lead or flint glass

Lead glass is made by combining red lead with sand and potash. Items made from
this are heavy and expensive.

Lime glass
It is used for making tumblers, milk bottles, glass containers, plates, mirrors etc

Qualities
 Is resistant to scratches and marks
 When tapped it has a dull sound

2. Brosilicate glass

770
Qualities
 Is exceptionally strong and resists chipping and breaking.
 Withstands high temperature
 Attractive when used for household ware/items.

Glass is used for making items e.g. casserole dishes, bottles, plates, cups, coffee
and tea makers, oven glass etc.

Qualities of glass
 It is transparent
 It is non-porous
 Is a poor conductor of heat, hence retains heat.
 Easily breaks when suddenly subjected to extreme temperatures or sharp impact.
 Not affected by acids or alkalis
 Does not absorb odours

Care
 Avoid extreme of temperature
 Handle glass carefully to avoid breaking
 Clean glass according to use

C. CERAMICS
This is clay ware. Items made from it are also referred to as china ware.
They are different types of ceramics which include:-
 Glazed earthen ware
It contains large amount of clay. It is thick, opaque and glazed. It is used for
making items like cups, saucers, bowls, cooking and serving dishes, pots etc.
 Stone ware
Is an improvement of earthenware which is thick and can stand hard wear.
Items are heavy, thick and hardware.
It is used for making utensils and tableware.
 Vitreous china
Extra flint is added to the clay mixture and more firing is done during
manufacture. It is heavier, strong and chip easily but its articles/ items are
more expensive
 Bone china
It contains more china clay and china stone than earth ware. Calcined bone is
added hence the name bone china.
It is thin, very strong but more expensive.
 Porcelain
It is a type of china manufactured from special clay. It is the finest of all
ceramics and has a glass-like appearance.

Qualities
 It is durable
 Has no reliance

771
 Is a good conductor of heat, hence not ideal for saucepans as food sticks to it
 Is non-porous and therefore easily kept clean.

Uses of porcelain
Used for making household appliances, saucepans, tea, kettle, casserole dishes,
table ware etc.
Care of porcelain
 Avoid extreme temperatures. Do not put hot pans in cold water.
 Handle porcelain items with care to avoid chipping and cracking.

D. ENAMEL
This is a plastic resin used as a finish on the outer side of washers, dryers, freezers,
ranges, household utensils etc.

Qualities
 Is not expensive
 Stains and scratches easily
 Available in attractive colours and designs
 Fairly resistant to heat

Care
 Avoid extreme temperatures.
 Handle items carefully to avoid chipping and scratching
 Avoid use of hard abrasives.

E. PLASTICS
They come in a variety of colours and designs. It is light in weight, smooth and
easy to clean. Is used for making bowls, cups, plates, spoons, melamine items etc

Care
 Clean using warm soapy water and sponge or a piece of cloth.
 Rinse thoroughly using warm water.
 Dry well
 Avoid high temperature e.g. hot water, open fires, sun etc

F. WOOD
It is a popular material readily available in most homes. It is used for making
chopping boards, work surfaces, wooden spoons, cooking sticks, spartula etc.

Care
 Avoid soaking in water
 Clean immediately after use using warm soapy water and a sponge following the
direction of grain.
 Rinse thoroughly
 Dry well
 Avoid direct heat from sun or open fires.

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 Assessment Questions

1. Explain the factors to consider when choosing furniture for a catering and
accommodation premise.
2. Describe any five legal aspects of a catering and accommodation premise.

11.1.03 BUILDING FABRICS

11.1.03T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit the trainee should be able to:
a) define terms
b) state the main components of a building
c) explain suitable surface finishes of a catering and accommodation premises

Unit tasks
Unit task 1 Definition of terms

Cement, bricks and tiles are the main building materials used in the construction of
buildings. Today, increase in the demand for various building materials have led to many
building material manufacturing companies. Many new building materials are
environmental hazards, which have become a big concern to all.
Traditionally, the basic types of building materials used for construction were mud, stone
and brush. Mud was used for filling the spaces between bricks and acted as a concrete
and insulation. Centuries ago, houses were made entirely of dirt and clay. This was
followed by the use of rocks (mainly granite) as building material. From the Neolithic
period through the medieval age to modern times, granite has been commonly used as a
building material. Brush structures were commonly seen in tropical areas and were
made entirely from plant parts such as branches, bark, twigs and leaves. These
structures were often used by Native Americans as resting places.
Stones and bricks were also common in construction. Different types of bricks have been
and are still used for masonry. This includes specially shaped bricks for joints, striking
and tooling, as well as glazed or rubbed bricks for decorative purposes.
Thatch is one of the oldest types of building material used for roofing. Another generic
building material is wood. Because of the diverse character of different types of wood, it
can be used for any type of structure in most climates. Even though wood structures
were very common in earlier times, they disappeared with the approach of concrete
structures.
Concrete is a composite building material comprised of aggregate and a binder (cement).
Concrete finds good use in all types of building construction. Fly ash is a major ingredient
in the concrete mix because of its lightweight and high thermal insulation.
More recently, new types of building materials are being used. These include metals (for
the structural framework of larger buildings), plastics, asbestos and fabrics. Tar-based

773
waterproof materials, paper linoleum, polyvinyl chloride clay and solvent coatings for
inner wall are other building materials.

Unit task 2 Components of a building

The ceiling. It will be necessary to distinguish the revetment and the frame. The frame
will be the one that supports the loads that affect the ceiling and which will lay weight on
the walls and pillars.
The beams. These consist of the horizontal elements that rest over the floor. The beams
lean their weight over the pillars and are often times made out of metal or wood.
The walls. The walls of a building or house receive the weight of the different ceilings
and floors and pass this weight over to the foundation.
Concrete and steel floors and roofs. A roof is in essence the cover of a building. When a
high and big building is constructed, the intermediate parts consist of the inferior floor
roof and the floor of the superior, which is then denominated to the last floor. Concrete
and steel roofs are done horizontally and are destined to carry weight by flexion and at the
same time put their weight on the walls or beams.
There are two types of concrete and steel.
Those that are unidirectional and bi-directional.
 Unidirectional is forged concrete and steel which is formed by beams of different
types of materials such as wood, metal etc, and these transmit all the own weight of the
concrete and steel and the over load to the support beams or walls.
 The bi-directional concrete and steel is made out several elements, in between which
the curved roofs and blocks of lighter cement are placed, in a way so that the weight is
transmitted through the iron elements to the top of the pillars.
The pillars. The pillars of a building are used to substitute the walls in the transmission of
the load of the concrete and steel ceiling. The pillars absorb the weight of the support
beams and transmit the vertical ones to the foundation.
The foundation. The foundation is the inferior or bottom part of a building that
penetrates the terrain it is on; this carries the weight of the building and supports it. The
type of foundation a construction has depends on the characteristics of the ground and of
the type of building it will be. We must take into account on the other hand, that the
cracks in structural elements, like the pillars and support beams, on n the horizontal
components are really troublesome when the direction of these is perpendicular or
diagonal to the structural element, no matter where the building is. A vertical overload
(caused by debris for example) over the structural vertical elements can cause horizontal
flexion. It can cause the pillars to sag and cause damage to the support walls. If this
overweight happens over horizontal elements, it will cause a deflection of the beams,
which can at the same time cause the collapsing, leaning or sagging of the vertical
elements that are holding it up. There are certain things that a building will do sometimes
to let us know that it is going to fall such as with creaks, rustles that would suggest that
the materials of the building are cracking and sliding inside the existing holes.

Unit task 3 Explaining suitable surface finishes of a catering and accommodation premises
Hard floor finishes
Granolithic is a concrete product, composed of cement and fine aggregate mortar, the
aggregate being granite chippings, which will give the hard wearing surface
finish. It will be laid with screed, which is finished by hand trowelling(the
traditional method) or 'powerfloated' with an electrical trowel apparatus, to an

774
 even and fine finish. Granolithic paving will be suitable in areas which are to
receive hard wear although its appearance would not normally be suitable for
internal domestic work.
Terrazzo A flooring material of marble or stone chips set in mortar and polished when
dry.
Concrete Floor Finishes Concrete has a proven record for strength, durability, and cost
effectiveness for a variety of applications including floors, walkways, patios
and driveways. Concrete floors are found in a variety of residential settings,
from high-rise condominiums, to basements remodeled for extra living space,
and to slab-on-grade construction. Interior concrete is commonly covered with
carpet, vinyl, or other flooring materials. For exterior surfaces, materials like
slate, granite, or brick are preferred to standard concrete when budgets allow.

Types of Wood Floor Finishes

1. Oil-modified urethane is generally the most common surface finish and is easy to
apply. It is a petroleum base with a blend of synthetic resins, plasticizers and other film
forming ingredients that produces a durable surface that is moisture-resistant. It is a
solvent-base polyurethane that dries in about eight hours. This type of finish ambers
with age. and comes in different sheen levels.

2. Moisture-cured urethane is a solvent-base polyurethane that is more durable and

more moisture resistant than other surface finishes. Moisture-cure urethane comes in
non-yellowing and in ambering types and is generally available in satin or gloss. These
finishes are extremely difficult to apply, have a strong odor and are best left to the
professional.
Curing of this type of finish is by absorbing minute quantities of moisture vapor from the
air, which causes them to dry and harden. The curing process is very dependant on
relative humidity.

3. Water-based urethane is a water-borne urethane with a blend of synthetic resins,

plasticizers and other film forming ingredients that produces a durable surface that is
moisture-resistant. These finishes are clear and non-yellowing and are different sheen
levels. They have a milder odor than oil-modified finishes have and they dry in about two
to three hours. Water-based urethanes are generally more expensive.

4. Converstion-Varnish Sealers-(Swedish Finishes)- A two-component acid-curing,

alcohol-based sealers. Because of their origin (country), conversion varnish sealers are
often referred to as Swedish finishes
5. Penetrating Sealers - These sealers are spread on the floor and allowed to penetrate
and are solvent based. The excess sealer is removed with rags or buffed in with synthetic
or steel wool pads. This type of finish often have a color and can be used to stain and
seal the wood floor. Penetrating Oil Sealers are made from tung or linseed oil, with
additives improve drying and hardness.

775
6. Paste Wax- The oldest, and in some ways the best. Wax is the easiest to apply, least
expensive, fastest drying, easiest to repair, and with proper care will survive forever.
Wax over a penetrating stain, and the system is in the wood so you wear the wood, not
the finish. Wax is spread in thin coats for a surface protection after the stain and/or
sealer is applied, then buffed to the desired sheen.

7. Varnish- Vinyl-alkyd varnishes have superseded natural varnish made from vegetable
oils. This product was commonly used before urethane finishes where introduced.
8. Lacquer - The flammability and incompatibility of this floor finish is NOT a
recommended by many manufacturers. This finish should avoided.
9. Shellac - This product (natural shellac) contains wax and is not widely used for top
coating in today's wood flooring market. Dewaxed shellac is becoming used more and
more for a wood floor sealer.

Prefinished hard wood flooring

1. Acrylic Impregnated – Acrylic monomers are injected into the cell structure of the
wood to give increased hardness and then finished with a wear layer over the wood.

2. Acrylic-urethane – Has a slightly different chemical make up than polyurethane, but

with similar benefits.

3. Aluminum Oxide – particles added to the polyurethane finish to increase the abrasion
resistance of the wear layer. This has become extremely popular on the better grades of
hardwood floors.

4. Ceramic – Advanced finish technology that allows the use of space-age ceramics to
increase the abrasion resistance of the wear layer.

5. Polyurethane – A clear, tough and durable finish that is applied as a wear layer.

6. UV-cured – these floors are finished at the factory and the polyurethane finish are
cured with Ultra Violet lights instead of using heat.

Soft Floor finishes

Carpet
Types of Carpet
Select carpet based on:

 Fibre — the carpet material itself. Single fibres are spun together to create two,
three or four-ply yarn, which is then attached to a woven backing.

 Pile — the height of the fibre.

 Density — the amount of fibre tufts per square inch. Carpet weight is measured
in ounces per square yard. When using weight to compare carpets, make sure
you’re comparing like materials (ex: nylon to nylon, not nylon to polyester).
 Texture — the style in which fibres are looped, twisted or cut provides texture.

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Carpet Fibres
Carpet fibres are either natural or synthetic. Wool is the natural fibre used in carpet;
cotton and other natural fibres are widely used in rugs. The major synthetic yarns are
nylon, olefin, acrylic and polyester.

 Wool offers a deep, rich look and feel with excellent resilience and durability.
Although it’s naturally stain resistant, it requires a high level of maintenance,
including mothproofing.

 Nylon is the most common carpet material. It’s the strongest fibre, making it
an excellent choice for heavy traffic areas. It’s also the most durable of the
synthetics, easy to clean and maintain. Nylon is soil- and mildew-resistant,
resilient and non-allergenic. Some nylon may pill and be prone to static.
 Olefin (Polypropylene) was originally for outdoor carpeting and basements
due to its resistance to moisture, mildew, water damage, staining, pilling,
shedding and static. Now it’s more widely used for its durability and wool-
like feel and appearance. Olefin is dyed before it’s made into a fibre and
therefore is colourfast. Some olefin can flatten and fade in direct sunlight.
 Polyester is not as durable or as nylon, but still quite wear-resistant. Polyester
offers a wide selection of textures and colours. While it’s susceptible to pilling
and shedding, it’s non-allergenic, sheds moisture, resists moths and mildew
and cleans easily.
 Acrylic is the closest to wool of any of the synthetics. Acrylic is manufactured
primarily for commercial use. It offers soil resistance, excellent cleanability
and resistance to static, moths and mildew. Acrylic is available in a wide choice
of colours, and is less likely to fade in bright sunlight than nylon or polyester.

Carpet Treatments
Carpet is available with stain-resistant fibres and finishes, welcome news to homes with
children and pets. The most effective treatments are added as part of the manufacturing
process. Finishes "applied" later are not as long-lasting. Heat setting is a manufacturing
process that reinforces the twists of the yarn plies to add durability.
Carpet Pile
Cut Pile carpets fibre ends are cut on a level face.

 Saxony is a popular carpet of dense, level-cut pile with loops clipped to about
1/2" high. The closely packed yarns give a soft smooth surface which is perfect
in formal settings. A smooth- finished saxony is sometimes referred to as plush.

 Textured is also a cut pile, but isn’t as densely tufted as a saxony. Two-toned
yarn and an uneven surface gives it a casual look suited for any room. Its tight-
twist construction helps resist soil, so it’s often a good choice for family
rooms and kitchens.
 Frieze carpets have a short, durable, twisted pile fibre well suited for busy
areas.

Loop Pile yarns are looped and fastened to the backing.

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  Berber features large, uncut loops of natural-tone fibres, usually of olefin.
Berber is very durable and a good choice for high-traffic areas.

 Level loop refers to tufted, uncut loops of equal height. It’s durable, and a
great carpet for high traffic areas and informal rooms.

Cut & Loop offers a combination of the above, allowing more textures and patterns. Cut
and loop achieves a sculptured pattern with varied levels of uncut low loops and sheared
top loops. The pattern looks as if it's been cut into the carpet and usually features
several tones from the same colour family. The change in colour helps disguise wear and
soiling.
Carpet Padding
Padding is just as important as the carpet itself — in some ways even more so. Although
it’s not visible, the cushioning layer is critical to a quality carpet installation. Installing
the proper backing cushions the foot, insulates from cold and noise and increases the life
of the carpet. Always use a quality backing but remember that thicker is not always
better. A floor that’s too soft can be dangerous, especially to those whose steps may be
a bit unstable at times. When foot testing a carpet in the showroom, test it with a
padding sample underneath.
Carpet Tiles
Peel and stick carpet tiles have become an excellent do-it-yourself flooring
method. New technology has provided carpet squares that are easy to install, clean
and maintain. The adhesive system keeps the carpet in place and eliminates
curling. Homeowners can mix and match colours and patterns to suit their décor.

Assessment Questions

1. List any five types of materials used for building.

2. Explain any five components of a building.
3. Discuss suitable floor finishes for a catering and
accommodation premise

11.1.04 MAIN SERVICES

11.1.04T Specific Objectives
By the end of this sub-module unit the trainee should be able to:
a) define terms
b) state services required in catering and accommodation premises
c) explain the distribution of service system
d) explain the causes of failures in service systems
e) explain the remedies to failures in service systems
f) explain the care and maintenance of service systems

Unit tasks
Unit task 1 Defining terms

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 Main services means the supply of water, gas and electricity in a catering and
accommodation premise.

Unit task 2 Types of services

Gas – This is a safe fuel that is also convenient and labour saving. However it
can be dangerous if mishandled . Incase you smell gas in a room, you should;
1.) Open all doors and windows
2.) Check if the gas tap has been left on and turn off.
3.) If in doubt, turn off supply at meter and call for emergency service.

Electricity – It is a fuel that cannot be heard tasted or smelt. Once installed

correctly, it is very safe but if misused it can kill or cause serious injury. It’s
important that all electrical installations are done by qualified personnel.

Water – Water authorities are required by law to provide a supply of clean

wholesome water. It should be free from all suspended matter, odour and taste.
It should also not contain pathogens and any minerals that are injurious to
human health.

Unit task 3 Distribution of service systems

Water supply system

A water supply system or water supply network is a system of engineered hydrologic

and hydraulic components which provide water supply. A water supply system typically
includes:

1. The watershed or geographic area that collects the water (see water purification -
sources of drinking water);
2. A raw (untreated) water collection point (above or below ground) where the water
accumulates, such as a lake, a river, or groundwater from an underground aquifer.
Untreated drinking water (usually water being transferred to the water purification
facilities) may be transferred using uncovered ground-level aqueducts, covered
tunnels or underground water pipes.
3. Water purification facilities. Treated water is transferred using water pipes (usually
underground).
4. Water storage facilities such as reservoirs, water tanks, or watertowers. Smaller
water systems may store the water in cisterns or pressure vessels. (Tall buildings may
also need to store water locally in pressure vessels in order for the water to reach the
upper floors.)
5. Additional water pressurizing components such as pumping stations may need to be
situated at the outlet of underground or above ground reservoirs or cisterns (if gravity
flow is unfeasible)
6. A pipe network for distribution of water to the consumers (which may be private
houses or industrial, commercial or institution establishments) and other usage points
(such as fire hydrants)

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Connections to the sewers (underground pipes, or aboveground ditches in some
developing countries) are generally found downstream of the water consumers, but the
sewer system is considered to be a separate system, rather than part of the water

Unit task 5 Remedies to failures in service systems

Air lock in pipe work –
Removing the air lock

To overcome this, attach a length of hosepipe to the affected tap and connect the other end
to a working direct feed tap. In most cases this will be the cold tap on the kitchen sink.
Open both taps to allow the pressure of the mains water to force the air back out of the
pipes. Leave to act for several minutes, and then turn off the air locked tap first.
It may be necessary to repeat this a few times to release the lock and allow water to run
properly.
When finished, undo the hose from the higher of the two taps, before releasing the lower
and allowing the water in the hose to drain into the sink.

Air lock at more than one tap

If more than one tap appears to be air-locked, clear it from the lowest one. With cold
water pipes from the attic cistern, it may also be possible to blow out the airlock if the
above method fails.
Push a length of hose into the outlet pipe within the tank. Open the tap at the other end.
Blow through the pipe to dislodge the lock.

Draining down to remove an air lock

The following steps should be taken when draining down:-
o As a final resort method, drain the system down.
o Turn off the water feed and open all the taps to drain the water.
o Close all taps until they are about three quarters closed.
o Turn the water supply back on.
o Adjust them all until a light; even flow of water is achieved.
o Now go round opening them one by one to the half-open position, starting with the
lowest and working upwards.
o Repeat at the three quarters open position. Once all air has been discharged, turn all
taps off to a point where there is only a minimal flow.
o Finally, close them all before checking the operation of each in turn.

Water Hammers

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Expansion joints on a steam line that have been destroyed by steam hammer
Steam distribution systems may also be vulnerable to a situation similar to water
hammer, known as steam hammer. In a steam system, water hammer most often occurs
when some of the steam condenses into water in a horizontal section of the steam
piping. Subsequently, steam picks up the water, forms a "slug" and hurls it at high
velocity into a pipe fitting, creating a loud hammering noise and greatly stressing the
pipe. This condition is usually caused by a poor condensate drainage strategy.
Where air filled traps are used, these eventually become depleted of their trapped air
over a long period of time through absorption into the water. This can be cured by
shutting off the supply and draining the system by opening taps at the highest and
lowest locations, which restores the air to the traps and then closing the taps and
opening the supply.

Blockage of Pipes
Regular use of chemical drain cleaners will help keep the waste system clear and smelling
fresh, but remember to follow the instructions carefully.
If one of the appliances fails to empty when all the others do, the blockage must be in the
vicinity of its branch pipes. Try using a sink plunger, remembering to block off the
overflow with some wet rags. Make sure there is enough water to in the appliance to
cover the cup of the plunger. Plunge vigorously for several seconds and then repeat the
process until the blockage clears. Flush the pipes with clean water to remove any debris
and disinfect to freshen and cleanse the area.
If the method fails try using a hand operated hydraulic pump. Block off the overflow with
wet rags and fill the pump with water. Hold the nozzle over the outlet and a downward
action on the tool forces a powerful water jet along the pipe to dislodge or disperse the
blockage. If it still appears blocked, keep the tool in position and apply an upward stroke
to create sufficient suction to dislodge the blockage. If the method fails the trap needs
clearing. The trap is situated below the waste outlet. It is a bent tube, which is designed to
hold water in order to prevent odours from the drain entering the room.
Brass or lead U traps
Old-style U traps are generally made of brass or lead and must be handled with care to
avoid damage. Place a bucket or bowl underneath and using a wrench unscrew the
cleansing eye at the bottom of the trap. Use a rod or bent coat-hanger to wire out any
debris remaining. Rinse the sink with water to remove all debris from the trap. Clean the
thread of the clearing eye, and before replacing, wrap some water proof tape around it to
prevent leaks. Run water through the system to check the connections are watertight.
Plastic U traps
Plastic U traps do not have clearing eyes, so it will be necessary to remove the trap. There
are lock nuts either side of the trap, which should be unscrewed to release the trap. If they
are reluctant in moving, try applying boiling water over the top, remember to have a bowl
or bucket below. Before replacing wrap some water proof tape around the locknut threads
to prevent leaks. Run water through the system to check the connections are watertight.
Bottle traps
Bottle traps are the easiest traps to clear because the whole base of the trap can be
unscrewed by hand. Once the debris has been removed from the trap, use a rod or metal
coat-hanger to probe the waste-pipe for any residue. Rinse the trap thoroughly and cleanse
with disinfectant. Before replacing wrap some water proof tape around the cover thread to
prevent leaks. Run water through the system to check the connections are watertight.

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Unit task 6 Care and maintenance of service systems
Electricity
Short circuit

A short circuit (sometimes abbreviated to short or s/c) in an electrical circuit is one that
allows a current to travel along a different path from the one originally intended. The
electrical opposite of a short circuit is an "open circuit", which is an infinite resistance
between two nodes. It is common to misuse "short circuit" to describe any electrical
malfunction, regardless of the actual problem

Definition
A short circuit is an abnormal low-resistance connection between two nodes of an
electrical circuit that are meant to be at different voltages. This results in an excessive
electric current (overcurrent) limited only by the Thevenin equivalent resistance of the
rest of the network and potentially causes circuit damage, overheating, fire or explosion.
Although usually the result of a fault, there are cases where short circuits are caused
intentionally, for example, for the purpose of voltage-sensing crowbar circuit protectors.

In circuit analysis, the term short circuit is used by analogy to designate a zero-impedance
connection between two nodes. This forces the two nodes to be at the same voltage. In an
ideal short circuit, this means there is no resistance and no voltage drop across the short.
In simple circuit analysis, wires are considered to be shorts. In real circuits, the result is a
connection of nearly zero impedance, and almost no resistance. In such a case, the current
drawn is limited by the rest of the circuit.

Examples
An easy way to create a short circuit is to connect the positive and negative terminals of
a battery together with a low-resistance conductor, like a wire. With low resistance in
the connection, a high current exists, causing the cell to deliver a large amount of energy
in a short time.
In electrical devices, unintentional short circuits are usually caused when a wire's
insulation breaks down, or when another conducting material is introduced, allowing
charge to flow along a different path than the one intended.
NB: Any electrical related problem should be solved by a qualified technician for safety
purposes

Poor handling of tools and equipment can cause problems in electricity supply systems.
Always follow the manufacturers instructions while working with electrical tools and
equipment .
Faulty tools equipment can also interfere with the supply system as well as put the user at
risk. Always service your tools and equipment regularly.
Avoid handling electrical equipment with wet hands Dry your hands when handling
electrical tools.
Gas

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Incase you smell gas in a room, you should;
1.) Open all doors and windows
2.) Check if the gas tap has been left on and turn off.
3.) If in doubt, turn off supply at meter and call for emergency service.

Assessment Questions

1. State the main services required in a catering and accommodation premise.

2. Explain the direct and indirect cold water supply systems.
3. Give three examples of failures that can occur in a water supply system.
4. Explain remedies for the above failures.

11.1.05 ENVIRONMENTAL HYGIENE

11.1.05T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit the trainee should be able to:
a) define terms
b) explain the scope of environmental hygiene
c) identify various environmental health hazards.
d) identify pests and rodents and their control methods
e) explain types of waste
f) identify waste disposal equipment and facilities
g) explain methods of waste disposal in catering and accommodation premises
h) explain, use, care and maintenance of waste disposal equipment and facilities
i) state the legal aspects on waste disposal

Unit task
Unit task 1 Defining of terms
Environment
An environment is what surrounds a thing or an item. The environment is the
surrounding. It could be a physical element - physical environment, that includes the built
environment, naturual environment - air conditions, water, land, atmosphere etc
Hygiene
The science that deals with the promotion and preservation of health. The conditions and
practices that serve to promote or preserve health.
Environmental hygiene
Environmental hygiene includes activities aimed at improving or maintaining the
standard of basic environmental conditions affecting the well being of people

Unit task 2 Scope of environmental hygiene

o Clean and safe water supply
o Clean and safe ambient air
o Efficient and safe animal, human, and industrial waste disposal
o Protection of food from biological and chemical contaminants
o Adequate housing in clean and safe surroundings.

Unit task 3 Identifying environmental health hazards.

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There are numerous health hazards that can affect people in their natural environment.
Examples of environmental health hazards are :
 allergens
 anthrax
 antibiotic agents in animals destined for human consumption
 antibiotic resistance
 arbovirus
 arsenic - a contaminant of fresh water sources (water wells)
 asbestos - carcinogenic
 avian influenza
 bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE)
 carcinogens
 cholera
 cosmic rays
 DDT
 dioxins
 drought
 dysentery
 electromagnetic fields
 endocrine disruptors
 epidemics
 e-waste
 explosive material
 floods
 food poisoning
 fungicides
 furans
 haloalkanes
 heavy metals
 herbicides
 hormones in animals destined for human consumption
 lead in paint
 light pollution
 lighting
 lightning
 malaria
 marine debris
 mercury
 molds
 mutagens
 noise pollution
 onchocerciasis (river blindness)
 pandemics
 pathogens
 pesticides
 pollen for allergic people
 polychlorinated biphenyls

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  quicksand
 rabies
 radon and other natural sources of radioactivity
 severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS)
 sick building syndrome
 soil pollution
 tobacco smoking
 toxic waste
 ultraviolet light
 vibration
 wildfire
 x-rays

Unit task 4 Identifying pests and rodents control methods

Control of Pests
Pest control refers to the regulation or management of a species defined as a
pest, usually because it is perceived to be detrimental to a person's health, the
ecology or the economy.

Pests are beneficial as well as a curse to mankind. Animals, bacteria and some
insects are beneficial to people in many ways, but the same time they can also be
pests. Pests such as rats, ants, cockroaches, mice and flies are common in houses
and apartments. There should be an effective pest control to prevent pests in
multiplying themselves in houses, which include effective pest management, pest
control and pest prevention.

Pest Management

The best and most effective way for controlling pests is pest management which
includes many steps.

The first and most important step in Pest Control is to identify the pest problem.
This includes finding out exactly what you are up against. Some pests (bacteria,
animals) are really helpful to people, so it is very important to find out any
harmful pests.

The second thing is to decide how much pest control is necessary. Only the family
who live in the affected area can judge how serious it is to take action.

The third thing is to choose an available option for pest control such as chemical
pest control or non chemical pest control.

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You can control pests by many means; some of the options available are:-

 Non Chemical pest control

 Chemical pest control
 Biological Methods

Non-chemical methods of pest control

The range of nonchemical options available may vary with the pest species, pest
intensity or severity, and effectiveness of the option. Several key nonchemical
options that may help reduce the amount of pesticides used in and around
homes are listed below. However, it is important to realize that for effective use
of nonchemical methods, an understanding of pest biology, ecology, and
behavior is essential. Such an understanding is not always required when using
synthetic pesticides.
 Exclusion: Any measure used to prevent entry of organisms indoors
through openings in the building structure, doors, windows, or on
infested plant or food materials. Some techniques include screening
openings to prevent entry of flies, mosquitoes, and beetles; caulking
cracks and crevices to remove existing or potential harborages of pantry
pests and cockroaches; and sealing or repairing exterior openings to
prevent entry of bats, mice, bees, and wasps. Plants and food products
must be carefully inspected for infestations at the time of purchase and
before they are brought indoors.
 Sanitation: Maintaining clean surroundings both outdoors and indoors
removes potential areas where pests can feed, breed, and hide. Sanitary
measures include: disposing of garbage on a weekly basis during warm
weather to control filth flies and cockroaches; discarding overripe fruits to
control fruit flies and fungus beetles; removing bird nests as these harbor
dermestids, clothes moths, mites, and lice; and vacuuming to reduce
populations of fleas, carpet beetles, house dust mites, and several
ground-dwelling insects and insect relatives. It is also important to keep
kitchen areas clean to reduce incidence of pantry pests and cockroaches.
 Habitat modification: Includes any method used to eliminate or disrupt
areas where pests reside. For example, removing weeds and keeping well-
mowed lawns reduces incidence of crickets and ticks. Removing debris
and fallen leaves near foundations reduces bug and centipede
populations. Wood or wooden piles, where carpenter ants, ground
beetles, and spiders seek harborage, must be stored away from
structures. Creating a vegetation-free barrier around the perimeter of the
building will reduce incidence of many ground-dwelling pests such as
clover mites. The use of dehumidifiers is recommended, especially in
basements, to create and maintain a dry environment to discourage
incidence of sowbugs, centipedes, firebrats, and house dust mites.
 Temperature control: Artificially manipulating the temperature of
substrates infested by pests or areas where pests reside is an inexpensive
nonchemical strategy. The time from treatment to death of a pest and

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 numbers of the pest killed, may vary with the pest stage, temperature,
and duration of exposure. Pantry pests, clothes moths, and carpet beetles
can be eliminated by subjecting infested foods, clothes, and carpets,
respectively, to extremely hot or cold temperatures. In general, all
developmental stages of pantry pests, clothes moths, and carpet beetles
can be killed within minutes to hours when exposed to temperatures
below 32° F and above 104° F.
 Mechanical control: A rolled newspaper or magazine and fly swatters are
some tools used for killing visible and less mobile or immobile pests. On
infested plants, hand-picking insects (e.g., hornworms) is a partially
effective means of pest control. Infested leaves must be excised from
plants, bagged, and discarded.
 Traps: Traps are escape-proof devices that capture highly mobile and
active pests. Live traps can be used for rabbits, pocket gophers, and
squirrels. Unbaited sticky traps such as red spheres, resembling apples,
are useful for trapping apple maggot adults. Colored (yellow) sticky traps
are effective in capturing whiteflies and aphids. Sticky traps can be baited
with commercial lures (pheromones and food attractants) to enhance
trap catch. For example, sticky traps baited with lures for pantry pests,
wasps, and flies are commercially available.
Traps are useful for early detection and continuous monitoring of
infestations. They are not effective in reducing populations unless the
pest population is isolated or confined to a small area. The chance of
detecting the presence of pests in a given area is related to the number of
traps used. Therefore, when pests are present in very low numbers, it is
advantageous to use more than a few traps. Pests must be active or
mobile to be captured in traps. Therefore, any environmental variable
(temperature, humidity, wind, light, or food) or biological factor (age, sex,
mating status, etc.) that influence pest activity, affects trap catch.
Consequently, absence of pests in traps does not imply that the pests are
not present in the sampled area.

Chemical Pest Control

Another good solution for pest control is the use of chemical pesticides. It is not
advisable in and around the home and commercial premises, as it will affect
people adversely. The major drawback of this method is that the results of the
chemical pesticides treatment are generally temporary, therefore the need for
repeated treatments. If used incorrectly, home-use pesticides can be poisonous to
humans. While you are using chemical pesticides for pest control, the most
important thing to remember is to take care in choosing the right pesticide product.

Biological Pest Control

Another effective way in controlling pests is using the biological method. This is
the method of using pest's natural enemies to control them. Spiders, centipedes,

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ground beetles and ants are some of the beneficial bugs. This method is not
harmful to people in any means and can be implemented effectively.

Rodent Control
Rodents (rats and mice) live in the environment we create for them. They will eat
almost any foodstuff, which can include bird and pet foods, vegetables stored in
outdoor sheds, peelings that are added to open compost bins and household
garbage that is not adequately secured.
It is a myth that rodents only exist in dirty environments, as all they require is a
source of food, water and a safe place to nest. Rodents usually live within 15.25
to 45.75 metres (50 to 150 feet) or their food source. Nesting burrows are often
found in areas not frequented by humans, such as:
 in and around open compost bins (even if it only contains grass clippings).
Compost bins can be screened to help exclude rodents and if properly
maintained should not be a problem.
 in woodpiles.
 under storage sheds and storage piles.
 in non-maintained yard areas.
 in refuse storage areas.
The most common methods of rodent control are through the use of traps and
anticoagulant baits.
Traps: Rodents are wary of new things in their environment. Place traps against
perimeter walls (perpendicular) so that rodents will have to walk overtop of the
release mechanism. Baits that work well include hot dog wieners or peanut
butter. Make sure the baits are fresh. It can be helpful to bait the trap without
setting it until rodents are used to coming to it for food. After they are coming to
the trap you can set it with more confidence.
Baits: Anticoagulant baits can be toxic to humans and pets as well as rodents.
They should always be contained in a tamper-proof bait station. Poison baits
should not be used indoors as inaccessible decaying rodents can cause odour
problems that are difficult to resolve.
If you find dead rodents in the yard, dispose of them as quickly as possible by
picking them up with a shovel and placing them in a transparent green bag. It can
be set out with your regular waste.

Rodent Control Responsibility

The responsibility for rodent control rests with the landowner. The pest control
officer can assist with property inspection and make recommendations for by-law
enforcement if required. Tenants are protected through minimum standards by-

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 laws but are encouraged to cooperate with their landlords by ensuring good
housekeeping

Unit task 5 Types of wastes

 Biodegradable waste
Biodegradable waste is a type of waste, typically originating from plant or animal
sources, which may be broken down by other living organisms. Waste that cannot be
broken down by other living organisms may be called non-biodegradable.

 Biomedical waste
Biomedical waste consists of solids, liquids, sharps, and laboratory waste that are
potentially infectious or dangerous. It must be properly managed to protect the general
public, specifically healthcare and sanitation workers who are regularly exposed to
biomedical waste as an occupational hazard

 Bulky waste
Bulky waste or bulky refuse is a technical term taken from waste management to
describe waste types that are too large to be accepted by the regular waste collection. It is
usually picked up regularly in many countries from the streets or pavements of the area.
This service is provided free of charge in many places, but often a fee has to be paid.

 Business waste
Business (or commercial and industrial) waste – cover the commercial waste and
industrial waste types . Generally, businesses are expected to make their own
arrangements for the collection, treatment and disposal of their wastes. Waste from
smaller shops and trading estates where local authority waste collection agreements are in
place will generally be treated as municipal waste.

 Chemical waste
Chemical waste is a waste that is made from harmful chemicals (mostly produced by
large factories). Chemical waste may fall under regulations such as COSHH in the UK, or
the Clean Water Act and Resource Conservation and Recovery Act in the US. Chemical
waste may or may not be classed as hazardous waste.

 Clinical waste
Medical waste, also known as clinical waste, normally refers to waste products that
cannot be considered general waste, produced from healthcare premises, such as hospitals,
clinics, doctors offices, labs and nursing homes.

 Coffee wastewater
The unpicked fruit of the coffee tree, known as the coffee cherry, must undergo a long
process to make it ready for consumption. This process often entails the usage of massive
amounts of water and the production of considerable amounts of both solid and liquid
waste.

 Commercial waste

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Commercial waste consists of waste from premises used wholly or mainly for the
purposes of a trade or business or for the purpose of sport, recreation, education or
entertainment but not including household; agricultural or industrial waste

 Construction and demolition waste (C&D waste)

Construction waste consists of unwanted material produced directly or incidentally by the
construction or industries. This includes building materials such as insulation, nails,
electrical wiring, and rebar, as well as waste originating from site preparation such as
dredging materials, tree stumps, and rubble. construction waste may contain lead,
asbestos, or other hazardous substances.

 Controlled waste
Controlled waste a waste type composed of either domestic, commercial and/or industrial
waste.

 Demolition waste
Demolition waste is waste debris from destruction of a building. The debris varies from
insulation, nails, electrical wiring, rebar, wood, concrete, and bricks. It also may contain
lead, asbestos or different hazardous materials.

 Electronic waste (E-waste)

Electronic waste, e-waste, e-scrap, or Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment (WEEE)
describes loosely discarded, surplus, obsolete, broken, electrical or electronic devices. The
processing of electronic waste in developing countries causes serious health and pollution
problems because electronic equipment contains some very serious contaminants such as
lead, cadmium, beryllium and brominated flame retardants. Even in developed countries
recycling and disposal of e-waste involves significant risk to workers and communities
and great care must be taken to avoid unsafe exposure in recycling operations and
leaching of material such as heavy metals from landfills and incinerator ashes.

 Food waste
Food waste is "any food substance, raw or cooked, which is discarded, or intended or
required to be discarded", according to the legal definition of waste

 Hazardous waste
A hazardous waste is waste that poses substantial or potential threats to public health or
the environment and generally exhibits one or more of these characteristics:
a) carcinogenic
b) ignitable (i.e., flammable)
c) oxidant
d) corrosive
e) toxic
f) radioactive
g) explosive

 Inert waste
Inert waste is waste which is neither chemically or biologically reactive and will not
decompose. Examples of this are sand, drywall, and concrete. This has particular

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relevance to landfills as inert waste typically requires lower disposal fees than
biodegradable waste or hazardous waste.

Unit task 6 Identify waste disposal equipment and facilities

Incinerators
Recycling
Containers
Shredders
Compactors

Unit task 7 Explaining the waste disposal methods

OCEAN DUMPING
Advantages:
 convenient
 inexpensive
 source of nutrients, shelter and breeding

Disadvantages:
 ocean overburdened
 destruction of food sources
 killing of plankton
 desalination
SANITARY LANDFILL
Advantages:
 volume can increase with little addition of people/equipment
 filled land can be reused for other community purposes
Disadvantages:
 completed landfill areas can settle and requires maintenance
 requires proper planning, design, and operation
INCINERATION
Advantages:
 requires minimum land
 can be operated in any weather
 produces stable odor-free residue
 refuse volume is reduced by half
Disadvantages:
 expensive to build and operate
 high energy requirement
 requires skilled personnel and continuous maintenance
 unsightly - smell, waste, vermin
OPEN DUMPING
Advantages:
 inexpensive
Disadvantages:
 health-hazard - insects, rodents etc.
 damage due to air pollution
 ground water and run-off pollution
RECYCLING
Advantages:

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  key to providing a livable environment for the future

Disadvantages:
 expensive
 some wastes cannot be recycled
 technological push needed
 separation of useful material from waste difficult

Unit task 8 Stating of legal aspects of waste disposal

IN EXERCISE of the powers conferred by Sections 92 and 147 of the

Environmental Management and Co-ordination Act No. 8, of 1999, the
Minister for Environment and Natural Resources, on the recommendation
of the National Environment Management Authority and upon
consultation with the relevant lead agencies makes the following
Regulations:
PART I: PRELIMINARY PROVISIONS
Citation
1. These Regulations may be cited as the Environmental Management and Co-ordination
(Waste Management) Regulations, 2006.
Application
2. These Regulations shall apply to all categories of waste as is provided for herein.
Interpretation
3. In these Regulations unless the context otherwise requires: Cap 243
“Act” means Environmental Management and Co-ordination Act No.8 of 1999.
“Applicant” means any person who applied to the Authority or lead agency for
authorization to perform specific activities connected with chemicals, pesticides,
radioactive substances and waste management.
“Authority” means the National Environment Management Authority (NEMA)
established under Section 7 of the Act.
“Biodegradable substance” means a substance that can be degraded by
microorganisms.
“Biomedical waste” means any waste which is generated during the diagnosis,
treatment or immunization of human beings or animals or in research activities pertaining
thereto or in the production or testing of biologicals and including categories mentioned in
Ninth Schedule of these Regulations.
“Board” means the Radiation Protection Board as established under the Radiation
Protection Act, Cap. 243 Laws of Kenya.
“Disposal site” means any area of land on which waste disposal facilities are physically
located or final discharge point without the intention of retrieval but does not mean a re-
use or re-cycling plant or site.
“Domestic Waste” means waste generated from residences.
“Environmentally Sound Management of Waste” means taking all practical steps to
ensure that waste is managed in a manner which will protect human health and the
environment against the adverse effects which may result from the waste.

Cap 346

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“Incineration” means the controlled burning of solids, liquids, gaseous combustible
waste to produce gases and residues containing little or no combustible materials.
“Industrial Waste” means waste arising from processing and manufacturing industries
or trade undertakings and can take the form of liquid, non-liquid, solid and gaseous
substances.
“Pesticide” has the meaning assigned to it under the Pests Control Products Act Cap.
346 of the Laws of Kenya.
“Prior Informed Consent” means the international operation procedure for
exchanging, receiving and handling notification information by the competent authority
on waste.
“Radioactive Waste” means any radioactive material that has been, or will be,
discarded as of being of no further use.
“Recycling of waste” means the processing of waste material into a new product of
similar chemical composition.
“Reprocessing” means the processing of waste into a new product of different chemical
composition.
“Reuse” means waste reused with or without cleaning and/or repairing.
“Segregation” means any activity that separates waste materials for processing.
“Sludge” means a none flowing mixture of solids and liquids.
“Storage” means temporary placement of waste in a suitable location or facility where
isolation, environmental and health protection and human control are provided in order to
ensure that waste is subsequently retrieved for treatment and conditioning and/or disposal.
“Toxic Chemical” means any substance, which on entry into an organism through
ingestion, inhalation and dermal contact is injurious, causes physiological, or biochemical
disturbances or otherwise causes deterioration of the functions of the organism in any
way.
“Treatment” means any method, technique or process for altering the biological,
chemical or physical characteristics of wastes to reduce the hazards it presents.
“Waste Generator” means any person whose activities or activities under his or her
direction produces waste or if that person is not known, the person who is in possession or
control of that waste.
“Waste Management” means the activities, administrative and operational, that are
used in handling, packaging, treatment, conditioning, reducing, recycling, reusing, storage
and disposal of waste.

Assessment Questions

1. Define environmental hygiene.

2. Discuss any five environmental health hazards.
3. Explain any five different types of waste.
4. Explain the different methods of waste disposal.

11.1.06 SAFETY AND SECURITY

11.1.06T Specific Objectives

By the end of the sub-module unit the trainee should be able to:
a) define terms used in safety and security
b) explain the importance of safety and security in catering and accommodation
premises
c) outline the safety and security requirements

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 d) outline safety precautions
e) state legal aspects on safety and security in catering and accommodation
premises

Unit task s
Unit task 1 Defining terms
Security
The state of being free from danger or injury;
Security is the degree of protection against danger, loss, and criminals

Safety
It is the condition of being protected against physical, social, spiritual, financial, political,
emotional, occupational, psychological, educational or other types or consequences of
failure, damage, error, accidents, harm or any other event which could be considered
non-desirable.

Unit task 2 Explaining the importance of safety and security

-It aids in the prevention of crime.

-It helps to minimize accidents.
-It provides the staff with a good and secure working environment.
-It provides a safe and secure for the guests and possessions.

Unit task 3 Outlining safety and security requirements in catering and accommodation
premises
 Check condition of the equipment before and after use
 Read manufactures instructions before operating any tool or using any product
 Ensure tools and products are used for the purpose intended and used correctly
 Arrange your workshop and store tools and products in their right places
 Ensure that any product that splits on the floor is cleaned immediately
 Always keep your floor completely dry
 Ensure workshop is well light
 Avoid a slippery floor in the workshop
 Put warning signs of slippery area
 Always maintain cleaning working places by disposing waste products to the dust bins
 Do not run while in the workshop
 Always use tools and equipment correctly for the purpose intended
 Store tools in their right places when not in use
 Follow manufactures instructions while working with electrical tools and equipment
 Services your tools and equipment regularly
 Dry your hands when handling electrical tools

Unit task 4 Outlining fire precautions in catering and accommodation premises

 Cover all unused electrical outlets.

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  Arrange electrical cords so they neither dangle loosely nor entangle with one
another.
 Matches, lighters, and all flammable materials should be kept out of the reach of
children.
 Radiator covers should be made of a non-heat absorbent material.
 Wood stoves and fireplaces should have screens and a gate, so that children
cannot wander too close.
 Fireplaces and, especially, chimneys should be cleaned and inspected by a
reputable professional every year.
 There should be a smoke detector installed on every level of the premises and in
the hallways leading to other rooms. It is an extra precaution to have them
installed in each bedroom.
 Set the thermostats on water heaters between 135 and 130 degrees Fahrenheit.
 Formulate an escape plan for every room in the premises, with an alternate plan
in case the first option is blocked by fire. Practice these escapes often.
 Set up a safe place to meet outside.
 Keep flammable materials away from heat sources.
 Try to use non-flammable or fire-resistant materials for curtains and upholstery.
 Use space heaters only on noncombustible surfaces and at least three feet from
furniture and walls.
 Store all flammable and combustible products in cool, well ventilated places,
locked securely and/or out of the reach of children.

Unit task 5 Stating legal aspects on safety and security requirements in catering and
accommodation premises
As from 1993 six health and safety at work regulation has come into force.
1. Management of health and safety at work regulation1992
o Risk assessment
o Control of hazardous substances
o training
2. Work place regulation
o Floor to be of suitable construction
o Floor free from hazardous articles or substances
1. Steps taken to avoid slips, trips and falls
3. Manual handling operation regulations
o Reducing incorrect handling of loads
o Preventing hazardous handling
4. Fire precautions in places of work
o Means of fire fighting
o Evacuation procedures
o Raising the alarm
5. provision and use of work equipment
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 o ensure correct usage
o properly maintained
o training given
6. Health and safety (Display screen equipment)
o To see that staff using visual display units have suitable work place and
take regular breaks
Assessment Questions
1. Explain the importance safety and security in a catering premise and
accommodation premise.
2. Explain any five security precautions that should be taken in a catering and
accommodation premise.
3. Explain any five safety precautions that should be taken in catering and
accommodation premise.

11.1.07 MAINTENANCE

11.1.07T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit the trainee should be able to:
a) explain the scope and importance of maintenance in catering and
accommodation premises
b) explain types of maintenance in catering and accommodation premises
c) explain factors that influence maintenance of catering and accommodation
premises
d) list tools and materials used in maintenance
e) explain legal aspects on maintenance in catering and accommodation
premises

Unit tasks
Unit task 1 Explaining the scope and importance of maintenance

Scope of maintenance
Internal External
Plant Heating, lighting, Lighting, fuel stores
ventilation centralized
vacuuming, plumbing
Services Electricity, gas, water Drainage, sewage
Machinery and Catering , laundry, Transport, fire fighting
equipment cleaning, firefighting, access
access
Specialized areas Swimming pools, Swimming pools,
operating theatres gazebos, barbecue areas
Building Doors, windows, walls, Roof, guttering, fire
envelope ceilings, paintwork, escapes, masonry,
structural repairs, chimneys, paintwork,
redecoration windows, structural
repairs, redecoration
Site Gardens, pathways,
fences, gates, boundary

796
 walls.

Importance of maintenance
The benefits of performing maintenance inspections at recommended service intervals:
 Reduce the risk of costly in-season downtime
 Reduce repair costs due to preventative maintenance
 Ensure optimum performance at all times
 Higher resale value for well maintained equipment

Unit task 2 Types of maintenance

 General types of technical maintenance:
o Maintenance, repair and operations
Maintenance, repair and operations (MRO) may be defined as, "All actions which have
the objective of retaining or restoring an item in or to a state in which it can perform its
required function. The actions include the combination of all technical and corresponding
administrative, managerial, and supervision actions."
Maintenance, repair and operations (MRO) involves fixing any sort of mechanical or
electrical device should it become out of order or broken (known as repair, unscheduled
or casualty maintenance). It also includes performing routine actions which keep the
device in working order (known as scheduled maintenance) or prevent trouble from
arising (preventive maintenance).
o Preventive maintenance
The care and servicing by personnel for the purpose of maintaining equipment and
facilities in satisfactory operating condition by providing for systematic inspection,
detection, and correction of incipient failures either before they occur or before they
develop into major defects.
Maintenance, including tests, measurements, adjustments, and parts replacement,
performed specifically to prevent faults from occurring.
Preventive maintenance is one of the most ignored aspects of maintenance.
Here are some reasons why you should develop a preventive maintenance plan for your
establishment
 Preventive Maintenance Saves Money:
 Preventive Maintenance Saves Time:
 Preventive Maintenance Helps Safeguard Your Data:
 Preventive Maintenance Improves Performance:

o Condition-based maintenance
Breakdowns in industrial manufacturing systems can have significant impact on the
profitability of a business. Expensive production equipment is idled, labor is no longer
optimized, and the ratio of fixed costs to product output is negatively affected.

o Predictive maintenance
Predictive maintenance (PdM) techniques help determine the condition of in-service
equipment in order to predict when maintenance should be performed. This approach
offers cost savings over routine or time-based preventive maintenance, because tasks are
performed only when warranted.

Unit task 3 Factors influencing maintenance in catering and accommodation premises

1. it must be cost effective

797
2. It meets statutory and other legal requirements
3. It reduces the incidences of running maintenance which precipitates user requisition
4. It meets operational needs
5. Higher percentage of actual work for the maintenance craftsmen to undertake rather
than purely inspection of items

Unit task 4 Identifying tools and materials in maintenance

Hand pliers
Hammer
Hack saw
Wood saw
Screw driver
Spanners
Electricity tester
Wood plane
Cramp and vices
Sharpening file etc.

Unit task 5 Legal aspects on maintenance of catering and accommodation premises

Assessment Questions
1. State and explain the types of maintenance that are done in a catering and
accommodation premise.
2. Identify any ten tools/equipment used in maintenance and explain their uses.

11.1.08 TENANCY AND PREMISES

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) define terms
b) discuss factors affecting tenancy
c) state legal aspects on tenancy

Unit tasks
Unit task 1 Defining terms
Tenant - someone who pays rent to use land or a building or a car that is owned by
someone else.
Landlord/landlady - Landlord is the owner of a house, apartment, condominium, or real
estate which is rented or leased to an individual or business, who is called a tenant (also a
lessee or renter). When a juristic person is in this position the term landlord is used. Other
terms include lessor and owner
Tenancy - The possession and use of real estate owned by another party

Unit task 2 Factors affecting tenancy

798
 1. What can you afford?
Before you even look at a property, workout what you can afford by looking at what your
outgoings are likely to be. For instance, you should expect to incur costs like:
 The monthly rent which may be payable monthly, bi-monthly, quarterly, half-yearly or
even annually
 The tenancy agreement costs, an agent or a lawyer, whoever you decide to deal with will
charge a fee for constructing the tenancy agreement
 Security deposit to ensure compliance with the duties and obligations under the tenancy
agreement
 Deposits for water, electricity or even telephone services payable to the relevant
authorities who provide them
Other costs like insurance for your belongings should also be anticipated as the landlord
is only under duty to insure for the physical structure.
2. Check on the neighbourhood
 Consider how secure the area might be; whether the roads are well lit and which ones to
avoid for safety reasons
 Listen out for noise; roaring traffic, barking dogs, and noisy neighbours could be an
imminent source of nuisance
 Check out what amenities exist in the area amenities; is there a local shop, hospital or
college?
 Find out about public transport. Is it easy and close by? Is it regular? How much is it?
 Look for available car parking. Even if you don’t have one your self, it may make it easy
for others to visit
3. What to look for in the property
Check out the property’s state of repair and if repairs are needed ask if the landlord
would be willing to do them before you move in.
Think about safety:
 Check out how the windows the windows and doors lock and whether they are burgled
 Look around the precincts: check whether the fences and walls are secure and whether
they would require additional security
4. Work out the total cost
 Check out how much the deposit is. Ask the landlord to confirm how much it is and when
you will get it back
 Double-check the rent details. How much is it and when is it due, who you pay it to and
how.
 Ask the estate agent about administration costs. If you used an agent there may be extra
costs when you sign the tenancy agreement or when it runs out in the future.
 Work out how much anything that isn’t provided will cost you may have to save up to
get everything you need.

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 5. Tenancy agreement
Before signing, read, and if necessary get professional advice on, any documents you
have to sign. Areas of the lease to look out for include:
 length of the tenancy
 mode of rent payment
 what the deposit is
 who will hold it and how it will be held
 how you will get it back
 how much, and who will pay for work at the end of the tenancy, such as the property
inspection, renewing the agreement or cleaning the property
6. Moving in
This can be a very exciting moment and it’s easy to forget a few important things:
 insure your own belongings
 make your own notes of the meter readings both for water, electricity and telephone so as
not to pay bills for services you did not consume.
 Finally make sure you know how all equipment in the property works and you have their
manuals.
7. Looking after your rented property
Except for normal wear and tear during the period of the tenancy, be expected to make
good any damage done otherwise it comes out of your deposit. So return the property to
the landlord at the end of the tenancy in the same condition as at the start, allowing for
fair wear and tear.

Unit task 3 Legal aspects of tenancy

Short Title and Commencement

1. This Act may be cited as the Landlord and Tenant (Shops, Hotels and Catering
Establishments) Act, and shall be deemed to have come into operation on the 1st
November, 1965.

Interpretion

2. (1) For the purposes of this Act, except where the context otherwise requires -
"catering establishment" means any premises on which is carried out the business of
supplying food or drink for consumption on such premises, by persons other than those
who reside and are boarded on such premises;
"controlled tenancy" means a tenancy of a shop, hotel or catering establishment -
(a) which has not been reduced into writing; or
(b) which has been reduced into writing and which -
(i) is for a period not exceeding five years; or
(ii) contains provision for termination, otherwise than for breach of covenant, within five
years from the commencement thereof; or
(iii) relates to premises of a class specified under subsection (2) of this section:

800
Provided that no tenancy to which the Government, the Community or a local authority is
a party, whether as landlord or as tenant, shall be a controlled tenancy;
"hotel" means any premises in which accommodation or accommodation and meals are
supplied or are available for supply to five or more adult persons in exchange for money
or other valuable consideration;
"landlord", in relation to a tenancy, means the person for the time being entitled, as
between himself and the tenant, to the rents and profits of the premises payable under the
terms of the tenancy;
"Minister" means the Minister for the time being responsible for matters relating to
commerce;
"receiving party" means a tenant or a landlord of a controlled tenancy to whom a tenancy
notice is given;
"reference" means a reference to a Tribunal under section 6 of this Act;
"rent" includes any sum paid as valuable consideration for the occupation of any
premises, and any sum paid as rent or hire for the use of furniture or as a service charge
where premises are let furnished or where premises are let and furniture therein is hired
by the landlord to the tenant or where premises, furnished or unfurnished are let with
services,

"requesting party" means a landlord or a tenant of controlled tenancy by whom a tenancy

notice is given;
"service charge" means a charge for any services rendered;
"services" in respect of any tenancy means the use of water, light or power, conservancy,
sewerage facilities, sweeper, watchman, telephone or other amenity or facility available to
the tenant, save and except the supplying of meals, and the right of access to any place or
accommodation accorded to the tenant by reason of his occupation of the premises
comprised in the tenancy;
"shop" means premises occupied wholly or mainly for the purposes of a retail or
wholesale trade or business or for the purpose of rendering services for money or money's
worth;
"tenancy" means a tenancy created by a lease or underlease, by an agreement for a lease
or underlease, by a tenancy agreement or by operation of law, and includes a sub-tenancy
but does not include any relationship between a mortgagor and mortgagee as such;
"tenancy notice" means a notice given under subsection (2) or subsection (3) of section 4
of this Act;
"tenant" in relation to a tenancy means the person for the time being entitled to the
tenancy whether or not he is in occupation of the holding, and includes a sub-tenant;
"Tribunal" means a Tribunal appointed under section 11 of this Act.

(2) The Minister may, by notice in the Gazette, specify, by reference to rent paid or
rateable value entered in a valuation roll under the Valuation for Rating Act, classes of
shops, hotels or catering establishments tenancies of which shall be controlled tenancies
regardless of the form or period of such tenancies.

(3) Notwithstanding anything contained in any other written law requiring the registration
of tenancies, evidence of a tenancy may, for any of the purposes of this Act, be given in
any proceedings whether such tenancy is registered or not.

Matters relating to Controlled Tenancies Generally

801
3. (1) Without prejudice to the power of the parties to a tenancy to adopt any form upon
which they may mutually agree, a controlled tenancy may be reduced to writing in the
prescribed form.

(2) The terms and conditions set forth in the Schedule to this Act shall be implied in every
controlled tenancy which is not reduced to writing or which is in the prescribed form.

(3) The landlord of a controlled tenancy shall keep a rent book in the prescribed form, of
which he shall provide a copy for the tenant and in which shall be maintained a record,
authenticated in the prescribed manner, of the particulars of the parties to the tenancy and
the premises comprised therein, and the details of all payments of rent and of all repairs
carried out to the premises.

(4) Whenever a landlord appoints an agent for the purpose of effecting transactions
relating to a controlled tenancy, the particulars of such agent shall be recorded in the rent
book and authenticated by his signature.

(5) Any person who -

(a) being a landlord, fails to keep a rent book or to provide a copy thereof as required by
subsection (3) of this section; or
(b) fails to make any prescribed entry in a rent book, or to authenticate any such entry in
the prescribed manner; or
(c) makes any entry in a rent book which he knows to be false or which he has no
reasonable cause to be true; or
(d) makes any alteration or erasure of an entry in a rent book which may be to the
prejudice of the landlord or the tenant,
shall be guilty of an offence and liable to a fine not exceeding two thousand shillings or to
imprisonment for a period not exceeding two months, or to both such fine and
imprisonment.

(6) Any agreement relating to, or condition in, a controlled tenancy shall be void in so far
as it purports to -
(a) preclude the operation of this Act; or
(b) provide for the termination or surrender of the tenancy in the event of the tenant
making an application to a Tribunal under this Act; or
(c) provide for the imposition of any penalty or disability on the tenant on making any
such application.

Assessment questions

1. State and explain any five factors that affect tenancy.

2. Outline any five legal aspects related to tenancy.

11.1.09 EMERGING TRENDS

11.1.09T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit the trainee should be able to:

802
 a) identify emerging trends in the catering and accommodation premises
b) identify challenges of emerging trends
c) discuss the coping mechanisms of challenges arising from emerging trends.

10.1.09 C Competence
The trainee should have the ability to:
i) research on emerging trends in the catering and accommodation premises
ii) outline the coping mechanisms of challenges arising from emerging trends

Content
11.1.09T 1 Emerging trends
11.1.09T 2 Challenges
11.1.09T 3 Coping mechanisms

Practice

11.1.09P Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit the trainee should be able to:
a) research on emerging trends in the catering and accommodation premises
b) outline the coping mechanisms of challenges arising from emerging trends

Content
11.1.09P 1 Researching on emerging trends in the catering and accommodation premises
11.1.09P 2 Outlining the coping mechanisms

Suggested Teaching/Learning Resources

- Resource person
- Textbooks
- Internet
- Manuals

Suggested Teaching/Learning Activities

- Observing
- Researching
- Writing reports

Suggested Evaluation Methods

- Test
- Assignment
- Reports

803
12.1.0 MATHEMATICS

804
MODULE II

Introduction

The module II course is designed to equip the trainee with knowledge, skills and attitudes
required to perform supervisory duties in a House Keeping, Front Office and Laundry.

This module also equips the trainee with skills required to supervise and guide production
or service of food and beverage products.

General Objectives
By the end of this course, the trainee should be able to:
a) Supervise and guide housekeeping, front office and laundry operations in a catering
and accommodation establishment.
b) Supervise and guide production or service of different types of food and beverage
products.
c) Acquire knowledge in nutrition, diet therapy and home nursing and apply when
catering for people in different health conditions
d) Appreciate the knowledge of accounting and application of law in the hospitality
industry.
e) Appreciate the need for control in order to minimise losses and maximise profit in a
catering and accommodation establishment.
f) Develop a viable business proposal to start and run a business

Entry Requirements

Trainee entering this course should have any of the following minimum requirements:

1. Craft Certificate in Catering and Accommodation Operations course

OR
2. Not referred in more than 2 module units in Module I of the Diploma in Catering and
Accommodation Management course
OR
3. Craft Certificate in Food and Beverage Production, Sales and Service and module II of
the Craft Certificate in Catering and Accommodation Operations course
OR
4. Craft Certificate in the House Keeping course and module I of the Craft Certificate in
Catering and Accommodation Operations course
OR
5. Equivalent qualification as determined by the Kenya National Examination Council

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Module Units and Time Allocation

Code Module Units Time

(Hours)
13.2.0 Accommodation Operations Management 150
II
14.2.0 Catering And Accommodation Control II 70
15.2.0 Diet Therapy 70
16.2.0 Hospitality Accounting 70
17.2.0 Law Related to Hospitality Industry 60
18.2.0 Business Plan 50
19.4.0 Food and Beverage Production 200
Management
Or
Food and Beverage Service and Sales
Management
Sub total 670
Industrial Attachment 165
Total 835

806
13.2.0 ACCOMMODATION MANAGEMENT 1

13.2.01 Introduction
This module unit is intended to impart the trainees with knowledge skills and
attitudes required for professional accommodation management It gives the
trainees a broad knowledge of administration and accommodation functions

13.2.02 General Objectives

By the end of this module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) demonstrate the ability to receive and handle guests appropriately
b) plan and control operations in a laundry plant
c) plan and control housekeeping duties:
d) manage and guide the maintenance of accommodation facilities in an
establishment

807
13.2.0 COURSE SUMMARY UNIT AND TIME ALLOCATION

Code Sub-Module Unit UNIT TASKS T P Total

Hours
13.2.01 Introduction to  Definitions of terms
Accommodation  Scope of
accommodation
department
2 4 6
 Importance of
accommodation
13.2.02 Work Plan  Definition of
Organization and organisation
Control  Importance of work
organisation
2 4 6
 Steps for work
organisation
13.2.03 Introduction to  Definition of terms
Accommodation  Supervision plan of
Supervision work
 Job card
6 14 20
 Duty rotas
 Work schedule
 Job specification
 Job analysis
13.2.04 Cleaning Standards  Definitions
 Importance
4 8 12
 Housekeeping standard
 Other standards
13.2.04 Report Writing  Definitions
 Importance 4 8 12
 Steps in report writing
13.2.05 Fabric Finishes  Definition of terms
 Fabrics finishes
4 10 14
 Laundry procedures for
different finishes
13.2.06 Planning,  Definition of terms
Organizing and  Laundry tasks
4 10 14
Controlling  Laundry process
Laundry Work  Laundry planning
13.2.07 Staff Organisation  Need for staff
In Different Types organisation
of Laundries  Organization structure 4 8 12
in different types of
laundries
13.2.08 Operational Control  Before the laundry
In Laundry process
 During the laundry
4 8 12
process
 After the laundry
process
808
13.2.09 Reception  Definition of terms
Functions  Reception layout
 Reception routine in
different establishment
 Duties, responsibilities
and qualities of a
receptionist
6 14 20
 Importance of the
reception to the
organisation
 Location of the
reception
 Human and public
relation
13.2.10 Reservations and  Definition of terms
Registration  Importance of
reservation and
registration
4 10 14
 Documentation,
reservation and
registration

13.2.11 Departmental  Definition of terms

Liaison  Departmental and
4 8 12
interdepartmental
liaison
13.2.12 Emerging Trends  Identification
 Challenges 1 1 2
 Managing challenges
45 105 150
Total

809
16.2.01 INTRODUCTION TO
ACCOMMODATION

16.2.01T Specific Objectives

By the end of this module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) define terms
b) explain the scope of the accommodation department
c) discuss the importance of accommodation

UNIT TASKS
Unit Task 1: Definition of terms
Accommodation means-
housing; residence; lodging; arrangement; adjustment

Unit Task 2: Scope of accommodation department

 Front Office Department

Is headed by the Front office Manager and is in charge of the reception where
guests may check in and out. Reservation is part of this section and handles individuals
reservations and also fields inquires about room rates, room availability, and service

 Sales and Marketing Department.

Headed by the Sales Director, who analyzes the property’s market base, devises a
marketing plan for reaching the potential customers, and sells to and books
reservations and functions for group business and key cooperate clients.
 Accounting Department
Headed by the controller or the Chief Financial officer. He tracks all incoming revenue
and outgoing cash. In large hotels, accounting may be a division that incorporates the
purchasing department.
 Engineering and Maintenance Department
Maintains most of the equipment and machinery on the property and keeps the in good
working condition. This department may also clean and maintain the swimming pool
and pool deck area as well as some or all parts of the ground.
 Security Department.
Addresses concern ranging from handling hazardous waste to securing the building
against bomb threats and protecting the privacy of celebrity guests. This department is
also responsible for the safety of guests, staff and their belongings. Lost and found
may be handled by housekeeping or security, or may a shared responsibility.
 Human Resource Department.
Is headed by the Human Resource Director and is in charge of personnel matters
ranging from staff recruitment and hiring to setting salary ranges to benefits. This
department also develops policies for dismissal or retirement.

Unit Task 3: Importance of accommodation

Housekeeping, Domestic administration or Accommodation services is essential in all
types of establishment, whether hotels, clubs, hospitals or hostels in order that there
shall be comfort, cleanliness and service.

810
  Housekeeping is also a business function in the lodging industry and the professional
housekeeper is a true business manager. His or her decisions are executive decisions
regarding staffing, scheduling purchasing, daily operations and cost control.
 Apart from providing clean interiors in order to increase sales, and protecting the
owner’s investment in the property’s interiors, it is also the responsibility of the
executive housekeeper’s to make sure these goals are met on time, on budget, and at the
highest possible levels of quality sales directly as do the f&b dept, and the sales dept. yet
its performance is one of the most critical factors in driving sales for rooms and other
services the property offers.
 Housekeeper protects the owner’s investment- it is the executive housekeeper’s job to
protect the investment and maximize the life expectancy of all interior design elements by
developing effective cleaning practices and training staff to carry out these practices
efficiently. Working with the maintenance and engineering, the housekeeping dept.
ensures that the property’s interior4 continue to look and operate like new as long as
possible. Effective housekeeping practices combined with a sound renovation program
enables a property to evolve to meet guest demand without unnecessary spending.

Suggested Teaching/Learning Resources

- Internet
- Journals
- Textbooks
- magazines
- Charts

Suggested Teaching/Learning Activities

- Group discussions
- Research
- Field trips
- Writing reports

Evaluation Questions
- Assignments
- Tests
- Reports

16.2.02 WORK PLAN ORGANIZATION AND CONTROL

16.2.02T Specific Objectives

By the end of this module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) define terms
b) state the importance of work organisation
c) enumerate steps for work organisation

UNIT TASKS
Unit Task 1: Definition of terms
Unit Task 2: Importance of planning and organising work
Unit Task 3: Steps in work organisation

811
 Suggested Teaching/Learning Resources
- Internet
- Journals
- Textbooks
- resource persons
- magazines

Suggested Teaching/Learning Activities

- Group discussion
- Research
- Field trips

Evaluation Questions
- Assignments
- Tests
- Reports

16.2.03 INTRODUCTION TO ACCOMMODATION SUPERVISION

16.2.03T Specific Objectives

By the end of this module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) define of terms
b) explain the steps in supervision of plan of work
c) discuss the preparation and contents of job card
d) draw a duty roster and explain its importance
e) discuss and prepare work schedules
f) discuss job specification and job analysis

UNIT TASKS
Unit Task 1: Definition of terms
Supervisor
A person given authority to exercise control over workers.

Supervision
Act of watching over the work or tasks of another who may lack full knowledge of concepts at
hand. Supervision does not mea control of another but guidance in work.

Supervise
Oversee activity or tasks being carried out by somebody and ensure it is performed correctly.

Unit Task 2: Supervision plan of work

Sample Assignment
You are a housekeeper in a high cost hostel. You have been assigned two trainees to work with in
cleaning the common room and reception area. Plan and carry out the following tasks:

812
a) Instruct and carry out the daily cleaning of these areas.
b) Demonstrate and carry out special cleaning of the reception area.
c) Leave the area tidy.

Content of the Supervision Plan of Work

1) Brief introductory notes as per the test
2) Previous preparation tasks
3) List of tasks to be covered.
4) Requisition of equipment and materials and any other requirement
5) Timed order of work to be followed by the supervisor and her assistant
6) Demonstration notes

Brief Introductory notes

These should include question requirements, venue and objectives of the assignments.

Previous Preparation Tasks

- Change into uniform
- Collect equipment and materials
- Open windows to ventilate area
- Erect cleaning and warning signs
- Empty the waste bin
- Remove excess furniture
- Collect warm and cold water
- Put up training charts

List of tasks to be covered

- Carry out previous preparation
- Briefing of assistants
- Sweeping the areas
- Dry dusting of the areas
- Damp dusting of the areas
- Spot cleaning of the walls
- Demonstration on cleaning of the reception desk
- Carry out the cleaning of reception desk by assistants
- Mopping of the floor
- Cleaning equipment and set them up
- Tidying of the area

List of Equipment and Materials

Equipment No.
Mops 3
Mop buckets 3
Basins 3
Dust Pan 1
Dust Pan brush 1
Cleaning cloths 3
Yellow dusters 1
Cornish brush 1

Materials No.

813
Warm water Enough
Cold water Enough
Detergent 250 ml

Actual Plan
Time Supervisor Asst 1 Asst 2

Unit Task 3: Job card

This contains all the details about the work to be performed. A job card is prepared for each
assistant. It contains time and activity to be carried out at that particular time.

Unit Task 4: Duty rotas

This is a plan which shows hours of duty areas of work and days off for each member of staff.

Importance
- They ensure that there is sufficient staff on duty on a given time in order that work is covered.
- Control the hours of work for each staff as stipulated in the work contract
- Ensures that the days off are as consecutive as possible
- It shows the holiday periods and helps management to know who is on duty at these times
- It shows where each member of staff is to work
- It shows how overtime is to be worked and by who.

Types of Rotas
- Fixed Rotas
- Rotating Rotas

Fixed Rotas
This is used where staff works Monday – Friday. Saturday and Sunday automatically become
their days off.
Nam Shi M T W T F Sa Su
Sample Fixed Rota e ft o u e h r t n
n e d u i
Key r
DO – Duty Off s
Joh 8-4 7 7 7 7 7 D D
Rotating Rota n O O
This is where staff will cover a work Ann 9-5 8 8 8 8 8 D D period of
24 hours, 7 days a week for the whole e O O year.
Basically, there are three shifts of 8 Mar 9-5 8 8 8 8 8 D D ours
rotating in a pre-arranged manner: y O O
6 am – 2 pm Pete 9-5 8 8 8 8 8 D D
2 pm – 10 pm r O O
Rose 9-5 8 8 8 8 8 D D
814 O O
Cate 9-5 8 8 8 8 8 D D
O O
Pete 8- 4 4 4 4 4 D D
r 12 O O
10 pm – 6 am
Staff may work 4 days and then have 2 days off, or 7 days on duty and 2-3 days off duty. The
length of the cycle will depend on the number of staff.

Unit Task 5: Work schedules

This is a plan/outline of work to be done by a particular member of staff, showing the order in
which the tasks are to be carried out and the amount of time allocated to them.

Preparation of a work schedule

The following is an example of a work schedule:

Work schedule for an assistant domestic services manager

Hours of work 7 am – 4 pm
7.0-8.30 Check clock cards to ascertain number of staff on duty. Check number of absentees
and re-arrange cover where necessary. Check in tray and deal with any urgent matters.
Supervision of domestic staff
8.30-12.30 Main duties to include:
Check with supervisors regarding work routine
Deal with any less urgent matters from the previous day
Deal with any complains as they arise
Maintenance of records
10.00-10.30 Coffee
10.30-12.30 Departmental meetings
Preparation of duty rotas, holiday lists
Staff training
Selection and interviewing of new staff
Purchasing
Wages
12.30-1.30 Lunch
1.30-4.01 General supervision of staff
Inspections
Dealing with other day to day matters

Unit Task 6: Job specifications and job analysis

Job Analysis
This is the process used to collect information about the duties, responsibilities, necessary skills,
outcomes and work environment for a particular job.

Job Specification- This is an outline of the personal requirements for the job to fit the right
person into the specific job. It may also include an outline if the job itself.

Suggested Teaching/Learning Resources

- Internet
- Journals
- Textbooks
- resource persons
- magazines

Suggested Teaching/Learning Activities

815
 - Group discussion
- Research
- Field trips

Evaluation Questions
- Assignments
- Tests
- Reports

16.2.04 CLEANING STANDARDS

13.2.04T Specific Objectives

By the end of this module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) define terms
b) explain the importance of maintaining cleaning standard
c) describe standards of cleaning in accommodation establishment
d) describe other standards in establishments

UNIT TASKS
Unit Task 1: Definition of terms

Standard - The ideal in terms of which something can be judged.

Unit Task 2: Importance of maintaining cleaning standards

- To ensure that the correct procedures and methods are used.
- Ensure that standards are maintained
- To allow action to be taken to correct defective work
- To identify responsibility for effective work
- To allow complaints to be dealt with effectively`

In order for this to be done effectively, the supervisor should:

- Check just before work starts to ensure punctuality and correct methods of work
- Check just before completion of work to ensure work is done satisfactorily
- Check to see that time allowed for each task is observed
- Spot check in case staff is new or unreliable.

Unit Task 3: Accommodation standards

There are Three major standards:

1) Visual Inspection – The supervisor uses the eyes to check in the cleaning standards.
This is not an effective method as surfaces can be overlooked.
2) White Rag – The supervisor uses a white rag on the surfaces cleaned to ensure that they
are free from dust and dirt.
3) Cleaning Checklist – This is a list of surfaces found in particular areas in an
establishment. Cleaning is checked against these surfaces.

Sample Checklist for a corridor

816
Surface V.Good Good Fair Poor
Doors
Windows
Floor
Notice
Board
Waste
bin
Walls

Unit Task 4: Other standards

- Physically clean – this is where the surface is free from dirt and dust.
- Chemically clean – This is where the surface is free from harmful chemical.
- Bacteriologically clean - This is where the surface is free from harmful bacteria which
must be removed to avoid cross contamination, especially in hospitals
- Entomologically clean – This is where the surface is free from insects, dust and dirt.
- Osmologically Clean –This is a very high standard of cleaning especially for hospital
theatres, intensive care units and burns unit.

Suggested Teaching/Learning Resources

- Internet
- Journals
- Textbooks
- resource persons
- magazines
- Work schedules
- Duty rosters

Suggested Teaching/Learning Activities

- Group discussion
- Research
- Field trips

Evaluation Questions
- Assignments
- Tests
- Reports

13.2.05 REPORT WRITING

13.2.05T Specific Objectives

By the end of this module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) define terms
b) explain the importance of reports
c) discuss the contents of a report and write a report

817
 UNIT TASKS
Unit Task 1: Definition of terms

Report- This is a written document describing how a particular assignment was carried out.
Housekeeping reports also highlights the objectives achieved and performance if individual staff.

Unit Task 2: Importance of reports

Reports are usually written by the supervisor.
A report informs the management on the activities carried out and their results.
It also gives recommendations, suggestions and possibly future action to assist in improving
performance.

Unit Task 3: Steps in report writing

- Introduction
- Trainee’s Performance
- Standards of cleanliness achieved
- Maintenance required
- Limitations
- Conclusion
- Recommendations

Introduction
This explains what the report was all about and activities carried out and when.

Trainee’s Performance
This is a report on each trainee/assistant to include their grooming, ability to take instruction,
their performance, and so on.

Maintenance Required
A report on any areas/items requiring repair in the areas cleaned. This should be specific to assist
maintenance department carry out the repairs.

Limitations
This is basically the problems encountered that may have hindered achievement of the objectives.

Conclusion
This is a wrap up of all the activities.

Recommendations
These should be based on the limitations - What the supervisor thinks should be done to improve
the performance.

Suggested Teaching/Learning Resources

- Internet

818
 - Journals
- Textbooks
- resource persons
- magazines

Suggested Teaching/Learning Activities

- Group discussion
- Research
- Field trips

Evaluation Questions
- Assignments
- Tests
- Reports

16.2.06 FABRICS FINISHES

16.2.06T Specific Objectives

By the end of this module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) define of terms
b) identify different types of fabric finishes
c) discuss factors to consider when laundering fabrics with a given fabric finish

UNIT TASKS

Unit Task 1: Definition of terms

Fabric finishes – These are treatments that are applied to fabrics either mechanically or
chemically to give them particular characteristics, e.g. to improve appearance, make them easy to
care for, make them more durable.

Unit Task 2: Types of fabric finishes

1. Finishes applied to improve lustre

a) Calendering
This is done on cotton only. The material is polished in a machine called a friction calendar
which has one wooden or metal roller, and another made of softer material e.g. paper or cotton. If
both rollers were hard, the material would be worn away with friction.
One roller moves round more quickly than the other and by friction, polishes material as it
passes between them.

b) Schreinering
This treatment gives a very high sheen. Material passes between rollers which have been
engraved with very fine lines and which are heated inside.
The lines are imprinted on the fabric by the heat and catch the light and reflect it, giving the
fabric a sheen.

819
c) Beetling
Applied to linen. The material is struck many times with fine hammers on the beetling machine,
giving the material its characteristi1c lustre.

d) Mercerization
Applied to cotton in yarn form or after it has been made into material. Cotton is passed through a
strong solution of caustic soda (an alkali which does not weaken the fibres). The fibres swell up
and become round tubes and shrink in length.
When the caustic soda is being washed off, the smooth fibres are stretched and they become
lustrous, giving sheen to fabrics made from them.
Cotton treated in this way is called mercerized cotton, e.g. cotton, mercerized sewing and
embroidery threads.

e) Roller embossing (embossed finishes)

Patterns are indented on rollers. These imprint an embossed pattern on fabrics, which reflect light
on the raised parts.
If the fabric is thermoplastic, this finish can be set in permanently with heat.
Such fabrics are also made crease resistant and shrink proof.

f) Searing – Heat is used to remove surface fibres from wool

2. Finishes applied to soften

a) Calendering

b) Beetling and Searing

c) Decatizing
This is applied especially to wool. It is passed over a hollow, perforated cylinder through which
steam is passed.

d) Cationic surfacants
These act as lubricants but are not fast to washing.
e) Polyethylene and Polyacrylates
These act as fibre lubricants and are wash fast.

3. Raising
A brush or suede finish is achieved by gently scratching or plucking the surface of a fabric.
4. Shrink-resistant finish (Anti-shrink)
This can be imparted mechanically or chemically to cotton, linen and some man-made fibres.
Methods:
a) Material is steamed to close up fibres without shrinking them. They are then pressed with heat
to steam them.
b) Fibres are treated with synthetic resin so that they do not swell up when wetted.

Lightweight woolen fabrics are treated with various chemicals various chemicals then they are
steamed (blown) for a few minutes and finally dried without stretching.

820
This treatment removes the felting properties of wool and prevents shrinkage. Fabrics given this
treatment can be washed and drip dried and require little ironing.
Dylan is a trade name for such a shrink resist finish.

5. Mothproofing
Woolens are most likely attacked by moth grubs than other fabrics. When the moth grubs hatch
from the eggs, they start eating woolen clothes. Most of the times, this is noticed when the
damage is already done.
Carpet beetles also eat woolen carpets at their grub stage.

Ways of protecting woolens from moths.

i) An insecticide, Deilmoth is dissolved in oil, a solvent or water and applied to woolen yarn
during spinning or in dry cleaning fluids. It can also be sprayed onto articles and clothes. It
washes out easily, so a lot more than necessary can be used so that it survives many washes.

ii) The Mitin Process

A compound called Mitin FF which is a colourless dye is mixed in the dye bath when the fabric
is coloured and gives permanent protection against all wool eating insects. It does not affect the
fabric, has no smell, is non-poisonous, is not removed easily by washing or dry cleaning and it
does not irritate the skin when handling.

6. Crease resistant finish

Animal fibres do not crease so readily as cottons and rayons, and when they do crease, they
recover more quickly, therefore do not need anti-crease finish.
Synthetic resin is introduced in the fibres of cottons and rayons, making them more resilient and
less likely to crease.
Clothes that have the resin cannot be dyed to a different colour unless the resin is removed first.
Crease resistant garments however do crease. However, any creases made drop out of the
garment once it is hung up for a short time.
NB. Resin makes the fabric both shrink resistant and crease shedding.

7. Crease Retention or Durable Pleating

Fabrics made from thermoplastic yarns e.g.
Polyamides, polyesters and acetates have pleats set in with heat and moisture.
Today, most woolen fabrics can also be durably pleated. The fabric has to be made shrink
resistant first, then pleated in any of the following ways:
a) The entire cloth is impregnated with chemicals so that the pleats can be set in where required
by pressing under a damp cloth.
b) A chemical is sprayed onto the part to be creased, e.g. a trouser crease, which is then pressed
and dries.

8. Flame Proofing
Some fibres e.g. cottons, linens, acetate, acrylics are highly inflammable or flammable. Cotton
net, flannelette and winceyette are very inflammable fabrics.
They can easily go up in flames if they come into contact with unguarded fire.
Cotton, viscose and acetate can be chemically treated by a process known as Pyrovex to make
them flame resistant. This process makes the material stiffer and a little harsher.
iii) Other ways
 Use of boric acid
The fabrics becomes flame proof but are not wash fast.

821
 Proban finish – Use of a compound
 Post dry cleaning treatments

9. Stain and Water repellent finish

Can be achieved in the following ways:
a) The material is closely woven from the cotton yarn. The fibres swell when wetted and fill up
the spaces between them, creating a non-porous surface, e.g. ventile

b) For woolen fabrics

i) Wax is emulsified into small globules and mixed with aluminium acetate and a protein
(casein). This substance is mixed with water; the fabric is dipped in to it, and then mangled to
remove excess water. Fabric is dried, and as the water evaporates, wax is left in the cloth, making
it shower proof. This process is known as Phobotex.

ii) Silicones are emulsified in water or a solvent; the fabric is immersed in the solution. It is then
dried and heated for a few minutes to 140ºC when silicones form a polymer which becomes
bonded to the wool, making it very water repellant.

These methods are not always proof against dry cleaning, but garments can be re-textured by
adding wax in a solvent to the dry cleaning fluid.

iii) Scotch guard

This is a chemical applied to fabrics to give it both water repellency and oil and stain resistant.
The molecules of this chemical have both hydrophobic and hydrophilic chemical groups. The
former repels water while the latter repels oils and staining.
Moisture repellent surfaces are applied to lighter fabrics; shower proofing is for heavier fabrics
that are made for rain wear.

10. Permanent Stiffening

Fabrics can be stiffened in these ways:
i) By treating with resin
ii) By treating with resin and starch. This method is not so permanent as starch washes out .
iii) By treating with e cellulose solution and acid
iv) Material woven with one cotton and one acetate thread alternately in both warp and weft; it
cab be pressed with heat. The acetate thread melts into a sticky substance which pulls up spaces
between the weaving and binds the cotton together.
A permanently stiffened material results after cooling and setting. This material is known as
Trubenized material. It is used for making stiff collars for shirts.

Unit Task 3: Factors to consider when laundering fabrics with a given fabric finish

Suggested Teaching/Learning Resources

- Internet
- Journals
- Textbooks
- resource persons
- magazines
- Cleaning materials and agents

822
 Suggested Teaching/Learning Activities
- Group discussion
- Research
- Field trips

Evaluation Questions
- Tests
- Reports

16.2.07 PLANNING, ORGANIZING AND CONTROLLING LAUNDRY WORK

16.2.07T Specific Objectives

By the end of this module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) define terms
b) identify tasks in laundry work
c) outline procedure for the preparation of time plans for individual assessment
d) discuss laundry process

UNIT TASKS
Unit Task 1: Definition of terms

Planning
This means scheming or working out a method beforehand for the accomplishment of an
objective.
Organizing
This is the act of rearranging tasks following one or more rules.
Controlling
Regulating, managing
Task
A piece of work that somebody has to do especially a hard or unpleasant one.
Activities
A situation in which something is happening or a lot of things being done.
Standards
Level of quality especially one that people think is acceptable.

Unit task 2 Tasks in laundry work

 setting up bins for soaking
 sorting out whites and coloured clothes and placing them in washing machines
 transferring clothes that have been washed into dryers
 washing and rinsing of mats which are done in buckets or in the sink.
 Hanging out some items of washing on the line.
 Placing washed and dried clothes on hangers and in resident pigeon holes
 Refilling linen presses and returning personal clothing to resident wardrobes and drawers
using a trolley.
 Folding of all items in the laundry.

823
Unit task 3 Procedure for the preparation of time plans for supervision assessment
Time plan
Content
i) Previous preparation
ii) Work to be covered
iii) List of equipment, materials and others
iv) Actual plan of work of /order of work and timings

Previous preparations
 Collect laundry equipment and materials
 Identify articles to be laundered
 Heat water for washing
 Mend any tears and holes
 Setting up work centers
 Soaking/steeping of articles
 Removing of stains
 Writing of time plan.

Work to be covered
 Carry out the previous preparation activities
 Washing of articles using the appropriate method
 Rinse the articles
 Dry the articles using correct method
 Prepare articles for finishing
 Air them
 Fold and hang to store
 Clean and dry the laundry equipment ,materials and containers

List of equipment and materials

Equipment number

Materials Number

Actual time plan

Tim superv Assistant Assista

e isor 1 nt
2
8.00 Carry Carry out
- out previous
9.00 previo preparatio
am us ns tasks as
prepar instructed

824
 ations by
supervisor
9.00 Brief Attend
- the briefing
9.15 assista
am nts

Unit task 4 Laundry process

The laundry system

1. Arrival
Dirty linen that arrives at the laundry is unloaded and stored temporarily until processing
commences. The dirty linen should be dealt with quickly to avoid growth of infection, mildew
and odour problems.

2.Marking
The article being laundered must be marked to identify it with the appropriate establishment or
individual owner. This mark helps to ensure that the laundered articles are returned to the rightful
owners.
In large operations with an on-site laundry marking may occur only if the items are to be
returned to a specific area or department, but generally a pool system operates.
Methods of applying marks
Embroidering or use of a transfer attached to the fabric by pressure and heat.
Printing by machine with either visible or invisible marks.
Using pre-printed marks on cotton tape sewn on the item.
Marking ink or use of safety pins with a printed ‘flag’ or stamp on the metal shield of the pin.
In some cases, linen may have been pre-marked with e.g. company logo during the weaving
process.

3.Sorting (classification)
This is the first stage in the operation in an on-premises laundry such as a hospital. Colour coded
bags are used to denote the condition of the dirty linen e.g. in a hospital the dirty linen is stored
according to the colour of the bag, each tape must be processed separately.
The procedure for dealing with infected linen and foul linen usually involves pre-washing. The
following factors vary according to the type of item being laundered
 Amount and type of chemicals to use
 Water temperatures
 Number and length of cycles
 Number of rinses.

The batches are sorted according to the

 Type of fiber
 Type of item
 Colour of dye fastness
 Degree of soil age

4.Weighing
Each bundle of dirty linen is weighed to conform to the capacity of the machine.

825
5.Loading
The weighed load of items may then be loaded into the washing machine either manually or by
mechanical means. Manual loading and unloading of a large washing machine involves
considerable effort, especially unloading when the work carries with it a great weight of water.
Tilting or dumping machines are designed to overcome this difficulty; they tilt backwards so that
the load can be discharged directly into the machine from the overhead bag. A crane may also be
used for loading. Some machines tilt forwarding order to tip out, that is, dump the washed load
onto a conveyor or into trolleys for transfer to the next stage, which involves the extraction of
water. Avoid overloading the machine because:
1. Effective washing may not occur
2. Linen may be damaged
3. Creasing of crease resistant items may occur
The weight of loads of bulkier items such as towels and blankets should be reduced to ensure
washing takes place effectively.
Machines should not be overloaded for economic reasons.

6.Washing and rinsing

a) Washing
This must be designed to perform three basic operations:
1. Remove soil from the fabric
2. Suspend soil
3. Discharge the soil from the machine to the drain

Devising an effective washing programme

One should consider the following:
Fibre and fabric
Type of item
Dye fastness
Amount of soilage
Hardness of water

These influence such things as:

 Number of wash cycles
The benefit of several shorter washes rather than one long wash is that more soil can be
removed with repeated suds and clean water than with one solution in wish the soil remains
in suspension and has a chance to re-soil the linen.
 Number of rinse cycles
 Ph values of the wash liquors
The Ph is usually different for each stage in the washing cycle, e.g. the first washing or suds
has a Ph of 11-11.6 (very alkaline)
The excess alkaline called free alkaline, combines with fat and oil in the soil to neutralize
acid soils and to render it free from the fibres from which it is attached
The free alkali is a good wetting agent. The remaining wash circle requires a Ph of 10.6.

 Depth of wash liquors

Variations in depth of liquor in cage of a rotary washing machine influences the following
a) amount of mechanical action imparted to the load

826
 b) Proportion of removed dirt which is discharged.

 Temperature
Many chemical reactions will not take place unless heat is applied.
Most reactions can be accelerated by raising the temperature.
The higher the temperature of the washing liquour-upto a certain level- the most efficient the
soil removal. The highest useful temperature for soil removal. The highest useful temperature
for soil removal for most articles is 65ºc. In housekeeping laundry- the temperature is also
raised during the washing process in order to disinfect.
Temperatures may be varied during the washing process. Certain types of staining substances
can be removed easily at low temperatures but become fixed and almost impossible to
remove if subjected to higher temperatures. Many fibres will be damaged above certain
levels.

 Time needed for soil removal

The rate at which soil is removed is not constant. It is highest at the commencement of the wash
and gradually becomes less as time passes.

c) rinsing

This takes place after the wash cycles have been completed. Rising should:-
 remove the laundry supplies ( soap or synthetic detergents)
 remove the small amount of dirt removed from the fabric but which remains in the ‘carry
over’ liquor.
Removal of soap and dirt is done by adding water to the machine so as to dilute the ‘carry
over’ liquor.
Control of the dip is important during the rinsing process because too much water results in
excessive dilution of the soap carried over from the final wash and hydrolysis could occur, with
loss of suspending power and consequent re-deposition of the dirt carried over. Avoid very high
dips at the commencement of rinsing.

7. hydro-extraction
There are two principle types of hdro-extraction.
i) the centrifugal extractor
ii) an hydraulic extractor. This removes water by subjecting the load to a direct external pressure.
The only movement which the article undergo is a small displacement due to the application of
pressure.

8. starching
Cetain articles are stached to impart a degree of stiffness.
The starch liquor is added to the machine following the final rinse, the machine is run for a few
minutes and the liquor not taken up is discarded.

9. tumbling
Tumbles are used for
 the complete drying of articles as bath towels and blankets which require a ‘fluffy’
unpressed finish known as rough or fluffy drying.

827
  processing of items manufactured from fabrics composed totally or partly of polyester fibres
where the process has to be carefully controlled;the degree of loading reduced;he load
dradually cooled down in the final stages of the cycle; and the item quickly removed and
folded.
 used for heat conditioning which assist in removing extractors wrinkles and moisture so that
linen can be ironed without difficulty.

10. finishing
This is ironing or pressing of items according to the size and shape of the items.
the quality of finish achieved depends on ;
 the moisture content
 pressing temperature
 pressure
Too dry an item results to a poor finish.
Too much moisture results to an excellent finish but a long and costly drying time on the press,
thus slowing down production.
Type of equipment of ironing or pressing depends on the type of items;
 flat items such as sheets , pillow cases , table cloths( flat work) may be calendered or a rotary
ironer used.
 non-flat items such as garments may be ironed or pressed using iron boxes.
In commercial laundries, spreaders and feeders are used to aid the preparation of flat work for
ironing, and aid in economy of labour and effort to maintain continuous uninterrupted
production.

11. Temporary storage

When all the work has been finished, it is arranged in the correct order for packing and
distribution, so that it is often temporarily stored or fixed on mobile racks for a short period of
time.

12. distribution
The packing operation can be performed in a number of ways:
 finshed work may be loaded on mobile racks or into bags , baskets or trucks or individual
boxes for personal work.
 semi- automatic packing machines use sheet polythene or polythene lined paper which is heat
treated to form instant closure , so that the finish parcel , whether wet or dry can withstand
rough handling and is protected from contamination.
The finished items may be dispatched to the establishment, department, individual or central
linen room from where they came.

The laundry process

The objectives of the laundering process are:
 to remove dirt and stains
 To prevent damaged on the fibre and/or loss of tensile strength.
 to ‘finish’ the item in order to prevent the re-entry of dirt for as long as possible and
provided wrinkle and crease free item.

Factors to consider when selecting an item to launder

 Fibre type, its properties and the characteristics of the finished item.
 Care and maintenance of the item, particularly the effect the equipment, agents and the
processes involved have on it.

828
 Suggested Teaching/Learning Resources
- Internet
- Journals
- Textbooks
- resource persons
- magazines
- Work schedules
- Duty rosters

Suggested Teaching/Learning Activities

- Group discussion
- Research
- Field trips
- Preparing work plans

Evaluation Questions
- Assignments
- Tests
- Reports

13.2.08 STAFF ORGANISATION IN DIFFERENT TYPES OF LAUNDRIES

13.2.08T Specific Objectives

By the end of this module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) explain the need for staff organisation
b) describe the organisation structure in different types of laundries

13.2.08 C Competence
The trainee should have the ability to:
i) draw organisation staff organisation structure for different laundries
ii) visit different laundries and write a report on the organisational structures

UNIT TASKS
13.2.08T1Staff organisation
13.2.08T2Organization structure in different types of laundries

Practice

13.2.08P Specific Objectives

By the end of this module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) draw organisation staff organisation structure for different laundries
b) visit different laundries and write a report on the organisational structures

UNIT TASKS
13.2.08P 1 Organization structures for different laundries
13.2.08P 2 Report writing on the organisational structures

829
 Suggested Teaching/Learning Resources
- Internet
- Journals
- Textbooks
- resource persons
- magazines

Suggested Teaching/Learning Activities

- Group discussion
- Research
- Field trips
- Drawing
- Writing reports

Evaluation Questions
- Assignments
- Tests
- Reports

13.2.09 OPERATIONAL CONTROL IN LAUNDRY

13.2.09T Specific Objectives

By the end of this module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) identify the operational control measures before the laundry process
b) describe the operational measures during the laundry process
c) outline the operational measures after the laundry process

13.2.09 C Competence
The trainee should have the ability to:
i) practice operational control measures before and after the laundry process
ii) visit a laundry and write a report on operational control measures

UNIT TASKS
13.2.09T1Operational control measures before the laundry process
13.2.09T2Operational control measures during the laundry process
13.2.09T 3 Operational control measures after the laundry process

Practice

13.2.09P Specific Objectives

By the end of this module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) practice operational control measures before and after the laundry process
b) visit a laundry and write a report on operational control measures

UNIT TASKS
13.2.09P1 Operational control measures before the laundry process

830
13.2.09P2 Writing a report on operational control measures of a laundry

Suggested Teaching/Learning Resources

- Internet
- Journals
- Textbooks
- resource persons
- magazines
- Job cards
- Work schedules
- Duty rosters
- check lists

Suggested Teaching/Learning Activities

- Group discussion
- Research
- Field trips
- Writing reports

Evaluation Questions
- Assignments
- Tests
- Reports

13.2.10 RESERVATIONS AND REGISTRATION

13.2.10T Specific Objectives

By the end of this module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) define terms
b) explain the importance of reservation and registration
c) describe the process of reservation and registration
d) identify the documents used in reservation and registration

13.2.10 C Competence
The trainee should have the ability to:
i) identify documents used in reservation and registration of guests
ii) reserve and register guests

UNIT TASKS
13.2.10T 1 Definition of terms
13.2.10T 2 Importance of reservation and registration
13.2.10T 3 Process of reservation and registration
13.2.10T4Documents used in reservation and registration

Practice

13.2.10P Specific Objectives

By the end of this module unit, the trainee should be able to:

831
 a) identify documents used in reservation and registration of guests
b) practice reservation and registration

UNIT TASKS
13.2.10T2Identify documents used in reservation and registration
13.2.10P1 Practicing reservation and registration of guests

Suggested Teaching/Learning Resources

- Internet
- Journals
- Textbooks
- resource persons
- magazines
- Job cards
- Work schedules
- Duty rosters
- check lists

Suggested Teaching/Learning Activities

- Group discussion
- Research
- Field trips
- Writing reports
- Reserving and registering guests

Evaluation Questions
- Assignments
- Tests
- Reports

13.2.11 THE RECEPTION FUNCTION

13.2.11T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) define terms
b) identify location of the reception
c) state duties, responsibilities of a receptionist
d) discuss the qualities of a receptionist
e) discuss the importance of the reception

13.2.11 C Competence
The trainee should have the ability to:
i) draw reception layout
ii) carry out reception duties

UNIT TASKS
13.2.11T 1 Definition of terms
13.2.11T 2 Reception layout

832
13.2.11T 3 Reception routine in different establishments
13.2.11T 4 Duties and responsibilities of a receptionist
13.2.11T 5 Qualities of a receptionist
13.2.11T 6 Importance of Reception

Practice
13.2.11P Specific Objectives
By the end of this sub module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) draw reception layout
b) carry out reception duties

UNIT TASKS
13.2.11P 1 Drawing reception layout
13.2.11P 2 Carrying out reception duties

Suggested Teaching/Learning Resources

- Internet
- Journals
- Textbooks
- Resource persons
- magazines
- Job cards
- Work schedules
- Duty rosters
- Reception
- check lists

Suggested Teaching/Learning Activities

- Group discussion
- Research
- Field trips
- Writing reports

Evaluation Questions
- Assignments
- Tests
- Reports

13.2.12 DEPARTMENTAL LIAISON

13.2.12T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) define terms
b) discuss departmental and interdepartmental liaison

13.2.12 C Competence
The trainee should have the ability to:

833
 i) visit and identify departments in catering and accommodation establishment
ii) write a report on the relationship between various departments

UNIT TASKS
13.2.12T1Definition of terms
13.2.12T2Departmental and interdepartmental liaison

Practice

13.2.12P Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) visit departments in catering and accommodation establishment
b) write a report on the relationship between various departments

UNIT TASKS
13.2.12P1 Visiting departments in catering and accommodation establishment
13.2.12P2 Report writing on the relationship between various departments

Suggested Teaching/Learning Resources

- Internet
- Journals
- Textbooks
- resource persons
- magazines
- Work schedules
- Charts
- check lists

Suggested Teaching/Learning Activities

- Group discussion
- Research
- Field trips
- Writing reports
- Other departments

Evaluation Questions
- Assignments
- Tests
- Reports

13.2.13 EMERGING TRENDS

13.2.13T Specific Objectives

834
 By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) identify emerging trends in accommodation management
b) identify challenges in accommodation management
c) discuss ways of handling emerging trends

13.2.13 C Competence
The trainee should have the ability to:
i) identify the emerging trends in accommodation management
ii) manage the challenges

UNIT TASKS
13.2.13T 1 Emerging Trends
13.2.13T 2 Challenges
13.2.13T 3 Handling Challenges

Practice

13.2.13P Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) identify the emerging trends in accommodation management
b) discuss challenges related to emerging trends
c) explain ways of managing the challenges

UNIT TASKS
13.2.13P 1 Identification of the emerging trends
13.2.13P 2 Challenges related to the emerging trends
13.2.13P 3 Managing challenges

Suggested Teaching/Learning Resources

- Mass media
- Internet
- Journals
- Textbooks
- resource persons
- magazines
- Job cards
- Work schedules
- Duty rosters
- Brochures
- Reports

Suggested Teaching/Learning Activities

- Group discussion
- Research
- Field trips
- Writing reports
- Researching
- Tests
Evaluation Questions - Reports
- Assignments

835
14.2.0 CATERING AND ACCOMMODATION CONTROL II

14.2.01 Introduction
This module unit is intended to equip the trainee with knowledge, skills and
attitudes, which are conductive to effective control of operations within the
hospitality industry.

14.2.02 General Objectives

By the end of this module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) acquire knowledge of catering and accommodation and their application in
different sectors of hospitality industry.
b) demonstrate ability to apply control measures to maintain appropriate
standards in catering and accommodation operations.
c) coordinate the activities of catering and accommodation control to achieve
the required standards in different sectors of the hospitality industry.

836
837
838
14.2.01 BUDGET AND BUDGETARY CONTROL

14.2.01T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) define the terms related to budget and budgetary control
b) explain the objectives of budgets and budgetary control
c) explain the various types of budgets
d) describe the procedure of formulation of budgets

Unit Tasks
Unit Task 1 Defining of terms
 Budget
o Budget generally refers to a list of all planned expenses and revenues. It is a plan for
saving and spending.
o A budget is a plan that outlines an organization’s financial or operational goals. It is an
action plan.

 Budgetary control
o Methodical control of an organization's operations through establishment of standards
and targets regarding income and expenditure, and a continuous monitoring and
adjustment of performance against them.

 Budget preparation
o This is the process of formulating a budget that meets the organization’s specific needs

Unit Task 2 Explaining the objectives of budgets and budgetary control

a) To give practical expression to the aims and policies of the business
b) To provide a detailed plan of catering operations in respect of a particular trading
period
c) To ensure better co-ordination of the various departments/functions of the business
d) To set standards (targets) against which it is possible to measure managerial
performance
e) To ensure an economical use of the resources of the business

Unit Task 3 Types of budgets

 Master Budget
It incorporates all the income and expenditure, or all the assets and liabilities of the business

 Capital Budget
Deals with asset and capital funds of the business. Budget for plant, equipment, cash and
stocks are, therefore, capital budgets.

 Sales budget:
The sales budget is an estimate of future sales, often broken down into units. It is used to
create organization’s sales goals.

 Production budget:

839
Product oriented companies create a production budget which estimates the number of units
that must be manufactured to meet the sales goals. The production budget also estimates
the various costs involved with manufacturing those units, including labor and material.

 Cash Flow/Cash budget:

The cash flow budget is a prediction of future cash receipts and expenditures for a particular
period of time. It usually covers a period in the short term future. The cash flow budget helps
the business determine when income will be sufficient to cover expenses and when the
company will need to seek outside financing.

 Marketing budget:
The marketing budget is an estimate of the funds needed for promotion, advertising, and
public relations in order to market the product or service.

 Revenue budget:
The Revenue Budget consists of revenue receipts of government and the expenditure met
from these revenues. Tax revenues are made up of taxes and other duties that the
government levies.

 Expenditure budget:
A budget type which include of spending data items.

Unit Task 4 Describing procedure of formulation of budgets

1. Determination of the net profit required for the business in relation to the capital invested
and the risk involved. Incase of non-profit making establishments, the level of subsidy
available or required postulated.
2. Preparation of the sales budget This determines the volume of sales necessary to
achieve the desired net profit or subsidy and also influences the budgeted costs for food,
beverages, labor and some overheads.
3. Preparation of administration and general budgets. These are for such items as head
office expenses, advertising, rates, and insurance e.t.c. Some of these may be regarded
as flexible budgets i.e. they are affected by changes in the volume of business e.g.
telephone, laundry e.t.c
4. Preparation of the capital expenditure budget which makes the provision for such items
of expenditure as new kitchen equipment, restaurant and bar equipment including any
installation charges.
5. Preparation of cash budget. This is regarded as the most important of the capital budgets
and it predetermines the cash inflows, outflows and resulting cash balances at particular
points during the period.
6. Preparation of master budgets. These budgets are prepared for the trading account, profit
and loss account and the balance sheet.

Suggested Questions

a) Distinguish clearly between budgeting and budgetary control

b) Explain what you understand by:
-Operating budgets

840
 -Capital budgets
-Departmental budgets
-Master budgets
-Fixed budgets
-Flexible budgets

c) What are the objectives of budgetary control

d) Explain how the following would be prepared in a large catering establishment:
-Sales budget
-Labour cost budget
-Overhead cost budget
-Budgeted profit and loss account.

14.2.02 CATERING AND ACCOMMODATION PRODUCTION, PLANNING

14.2.02T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) define production planning
b) outline the objectives of production planning
c) identify the aids of production planning
d) explain the aids of actual production process
e) identify the aids to forecasting in accommodation
f) explain the aids to accommodation control

Unit Task 1 Defining production planning,

Production planning is the forecasting of the volume of sales for an establishment, for a specified
time period e.g. a day, a week or a month.

Unit Task 2 outlining the objectives of production planning

1. To predict the total number of meals to be sold in each selling outlet of an establishment
at each meal period.
2. To predict the choice of menu items by customers.
3. To facilitate purchasing.
4. To ensure the availability of all necessary ingredients.
5. To ensure that appropriate stock levels are held.
6. To control food costs in relation to sales or within cost limits in non-profit making
establishments.
Unit Task 3 Identifying aids to forecasting and production planning
- Cyclic menus
- Sales histories (past records)
- Standard yields
- Standard recipes
- Standard portion sizes

Unit Task 4 Explaining aids to the production process

 Past record
In particular one would look at figures recorded for the same period the previous year,
examine the graph showing sales for the year to check if there is likelihood of particular trend
at this period in the year, as well as looking at the sales results for that previous trading
period.

841
  Advance bookings
Typical factors which would be taken into account would be the known advance
accommodation booking from which a break down estimate by selling outlets should be
known and applied; known banquet and party bookings, the numbers of which would have to
be confirmed prior to the event.

 Current events
This should be taken into account in order to forecast with any accuracy. Trade fairs, homes
exhibition e.t.c. would have an influence on business done in a given locality just as local
shows and exhibitions would have an influence in another locality

 Current trends
These should be frequently so that any unfavorable trends can be corrected before it is too late.
What is essential is for management to be aware of any decrease or increase in the business,
and to be up to date with the trends of the present customer requirements so that these can be
provided.

Unit Task 5 Identifying aids to forecasting in accommodation

 Sales histories
 Current trends
 Current events
 Advance bookings

Unit Task 6 Aids to accommodation control

 Total number of rooms available
 Breakdown of room types and the number of each type.
 Reservations.
 Configuration of the rooms, i.e. the number and types of bed, design and décor.
 The number of Z beds i.e. spare, collapsible beds that can be used if necessary.

14.2.03 COSTING AND PRICING

14.2.03T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) identify the elements of costs
b) explain cost dynamics
c) discuss breakeven analysis
d) identify methods of service/product costing
e) explain methods of pricing products and services
Unit Tasks
Unit Task 1 Identifying elements of costs
a. Material cost
b. Labour costs
c. Overhead costs
Unit Task 2 Explaining Cost dynamics
 Defining terms
-Fixed costs

842
 These are costs which remain fixed irrespective of the volume of sales e.g. rent,
rates, and insurance e.t.c

-Semi-fixed costs
These are costs which move in sympathy with, but not in direct proportion to the
volume of sales, e.g. fuel costs, telephone, laundry e.t.c

-Variable costs
These are costs which vary in proportion to the volume of sales, e.g. food and
beverage costs
-Total costs
This is the sum of the fixed, semi-fixed and variable costs.

Unit Task 3Discussing break-even analysis

 Definitions
-Break-even analysis
A calculation of the approximate sales volume required to just cover costs, below which
production would be unprofitable and above which it would be profitable. Break-even analysis
focuses on the relationship between fixed cost, variable cost, and profit.

-Break even point

This is the volume of business at which the total costs are equal to the sales and where neither
profit nor loss is made.
This can be achieved using two ways:
Mathematical – C
S-V
Where C is Fixed Cost
S is Selling price per unit
V is Variable cost per unit
Graphical method

843
Unit Task 4 Identifying methods of service/product costing
- Marginal
Marginal cost is defined as the accounting system in which variable costs are charged to cost
units and the fixed costs of the period are written-off in full against the aggregate contribution.
Its special value is in decision making’

The term ‘contribution’ mentioned in the formal definition is the term given to the difference
between Sales and Marginal cost. Thus:

Marginal cost = variable cost direct labor

+
Direct material
+
direct expense
+
variable overheads

- Absorption
Absorption cost is the total cost of producing a unit of product or providing a unit of service. This
includes direct cost, allocated cost and apportioned indirect and remote cost as explained below
 Direct Materials - These are the raw materials such as wood, metal, bricks, etc that are
used in order to create a finished usable good which will be demanded by the market.
 Direct Labor - Direct Labor is the man work and total factory hours put behind assembling
the raw materials, creating the finished good, etc.
 Fixed Overhead - This includes expenses such as rent of factory where the raw materials
are turned into finished goods, amortization of factory building, utilities, etc.
 Variable Overhead - These are the general and administrative expenses in the
manufacturing process.

Unit Task 5 Explaining pricing methods of products and services

Pricing consideration
The whole subject of pricing is a complex one which unfortunately is given the degree of priority
that it is requires. The approach to pricing will differ between major sectors of the industry where
normally in the non commercial sector, pricing is cost oriented and in the commercial sector
pricing is usually market orientated

Methods of Pricing

844
 a) Pricing based on the cost
The traditional method used to establish the price of a menu item is to calculate, ideally from a
standard recipe, the food cost per unit for the particular item and to ad a given percentage of gross
profit to arrive at the selling price. The percentage of gross profit applied should be sufficient to
cover fixed cost element (e.g. rent): the semi-fixed element (e.g. telephones) and a satisfactory
element of net profit

b) Pricing based on the market

The relationship between price and value for money is an important aspect of pricing. Value for
money extends way beyond just the cost of the ingredients of the items chosen from a menu by a
customer. The whole meal experience has to be taken in to account, including such things as the
atmosphere, décor, choice of menu items, level of service offered etc. in order to be successfully
and to achieve a satisfactory volume of sales, pricing has to consider three basic factors:
a) The nature of demand for the product
b) The level of demand for the product
c) The level of competition for the product

- Contribution
Contribution is the difference between total or unit revenue and total or unit variable costs.
Contribution margin is the marginal profit per unit sale. It is a useful quantity in carrying out
various calculations, and can be used as a measure of operating leverage.
The Total Contribution Margin (TCM) is Total Revenue (TR, or Sales) minus Total Variable
Cost (TVC):
TCM = TR − TVC
The Unit Contribution Margin (C) is Unit Revenue (Price, P) minus Unit Variable Cost (V):
C=P−V
The Contribution Margin Ratio is the percentage of Contribution over Total Revenue, which
can be calculated from the unit contribution over unit price or total contribution over Total
Revenue:

- mark up
Markup is the difference between the cost of a good or service and its selling price. A markup is
added on to the total cost incurred by the producer of a good or service in order to create a profit.
The total cost reflects the total amount of both fixed and variable expenses to produce and
distribute a product. Markup can be expressed as a fixed amount or as a percentage of the total
cost or selling price. Different methods exist in determining the markup of a product.

Suggested Questions
a) Distinguish clearly between fixed, semi-fixed and variable costs.
b) Explain what is meant by:
-Margin of safety
-P/V ratio
c) What is the relationship between turnover, average cost per cover and net profit/loss per
cover?
d) The Metropolitan restaurant serves between 2000 and 5000 customers monthly. Average
spending power is ₤5.00 per cover and food costs are 40% of sales. The fixed costs of the
restaurant are ₤ 1100 per month. You are required to:
-Prepare a well labeled break-even chart for the restaurant.

845
 -Indicate the margin of safety
-Calculate the P/V ratio.

14.2.04 REVENUE CONTROL SYSTEMS

14.2.04T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) discuss types of revenue control systems
b) explain the application of revenue control systems

Unit Tasks
Unit Task 1 Discussing types of revenue control systems
o Qualities of Effective Control Systems
 1. Linkage to Strategy.
 2. Understandable Measures.
 3. Acceptance by Employees.
 4. Balance of Objective and Subjective Data.
 5. Accuracy.
 6. Flexibility.
 7. Timelessness.
 8. Support of Action.

o Types of revenue control systems

Manual revenue control System
Here hand-written duplicate or triplicate checks for ordering from the kitchen and bar
and for informing the cashier. Often used with cash till or register. This system is found in many
high-level restaurants and in popular catering.
Automated revenue control System
These enable a number of serving terminals, intelligent tills and remote printers to be
controlled by a master unit compatible with standard computer hardware. Depending on
software, the functions may also include a variety of performance measures such as planning
and costing, sales analysis, gross profit reporting, stock control, re-ordering and forecasting,
VAT returns, payroll, staff scheduling and account information. These systems are often found
in hotels, fast food and chain restaurants.

Unit Task 2 Explaining the application

o Functions of a revenue control system
1. There must be efficient control of all items issued from the various departments
2. The system should reduce any pilfering and wastage to a minimum
3. Management should be provided with any information they require for costing
purposes, so that they may estimate accurately for the coming financial period
4. The cashier should be able to make out the customers bill correctly so that the customer
is neither overcharged nor undercharged
5. The system should show a breakdown of sales and income received in order that
adjustments and improvements may be made.

846
 Suggested Questions
a) Explain the following revenue control systems:
-Manual system
-Automated system

14.2.05 LABOUR COST CONTROL

14.2.05T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) Explain element of labor cost
b) explain labor turnover
c) describe time keeping methods
d) explain the effective payment of wages
e) explain the concept of idle time
f) explain how to effectively handle overtime

Unit Tasks
Unit Task 1 Explaining elements of labor cost
o Definitions
Fixed cost personnel - these are those members of staff such as the manager, the chef, the
restaurant supervisor, cashier e.t.c. whose numbers bear little relationship to the volume of
business done. The fixed cost personnel are the key personnel within an establishment
Variable cost personnel - these include all the staff whose employment is directly related to the
volume of sales e.g. waiters, cooks e.t.c.

The Purpose of Labor Cost Control

The main purpose of labor control is to maximize the efficiency of the labor force in a manner
consistent with the established standards of quality and service.
The Control Process
1. Establish standards and standard procedures for the operation
2. Train all individuals to follow established standards and standard procedures
3. Monitor performance and compare actual performance with established
standards
4. Take appropriate action to correct deviations from standards.

The Nature of the Problem

The biggest problems facing the caterer are:
a. the very nature of catering being that, because of the high perish ability of the
product, it is not possible to stockpile items of food which could be produced at

847
 slack periods for use in busy periods whenever they occurred (the exception to this
today being cook-freeze products).
b. The demand for the items on the menu will fluctuate not only daily but also hourly
It is therefore important that, in order to achieve efficient utilization of his labor force, the
manager of an establishment should forecast the demand of his business and then schedule the
staff in relation to his forecast of business expected.
Preliminary Steps
It is assumed that any well-run business will assist in obtaining the efficient use of staff by means
of such details as:
a) An Organizational Plan: this should show clearly the lines of authority and responsibility
of all staff. The plan would be related to the style of management and the type of
operation.
b) Job Analysis/ Description: it is necessary to analyze the requirements of each position of
employee and to prepare a job analysis card. It should cover the following areas:
Job title
Grade of job
Range of salary/ wage
Short description of duties/ responsibilities
Lines of authority
Working hours and conditions.

Having prepared this, it is then necessary to translate this information into a job specification,
so that the right type of person is engaged (or trained) for a specific position.
c) Job Specification: this is more detailed than the job analysis/ description. A detailed
statement specifying the precise skills and knowledge required to carry out the component
parts of a job may be given.

JOB SPECIFICATION: CATERING MANAGER

Requirements: Age 32-45 years
Qualifications: HND or MHCIMA (minimum)
Experience: Minimum 4 years as Assistant Catering Manager in similar type
establishment
Salary Range: $6,500- $7,500
Duties/ Responsibilities and tasks Knowledge Skills
Social Skills
Administer day-to-day running of Company Policies
Unit as directed by the General Company Manuals
Manager.
Ensure high standards of hygiene Statutory and company
Inspection Motivating,
And cleanliness are instituted and hygiene requirements
advising and
Maintained Inspecting standards
correcting

staff
Ensure high quality, preparation, Company standards
Inspection Motivating,
Presentation& service are maintained Methods involved
advising and

848
Within company standards
correcting

staff
Ensure supervisors and chefs are Job descriptions of Work
organization Liaising and
Aware of responsibilities and chefs& supervisors
Systematic planning communicating
duties
with chefs and

supervisors

Standards of performance
The term standards are usually defined as being rules or measures established for making
comparisons and judgments.
The financial and personnel policies would determine what the desired cost of labor should be
for an operation, and the management of that operation needs to set standards in order to
determine the extent to which actual results meet the results forecast. There are 2 basic
standards:
a) Quality
b) Quantity

Quality Standards
These are determined by the catering policy of the establishment. The quality standards are
peculiar to each establishment and relate to the type of operation in terms of level of food and
beverage production and service offered to the customer. This in turn relates to the level of
skills required from the staff to perform to the specified level.
Quantity Standards
These need to be set by management after having first decided on the quality standards.
Quantity standards are easy to set and measure in such instances e.g.
1. A waitress employed for a banquet function should serve a table of 10 covers by full silver
service
2. A banquet wine waiter should serve 5*10 tables of customers with their requirements for
wines and liquors.

Unit Task 2 Explaining labor turnover meaning

o Definition
Labor turnover is the rate at which an employer gains and loses employees

o Types of labor turnover

849
 Voluntary -- Employee Initiated
Avoidable Unavoidable
Avoidable Unavoidable
(could prevent) (could not prevent)
(could prevent) (could not prevent)

Try to Prevent: Do not Prevent: No attempt to Prevent:

Try to Prevent:
High-Value Employees Do not Prevent:
Low-Value Employees No attemptoftoValue
Regardless Prevent:
High-Value Employees Low-Value Employees Regardless of Value

High performance Low performance Retirement

High performance
Strong KSAOs Low KSAOs
Weak performance Retirement
Dual career
Strongintellectual
Valued KSAOs capital Weak
Little KSAOs capital
intellectual Dual
New career
career
Valued intellectual
High promotion capital
potential Little
Low intellectual
promotion capital
potential Health career
New
High promotion potential
High training investment Low promotion potential
Low training investment Health
Child care or pregnancy
Highexperience
High training investment Lowexperience
Low training investment Childcare
Elder care or pregnancy
High experience
Difficult to find replacement Lowto
Easy experience
find replacement Elder care
Return to school
Difficult to find replacement Easy to find replacement Return
Leave to school
country
Leave
Take country
a break
Take a break

KEY
K: KNOWLEDGE
S: SKILLS
A: ABILITY
O: OTHER CHARACTERISTICS
Involuntary -- Organization Initiated
Discharge Downsizing
Discharge Downsizing

Discipline Permanent layoff

Discipline Permanent layoff
Poor performance Temporary layoff
Poor performance Temporary layoff
Site or plant closing,
Site or plant closing,
relocation
relocation
Redundancy due to
Redundancy due to
merger of firms
merger of firms
acquisition
acquisition

o Measurement

o Turnover rate formula

850
 Number of employees leaving ¸
average number of employees x 100
o Data and decisions
 Identify time period of interest
 Determine type of employees that count
 Determine method to calculate average number of employees over the time
period

Types of measurements
 Breakouts
 Analysis of turnover data aided by deciding on categories of data
 Type of turnover
 Type of employee
 Job category
 Geographic location
 Benchmarks
 Internal - Trend analysis
 External - Compare internal data with external data

851
 o Causes
Causes of Voluntary Turnover
Desirability ofofLeaving
Desirability Leaving
Low job satisfaction
Low job satisfaction
Shocks to employee
Shocks to employee
Personal (non job) reasons
+
Personal (non job) reasons

Ease ofofLeaving Intenti

Ease Leaving
Favorable labor market
Favorable labor market
conditions
+ Intenti
on
on
+ Quit
conditions toto Quit
General, transferable KSAOs
General, transferable KSAOs
Low cost of leaving Quit
Low cost of leaving Quit

Alternatives
Alternatives
Internal: New job possibilities
Internal: New job possibilities
External: Job offers
External: Job offers
+

o control
1. Extrinsic rewards
o Rewards must be meaningful and unique
o Rewards must match individual preferences
o Link rewards to retention behaviors
o Link rewards to performance
2. Intrinsic rewards
o Assign employees to jobs that meet their needs for work characteristics
o Provide clear communication with employees
o Design fair reward allocation systems
o Ensure supervisors provide a positive environment

Unit Task 3 Describing time-Keeping Methods

o Clocking in and clocking out
o Signing in and signing out
o Timetabling
o Duty rota’s
Sample of a Two week duty Rota

852
Food Sat Sun Mo Tu We Th Fr Sat Sun Mo Tu We Th Fr
server n e d u i n e d u i
A 1 11 * 10 9 8 7 6 5 * 4 3 2 1
B 2 1 * 11 10 9 8 7 6 * 5 4 3 2
C 3 2 * 1 11 10 9 8 7 * 6 5 4 3
D 4 3 * 2 1 11 10 9 8 * 7 6 5 4
E 5 4 * 3 2 1 11 10 9 * 8 7 6 5
F 6 5 * 4 3 2 1 11 10 * 9 8 7 6
G 7 6 * 5 4 3 2 1 11 * 10 9 8 7
H 8 7 * 6 5 4 3 2 1 * 11 10 9 8
I 9 8 * 7 6 5 4 3 2 * 1 11 10 9
J 10 9 * 8 7 6 5 4 3 * 2 1 11 10
K 11 10 * 9 8 7 6 5 4 * 3 2 1 11

KEY TO TASKS:
1 Dusting 7 Accompaniments
2 Vacuuming 8 Silver cleaning
3 Polishing 9 Hot plate
4 Linen 10 Table and chair arranging
5 Stillroom 11 Miscellaneous
6 Sideboards and trolleys

853
 o Measuring performance of specific daily tasks

Unit Task 4 Explaining effective payment of Wages

1. Wages must be paid at least monthly.
2. Wages must be paid in acceptable currency, or with the employee's written consent, in
another prescribed manner, i.e.

o into an account nominated by the employee, or

o by cheque, draft, money order or electronic fund transfer, or
o in another way allowed by a relevant industrial instrument

3. If wages are paid in cash they may be rounded off to the nearest multiple of 5 cents
4. Wages paid other than in cash are to be paid without any deduction for charges
because of the way payment is made
5. Cheque must be payable to a bearer on demand and must not be crossed except with
the employee's written consent
6. Employees must be paid all wages within 3 days of termination or if stated in the
employee's industrial instrument - a shorter period.

Unit Task 5 explaining the concept of idle Time

o Definition
The difference between the number of hours budgeted for work and the number of paid
hours not spent working (idle time). For example, if employees of a company were
budgeted to make products for 8,000 hours, but only did work for 7,800 hours, then 200
hours were spent in idle time.
o Types
1. Normal idle time: The normal idle time is that idle time which cannot be fully
avoided but effective effort should be made to reduce it.
2. Abnormal idle time: Abnormal idle time arises due to various causes which can be
avoided. Abnormal idle time can be avoided if proper precautions are taken. Thus the
factors which are responsible for controlling and avoiding idle time must be taken care
of.
Normal idle time is permitted but abnormal idle time should be avoided.

o Causes of idle time

Job dissatisfaction and lack of motivation
Boredom
Poor working conditions
Lack of supervision
Poor pay

o Control
a) Eliminate unnecessary motions
b) Combine activities

854
 c) Reduce fatigue
d) Improve the arrangement of the workplace
e) Improve the design of tools and equipment

Unit Task 6 Explaining how to effectively handle overtime

- meaning
Time beyond an established limit, as working hours in addition to those of a regular
schedule.

- consequences of overtime
Employees are entitled to receive one and a half times pay when they work more than 40
hours in a week
Creates a deficit in recovery time
It is not so much working overtime per se that creates problems but the work conditions
that often lead to overtime work
- control of overtime
It is the management task to maintain control of overtime, adhering to a budget and taking
active steps to ensure that only essential overtime is approved and worked.

Suggested Questions
a) Identify the fixed and variable cost personnel likely to be employed in:
-A busy fast food and take-away unit, serving on average 1000 portions of its
main selling item per day.
-A luxury city restaurant open for lunches only and serving on average 120
covers per day.

b) Prepare a schedule of duty hours for the waiting staff for the two types of
units in question a) above

14.2.06 CATERING AND ACCOMMODATION REPORTS

14.2.06T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) identify catering and accommodation reports
b) explain how to prepare catering and accommodation reports

Unit Tasks
Unit Task 1 Identifying types of reports
The variations in demand for the catering and accommodation products/services, the short
cycle of production as well as Perish ability of products necessitates up-to-date reporting.
o Types of reports

-Weekly/monthly food cost reports.

-Daily food cost reports
-Beverage cost reports
-Accommodation reports.

855
 -Catering and accommodation controller’s report.

Unit Task 2 explaining how to prepare the reports

o Weekly/Monthly Food cost report.

o It is normally prepared in operations where detailed information is not thought to
be necessary. It is also done for a small owner-managed unit where control is a
major part of the manager’s activity in order for the operation to be successful.
The advantages of this method are:
-The report is simple and quick to produce.
-It can give a general indication of the general performance of the unit.
It also has some disadvantages such as:
-The information is only produced after seven days or twenty eight days of
operation.
-It provides no intermediate information so that any undesirable trends e.g. very
high food costs can be corrected earlier.
-It does not provide the daily information on purchases, requisitions and sales.

A weekly/monthly food cost report

Sh Cts
Opening food stock level Day1 2,200.00
Plus total purchases for the period
(Day 1 to 28) 10,934.00

Subtotal 13,154.00
Less closing stock (day 28) 2,116.00 =Total
cost of food consumed 11,038.00
Total food sales 29,251.00

Food cost percentage=37.74%

o Daily food cost reports

This report is suitable for small to medium sized operations.

Advantages of the daily food cost report are:

-It is simple and easy to follow

-It gives a reasonably detailed account of the general performance of the
business on day-to-day basis.
-It records the daily stock level, daily purchases, daily food requisitioned and
daily food sales. It enables the daily food cost percentage to be calculated.
-The to-date food cost percentage smoothes out the uneven daily food cost
percentages and highlights the corrective action to be taken if necessary early in the
month.

Disadvantages of the daily food cost report are;

856
 -Although simple and easy to prepare, the report relies heavily on the accuracy
of the basic information to be collected, e.g. the total of daily purchases, daily requisitions
etc.
-It is not accurate as it ignores such things as the cost of staff meals, food
transferred to bars e.g. canapés, potato crisps, lemon and limes that are used in some
drinks etc. Some beverages e.g. wines, beer etc are transferred to the kitchen for use in
cooking some dishes.

o Beverage cost report

It consists of the following:
Beverage cost-This is the cost of the beverages incurred in preparing the drinks
served.
Beverage cost percentage-This is the cost of the beverages sold as a percentage of
sales of the beverages.
Beverage gross profit- The excess of sales over the cost of beverages expressed as
a percentage or in financial terms.

o Accommodation reports
a) Room status reports
b) Complimentary reports
c) Revenue reports
d) Departmental reports
e) Budget reports

o Catering and accommodation controller’s report

It consists of the following:
-A detailed food cost report.
-A detailed beverage report.
-Stock taker’s report
-Beverage inventory report.
-A detailed accommodation report

Suggested Questions
1. Describe how the following reports are prepared
o Weekly / monthly food cost report
o Beverage cost report
o Room status report
o Complimentary reports

14.2.07 EMERGING TRENDS

14.2.07T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) identify emerging trends in catering and accommodation control
b) identify challenges in catering and accommodation control
c) discuss ways of handling issues related emerging trends

857
 Unit Tasks
Unit Task 1 Emerging Trends
Unit Task 2 Challenges
Unit Task 3 Handling Challenges

Practice

14.2.07P Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) identify the emerging trends in catering and accommodation control
b) managing the challenges

858
15.2.0 DIET THERAPY

15.2.0 Introduction
This module unit is designed to equip the trainee with knowledge, skills and
attitudes relevant in prevention and management of various diseases through
diet

15.2.2 General Objectives

At the end of this module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) acquire knowledge skills and attitudes required in the practice and
b) management of health through diet
c) appreciate the importance of dietetic knowledge and skills
d) apply knowledge, skills and attitudes learned in the practice of dietetics

859
15.2.01 INTRODUCTION DIET THERAPY

Theory

15.2.01T Specific Objectives

By the end of sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
define terms
explain pathology and its implication on diet and health
state the basic concept of diet therapy.

Unit tasks
UNIT TASK 1 DEFINITION OF TERMS
Pathology - The scientific study of the nature of disease and its causes, processes,
development, and consequences.

Diet – Any solid or liquid substance which when taken by the body provides it with the
necessary material to enable it to grow, to replace warn out parts and to function normally

Therapy - is a term that can be applied to any form of treatment for any illness or disorder

Diet therapy - The treatment of an illness by means of a special diet, such as a low-fat
diet.
Diet therapy is a broad term for the practical application of nutrition as a preventative or
corrective treatment of disease.

UNIT TASK 2 EXPLAINING THE IMPLICATION OF PATHOLOGY ON

NUTRITIONAL STATUS

860
The figure below shows the implication of pathology on nutritional status

 Poor intake
due to lack of
appetite.
 Indigestion

INFECTI
H
and
malabsorptio
ONSI
DISEASE

n
I
Increased
Poor nutritional
status

V
nutrient
losses e.g

Malnutrition

UNIT TASK 3 STATING THE BASIC CONCEPTS OF DIET THERAPY

Diet therapy aims at :
1. Maintaining good nutritional status of a sick person
2. Correcting deficiency
3. Restricting some nutrients
4. changing of cooking methods
5. To reduce or increase the body weight when necessary

15.2.02 IMPORTANCE OF DIET THERAPY

15.2.02T Specific Objectives

By the end of sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
explain the importance diet of therapy
explain the need for diet modification
identify ways of modifying diets.

Unit tasks
UNIT TASK 1 EXPLAINING THE IMPORTANCE OF DIET THERAPY
1. To increase or decrease body weight
2. To rest a particular organ

861
 3. To adjust the diet to the body’s ability to use certain foods
4. To produce a specific effect as a remedy (e.g., regulation of blood
sugar in diabetes)
5. To overcome deficiencies by the addition of food rich in some
necessary element (e.g., supplementing the diet with iron in
treating macrocytic anemia)
6. To provide ease of digestion by omitting irritating substances,
such as fiber, spices, or high-fat foods

UNIT TASK 2 EXPLAINING THE NEED FOR DIET MODIFICATION

1. Nutritional deficiency
2. Over Nutrition
3. Pre operative and Post operative cases

UNIT TASK 3 IDENTIFYING WAYS OF MODIFYING DIETS

Normal/regular diet
It is a diet designed to provide adequate nutrition for promotion of optimal health. It is
used when there is no required diet modification or restriction

Modified consistency
Clear liquid diet
A clear liquid diet is just that, a diet consisting of foods and beverages made from liquids
that you can see through. This type of diet is easily digested and leaves no residue in the
gastrointestinal tract.
A clear liquid diet may be necessary when the gastrointestinal tract needs to be free of
food or needs to rest, for instance:
 Before undergoing a test or procedure that involves the stomach or intestines
 After surgery, to start the transition back to regular food
 During flare-ups of certain digestive problems, such as diverticulitis

Although this diet allows for adequate hydration, it doesn’t provide enough calories and
nutrients. Therefore, be sure your doctor is following you closely while you are on this
diet. Also, do not stay on this diet for more than three days.
Full liquid diet

It is used:
 post operatively as a transition between clear liquid diet and solid foods
 for the acutely ill patient or those with oesophagael or stomach disorders who
cannot tolerate solid foods due to stricture or anatomical irregularities
 For patients who are unable to chew and swallow solid foods following surgery of
the face neck area or dental surgery.

Soft/ light diet

862
  It is designed for patients who are physically or psychologically unable to tolerate
a general diet. This include
 those progressing from the full liquid to a general diet
 those who are too weak to tolerate a general diet
 those with poor dentation
 those whose alight diet has been indicated

Fibre Modified Diets

Fibre restricted/ Low residue diet
A low-fiber/low-residue diet limits the amount of dietary fiber and residue-providing food
in your diet. Dietary fiber is a type of carbohydrate found in plants that cannot be
digested. Residue is the undigested part of food that makes up stool. Limiting dietary fiber
and residue reduces the amount of food that passes through the large intestine.

High Fibre Diet

Dietary fiber is a form of carbohydrate found in plants that cannot be digested by humans.
All plants contain fiber, including fruits, vegetables, grains, and legumes. Fiber is often
classified into two categories: soluble and insoluble .
 Soluble fiber draws water into the bowel and can help slow digestion.
Examples of foods that are high in soluble fiber include oatmeal, oat bran,
barley, legumes (eg, beans and peas), apples, and strawberries.
 Insoluble fiber speeds digestion and can add bulk to the stool. Examples of
foods that are high in insoluble fiber include whole-wheat products, wheat
bran, cauliflower, green beans, and potatoes.

Although fibre is not classified as a nutrient it has been recognized as having important
health promoting effects as part of preventive and /or nutritional therapy of a number of
conditions and diseases as follows

 Gastro-intestinal disorders
 Diverticular disease
 Cardio-vascular disease
 Cancer prevention
 Diabetes mellitus
 Weight reduction

Calorie Restricted Diet

These diets are modified by a reduction in calorie content in order to achieve and/or
maintain ideal body weight. The diet is used in the management of the following:
Hypertension
Hyperlipidemia
Diabetes mellitus with excessive weight
Conditions of overweight and obesity

Fat Restricted Diet

This is designed to relieve symptoms of diarrhea, steatorrhea, and nutrient loses caused
by ingestion of high fat foods. The level of restriction varies with the degree of
malabsorption. The diet is used in the management of the following conditions:
- Gall bladder diseases

863
- Biliary cirrhosis
- Pancreatic insufficiency
- Malabsorption syndromes
- Intestinal resections

Modification of Proteins
 High Protein High calorie Diet
It is designed to provide protein in the amounts higher than the usual requirements to:
- Maintain a positive nitrogen balance
- Promote body tissue repair
- Prevent excessive muscle atrophy in chronic disease states
- Meet increased needs during certain periods like pregnancy and lactation
- Meet increased demands during illness
- Build up of the severely malnourished individuals

15.2.03 THERAPEUTIC DIETS

15.2.03T Specific Objectives

By the end of sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
1. define terms
2. state the importance of therapeutic diet
3. discus a given therapeutic diet

Unit task s
UNIT TASK 1 DEFINITION OF TERMS
Therapeutic Diets : Diets specifically formulated to manage certain diseases and
disorders.

UNIT TASK 2 IMPORTANCE OF THERAPEUTIC DIET

 Treatment and management of symptoms of disorders and diseases
 Slows down the progression of the disease or dissoder
 Correct malnutrition
 Maintain good nutritional status

UNIT TASK 3 THERAPEUTIC DIETS

 Modified consistency diets
 Calorie Restricted Diet
 Fat Restricted Diet
 Modification of Proteins
 Low sodium diets
 Low cholesterol diets
 Bland diets
 High protein high energy
Suggested Teaching/Learning Resources
- Textbooks
- Internet
- Diet sheets
- Food composition tables

864
Evaluation
1. define the term therapeutic diet
2. state the importance of therapeutic diet
3. discus various therapeutic diets

15.2.04 HOSPITALIZATION AND THE NUTRITIONAL TEAM

15.2.04T Specific Objectives

By the end of sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:

1. define terms
2. identify members of the nutritional team
3. explain the role of a named nutritional team member
4. explain causes of stress experienced by patients in the hospital

Unit tasks
UNIT TASK 1 DEFINITION OF TERMS
Dietitian - is an expert in food and nutrition.
Dietitians help promote good health through proper eating. They supervise the
preparation and service of food, develop modified diets, participate in research, and
educate individuals and groups on good nutritional habits.

Physician - also known as medical practitioner, doctor of medicine, medical doctor, or

simply doctor — practices the ancient profession of medicine, which is concerned with
maintaining or restoring human health through the study, diagnosis, and treatment of
disease or injury.

UNIT TASK 2 IDENTIFYING MEMBERS OF THE NUTRITIONAL TEAM

Dietitian
Physician and nurse
Physiotherapist
Lab technician
Kitchen staff

UNIT TASK 3 ROLES OF THE NUTRITIONAL TEAM MEMBER

Dietitian
- Planning food and nutrition programs
- Formulating therapeutic diets
- Supervising meal preparations in schools and hospitals
- Recommending dietary modifications
- Educating patients on diets that may help their condition
- Creating a reduced fat and sugar diet for an overweight patient
- Working with other healthcare professionals to provide a multidisciplinary
healthcare approach

865
Physician
- Diagnosis
- Preventing and treating illness
- Recommending dietary intervention method for various condition to the team
- Interpreting lab results

Nurse
- Same as physician’s plus Educating patients on diets their condition

Physiotherapist
- Formulating and supervising exercise regimes for various conditions

Lab technician
- Carrying out tests as odered by physician
- Interpreting lab results

Kitchen staff
- preparing menus
- food preparation and service

UNIT TASK 4: CAUSES OF STRESS IN HOSPITALIZATION

Definition

Stress as a physical, mental, or emotional response to events that causes bodily or mental
tension. Simply put, stress is any outside force or event that has an effect on our body or
mind.

Causes of Stress in hospital

1. Fear, intermittent or continuous.
2. Threats: physical threats, social threats, financial threat, other threats.
3. Uncertainty.
4. Lack of sleep.
5. Somebody misunderstands you.

Suggested Teaching/Learning Resources

- Textbooks
- Internet
- Diet sheets
- Food composition tables
- Resource persons
- Hospital facilities

Evaluation

1. define the terms

i. dietician
ii. physician
2. identify members of the nutritional team
3. explain the role of the named nutritional team member

866
 4. explain causes of stress experienced by patients in the hospital

15.2.05 FEEDING METHODS

15.2.05T Specific Objectives

By the end of sub-module unit, the trainee should be able:
a. identify methods of feeding patients
b. explain the importance of the feeding methods

Unit Tasks
UNIT TASK 1 IDENTIFYING THE METHODS OF FEEDING PATIENTS

Enteral - refers to the delivery of a nutritionally complete feed containing protein,

carbohydrate, fat, water, minerals and vitamins directly into the stomach,
duodenum or jejunum.

Parenteral - refers to providing nutrition via the veins.

UNIT TASK 2 EXPLAINING THE IMPORTANCE OF THE FEEDING

METHODS
Enteral and tube feeding

Aims at providing adequate nutrition in order to prevent or reverse the development of

malnutrition in patient who are unable to ingest or derive sufficient nutrients from
ordinary foods. It is required in the following cases:
- where there is decreased oral intake due to physical impairment
- increased nutrient requirements as in surgery and trauma etc.
- impaired gastro intestinal capabilities e.g. short bowel syndrome

Contra-indications
- Non functional GIT
- Paralytic ileus
- Acute pacreatitis
- Peritonitis
- Persistent vomiting
- Continuous diarrhea
- GIT obstruction
- Shock
Tube Feeding Routes
Mechanically inserted tube
Nasogastric tubes
Nasoduodinal tubes
Nasojejunal tubes

Surgically inserted tubes

Oesophagostomy
Gastrostomy
Jejunostomy

867
 Parenteral
Parenteral nutrition is indicated for patients with inability to eat and absorb nutrients via
the GIT due to:
- Non functioning GIT
- Diseases of the small intestine
- Massive small bowel resection
- Radiation enteritis
- Chemotherapy reaction
- Bone marrow transplantation
- Intractable vomiting/ diarrhea
- Moderate to severe pancreatitis
- Severe malnutrition or 10-15% loss of body weight due to nonfunctioning GIT
- Nil by mouth for more than five days for severely catabolic patients with or
without malnutrition
- Fistula in the GIT
- Excessive nutritional needs which cannot be met by enteral feeding
- Refusal to eat as in anorexia nervosa.

Evaluation
1. identify methods of feeding patients
2. explain the importance of the feeding methods

Suggested Teaching/Learning Activities

- Writing reports
- Observing
- Discussions
- Researching

15.2.06 DRUG NUTRIENT INTERACTION

Theory

15.2.06T Specific Objectives

By the end of sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
1. define terms
2. describe the effect of foods and its nutrients on drugs in the body
3. identify the effects of drugs on appetite and nutrient absorption
4. identify points along the gastro intestinal tract where food consumed can
affect the efficacy of drugs

Unit Tasks
Unit Task 1 Defining terms
Drug - A drug, broadly speaking, is any substance that, when absorbed into the body of a
living organism, alters normal bodily function

868
Pharmacology -is the study of drug action. More specifically, it is the study of the
interactions that occur between a living organism and exogenous chemicals that alter
normal biochemical function.
Food-drug interaction- the effect produced when some drugs and certain foods or
beverages are taken at the same time.

UNIT TASK 2 DESCRIBING EFFECTS OF FOODS AND NUTRIENTS ON

DRUGS IN THE BODY.

1. Nutrients in food may either delay absorption into the body or speed up
elimination from the body, either or which can impact a drug's effectiveness.

2. Food can also impact the effectiveness of a drug due to the way it is consumed.
Generally, medicine is to be taken at the same time food is eaten. This is because
the medicine may upset the stomach if the stomach is empty. However, sometimes
taking a drug at the same time that food is eaten can interfere with the way the
medicine is absorbed by the body.

UNIT TASK 3 IDENTIFYING THE EFFECTS OF DRUGS ON APPETITE AND

NUTRIENTS ABSORPTION.

1. The effects of drugs are modulated by their rates of metabolism by the liver and
other tissues. Drugs are metabolized by two basic processes. The first (Phase I)
metabolic step is usually an oxidation reaction that alters a functional group in the
drug. This alteration may either activate the drug or deactivate it. The second step
(Phase II) conjugates the oxidized drug to an inactive, water-soluble form that can
be readily excreted.

2. Nutrients are sometimes used in unusually high doses for their pharmacologic
effect. Niacin, for example is used pharmacologically to reduce blood cholesterol
levels. Retinoid derivatives of vitamin A have been used successfully to treat
severe acne and other conditions.

UNIT TASK 4: IDENTIFYING POINTS ALONG THE GASTRO INTESTINAL

TRACT WHERE FOOD TAKEN CAN AFFECT THE EFFICACY OF
DRUG

Evaluation
1. define the terms
i. drugs
ii. pharmacology
2. describe the effect of foods and its nutrients on drugs in the body
3. identify the effects of drugs on appetite and nutrient absorption
4. identify points along the gastro intestinal tract where food consumed can affect the
efficacy of drugs

869
Suggested Teaching/Learning Resources
- Textbooks
- Internet
- Diet sheets
- Food composition tables

15.2.07 THE ROLE OF THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM IN THE DIET THERAPY

AND HEALTH

15.2.07T Specific Objectives

By the end of sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
1. define terms
2. Describe the digestive system
3. explain the role of the digestive system in diet therapy and health..

unit tasks
UNIT TASK 1 DEFINITION OF TERMS

Digestion: The mechanical and chemical breakdown of food to prepare it

for absorption

Mastication: chewing food which pulverizes it and mixes it with saliva

Deglutination: Swallowing; moving food from the mouth to the pharynx

and into the esophagus.

Ingestion: placing food into the mouth (entry of food in the digestive system),

Mechanical and chemical breakdown: mastication and the mixing of the resulting bolus
with water, acids, bile and enzymes in the stomach and intestine to break down complex
molecules into simple structures,

Absorption: of nutrients from the digestive system to the circulatory and lymphatic
capillaries through osmosis, active transport, and diffusion,

Egestion : Removal of undigested materials from the digestive tract through defecation.

Peristalsis refers to rhythmic contractions that move food in the gut. Peristalsis in the
esophagus moves food from the mouth to the stomach.

UNIT TASK 2 DESCRIBING THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

870
Human Digestive System
The human digestive system is a complex process that consists of breaking down large
organic masses into smaller particles that the body can use as fuel. The breakdown of
the nutrients requires the coordination of several enzymes secreted from specialized
cells within the mouth, stomach, intestines, and liver. The major organs or structures
that coordinate digestion within the human body include the mouth, esophagus,
stomach, small and large intestine, and liver.
Mouth
In the human body, the mouth (oral cavity) is a specialized organ for receiving food and
breaking up large organic masses. In the mouth, food is changed mechanically by biting
and chewing. Humans have four kinds of teeth: incisors are chisel-shaped teeth in the
front of the mouth for biting; canines are pointed teeth for tearing; and premolars and
molars are flattened, ridged teeth for grinding, pounding, and crushing food.
In the mouth, food is moistened by saliva, a sticky fluid that binds food particles together
into a soft mass. Three pairs of salivary glands—the parotid glands, the submaxillary
glands, and the sublingual glands—secrete saliva into the mouth. The saliva contains an
enzyme called amylase, which digests starch molecules into smaller molecules of the
disaccharide maltose.
During chewing, the tongue moves food about and manipulates it into a mass called a
bolus. The bolus is pushed back into the pharynx (throat) and is forced through the
opening to the esophagus.

871
Esophagus
The esophagus is a thick-walled muscular tube located behind the windpipe that extends
through the neck and chest to the stomach. The bolus of food moves through the
esophagus by peristalsis: a rhythmic series of muscular contractions that propels the
bolus along. The contractions are assisted by the pull of gravity.
Stomach
The esophagus joins the stomach at a point just below the diaphragm. A valvelike ring of
muscle called the cardiac sphincter surrounds the opening to the stomach. The sphincter
relaxes as the bolus passes through and then quickly closes.
The stomach is an expandable pouch located high in the abdominal cavity. Layers of
stomach muscle contract and churn the bolus of food with gastric juices to form a soupy
liquid called chyme.
The stomach stores food and prepares it for further digestion. In addition, the stomach
plays a role in protein digestion. Gastric glands called chief cells secrete pepsinogen.
Pepsinogen is converted to the enzyme pepsin in the presence of hydrochloric acid.
Hydrochloric acid is secreted by parietal cells in the stomach lining. The pepsin then
digests large proteins into smaller proteins called peptides. To protect the stomach lining
from the acid, a third type of cell secretes mucus that lines the stomach cavity. An
overabundance of acid due to mucus failure may lead to an ulcer.
Small intestine
The soupy mixture called chyme spurts from the stomach through a sphincter into the
small intestine. An adult's small intestine is about 23 feet long and is divided into three
sections: the first 10 to 12 inches form the duodenum; the next 10 feet form the
jejunum; and the final 12 feet form the ileum. The inner surface of the small intestine
contains numerous fingerlike projections called villi. Each villus has projections of cells
called microvilli to increase the surface area.
Most chemical digestion takes place in the duodenum. In this region, enzymes digest
nutrients into simpler forms that can be absorbed. Intestinal enzymes are supplemented
by enzymes from the pancreas, a large, glandular organ lying near the stomach. In
addition, bile enters the small intestine from the gall bladder to assist in fat digestion.
The enzymes functioning in carbohydrate digestion include amylase (for starch), maltase
(for maltose), sucrase (for sucrose) and lactase (for lactose). For fats, the principal
enzyme is lipase. Before this enzyme can act, the large globules of fat must be broken
into smaller droplets by bile. Bile is a mixture of salts, pigments, and cholesterol that is
produced by the liver and stored in the gall bladder, a saclike structure underneath the
liver.
Protein digestion is accomplished by several enzymes, including two pancreatic enzymes:
trypsin and chymotrypsin. Peptides are broken into smaller peptides, and peptidases
reduce the enzymes to amino acids. Nucleases digest nucleic acids into nucleotides in
the small intestine also.
Most absorption in the small intestine occurs in the jejunum. The products of digestion
enter cells of the villi, move across the cells, and enter blood vessels called capillaries.
Diffusion accounts for the movement of many nutrients, but active transport is

872
responsible for the movement of glucose and amino acids. The products of fat digestion
pass as small droplets of fat into lacteals, which are branches of the lymphatic system.
Absorption is completed in the final part of the small intestine, the ileum. Substances
that have not been digested or absorbed then pass into the large intestine.
Large intestine
The small intestine joins the large intestine in the lower right abdomen of the body. The
two organs meet at a blind sac called the caecum and a small fingerlike process called
the appendix. Evolutionary biologists believe the caecum and appendix are vestiges of
larger organs that may have been functional in human ancestors.
The large intestine is also known as the colon. It is divided into ascending, transverse,
and descending portions, each about one foot in length. The colon's chief functions are
to absorb water and to store, process, and eliminate the residue following digestion and
absorption. The intestinal matter remaining after water has been reclaimed is known as
feces. Feces consist of nondigested food (such as cellulose), billions of mostly harmless
bacteria, bile pigments, and other materials. The feces are stored in the rectum and
passed out through the anus to complete the digestion process.
Liver
The liver has an important function in processing the products of human digestion. For
example, cells of the liver remove excess glucose from the bloodstream and convert the
glucose to a polymer called glycogen for storage.
The liver also functions in amino acid metabolism. In a process called deamination, it
converts some amino acids to compounds that can be used in energy metabolism. In doing
so, the liver removes the amino groups from amino acids and uses the amino groups to
produce urea. Urea is removed from the body in the urine. Fats are processed into two-
carbon units that can enter the Krebs cycle for energy metabolism. The liver also stores
vitamins and minerals, forms many blood proteins, synthesizes cholesterol, and produces
bile for fat digestion

UNIT TASK 3 ROLE OF THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM IN DIET THERAPY

AND HEALTH
The role of the digestive system is to digest and absorb food. It consists of a tubular
gastrointestinal tract and accessory organs that aid in digestion and absorption.

The activities that are performed by the digestive system include the following activities:
1. Ingestion: the taking of food into the mouth
2. Mastication: chewing food which pulverizes it and mixes it with saliva
3. Deglutination: Swallowing; moving food from the mouth to the pharynx and
into the esophagus.
4. Digestion: The mechanical and chemical breakdown of food to prepare it for
absorption.
5. Absorption: the passage molecules of food through the mucous membrane of the
small intestine and into the blood and lymph for distribution to the cells.
5. Peristalsis: the rhythmic wavelike contractions of the smooth muscle of the
Intestines that move food through the GI tract.
6. Defecation: the discharge of indigestible wastes (feces) from the GI tract.

873
Evaluation
1. Define the terms
 Digestion
 Absorption
 assimilation
 mastication
 peristalsis
 Deglutination
 Egestion
 Ingestion

2. Describe the digestive system

3. Explain the role of the digestive system in diet therapy and health..

Suggested Teaching/Learning Resources

- Textbooks
- Internet
- Charts
- Diet sheets
- Food composition tables

15.2.08 DISORDERS OF THE UPPER GASTRO-INTESTINAL TRACT (GIT)

15.2.08T Specific Objectives

By the end of sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
define terms
identify the disorders of the upper gastro-intestinal tract
state the causes and symptoms
explain the dietary management of named disorders

Unit tasks
UNIT TASK 1 DEFINING OF TERMS

Cytokines are any of a number of substances that are secreted by specific cells of the
immune system which carry signals locally between cells, and thus have an effect on
other cells.

UNIT TASK 2 DISORDERS OF THE UPPER GASTRO-INTESTINAL TRACT

UNIT TASK 3 STATING THE CAUSES AND SYMPTOMS OF UPPER

GIT

Dental caries

874
Dental caries, also known as tooth decay or cavity, is a disease wherein bacterial
processes damage hard tooth structure (enamel, dentin and cementum). These tissues
progressively break down, producing dental caries (cavities, holes in the teeth). If left
untreated, the disease can lead to pain, tooth loss, infection, and, in severe cases, death.
Tooth decay is caused by specific types of acid-producing bacteria that cause damage in
the presence of fermentable carbohydrates such as sucrose, fructose, and glucose. The
mineral content of teeth is sensitive to increases in acidity from the production of lactic
acid. Specifically, a tooth (which is primarily mineral in content) is in a constant state of
back-and-forth demineralization and remineralization between the tooth and
surrounding saliva. When the pH at the surface of the tooth drops below 5.5,
demineralization proceeds faster than remineralization (i.e. there is a net loss of mineral
structure on the tooth's surface). This results in the ensuing decay. Depending on the
extent of tooth destruction, various treatments can be used to restore teeth to proper
form, function, and aesthetics, but there is no known method to regenerate large
amounts of tooth structure. Instead, dental health organizations advocate preventive
and prophylactic measures, such as regular oral hygiene and dietary modifications, to
avoid dental caries.

GIT hemorrhage
There are many causes for upper GI hemorrhage. Causes are usually anatomically
divided into their location in the upper gastrointestinal tract.
Patients are usually stratified into having either variceal or non-variceal sources of upper
GI hemorrhage, as the two have different treatment algorithms and prognosis.
 Esophageal causes:
o Esophageal varices
o Esophagitis
o Esophageal cancer
o Esophageal ulcers

 Gastric causes:
o Gastric ulcer
o Gastric cancer
o Gastritis
o Gastric varices
o Gastric antral vascular ectasia, or watermelon stomach
o Dieulafoy's lesions

 Duodenal causes:
o Duodenal ulcer
o Vascular malformations, including aorto-enteric fistulae. Fistulae are
usually secondary to prior vascular surgery and usually occur at the
proximal anastomosis at the third or fourth portion of the duodenum where
it is retroperitoneal and near the aorta.
o Hematobilia, or bleeding from the biliary tree
o Hemosuccus pancreaticus, or bleeding from the pancreatic duct

875
15.2.09 DISORDERS OF THE STOMACH

15.2.09T Specific Objectives

By the end of sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
identify the disorders of the stomach
state the causes and symptoms
explain the dietary management of the named disorders

Unit Tasks
Unit Task 1 Identifying disorders of the stomach

 Heartburn - Also called: Acid indigestion, Pyrosis

Heartburn is a burning sensation in the chest that can extend to the neck, throat, and face;
it is worsened by bending or lying down. It is the primary symptom of gastroesophageal
reflux, which is the movement of stomach acid into the esophagus. On rare occasions, it is
due to gastritis (stomach lining inflammation).

 GERD - Also called: Gastroesophageal reflux disease

A chronic condition in which the lower esophageal sphincter allows gastric acids to reflux
into the esophagus, causing heartburn, acid indigestion, and possible injury to the
esophageal lining.

Unit Task 2 Stating the causes and symptoms of disorders of the stomach

Peptic Ulcer - Also called: Duodenal ulcer, Gastric ulcer, Stomach ulcer, Ulcer
Peptic ulcer: A hole in the lining of the stomach, duodenum, or esophagus. A peptic ulcer
of the stomach is called a gastric ulcer, an ulcer of the duodenum is a duodenal ulcer, and
a peptic ulcer of the esophagus is an esophageal ulcer. A peptic ulcer occurs when the
lining of these organs is corroded by the acidic digestive juices which are secreted by the
stomach cells.

Indigestion - Also called: Dyspepsia, Upset stomach

Indigestion, which is sometimes called dyspepsia, is a general term covering a group of
nonspecific symptoms in the digestive tract. It is often described as a feeling of fullness,
bloating, nausea, heartburn, or gassy discomfort in the chest or abdomen. The
symptoms develop during meals or shortly afterward. In most cases, indigestion is a
minor problem that often clears up without professional treatmentSymptoms of
indigestion

If you have indigestion you may have the following symptoms:

 pain, fullness or discomfort in the upper part of your abdomen or chest
 heartburn
 loss of appetite
 feeling sick
 flatulence (gas passed from your rectum), burping or belching

876
Indigestion has several causes. Depending on what's causing your indigestion, your
symptoms may go very quickly, come and go, or they may be regular and last a long
time.
The symptoms of indigestion may sometimes be caused by a serious underlying
condition.
You should visit your GP for advice if you have:
 unintended weight loss
 unexplained and continual indigestion symptoms for the first time and you are
aged 55 or older
 severe pain, or the pain gets worse or changes
You need to seek urgent medical attention if you vomit blood, even if it's only present in
the vomit as specks of blood or blood that looks like coffee grains.

Causes of indigestion
Your stomach produces a strong acid that helps digest food and protects you against
infection. A layer of mucous lines the stomach, oesophagus and intestines to act as a
barrier against this acid. If the mucous layer is damaged, the acid can irritate the tissues
underneath.
Some of the following can trigger symptoms of indigestion:
 drinking excess alcohol
 smoking
 stress and anxiety
 medicines such as aspirin and anti-inflammatory medicines used to treat arthritis
 eating certain foods can relax the valve (sphincter) at the join between your
oesophagus and stomach or cause direct irritation to the lining of your oesophagus
 not eating regular meals, as acid levels can build up if meals are missed

Gas in the Digestive Tract

You get gas in your digestive tract by swallowing air or during the breakdown process of
certain foods by the bacteria that is present in the colon
Heartburn
Heartburn is what most of us get from time to time. Chronic heartburn is a digestive
disorder called gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD). GERD is caused by gastric acid
that flows from the stomach and into the esophagus.

15.2.10 DISORDERS OF THE LOWER GASTRO-INTESTINAL (G.I) TRACT

15.2.10T Specific Objectives

By the end of sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
1. identify the disorders of the lower G I tract
2. state the causes and symptoms
3. explain the dietary management of the named disorders

877
Unit Tasks
UNIT TASK 1 IDENTIFYING DISORDERS OF THE LOWER GASTRO-
INTESTINAL TRACT (GIT)
Crohn's disease
Crohn's disease (also known as granulomatous colitis and regional enteritis) is an
inflammatory disease of the intestines that may affect any part of the gastrointestinal tract
from anus to mouth, causing a wide variety of symptoms. It primarily causes abdominal
pain, diarrhea (which may be bloody), vomiting, or weight loss

Causes

 Genetics
Schematic of NOD2 CARD15 gene, which is associated with certain disease patterns in
Crohn's disease.
Some research has indicated that Crohn's disease may have a genetic link. The disease
runs in families and those with a sibling with the disease are 30 times more likely to
develop it than the normal population.

 Environmental factors
Diet is believed to be linked to its higher prevalence in industrialized parts of the world.
Smoking has been shown to increase the risk of the return of active disease, or "flares".
The introduction of hormonal contraception is linked with a dramatic increase in the
incidence rate of Crohn's disease. Although a causal linkage has not been effectively
shown, there remain fears that these drugs work on the digestive system in ways similar
to smoking.

 Immune system
Abnormalities in the immune system have often been invoked as being causes of Crohn's
disease. Crohn's disease is thought to be an autoimmune disease, with inflammation
stimulated by an over-active cytokine response.

Unit task 4 Dietary management of named disorders

 Dietary management for Crohn's disease

i) Morbidity from Crohn's disease can be lessened by meticulous specialist

management
ii) New techniques for clarifying the site of disease, activity, and complications
include scanning with radiolabelled leucocytes, ultrasound, computed
tomography, and magnetic resonance imaging
iii) Budesonide, high dose mesalazine and, for refractory disease, methotrexate and
antitumour necrosis factor antibody are new therapeutic options
iv) Other new therapeutic possibilities include a liquid formula diet, endoscopic
stricture dilatation, and laparoscopic surgery
v) The most effective measure for maintenance of remission is stopping smoking
vi) Patients should participate in decisions about their treatment

878
Colon and Rectal Cancer
Colon and Rectal cancer is also referred to as colorectal cancer. This type of cancer is a
malignant cell that is found in the colon or rectum region of the body.
.

Diarrhoea
Diarrhoea is watery stool, or an increased frequency in stool, or both as compared to the
normal amount of stool passed by the individual. .

Diverticular Disease
This disease occurs in small pouches that bulge out in the colon. It is an inflammation or
infection in the pouches.
.

Inflammatory Bowel Diseases

There are several different diseases that fall under this category all of which require a
doctor for treatment. Ulcerative colitis and Crohn’s disease are two of these diseases.

Irritable Bowel Syndrome

Irritable bowel syndrome – more commonly referred to as IBS – is an intestinal disorder
that causes cramping, gassiness, bloating and changes in the bowel habits of the
individual with the disorder.

Lactose Intolerance
People with lactose intolerance lack an enzyme that is called lactase. This enzyme is
needed by the body to digest lactose. Lactose is a sugar found in milk products. .

Stomach and Duodenal Ulcers

Ulcers are open sores or lesions. They are found in the skin or mucous membranes of
areas of the body. A stomach ulcer is called a gastric ulcer and an ulcer in the
duodenum is called a duodenal ulcer. Lifestyle, stress and diet used to be
thought to cause ulcers. These factors may have a role in ulcer formation;
however they are not the main cause of them. .

UNIT TASK 2 STATING CAUSES AND SYMPTOMS

Refer to task 1
UNIT TASK 3 EXPLAINING THE DIETARY MANAGEMENT
Refer task 2

15.2.11 DISORDERS OF THE LIVER AND THE PANCREASES

879
Specific Objectives

By the end of sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:

a) explain the functions of the liver
b) explain the functions of the pancreases
c) identify various types of liver and pancreas disorders
d) state the causes and symptoms
e) Discuss dietary management, formulation of diets and counseling of the named
disorders.

UNIT TASKS

TASK 1; FUNCTIONS OF THE LIVER

Functions of the liver

880
The liver regulates most chemical levels in the blood and excretes a product called bile,
which helps carry away waste products from the liver. All the blood leaving the stomach
and intestines passes through the liver. The liver processes this blood and breaks down the
nutrients and drugs into forms that are easier to use for the rest of the body. More than
500 vital functions have been identified with the liver. Some of the more well-known
functions include the following:
 production of bile, which helps carry away waste and break down fats in the small
intestine during digestion
 production of certain proteins for blood plasma
 production of cholesterol and special proteins to help carry fats through the body
 conversion of excess glucose into glycogen for storage (glycogen can later be
converted back to glucose for energy)
 regulation of blood levels of amino acids, which form the building blocks of
proteins
 processing of hemoglobin for use of its iron content (the liver stores iron)
 conversion of poisonous ammonia to urea (urea is an end product of protein
metabolism and is excreted in the urine)
 clearing the blood of drugs and other poisonous substances
 regulating blood clotting
 resisting infections by producing immune factors and removing bacteria from the
bloodstream

TASK 2; FUNCTIONS OF THE PANCREASES

Function of the Pancreas

The pancreas is a small organ located near the lower part of the stomach and the
beginning of the small intestine. This organ has two main functions. It functions as an
exocrine organ by producing digestive enzymes, and as an endocrine organ by producing
hormones, with insulin being the most important hormone produced by the pancreas.
The pancreas secretes its digestive enzymes, through a system of ducts into the digestive

881
tract, while it secretes its variety of hormones directly into the bloodstream.
Abnormal pancreatic function can lead to pancreatitis or diabetes mellitus.

The pancreas can also be thought of as having different functional components, the
endocrine and exocrine parts. Tumors can arise in either part. However, the vast
majority arise in the exocrine (also called non-endocrine) part. Since the parts have
different normal functions, when tumors interfere with these functions, different kinds
of symptoms will occur.

882
 These are the endocrine (endo= within) cells of the pancreas that produce
Islets of and secrete hormones into the bloodstream. The pancreatic hormones,
Langerhans insulin and glucagon, work together to maintain the proper level of sugar in
the blood. The sugar, glucose, is used by the body for energy.
These are the exocrine (exo= outward) cells of the pancreas that produce
and transport chemicals that will exit the body through the digestive system.
Acinar cells
The chemicals that the exocrine cells produce are called enzymes. They are
secreted in the duodenum where they assist in the digestion of food.
The Pancreas: Anatomy and Functions

Anatomy of the pancreas:

The pancreas is an elongated, tapered organ located across the back of the abdomen,
behind the stomach. The right side of the organ (called the head) is the widest part of
the organ and lies in the curve of the duodenum (the first section of the small intestine).
The tapered left side extends slightly upward (called the body of the pancreas) and ends
near the spleen (called the tail).

The pancreas is made up of two types of tissue:

 exocrine tissue
The exocrine tissue secretes digestive enzymes. These enzymes are secreted into a
network of ducts that join the main pancreatic duct, which runs the length of the
pancreas.
 endocrine tissue
The endocrine tissue, which consists of the islets of Langerhans, secretes
hormones into the bloodstream.

Functions of the pancreas:

The pancreas has digestive and hormonal functions:

883
  The enzymes secreted by the exocrine tissue in the pancreas help break down
carbohydrates, fats, proteins, and acids in the duodenum. These enzymes travel
down the pancreatic duct into the bile duct in an inactive form. When they enter
the duodenum, they are activated. The exocrine tissue also secretes a bicarbonate
to neutralize stomach acid in the duodenum.
 The hormones secreted by the endocrine tissue in the pancreas are insulin and
glucagon (which regulate the level of glucose in the blood), and somatostatin
(which prevents the release of the other two hormones).

What is bile?

Bile is a greenish-yellow fluid that aids in the digestion of fats. After being produced by
cells in the liver, the bile travels down through the bile ducts which merge with the cystic
duct to form the common bile duct. The cystic duct runs to the gallbladder, a small
pouch nestled underneath the liver. The gallbladder stores extra bile until needed. The
common bile duct actually enters the head of the pancreas and joins the pancreatic duct
to form the ampulla of Vater which then empties into the duodenum. Flow of bile
indicated by green arrows.
What is pancreatic fluid?

884
Instead of carrying bile, the pancreatic duct carries the pancreatic fluid produced by the
acinar cells (exocrine) of the pancreas. The pancreatic duct runs the length of the
pancreas and joins the common bile duct in the head of the pancreas. These ducts join
to form the ampulla of Vater which then empties into the duodenum. Flow of pancreatic
fluid indicated by dark yellow arrow.
The food, bile and pancreatic fluid travels through many more feet of continuous
intestine including the rest of the duodenum, jejunum and ileum which comprise the
small intestine, then through the cecum, large intestine, rectum, and anal canal.

The Pancreas

Completes the job of breaking down protein, carbohydrates, and fats using digestive
juices of pancreas combined with juices from the intestines.

Secretes hormones that affect the level of sugar in the blood.

Produces chemicals that neutralize stomach acids that pass from the stomach into the
small intestine by using substances in pancreatic juice.

Contains Islets of Langerhans, which are tiny groups of specialized cells that are
scattered throughout the organ.

These cells secrete:

 Glucagon—raises the level of glucose (sugar) in the blood

 Insulin—stimulates cells to use glucose
 Somatostatin—may regulate the secretion of glucagons and insulin.

TASK 3; IDENTIFY VARIOUS TYPES OF LIVER AND PANCREAS DISORDERS

LIVER DISORDERS

The Progression of Liver Disease

There are many different types of liver disease. But no matter what type you have, the
damage to your liver is likely to progress in a similar way.

Alagille Syndrome
Alagille syndrome is an inherited disorder that closely resembles other forms of liver
disease seen in infants and young children.

Alcohol-Induced Liver Disease

If you consume more alcohol than the liver can process, the resulting imbalance can injure
the liver by interfering with its normal breakdown of protein, fats, and carbohydrates.

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Alpha-1 Antitrypsin Deficiency
Alpha-1 antitrypsin deficiency (Alpha-1) is a hereditary genetic disorder which may lead
to the development of lung and/or liver disease.

Autoimmune Hepatitis
Autoimmune hepatitis is a potentially life-threatening disease in which the body’s own
immune system attacks the liver and causes it to become inflamed.

Benign Liver Tumors

Noncancerous, or benign, liver tumors are common. They do not spread to other areas of
the body, and they usually do not pose a serious health risk.

Biliary Atresia (BA)

Biliary atresia is a disease that affects only infants, causing the bile ducts to become
inflamed and blocked soon after birth.

Cirrhosis
Cirrhosis refers to the replacement of normal liver tissue with non-living scar tissue. It is
always related to other liver diseases.

Fatty Liver
It is normal for your liver to contain some fat. But if fat accounts for more than 10% of
your liver’s weight, then you have fatty liver and you may develop more serious
complications.

Galactosemia
Galactosemia is an inherited disorder that prevents a person from processing the sugar
galactose, which is found in many foods.

Hemochromatosis
Hemochromatosis is an inherited condition in which the body absorbs and stores too
much iron. The extra iron builds up in several organs, especially the liver, and can cause
serious damage.

Hepatitis A
Hepatitis A is a viral infection of the liver caused by the hepatitis A virus, or HAV. It is
not a long-lasting or chronic infection.

Hepatitis B
Hepatitis B is a disease of the liver caused by the hepatitis B virus, or HBV. Chronic
hepatitis B can lead to potentially fatal liver diseases such as cirrhosis, liver failure, and
liver cancer.

Hepatitis C
Hepatitis C is a disease of the liver caused by the hepatitis C virus, or HCV. Chronic
hepatitis C can lead to potentially fatal liver diseases such as cirrhosis, liver failure, and
liver cancer.

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Hepatocellular Carcinoma
About primary cancer of the liver.

Liver Cancer
Liver cancer refers to the growth of malignant tumors in liver tissue.

Liver Transplant
A liver transplant is surgery to replace a diseased liver with a healthy liver.

Primary Biliary Cirrhosis (PBC)

Primary biliary cirrhosis, or PBC, is a chronic, or long-term, disease of the liver that
slowly destroys the medium-sized bile ducts within the liver.

Primary Sclerosing Cholangitis (PSC)

Primary sclerosing cholangitis (PSC) is a chronic, or long-term, disease that slowly
damages the bile ducts inside and outside the liver.

Reye Syndrome
Reye syndrome is a rare illness that affects all bodily organs but is most harmful to the
brain and the liver. It occurs primarily among children who are recovering from a viral
infection, such as chicken pox or the flu.

Type I Glycogen Storage Disease

Type I glycogen storage disease (GSD I), also known as von Gierke’s disease, is an
inherited disorder that affects the metabolism - the way the body breaks food down into
energy.

Wilson Disease
Wilson disease is an inherited condition that causes the body to retain excess copper. As
the copper builds up in the liver, it begins to damage the organ.

The pancreas is located in the abdomen. It lies behind the stomach, in front of the spine,
and is surrounded by the intestines and liver. The gland is approximately six inches long
and resembles a compressed bunch of grapes. Proper pancreas function is essential for the
production of a number of hormones and digestive enzymes.
The Endocrine System: Insulin and Glucagon Production
The pancreas plays an important role in the endocrine system: it secretes hormones and
other chemical substances which are released into the bloodstream.

Specialized clusters of pancreatic cells, known as islet cells, produce a variety of

hormones, with each cluster specializing in the production of a specific hormone. For
example two hormones produced by these specialized cells are glucagon and insulin.
Glucagon breaks down glycogen in the liver, which raises blood sugar levels. Insulin
makes it possible for cells to use blood glucose for energy. Thus, healthy pancreas
function is necessary for maintaining correct blood sugar levels.
Pancreas Function and the Digestive System
The digestive system is also affected by pancreas function. The gland secretes pancreatic
"juices," which travel from the gland through a duct and into the duodenum (the

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beginning of the small intestine). These juices contain enzymes that are necessary for
proper digestion.

Common Diseases of the Pancreas

When pancreas function is compromised, a number of possible health complications can
arise. The location of the gland, buried as it is in the abdomen, makes it difficult to detect
problems. Physical palpation of the gland is not possible, so blood tests and diagnostic
imaging are often needed to diagnose pancreatic health difficulties. Health problems may
include:

Pancreatitis is inflammation of the organ, and is often a source of pain. Pancreatitis may
have a number of causes, and can be acute or chronic, hereditary or acquired. In some
cases, pancreatitis can be fatal.

Pancreatic Cancer is the fifth leading cause of cancer deaths worldwide. The disease has a
high mortality rate, and treatment options are, at present, limited. Diabetes and
pancreatitis are considered to be risk factors.

Type 1 Diabetes occurs when insulin production either shuts down or is severely reduced.
The body is then unable to maintain appropriate blood sugar levels.

Type 2 Diabetes occurs when insulin production is normal, but the body's cells no longer
respond correctly to the hormone.

Cystic Fibrosis is a genetic disorder that causes the body to produce thick mucus that
interferes with both respiratory function and the exocrine system. The mucus blocks the
pancreas ducts, preventing digestive enzymes from reaching the small intestine. This
results in insufficient digestion and malnutrition.

TASK 4; STATE THE CAUSES AND SYMPTOMS

What are some common liver disease symptoms?

When diagnosing liver disease, the physician looks at the patient's symptoms and
conducts a physical examination. In addition, the physician may request a liver biopsy,
liver function tests, an ultrasound, or a CT scan (computerized tomography scan).

Some common liver disease symptoms include the following, each of which are described
briefly below:

 jaundice
 cholestasis
 liver enlargement
 portal hypertension
 ascites
 liver encephalopathy
 liver failure

What is jaundice?

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Jaundice is a yellow discoloration of the skin and eye whites due to abnormally high
levels of bilirubin (bile pigment) in the bloodstream. Urine is usually dark because of the
bilirubin excreted through the kidneys. High levels of bilirubin may be attributed to
inflammation or other abnormalities of the liver cells or blockage of the bile ducts.
Sometimes jaundice is caused by the breakdown of a large number of red blood cells,
which can occur in newborns. Jaundice is usually the first sign, and sometimes the only
sign, of liver disease.

What is cholestasis?

Cholestasis is reduced or stopped bile flow. Bile flow may be blocked inside or outside
the liver. Symptoms may include:

 jaundice
 dark urine
 pale stool
 bone loss
 easy bleeding
 itching
 small, spider-like blood vessels visible in the skin
 enlarged spleen
 fluid in the abdominal cavity
 chills
 pain from the biliary tract or pancrea
 enlarged gallbladder

Some causes of cholestasis include:

 hepatitis
 alcoholic liver disease
 primary biliary cirrhosis
 drug effects
 hormonal changes during pregnancy
 a stone in the bile duct
 bile duct narrowing
 bile duct cancer
 pancreatic cancer
 inflammation of the pancreas

What is liver enlargement?

Liver enlargement is usually an indicator of liver disease, although there are usually no
symptoms associated with a slightly enlarged liver (hepatomegaly). Symptoms of a
grossly enlarged liver include abdominal discomfort or "feeling full."

What is portal hypertension?

Portal hypertension is abnormally high blood pressure in the portal vein, which supplies
the liver with blood from the intestine. Portal hypertension may be due to increased blood
pressure in the portal blood vessels or resistance to blood flow through the liver. Portal

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hypertension can lead to the growth of collateral vessels that connect to the general
circulation, bypassing the liver. When this occurs, substances that are normally removed
by the liver pass into the general circulation. Symptoms of portal hypertension may
include:

 a distended abdominal cavity (ascites)

 bleeding of the varicose veins at the lower end of the esophagus and in the
stomach lining

What is ascites?

Ascites is fluid build-up in the abdominal cavity, caused by fluid leaks from the surface of
the liver and intestine. Ascites due to liver disease usually accompanies other liver disease
characteristics such as portal hypertension. Symptoms of ascites may include a distended
abdominal cavity, which causes discomfort and shortness of breath. Causes of ascites may
include:

 liver cirrhosis (especially cirrhosis caused by alcoholism)

 alcoholic hepatitis
 chronic hepatitis
 obstruction of the hepatic vein

Ascites can also be caused by non-liver disorders.

What is liver encephalopathy?

Liver encephalopathy is the deterioration of brain function due to toxic substances

building up in the blood, which are normally removed by the liver. Liver encephalopathy
is also called portal-systemic encephalopathy, hepatic encephalopathy, or hepatic coma.
Symptoms may include:

 impaired consciousness
 changes in logical thinking, personality, and behavior
 mood changes
 impaired judgement
 drowsiness
 confusion
 sluggish speech and movement
 disorientation
 loss of consciousness
 coma

What is liver failure?

Liver failure is severe deterioration of liver function. Liver failure occurs when a large
portion of the liver is damaged due to any type of liver disorder. Symptoms may include:

 jaundice
 tendency to bruise or bleed easily
 ascites

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 impaired brain function
 general failing health
 fatigue
 weakness
 nausea
 loss of appetite

The pancreas is called the "hidden organ" because it is located deep in the abdomen
behind the stomach. About six to eight inches long in the adult, the organ contains thin
tubes that come together like the veins of a leaf. These tubes join to form a single
opening into the intestine that is located just beyond the stomach.

The pancreas produces juices and enzymes that flow through these tubes into the
intestine, where they mix with food. The enzymes digest fat, protein, and carbohydrates
so they can be absorbed by the intestine. Pancreatic juices, therefore, play an important
role in maintaining good health. The pancreas also produces insulin, which is picked up
by the blood flowing through the organ. Insulin is important in regulating the amount of
sugar or glucose in the blood.

What Are the Diseases of the Pancreas?

 Diabetes mellitus
 Acute pancreatitis
 Chronic pancreatitis
 Pancreatic enzyme deficiency
 Pancreas tumor

Diabetes Mellitus
Many cases of diabetes are caused by a deficiency of insulin. Insulin is needed to help
glucose, which is a major source of energy, enter the body's cells. It is not known why
insulin-producing cells in the pancreas die off. When they cease to function, glucose
accumulates in the blood and eventually spills into the urine. These patients require daily
insulin injections. More importantly, high blood glucose levels, over time, result in
significant changes in blood vessels in the eyes, kidneys, heart, legs, and nerves. Damage
to these vital organs represents the major risk for patients with diabetes.

Other patients who develop diabetes later in life seem to have sufficient insulin in the
pancreas, but for some unknown reason it is not available for the body's use. These
patients typically are overweight; therefore, weight loss is critical for them. In addition,
oral medications can be taken that help release insulin from the pancreas. All diabetics
need to maintain normal or near-normal blood glucose levels to prevent or delay the
complications of this disease.

Acute Pancreatitis
This condition occurs when the pancreas becomes quickly and severely inflamed. The
major causes are:
 Heavy alcohol ingestion

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 Gallstones or gallbladder disease
 Trauma
 Drugs
 High blood fats (triglycerides)
 Heredity
 Unknown factors

Binge alcohol drinking is a common cause of acute pancreatitis. Gallbladder disease,

especially where a gallstone becomes lodged in the main bile duct next to the pancreas,
also causes this condition. Accidents, such as the upper abdomen hitting the steering
wheel during a car accident, can cause pancreatitis. Certain drugs, such as diuretics, can
produce the disorder as can extremely high blood fat levels (triglycerides). Heredity
seems to play a role since, in some families, the condition develops in several members
of the family. Finally, there are the occasional cases that occur for unknown reasons. In
pancreatitis, the digestive enzymes of the pancreas break out into the tissues of the
organ rather than staying within the tubes (ducts). Severe damage to the pancreas then
results.

Symptoms, Diagnosis, and Treatment

The main symptoms of pancreatitis are acute, severe pain in the upper abdomen,
frequently accompanied by vomiting and fever. The abdomen is tender, and the patient
feels and looks ill. The diagnosis is made by measuring the blood pancreas enzymes
which are elevated. A sound wave test (ultrasound) or abdominal CT exam often shows
an enlarged pancreas. The condition is treated by resting the pancreas while the tissues
heal. This is accomplished through bowel rest, hospitalization, intravenous feeding and
pain medications.
When pancreatitis is caused by gallstones, it is necessary to remove the gallbladder. This
is usually done after the acute pancreatitis has resolved. At times, an ERCP (Endoscopic
Retrograde CholangioPancreatography) test is recommended. This involves passing a
flexible tube through the mouth and down to the small intestine. A small catheter is then
inserted into the bile duct to see if any stones are present. If so, they are then removed
with the scope.

Course and Outcome

Most patients with this condition recover well, although a few, especially those who
have alcohol-induced pancreatitis, may become desperately sick. When recovered, the
patient needs to make life-style changes to prevent a recurrence such as avoiding
alcohol and drugs, reducing blood triglycerides, or having gallbladder surgery.

Chronic Pancreatitis
This condition occurs mostly in alcoholics or people who repeatedly binge drink alcohol.
The main symptoms are recurrent, dull, or moderate pain without the severe toxic
features of acute pancreatitis. Treatment consists of rest, medication, and certain food
restrictions. Alcohol consumption is absolutely prohibited. In cases where damage is
extensive, chronic pancreatitis and pain can occur even when alcohol consumption has

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stopped.

Diagnosis of this condition is made by measuring blood enzymes and by performing

abdominal CT, x-rays, and ultrasound exams. An ERCP endoscopic test is often
performed. In this test, a flexible endoscope is passed through the mouth into the
intestine while the patient is lightly sedated. A small plastic catheter is inserted into the
pancreas ducts and an x-ray dye is injected. The internal anatomy of the pancreas can
then be viewed by x-ray.

Occasionally a problem develops when the patient becomes dependent on, or even
addicted to, narcotic pain medicines used to control symptoms. In some cases, surgery is
recommended to provide relief of pain.

Pancreas Enzyme Insufficiency

Digestive enzymes from the pancreas are necessary to break down protein, fat, and
carbohydrates in foods that are ingested. When there is a deficiency of these enzymes,
nutrients are not broken down, resulting in malnutrition and weight loss. This condition
is called malabsorption because the intestine is unable to absorb these vital nutrients.

The two major symptoms are diarrhea (frequently with fat droplets in the stool) and
weight loss. This condition can result from any cause of pancreatitis, including trauma
and infection. Pancreatic enzymes can be taken by mouth to replace those that are no
longer made by the pancreas.
Pancreatic Tumors
The pancreas, like most organs of the body, can develop tumors. Some of these are
benign and cause no problems. Some benign tumors can secrete hormones which, when
present in high levels, have a detrimental effect. For example, insulin can be secreted in
excessive amounts and result in dangerously low blood sugar levels (hypoglycemia).
Another hormone, gastrin, can stimulate the stomach to secrete its strong hydrochloric
acid causing recurrent stomach and peptic ulcers, with many complications. Fortunately,
there is much that can be done about these tumors.

Cancer of the pancreas is a serious malignancy that is difficult to treat. The disorder
occurs in middle or older-aged people, with the first symptom often being dull pain in
the upper abdomen that may radiate into the back. At times, skin jaundice occurs when
the bile duct, which carries yellow bile from the liver and through the pancreas, is
blocked. Surgery is the only effective form of treatment for pancreas cancer.

Diet - liver disease

A person with liver disease must eat a special diet. This diet is protects the liver from
working too hard and helps it to function as well as possible.

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Function
Proteins normally help the body repair tissue. They also prevent fatty buildup and
damage to the liver cells.
In people with severely damaged livers, proteins are not properly processed. Waste
products may build up and affect the brain. Restricting the amount of protein in the diet
can reduce the chance that toxic waste products will build up.
The body stores carbohydrates in the form of glycogen. Increasing carbohydrates in the
diet helps preserve glycogen stores. People with liver disease may need to increase their
intake of carbohydrates in proportion to protein.
Low blood count, nerve problems, and nutritional deficiencies that occur with liver
disease may be treated with drugs and vitamin supplements.
Salt in the diet may worsen fluid buildup and swelling in the liver, because salt causes
the body to retain water. Most people with severe liver disease must restrict the amount
of sodium in their diet.

Food Sources
The liver is involved in the metabolism of all foods. Metabolism is the conversion of food
into energy.
Changing the diet by increasing or decreasing proteins, carbohydrates, fats, and vitamins
may further affect the function of the diseased liver, especially its protein and vitamin
production.

Side Effects
Because liver disease can affect the absorption of food and the production of proteins
and vitamins, your diet may influence your weight, appetite, and the amounts of
vitamins in your body. Do not limit protein too much, because it can cause deficiencies
of certain amino acids.

Recommendations
The dietary recommendations may vary, depending on how well your liver is working. It
is very important to be under the care of a doctor, because malnutrition can lead to
serious problems.
In general, recommendations for patients with severe liver disease may include:
 Large amounts of carbohydrate foods. Carbohydrates should be the major source
of calories in this diet.
 Moderate intake of fat, as prescribed by the health care provider. The increased
carbohydrates and fat help preserve the protein in the body and prevent protein
breakdown.
 About 1 gram of protein per kilogram of body weight. This means that a 154-
pound (70-kilogram) man should eat 70 grams of protein per day. This does not include
the protein from starchy foods and vegetables. A person with a severely damaged liver
may need to eat less protein than this, and may even be limited to small quantities of
special nutritional supplements. Avoid limiting protein too much, however, because it can
lead to malnutrition.
 Vitamin supplements, especially B-complex vitamins.

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 Limit sodium (typically 1 - 2 grams per day) if you are retaining fluid.

SAMPLE MENU
 Breakfast
o 1 orange
o Cooked oatmeal with milk and sugar
o 1 slice of whole-wheat toast
o 2 teaspoons of margarine
o Strawberry jam
o Coffee or tea
 Lunch
o 4 ounces of cooked lean fish, poultry, or meat
o A starch item (such as potatoes)
o A cooked vegetable
o Salad
o 2 slices of whole-grain bread
o 2 teaspoons of margarine
o 1 tablespoon of jelly
o Fresh fruit
o Milk
 Mid-afternoon snack
o Milk with graham crackers
 Dinner
o 4 ounces of cooked fish, poultry, or meat
o Starch item (such as potatoes)
o A cooked vegetable
o Salad
o 2 whole-grain rolls
o 2 tablespoons of margarine
o Fresh fruit or dessert
o 8 ounces of milk
 Evening snack
o Glass of milk or piece of fruit

Usually, there are no cautions against specific foods.

If you have questions about your diet or symptoms, contact your doctor.
DIET AND PANCREATIC CANCER
This information is about diet and cancer of the pancreas. It has the following sections:
How pancreatic cancer affects your diet
Blood sugar
What diet should I have?
Snacks and small meals
Managing diarrhoea
Diet supplements if you don't feel like eating
You can read through it all or simply turn to the section that interests you.
How your diet can be affected

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Having cancer of the pancreas will affect your eating and drinking habits, whatever your
stage of treatment. The pancreas is not only close to the stomach and bowel; it produces
both insulin and enzymes which help to digest food.
After surgery, you may have digestive problems, such as diarrhoea. If you've had all or
part of your pancreas removed, you may need to take insulin or tablets to regulate
your blood sugar. You may also need to take enzyme supplements when you eat to help
your digestion. It can take time to get the balance of these drugs right. Be patient, and
make a note of any digestive symptoms you have which might help your doctor to get
things right more quickly.
Blood sugar If you are on insulin or tablets to regulate your blood sugar, your doctor will
ask you to check your urine for sugar. Too much sugar in the urine indicates that the sugar
balance of your body is not yet right. If you are on insulin, you will probably also have to
test your blood sugar levels. You will have to prick your finger and squeeze a drop of
blood onto a test strip. The colour of the test strip will show approximately how
much sugar is in your blood. You will then know how much insulin you should take. It
takes time to get used to doing these tests, but you will be shown how to do it before you
leave hospital. You may also have a nurse to visit you at home to help you and answer
your questions.
What diet should I eat?
People with pancreatic disease often find it hard to digest fat. You should see a dietician
before you leave hospital. Your dietician will give you a diet plan to suit you.
Generally the diet is based on keeping fat intake low and carbohydrate intake high.
This is a balancing act, however. Fat contains more calories than carbohydrates or protein.
So if you are trying to build yourself up it is better to eat some foods that are high in fat. If
you are recovering from major surgery, you will also need plenty of protein to help your
body repair itself.
This is a balancing act, however. Fat contains more calories than carbohydrates or protein.
So if you are trying to build yourself up it is better to eat some foods that are high in fat. If
you are recovering from major surgery, you will also need plenty of protein to help your
body repair itself.
If you are taking enzymes to help you digest your food, you may need to adjust the
amount you take a few times before you get the level right and you may need to vary it
depending on what you have eaten. Again, your dietician should be able to help you with
this.
Snacks and small meals
You may find it easier to have lots of small meals through the day, rather than sticking to
the traditional three meals a day. It is a good idea to have plenty of nutritious snacks to
hand that you can have whenever you feel like eating. If you can manage it, it is best to
choose full fat versions of yoghurts and puddings, so that you get the most calories. You
could try
Yoghurts
Other soft puddings such as trifle or chocolate mousse
Dried fruit
Stewed or fresh fruit (bananas are high in calories)
Crisps
Cheese
Instant soups (make up with milk to boost calories)
Baby food
Cereal
Milky drinks

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Chocolate
Some of these ideas may not suit your digestion, particularly if you are on a low fat diet,
but they are worth a try. If in doubt, check with your dietician. Try to think of quick ways
of having the things you like to eat. If possible, get someone to prepare your favourite
foods in advance and freeze in small portions. A microwave makes defrosting and heating
easier and quicker.
Diarrhoea
If you are having problems with diarrhoea after pancreatic surgery, it is most probably
related to difficulty digesting fat. Even so, avoid very high fibre foods (such as cereal and
dried fruit) for the time being as these may make things worse. Tell your doctor or nurse.
You may need some medication to control your symptoms. It is worth asking to see a
dietician to plan a more suitable diet.

Suggested Teaching/Learning Resources

- Textbooks
- Internet
- Diet sheets
- Food composition tables

Evaluation

1. explain the functions of the liver

2. explain the functions of the pancreases
3. identify disorders of the liver and the pancreases
4. state the causes and symptoms
5. Discuss dietary management of the named disorders.

15.2.12 DIABETES

Theory

15.2.12T Specific Objectives

By the end of sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
1. define given terms
2. identify the types of diabetes
3. state the causes and symptoms of diabetes
4. discuss the dietary management and counseling

TASK 1: DEFINITIONS OF TERMS

Diabetes mellitus is a chronic disease caused by the inability of the pancreas to produce
insulin or to use the insulin produced in the proper way.

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Description of Diabetes
After a meal, a portion of the food a person eats is broken down into sugar (glucose). The
sugar then passes into the bloodstream and to the body's cells via a hormone (called
insulin) that is produced by the pancreas.
Normally, the pancreas produces the right amount of insulin to accommodate the
quantity of sugar. However, if the person has diabetes, either the pancreas produces
little or no insulin or the cells do not respond normally to the insulin. Sugar builds up in
the blood, overflows into the urine and then passes from the body unused. Over time,
high blood sugar levels can damage:
 eyes - leading to diabetic retinopathy and possible blindness
 blood vessels - increasing risk of heart attack, stroke and peripheral artery
obstruction
 nerves - leading to diabetic neuropathy, foot sores and possible amputation,
possible paralysis of the stomach, chronic diarrhea

kidneys - leading to kidney failure

TASK 2: TYPES OF DIABETES

- TYPE 1– INSULIN DEPENDENT
- TYPE 2 – NON-INSULIN DEPENDENT
- GESTATION
- JUVENILE
- INSPIDUS
- MELLITUS
Diabetes has also been linked to impotence and digestive problems. It is important to
note that controlling blood pressure and blood glucose levels, plus regular screenings
and check-ups, can help reduce risks of these complications.
There are two main types of diabetes, Type I and Type II:
Type I diabetes or insulin-dependent diabetes (formerly called juvenile-onset
diabetes, because it tends to affect persons before the age of 20) affects about
10 percent of people with diabetes. With this type of diabetes, the pancreas
makes almost no insulin.
Type II diabetes or non-insulin-dependent diabetes. This was previously called
"adult-onset diabetes" because in the past it was usually discovered after age 40.
However, with increasing levels of obesity and sedentary lifestyle, this disease is
now being found more and more in adolescents - and sometimes even in children
under 10 - and the term "adult onset" is no longer used.
Type II diabetes comprises about 90 percent of all cases of diabetes. With this
type of diabetes, either the pancreas produces a reduced amount of insulin, the
cells do not respond to the insulin, or both.
There are three less common types of diabetes called gestational diabetes, secondary
diabetes and impaired glucose tolerance (IGT):
Gestational diabetes occurs during pregnancy and causes a higher than normal
glucose level reading.

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 Secondary diabetes is caused by damage to the pancreas from chemicals, certain
medications, diseases of the pancreas (such as cancer) or other glands.
Impaired glucose tolerance (IGT) is a condition in which the person's glucose levels are
higher than normal

T ASK 3: CAUSES AND SYMPTOMS

Causes and Risk Factors of Diabetes
The cause of Type I diabetes is genetically based, coupled with an abnormal immune
response.
The cause of Type II diabetes is unknown. Medical experts believe that Type II diabetes
has a genetic component, but that other factors also put people at risk for the disease.
These factors include:
 sedentary lifestyle
 obesity (weighing 20 percent above a healthy body weight)
 advanced age
 unhealthy diet
 family history of diabetes
 improper functioning of the pancreas
 minority race (higher risk in Black, Hispanic, American Indian, westernized Asian
and native Hawaiian populations)
 medication (cortisone and some high blood pressure drugs)
 women having given birth to a baby weighing more than 9 lbs.
 previously diagnosed gestational diabetes
 previously diagnosed IGT

Symptoms of Diabetes
Usually, the symptoms of Type I diabetes are obvious. That is not true for Type II. Many
people with Type II do not discover they have diabetes until they are treated for a
complication such as heart disease, blood vessel disease (atherosclerosis), stroke,
blindness, skin ulcers, kidney problems, nerve trouble or impotence.
The warning signs and symptoms for both types are:
Type I: Frequent urination, increased thirst, extreme hunger, unexplained weight loss,
extreme fatigue, blurred vision, irritability, nausea and vomiting.
Type II: Any Type I symptom, plus: unexplained weight gain, pain, cramping, tingling or
numbness in your feet, unusual drowsiness, frequent vaginal or skin infections, dry, itchy
skin and slow healing sores.
Note: If a person is experiencing these symptoms, they should see a doctor immediately.

Diagnosis of Diabetes
Besides a complete history and physical examination, the doctors will perform a battery of
laboratory tests. There are numerous tests available to diagnose diabetes, such as a urine
test, blood test, glucose-tolerance test, fasting blood sugar and the glycohemoglobin
(HbA1c) test.
A urine sample will be tested for glucose and ketones (acids that collect in the blood and
urine when the body uses fat instead of glucose for energy).

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A blood test is used to measure the amount of glucose in the bloodstream.
A glucose-tolerance test checks the body's ability to process glucose. During this test,
sugar levels in the blood and urine are monitored for three hours after drinking a large
dose of sugar solution.
The fasting blood sugar test involves fasting overnight and blood being drawn the next
morning.
The glycohemoglobin test reflects an average of all blood sugar levels for the preceding
two months.

TASK 4: DIETARY MANAGEMENT AND COUNSELING

Treatment of Diabetes
A landmark study, the 10-year, multi-center Diabetes Control and Complications Trial
(DCCT), has now shown that intensifying diabetes management with stricter control of
blood sugar levels can reduce long-term complications.
The results of DCCT are extraordinary in that they prove that tight control of glucose
levels can in fact dramatically slow the onset and progression of diabetic complications
in both Type I and Type II diabetes. Additionally, researchers have found strict attention
to diet and exercise also helps in the management of diabetes.
Management of Type I Diabetes
Virtually everyone with Type I diabetes (and more than one in three people with
Type II) must inject insulin to make up for their deficiency. Until recently, insulin
came only from the pancreases of cows and pigs (with pork insulin more closely
duplicating human insulin). While beef, pork and beef/pork combinations are still
widely used, there are now two types of "human" insulin available: semisynthetic
(made by converting pork insulin to a form identical to human) and recombinant
(made by using genetic engineering). All insulin helps glucose levels remain near
normal (about 70 to 120 mg/dl).
Different types of insulin work for different periods of time. The numbers shown
below are only averages. The onset (how long it takes to reach the bloodstream
to begin lowering the blood sugar), peaking (how long it takes to reach maximum
strength) and duration (how long it continues to lower the blood sugar) of insulin
activity can vary from person to person and even from day to day in the same
person.
Rapid or Regular Activity: Onset is within half an hour and activity peaks during a
2 to 5 hour period. It remains in the bloodstream for about 8 to 16 hours. These
fast-acting, short-lasting insulins are useful in special cases: accidents, minor
surgery or illnesses, which cause the diabetes to go out of control or whenever
insulin requirements change rapidly for any reason. These are also being used
more and more in combination with a long-acting insulin or alone (prior to meals
and at bedtime).

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 Semilente: A special type of short-acting insulin that takes 1 to 2 hours for onset,
peaks 3 to 8 hours after injection and lasts 10 to 16 hours.
Intermediate-Acting: Reaching the bloodstream 90 minutes after injection,
intermediate-acting insulin peaks 4 to 12 hours later and lasts in the blood for
about 24 hours. There are two varieties of this type of insulin: Lente (called L) and
NPH (called N).
Long-Acting: These insulins, which take 4 to 6 hours for onset, are at maximum
strength 14 to 24 hours after injection, lasting 36 hours in the bloodstream. Long-
acting insulin is referred to as U (for Ultralente).

Suggested Teaching/Learning Resources

- Textbooks
- Internet
- Charts
- Diet sheets
- Food composition tables
- Testing kits
Resource persons
Evaluation

1. define diabetes
2. identify the types of diabetes
3. state the causes and symptoms of diabetes
4. discuss the dietary management and counseling

Coronary heart disease

Coronary heart disease (CHD) is a narrowing of the small blood vessels that supply blood
and oxygen to the heart. CHD is also called coronary artery disease.
Coronary heart disease is usually caused by a condition called atherosclerosis, which
occurs when fatty material and a substance called plaque build up on the walls of your
arteries. This causes them to get narrow. As the coronary arteries narrow, blood flow to
the heart can slow down or stop. This can cause chest pain (stable angina), shortness of
breath, heart attack, and other symptoms.
Many things increase your risk for heart disease:
 heredity can increase your risk. You are more likely to develop the condition if
someone in your family has had a history of heart disease -- especially if they had
it before age 50. Your risk for CHD goes up the older you get.
 Diabetes is a strong risk factor for heart disease.
 High blood pressure increases your risk of coronary artery disease and heart
failure.

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  Abnormal cholesterol levels: your LDL ("bad") cholesterol should be as low as
possible, and your HDL ("good") cholesterol should be as high as possible.
 Metabolic syndrome refers to high triglyceride levels, high blood pressure, excess
body fat around the waist, and increased insulin levels. People with this group of
problems have an increased chance of getting heart disease.
 Smokers have a much higher risk of heart disease than nonsmokers.
 Chronic kidney disease can increase your risk.
 Already having atherosclerosis or hardening of the arteries in another part of your
body (examples are stroke and abdominal aortic aneurysm) increases your risk of
having coronary heart disease.
 Other risk factors including alcohol abuse, not getting enough exercise, and
excessive amounts of stress.

Symptoms
Chest pain or discomfort (angina) is the most common symptom. The pain usually occurs
with activity or emotion, and goes away with rest.

Other symptoms include shortness of breath and fatigue with activity (exertion).

Prevention and management

4. Management of risk factors.

5. Regular exercises
6. Lifestyle modification.

Food Allergy
Food allergy is an abnormal response to a food triggered by your body's immune system.
Allergic reactions to food can sometimes cause serious illness and death.
In adults, the foods that most often trigger allergic reactions include
 Fish and shellfish, such as shrimp, lobster and crab
 Peanuts
 Tree nuts, such as walnuts
 Eggs

Problem foods for children are eggs, milk (especially in infants and young children) and
peanuts.
Sometimes a reaction to food is not an allergy. It is often a reaction called "food
intolerance". Your immune system does not cause the symptoms of food intolerance.
However, these symptoms can look and feel like those of a food allergy.
Signs and Symptoms

Symptoms of a food allergy usually develop within about an hour after eating the
offending food. The most common signs and symptoms of a food allergy include:

 Hives, itching, or skin rash

 Swelling of the lips, face, tongue and throat, or other parts of the body

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  Wheezing, nasal congestion, or trouble breathing
 Abdominal pain, diarrhea, nausea, or vomiting
 Dizziness, lightheadedness, or fainting

In a severe allergic reaction to food—called anaphylaxis—one may have more extreme

versions of the above reactions. Or one may experience life-threatening signs and symp-
toms such as:
 Swelling of the throat and air passages that makes it difficult to breathe
 Shock, with a severe drop in blood pressure
 Rapid, irregular pulse
 Loss of consciousness

Management of allergies

 People allergic to certain food items should carefully read food labels before
consuming any product.
 medical alert bracelet or necklace or a card stating that one has a food allergy and
are subject to severe reactions should be worn.
 An auto-injector device containing epinephrine (adrenaline) one can get by
prescription should be carried and administered when one is experiencing a food
allergic reaction.
 Seek medical help immediately if you experience a food allergic reaction, even if
you have already given yourself epinephrine.

15.2.13 GALL BLADDER AND RENAL DISORDERS

Theory

15.2.13T Specific Objectives

By the end of sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) explain the functions of the gall bladder and kidney
b) identify disorders of the gall bladder and kidney
c) state the causes and symptoms
d) discuss dietary management of the named disorders
specific objectives
The trainee should have the ability to:
1. identify the various types of gall bladder and renal disorders
2. formulate/plan modified diets for a given gall bladder and renal disorders
3. counsel patient

Content

UNIT TASKS

TASK 1; EXPLAIN THE FUNCTIONS OF THE GALL BLADDER AND KIDNEY

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The gallbladder is a small organ situated near mid-abdominal area of the body. Its main
function is to store the bile that comes from the liver. Bile is a substance that helps in the
digestion of fat. Fat does not dissolve in water, so in order to emulsify fat something
special is needed. The liver produces the bile and then stores it in the gallbladder until
the body needs to digest fats. When this moment comes, the gallbladder starts to let the
bile flow down into the intestine, inside the duodenum, where fat is digested with its
help and then absorbed by the organism. While bile sits in the gallbladder, the water
from it pours out through the gallbladder's walls, making the bile more concentrated and
therefore more effective. Bile also neutralizes some of the acids that are found in certain
types of food.
Just like every other organ in the body, the gallbladder can malfunction and cause illness.
At some people, usually women that are over 40 years of age, (but there have been
quite a large number of cases of men suffering from gallbladder too), the bile inside it
can crystallize into small stones, called gallstones. Gallstones are made of salt, calcium
and cholesterol, all put together in a small stone. These gallstones can cause some
problems, starting with the inflammation of the gallbladder and ending with severe pain
and blockage.
In 3 quarters of the patients gallbladder does not cause any visible symptoms, but in one
quarter something appears. These are the most encountered symptoms of the
gallbladder disease:
-variable pain in the abdominal area. Variable because this pain is sometimes easy,
sometimes very bad, and sometimes it lasts long, sometimes it doesn't
-vomiting accompanied by temperature
-yellow-ish skin and eyes, when a gallstones obstructs the canal through which bile flows
from the liver into the gallbladder
Fortunately, gallstones can leave the body by themselves, but in some cases they get
stuck on the way and obstruct the flow of bile. If this happens surgery is required. The
gallbladder surgery is called cholecystectomy, and it consists of a procedure that
removes the gallbladder from the body and connects the liver directly to the stomach, so
bile does not pass through it anymore. This causes the fat substance digestion to be less
effective.
In the most unfortunate cases, complications lead to gallbladder cancer. This can happen
if someone suffering from the gallbladder disease has weight problems and also smokes
and drinks a lot. Gallbladder cancer is a fatal illness, although advanced surgical
tehniquies attempt to remove it most of the patients with gallbladder die.
Gallbladder disease is in most cases almost harmless, but if you feel any of the symptoms
you should visit a doctor and listen to his advice. Patients that have been operated of
gallbladder and had it removed can soon return to their normal lives, but they need to
pay attention to the quantity of fat that they eat, because without the gallbladder the
body can't handle the fat substance digestion to well.

904
FUNCTIONS OF THE KIDNEY

What do the kidneys do?

The kidneys are bean-shaped organs, each about the size of a fist. They are located near
the middle of the back, just below the rib cage, one on each side of the spine. The
kidneys are sophisticated reprocessing machines. Every day, a person’s kidneys process
about 200 quarts of blood to sift out about 2 quarts of waste products and extra water.
The wastes and extra water become urine, which flows to the bladder through tubes
called ureters. The bladder stores urine until releasing it through urination.
The kidneys remove wastes and water from the blood to form urine. Urine flows from
the kidneys to the bladder through the ureters.
Wastes in the blood come from the normal breakdown of active tissues, such as muscles,
and from food. The body uses food for energy and self-repairs. After the body has taken
what it needs from food, wastes are sent to the blood. If the kidneys did not remove
them, these wastes would build up in the blood and damage the body.
The actual removal of wastes occurs in tiny units inside the kidneys called nephrons.
Each kidney has about a million nephrons. In the nephron, a glomerulus—which is a tiny
blood vessel, or capillary—intertwines with a tiny urine-collecting tube called a tubule.
The glomerulus acts as a filtering unit, or sieve, and keeps normal proteins and cells in
the bloodstream, allowing extra fluid and wastes to pass through. A complicated
chemical exchange takes place, as waste materials and water leave the blood and enter
the urinary system.

905
In the nephron (left), tiny blood vessels intertwine with urine-collecting tubes. Each
kidney contains about 1 million nephrons.
At first, the tubules receive a combination of waste materials and chemicals the body
can still use. The kidneys measure out chemicals like sodium, phosphorus, and potassium
and release them back to the blood to return to the body. In this way, the kidneys
regulate the body’s level of these substances. The right balance is necessary for life.
In addition to removing wastes, the kidneys release three important hormones:
 erythropoietin, or EPO, which stimulates the bone marrow to make red blood cells
 renin, which regulates blood pressure
 calcitriol, the active form of vitamin D, which helps maintain calcium for bones
and for normal chemical balance in the body

[Top]

What is renal function?

The word “renal” refers to the kidneys. The terms “renal function” and “kidney
function” mean the same thing. Health professionals use the term “renal function” to
talk about how efficiently the kidneys filter blood. People with two healthy kidneys have
100 percent of their kidney function. Small or mild declines in kidney function—as much
as 30 to 40 percent—would rarely be noticeable. Kidney function is now calculated using
a blood sample and a formula to find the estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR). The
eGFR corresponds to the percent of kidney function available. The section “What
medical tests detect kidney disease?” contains more details about the eGFR.
Some people are born with only one kidney but can still lead normal, healthy lives. Every
year, thousands of people donate one of their kidneys for transplantation to a family
member or friend.
For many people with reduced kidney function, a kidney disease is also present and will
get worse. Serious health problems occur when people have less than 25 percent of their
kidney function. When kidney function drops below 10 to 15 percent, a person needs
some form of renal replacement therapy—either blood-cleansing treatments called
dialysis or a kidney transplant—to sustain life.

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[Top]

Why do kidneys fail?

Most kidney diseases attack the nephrons, causing them to lose their filtering capacity.
Damage to the nephrons can happen quickly, often as the result of injury or poisoning.
But most kidney diseases destroy the nephrons slowly and silently. Only after years or
even decades will the damage become apparent. Most kidney diseases attack both
kidneys simultaneously.
The two most common causes of kidney disease are diabetes and high blood pressure.
People with a family history of any kind of kidney problem are also at risk for kidney
disease.

Diabetic Kidney Disease

Diabetes is a disease that keeps the body from using glucose, a form of sugar, as it
should. If glucose stays in the blood instead of breaking down, it can act like a poison.
Damage to the nephrons from unused glucose in the blood is called diabetic kidney
disease. Keeping blood glucose levels down can delay or prevent diabetic kidney disease.
Use of medications called angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors or angiotensin
receptor blockers (ARBs) to treat high blood pressure can also slow or delay the
progression of diabetic kidney disease.

High Blood Pressure

High blood pressure can damage the small blood vessels in the kidneys. The damaged
vessels cannot filter wastes from the blood as they are supposed to.
A doctor may prescribe blood pressure medication. ACE inhibitors and ARBs have been
found to protect the kidneys even more than other medicines that lower blood pressure
to similar levels. The National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute (NHLBI), one of the
National Institutes of Health, recommends that people with diabetes or reduced kidney
function keep their blood pressure below 130/80.

Glomerular Diseases
Several types of kidney disease are grouped together under this category, including
autoimmune diseases, infection-related diseases, and sclerotic diseases. As the name
indicates, glomerular diseases attack the tiny blood vessels, or glomeruli, within the
kidney. The most common primary glomerular diseases include membranous
nephropathy, IgA nephropathy, and focal segmental glomerulosclerosis. The first sign of
a glomerular disease is often proteinuria, which is too much protein in the urine.
Another common sign is hematuria, which is blood in the urine. Some people may have
both proteinuria and hematuria. Glomerular diseases can slowly destroy kidney function.
Blood pressure control is important with any kidney disease. Glomerular diseases are
usually diagnosed with a biopsy—a procedure that involves taking a piece of kidney tissue
for examination with a microscope. Treatments for glomerular diseases may include
immunosuppressive drugs or steroids to reduce inflammation and proteinuria,
depending on the specific disease.

907
Inherited and Congenital Kidney Diseases
Some kidney diseases result from hereditary factors. Polycystic kidney disease (PKD), for
example, is a genetic disorder in which many cysts grow in the kidneys. PKD cysts can
slowly replace much of the mass of the kidneys, reducing kidney function and leading to
kidney failure.
Some kidney problems may show up when a child is still developing in the womb.
Examples include autosomal recessive PKD, a rare form of PKD, and other developmental
problems that interfere with the normal formation of the nephrons. The signs of kidney
disease in children vary. A child may grow unusually slowly, vomit often, or have back or
side pain. Some kidney diseases may be silent—causing no signs or symptoms—for months
or even years.
If a child has a kidney disease, the child’s doctor should find it during a regular checkup.
The first sign of a kidney problem may be high blood pressure; a low number of red
blood cells, called anemia; proteinuria; or hematuria. If the doctor finds any of these
problems, further tests may be necessary, including additional blood and urine tests or
radiology studies. In some cases, the doctor may need to perform a biopsy.
Some hereditary kidney diseases may not be detected until adulthood. The most
common form of PKD was once called “adult PKD” because the symptoms of high blood
pressure and renal failure usually do not occur until patients are in their twenties or
thirties. But with advances in diagnostic imaging technology, doctors have found cysts in
children and adolescents before any symptoms appear.

Other Causes of Kidney Disease

Poisons and trauma, such as a direct and forceful blow to the kidneys, can lead to kidney
disease.
Some over-the-counter medicines can be poisonous to the kidneys if taken regularly
over a long period of time. Anyone who takes painkillers regularly should check with a
doctor to make sure the kidneys are not at risk.

How do kidneys fail?

Many factors that influence the speed of kidney failure are not completely understood.
Researchers are still studying how protein in the diet and cholesterol levels in the blood
affect kidney function.

Acute Kidney Injury

Some kidney problems happen quickly, such as when an accident injures the kidneys.
Losing a lot of blood can cause sudden kidney failure. Some drugs or poisons can make
the kidneys stop working. These sudden drops in kidney function are called acute kidney
injury (AKI). Some doctors may also refer to this condition as acute renal failure (ARF).
AKI may lead to permanent loss of kidney function. But if the kidneys are not seriously
damaged, acute kidney disease may be reversed.

Chronic Kidney Disease

Most kidney problems, however, happen slowly. A person may have “silent” kidney
disease for years. Gradual loss of kidney function is called chronic kidney disease (CKD)

908
or chronic renal insufficiency. People with CKD may go on to develop permanent kidney
failure. They also have a high risk of death from a stroke or heart attack.

End-stage Renal Disease

Total or nearly total and permanent kidney failure is called end-stage renal disease
(ESRD). People with ESRD must undergo dialysis or transplantation to stay alive.

What are the signs of chronic kidney disease (CKD)?

People in the early stages of CKD usually do not feel sick at all.
People whose kidney disease has gotten worse may
 need to urinate more often or less often
 feel tired
 lose their appetite or experience nausea and vomiting
 have swelling in their hands or feet
 feel itchy or numb
 get drowsy or have trouble concentrating
 have darkened skin
 have muscle cramps

What medical tests detect kidney disease?

Because a person can have kidney disease without any symptoms, a doctor may first
detect the condition through routine blood and urine tests. The National Kidney
Foundation recommends three simple tests to screen for kidney disease: a blood
pressure measurement, a spot check for protein or albumin in the urine, and a
calculation of glomerular filtration rate (GFR) based on a serum creatinine measurement.
Measuring urea nitrogen in the blood provides additional information.

Blood Pressure Measurement

High blood pressure can lead to kidney disease. It can also be a sign that the kidneys are
already impaired. The only way to know whether a person’s blood pressure is high is to
have a health professional measure it with a blood pressure cuff. The result is expressed
as two numbers. The top number, which is called the systolic pressure, represents the
pressure in the blood vessels when the heart is beating. The bottom number, which is
called the diastolic pressure, shows the pressure when the heart is resting between
beats. A person’s blood pressure is considered normal if it stays below 120/80, stated as
“120 over 80.” The NHLBI recommends that people with kidney disease use whatever
therapy is necessary, including lifestyle changes and medicines, to keep their blood
pressure below 130/80.

Microalbuminuria and Proteinuria

Healthy kidneys take wastes out of the blood but leave protein. Impaired kidneys may
fail to separate a blood protein called albumin from the wastes. At first, only small
amounts of albumin may leak into the urine, a condition known as microalbuminuria, a
sign of deteriorating kidney function. As kidney function worsens, the amount of
albumin and other proteins in the urine increases, and the condition is called
proteinuria. A doctor may test for protein using a dipstick in a small sample of a person’s

909
urine taken in the doctor’s office. The color of the dipstick indicates the presence or
absence of proteinuria.
A more sensitive test for protein or albumin in the urine involves laboratory
measurement and calculation of the protein-to-creatinine or albumin-to-creatinine ratio.
Creatinine is a waste product in the blood created by the normal breakdown of muscle
cells during activity. Healthy kidneys take creatinine out of the blood and put it into the
urine to leave the body. When the kidneys are not working well, creatinine builds up in
the blood.
The albumin-to-creatinine measurement should be used to detect kidney disease in
people at high risk, especially those with diabetes or high blood pressure. If a person’s
first laboratory test shows high levels of protein, another test should be done 1 to 2
weeks later. If the second test also shows high levels of protein, the person has
persistent proteinuria and should have additional tests to evaluate kidney function.

Glomerular Filtration Rate (GFR) Based on Creatinine Measurement

GFR is a calculation of how efficiently the kidneys are filtering wastes from the blood. A
traditional GFR calculation requires an injection into the bloodstream of a substance that
is later measured in a 24-hour urine collection. Recently, scientists found they could
calculate GFR without an injection or urine collection. The new calculation—the
eGFR—requires only a measurement of the creatinine in a blood sample.
In a laboratory, a person’s blood is tested to see how many milligrams of creatinine are
in one deciliter of blood (mg/dL). Creatinine levels in the blood can vary, and each
laboratory has its own normal range, usually 0.6 to 1.2 mg/dL. A person whose
creatinine level is only slightly above this range will probably not feel sick, but the
elevation is a sign that the kidneys are not working at full strength. One formula for
estimating kidney function equates a creatinine level of 1.7 mg/dL for most men and 1.4
mg/dL for most women to 50 percent of normal kidney function. But because creatinine
values are so variable and can be affected by diet, a GFR calculation is more accurate for
determining whether a person has reduced kidney function.
The eGFR calculation uses the patient’s creatinine measurement along with age and
values assigned for sex and race. Some medical laboratories may make the eGFR
calculation when a creatinine value is measured and include it on the lab report. The
National Kidney Foundation has determined different stages of CKD based on the value
of the eGFR. Dialysis or transplantation is needed when the eGFR is less than 15
milliliters per minute (mL/min).

Blood Urea Nitrogen (BUN)

Blood carries protein to cells throughout the body. After the cells use the protein, the
remaining waste product is returned to the blood as urea, a compound that contains
nitrogen. Healthy kidneys take urea out of the blood and put it in the urine. If a person’s
kidneys are not working well, the urea will stay in the blood.
A deciliter of normal blood contains 7 to 20 milligrams of urea. If a person’s BUN is more
than 20 mg/dL, the kidneys may not be working at full strength. Other possible causes of
an elevated BUN include dehydration and heart failure.

910
Additional Tests for Kidney Disease
If blood and urine tests indicate reduced kidney function, a doctor may recommend
additional tests to help identify the cause of the problem.
Kidney imaging. Methods of kidney imaging—taking pictures of the kidneys—include
ultrasound, computerized tomography (CT) scan, and magnetic resonance imaging
(MRI). These tools are most helpful in finding unusual growths or blockages to the flow
of urine.
Kidney biopsy. A doctor may want to examine a tiny piece of kidney tissue with a
microscope. To obtain this tissue sample, the doctor will perform a kidney biopsy—a
hospital procedure in which the doctor inserts a needle through the patient’s skin into
the back of the kidney. The needle retrieves a strand of tissue less than an inch long. For
the procedure, the patient lies facedown on a table and receives a local anesthetic to
numb the skin. The sample tissue will help the doctor identify problems at the cellular
level.
For more information, see the fact sheet Kidney Biopsy from the National Kidney and
Urologic Diseases Information Clearinghouse.

TASK 2; IDENTIFY TYPES OF DISORDERS OF THE GALL BLADDER AND

KIDNEY

Although not essential to life or health, the gallbladder is the site and source of
appreciable suffering and disease in humans. With its cystic duct, the gallbladder
constitutes a blind-ended, lateral extension of the common bile duct. Besides acting as a

911
reservoir for bile, the gallbladder concentrates and otherwise alters the composition of
bile. See also Gallbladder.
Gallstones are round, oval, or faceted concretions formed within the gallbladder from
the salts and pigment of bile. Although the mechanism and reason for their formation
are not clearly understood, the major predisposing factors are stasis (prolonged
retention of bile in the gallbladder), abnormal composition of the bile (excessive
amounts of cholesterol, bilirubin, or calcium), and infection. Passage of a gallstone
through the ducts into the duodenum usually produces severe pain, called biliary colic. If
a stone causes obstruction of the ducts, the result may be damage to the liver, pancreas,
biliary system, and related structures either directly or through concomitant
inflammation. Gallstones are rare in animals, although they have been found in nearly all
species, especially in cattle. See also Bilirubin; Cholesterol; Cirrhosis.
Cholecystitis, or inflammation of the gallbladder, is a common disease in humans. It is
nearly always associated with gallstones and is particularly common in obese middle-
aged women. It is rare in animals. Most cases are thought to be the result of chemical
irritation caused by excessively concentrated bile, which is in turn the result of partial or
complete obstruction to the outflow of bile. Prolonged or recurrent episodes of
inflammation result in chronic cholecystitis, characterized by thickening and scarring of
the wall, contraction, and impairment of normal function.
Malignant tumors in the gallbladder are almost invariably associated with the presence
of gallstones. Because they produce little in the way of symptoms, and because they very
soon invade the liver, these tumors are rarely curable by surgical therapy at the time
they are discovered. Benign tumors of the gallbladder and ducts are rare in humans, and
in animals both benign and malignant tumors of these sites are extremely uncommon.
See also Liver disorders.

Some urinary tract disorders rarely cause symptoms until the problem is very advanced;
these include kidney failure, tumors and stones that do not block urine flow, and some
low-grade infections. Sometimes, symptoms occur but are very general and difficult for
the doctor to connect to the kidney. For example, a general feeling of illness (malaise),
loss of appetite, nausea, or generalized itching may be the only symptoms of chronic
kidney failure. In older people, mental confusion may be the first recognized symptom of
infection or kidney failure. Symptoms that are more suggestive of a kidney or urinary
problem include pain in the side (flank), swelling of the lower extremities, and problems
with urination.

Burning or Pain with Urination

Burning or pain with urination (dysuria) may be felt at the opening to the urethra or, less
often, over the bladder (in the pelvis, the lower part of the abdomen just above the
pubic bone). Occasionally, if a woman has vaginal irritation (for example, due to
inflammation or infection of the vagina or of the area surrounding the vaginal opening,
called vulvovaginitis), she may feel a burning sensation when urinating.

Causes

912
Dysuria is very common, particularly among adult women, in whom it is often caused by
urinary tract infections, such as cystitis and urethritis. However, dysuria can occur in men
and women of any age and can have many noninfectious causes

Doctors can sometimes get clues to the cause based on where symptoms are most
severe. For example, if symptoms are most severe just above the pubic bone, a bladder
infection (cystitis) may be the cause. Women with frequent episodes of cystitis may
recognize characteristic symptoms that suggest another episode. If symptoms are most
severe at the opening of the urethra, urethritis may be the cause. In men with a penile
discharge, urethritis is often the cause. If burning affects mainly the vagina and the
woman has a discharge, vaginitis may be the cause.

Examination may confirm a condition that could be causing dysuria. For example, vaginal
or penile discharge can be confirmed. Inflammation or atrophy of the vagina or vulva
may confirm vulvovaginitis. An enlarged prostate may confirm benign prostatic
hyperplasia. Tenderness of the epididymis or testes may suggest epididymo-orchitis, and
tenderness of the prostate may suggest prostatitis.

Doctors do not always agree on the need for tests. Some doctors just treat adult women
who have symptoms that suggest cystitis. Other doctors usually do testing for all people
or for people in whom the diagnosis is not clear. The first test is usually a urinalysis.
Urine culture is often done to identify the organism causing infection and to determine
which antibiotics will be effective. For women, a sample of vaginal discharge is examined
on a slide using a microscope. Men and women with a urethral discharge are tested for
gonorrhea and chlamydia.

Treatment

The cause is treated. Often, the cause is an infection, and treatment produces relief in 1
or 2 days. If dysuria is severe, phenazopyridine Some Trade Names
PYRIDIUM PLUS
can be taken for the first 2 days to relieve discomfort. Phenazopyridine Some Trade
Names
PYRIDIUM PLUS
turns the urine a red-orange color.

Flank pain

Pain caused by kidney disorders usually is felt in the side (flank) or small of the back.
Occasionally, the pain radiates to the center of the abdomen. Usually pain occurs
because the kidney's outer covering (renal capsule) is stretched by a disorder that causes
rapid swelling of the kidney. Severe kidney pain is often accompanied by nausea and
vomiting.

Causes

A kidney stone causes excruciating pain when it enters a ureter. The ureter contracts in
response to the stone, causing severe, crampy pain (renal or ureteral colic) in the flank

913
or lower back that often radiates to the groin or, in men, to the testis. The pain typically
comes in waves. A wave may last 20 to 60 minutes and then stop. The pain stops without
resuming again when the ureter relaxes or the stone passes into the bladder.

A kidney infection (pyelonephritis) produces swelling of the kidney tissue, which

stretches the renal capsule, causing steady, aching pain. Kidney tumors do not usually
cause pain until they have become very large.

Other disorders that cause pain in the flank include acute blockage of blood flow to the
kidney or intestine, ruptured and occasionally unruptured abdominal aortic aneurysms,
problems with the spine or spinal nerves, musculoskeletal injuries, and tumors that
involve the back of the abdomen (retroperitoneum).

Evaluation and Treatment

After noting symptoms, the doctor examines the person and usually obtains a urinalysis
to check for red blood cells or excess white blood cells, which suggest an infection, and a
urine culture when appropriate. A person with very severe, colicky pain and blood in the
urine is very likely to have a kidney stone. A person with milder, steady pain, tenderness
when the doctor taps over one kidney, fever, and excess white blood cells in the urine is
likely to have a kidney infection. If a kidney stone is suspected, the doctor usually obtains
a computed tomography (CT) scan to determine the size and location of the stone and
whether it significantly obstructs urine flow. An intravenous contrast agent is not used
for this CT scan. If the doctor is not sure of the cause of pain, often a CT scan that uses an
intravenous contrast agent or another imaging test is done.

The underlying disorder is treated. Mild pain can be relieved by taking acetaminophen
Some Trade Names
TYLENOL
or nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs). Pain from kidney stones may be
severe and may require use of intravenous opioids.

Swelling

Swelling results from accumulation of fluid in the tissues (edema). The swelling may
cause weight gain. Swelling is usually most noticeable in the ankles and feet, but it may
also involve the abdomen, lower back, hands, and face. If swelling is particularly severe,
fluid may accumulate in the lungs, causing difficulty breathing.

Causes

Swelling may occur if the kidneys are unable to excrete excess water and sodium from
the body, as in kidney failure. Swelling may also develop from a kidney disorder that
causes the loss of large amounts of blood protein (especially albumin) in the urine
(nephrotic syndrome). When the albumin level in the blood drops sufficiently, swelling
occurs as fluid leaks from the circulation into the tissues.

914
Other disorders may also cause swelling. Heart failure, caused by inadequate pumping
by the heart, signals the kidneys to retain salt and fluid, which may accumulate in
tissues. Advanced liver disease also signals the kidneys to retain salt and fluid; swelling is
worsened by the reduction in blood protein that occurs. This protein decrease causes
fluid to leak into the tissues. If swelling occurs in only one limb, the cause is probably
something related to the limb (such as a blood clot in a vein or an injury) rather than a
kidney, heart, or liver problem.

Evaluation and Treatment

Doctors usually assess the presence and degree of swelling by pressing on the person's
shins. If the skin retains the impression of the doctor's finger, extra fluid is present. The
person's symptoms and the doctor's physical examination suggest whether the kidneys,
liver, or heart is the cause, but doctors also obtain a urinalysis and blood tests of liver
and kidney function. If heart failure is suspected, a chest x-ray and sometimes an
echocardiogram are obtained. To diagnose nephrotic syndrome, doctors may assess
urinary loss of protein by calculating the ratio of total protein to creatinine in a urine
specimen.

The underlying disorder is treated when possible. Swelling can often be relieved by a
diuretic if the kidneys are working properly. If the kidneys are not working properly and
fluid has collected in the lungs, the person may need dialysis.

Increased Urination

Most people urinate about 4 to 6 times a day, mostly in the daytime. Normally, adults
pass between 3 cups (700 milliliters) and 2 quarts (2 liters) of urine a day. Infants may
pass as little as 1 cup (230 milliliters) per day. Urination can be increased if a person
produces an excess volume of urine or produces a normal volume of urine but feels the
need to go more often (urinary frequency).

Causes

Increased Volume: Excess urine can be caused by drinking too much fluid (polydipsia), by
taking diuretic drugs or substances that have a diuretic effect, such as alcohol or
caffeine, or by having a high level of sugar in the blood (as in diabetes mellitus). A rare
condition called diabetes insipidus causes excess urine because of problems with a brain
hormone called antidiuretic hormone (also called vasopressin). Antidiuretic hormone
helps the kidney reabsorb fluid. If too little antidiuretic hormone is produced (a condition
called central diabetes insipidus) or if the kidney is unable to properly respond to it
(nephrogenic diabetes insipidus), the person urinates excessively.

Increased Frequency: A frequent need to urinate without an increase in the total daily
output of urine can occur when something irritates or presses on the bladder. A urinary
tract infection (UTI) is the most common cause of bladder irritation. Rarer causes include
a stone or tumor in the bladder. A tumor or other mass (or even the uterus if a woman is
pregnant) pressing on the outside of the bladder can also cause a frequent urge to

915
urinate because the mass reduces the capacity of the bladder. An inability to fully empty
the bladder because of partial obstruction, often from an enlarged prostate (in men), can
produce frequency.

Evaluation and Treatment

The doctor asks about the use of diuretics. Symptoms such as pain or burning may
indicate infection. For men, the doctor will examine the prostate by putting a gloved,
lubricated finger in the man's rectum. If the prostate is enlarged, a blood test (prostate
specific antigen, or PSA, test) and sometimes a prostate ultrasound are done. The doctor
usually checks the urine for glucose (suggesting diabetes mellitus) and bacteria or excess
white blood cells (indicating infection). If the cause is not clear, the doctor may measure
levels of electrolytes in the blood and urine and sometimes perform imaging tests of the
kidney, ureters, or bladder (such as CT, ultrasound, or magnetic resonance imaging
[MRI]).

Treatment is directed at the underlying disorder.

Urinating at Night

Needing to urinate during the night (nocturia) is more common among older people. It
can contribute to sleep problems and to falls, especially if a person is rushing to the
bathroom or if the area is not well lit.

Causes

Nocturia may occur in the early stages of many kidney disorders. Nocturia is also
common in people with heart failure, liver failure, poorly controlled diabetes mellitus, or
diabetes insipidus. A person may have nocturia if the kidneys cannot concentrate urine
normally. Frequent urination of very small amounts at night may result when the flow of
urine into and through the urethra is obstructed and urine backs up in the bladder. An
enlarged prostate is the most common cause of obstruction in older men (see Prostate
Disorders: Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia (BPH)). Sometimes, however, the cause of
nocturia may simply be drinking a large amount of fluids, especially alcohol or
caffeinated beverages (such as coffee or tea) in the late evening.

Bed-wetting (enuresis) is normal in young children. After about age 5 or 6, it may

indicate a delay in the maturation of the muscles and nerves of the lower urinary tract,
which most often resolves without treatment. If bed-wetting persists, other causes are
considered, such as UTI, diabetes, inadequate control of the nerves of the bladder, or
psychologic causes.

Evaluation and Treatment

The cause of nocturia is often evident from the person's symptoms and the results of the
examination. In men, doctors examine the prostate. Testing may be needed, depending
on what possible causes are suspected.

916
Treatment is directed at the underlying disorder. In all people, minimizing intake of
fluids, alcohol, and caffeinated beverages during the late evening and voiding
immediately before going to bed may help limit nocturia.

Hesitating, Straining, and Dribbling

A hesitating start when urinating, a need to strain, a weak and trickling stream of urine,
and dribbling at the end of urination are common symptoms of a partially obstructed
urethra. In men, these symptoms are caused most commonly by an enlarged prostate
that compresses the urethra and less often by a narrowing (stricture) of the urethra.
Similar symptoms in a boy may mean that he was born with an abnormally narrow
urethra or has a urethra with an abnormally narrow external opening. The opening may
also be abnormally narrow in women.

A doctor examines the prostate by inserting a gloved, lubricated finger into the man's
rectum. If the prostate is enlarged, a blood test to measure the PSA level and sometimes
a prostate ultrasound are obtained. If a urethral stricture is suspected, the doctor may
insert a flexible viewing tube into the bladder (cystoscopy).

To treat an enlarged prostate, drugs or surgery can be used. To treat a urethral stricture
in a man, doctors may insert a catheter into the bladder through the penis and perform
dilation (stretching the urethra). It may be necessary to insert a hollow tube to hold the
urethra open (a stent). Surgeons may rebuild the urethra or perform other surgical
treatments.

Urgency

A compelling need to urinate (urgency), which may feel like almost constant painful
straining (tenesmus), can be caused by bladder irritation. Incontinence may occur if a
person does not urinate immediately. Urgency may be caused by a bladder infection.
Caffeine and alcohol use may contribute to urgency but rarely cause severe urgency by
themselves. Rarely, a poorly understood inflammation of the bladder (interstitial cystitis)
is the cause.

Doctors can usually determine the cause of urgency by the person's symptoms, the
results of the physical examination, and urinalysis. If infection is suspected, urine culture
may be needed. Sometimes, particularly if interstitial cystitis is suspected, cystoscopy
and bladder biopsy are necessary.

Treatment is directed at the underlying disorder.

Incontinence

An uncontrollable loss of urine (incontinence) can have a variety of causes

Blood in the Urine

917
Blood in the urine can make the urine appear red or brown, depending on the amount of
blood, how long it has been in the urine, and how acidic the urine is. An amount of blood
too small to turn the urine red may be detected by chemical tests or microscopic
examination.

Causes

Blood in the urine may be caused by infection, stones, tumors, injuries, or other
problems in the bladder, urethra, ureters, or kidneys. About half of the people who have
blood in the urine without pain have a disorder affecting primarily certain specialized
blood vessels of the kidney (glomeruli). Sometimes, sickle cell anemia or a related
disorder is the cause. Blood in the urine with pain is often the result of a kidney, bladder,
or prostate infection or a stone or a blood clot moving through one of the ureters or the
urethra.

Evaluation and Treatment

Sometimes, a diagnosis can be made on the basis of the person's symptoms and the
results of the doctor's physical examination, urinalysis, and, if infection is suspected,
urine culture. Often, however, cystoscopy, imaging studies (such as CT, ultrasound, or
MRI), or other tests are needed. If a tumor is suspected, urine is examined for tumor
cells. A blood test for sickle cell anemia may be needed for people of African descent
who are not known to have the disease.

Treatment is directed at the underlying disorder.

Gas in the Urine

Passing gas (air) in the urine, a rare symptom, usually indicates an abnormal connection
(fistula) between the urinary tract and the intestine, which normally contains gas. A
fistula may be a complication of diverticulitis, other types of intestinal inflammation, an
abscess, or cancer. A fistula between the bladder and the vagina may also cause gas to
escape into the urine. Rarely, certain bacteria in the urine may produce gas.

Doctors perform a pelvic examination in affected women. To diagnose fistulas, doctors

may perform cystoscopy, sigmoidoscopy, or both and obtain imaging studies, such as CT,
MRI, or ultrasound.

Fistulas are usually repaired surgically.

Changes in the Urine's Color

Normally, dilute urine is nearly colorless. Concentrated urine is deep yellow. Colors other
than yellow are abnormal.

Food pigments can make the urine red, and drugs can produce a variety of colors:
brown, black, blue, green, orange, or red. Brown urine may contain broken-down
hemoglobin (the protein that carries oxygen in red blood cells). Broken-down

918
hemoglobin can leak into the urine when bleeding occurs in the kidney, bladder, or it can
be excreted into the urine as the result of certain disorders that damage or destroy red
blood cells (hemolytic anemia). Brown urine may contain muscle protein (myoglobin),
which is excreted into the urine after severe muscle injury. Urine may be red because of
pigments caused by porphyria, or black because of pigments produced by melanoma.

Cloudy urine suggests the presence of excess white blood cells from a UTI, the presence
of crystals of salts from uric acid or from phosphoric acid, or the presence of a vaginal
discharge.

Doctors usually can identify the cause of an abnormal color by examining the urine
under a microscope or by performing chemical tests. Treatment is unnecessary except if
needed to treat the underlying disorder.

Changes in the Urine's Odor

The odor of urine can vary and does not usually indicate a disorder except in people who
have certain rare metabolic disorders.

TASK 3; STATE THE CAUSES AND SYMPTOMS

919
SYMPTOMS OF GALLBLADDER PROBLEMS

People can go for years with digestive symptoms and never realize that they may be
related to a gallbladder problem. That's because they are so inter-related with other
digestive symptoms. Constipation is one of the most commonly missed ones.
The list provided here may be related to gallbladder but bear in mind that it could also be

something else.

The first four mentioned I feel are most indicative of gallbladder issues. It is not necessary
to have all or many symptoms to have gallbladder problems but the more you have from
this list, the more confirmation you have that the gallbladder is involved. Please note that
it is still adviseable to consult your doctor for an accurate diagnosis. Gallbladder attack
symptoms are listed below and again with more detailed explanation when you answer the
three-minute gall bladder symptom questionnaire at the top of this page. To get a clearer
picture of the causes of gall bladder symptoms check out risk factors for gallbladder
disease.

 Pain or tenderness under the rib cage on the right side

 Pain between shoulder blades
 Stools light or chalky colored
 Indigestion after eating, especially fatty or greasy foods
 Nausea
 Dizziness
 Bloating
 Gas
 Burping or belching
 Feeling of fullness or food not digesting
 Diarrhea (or alternating from soft to watery)
 Constipation
 Headache over eyes, especially right
 Bitter fluid comes up after eating
 Frequent use of laxatives

GALLBLADDER ATTACK SYMPTOMS

specifically

Please note that if you are in severe pain and particularly if your attack symptoms are
accompanied by fever DO SEEK MEDICAL ATTENTION IMMEDIATELY. The
following symptoms are typical of a gallbladder attack.

 Moderate to severe pain under the right side of the rib cage
 Pain may radiate through to the back or to the right shoulder

920
  Severe upper abdominal pain (biliary colic)
 Nausea
 Queasiness
 Vomiting
 Gas
 Burping or belching
 Attacks are often at night
 Attacks often occur after overeating
 Pain will often but not always follow a meal with fats or grease
 Pain may be worse with deep inhalation
 Attacks can last from 15 minutes to 15 hours

SYMPTOMS OF GALLSTONES

Symtpoms of a gallbladder attack are often caused by gallbladder stones. A stone may
block the neck of the gallbladder or get stuck in a bile duct inhibiting the flow of bile or
possibly causing a backing up of bile. However, short of causing an actual attack, stones
may be present for years and never cause any symptoms at all. "Biliary pain can occur in
about a third of the gallstone patients" (which leaves two thirds NOT experiencing pain)
and "sometimes the gallstone symptoms are difficult to differentiate from that of
dyspepsia." (indigestion)3 The gallstones can impair the functioning of the gallbladder,
however, which can result in any of the common gallbladder symptoms.

Gall bladder symptoms can look and feel the same with or without stones. Therefore, all
of the symptoms on listed on this page can accompany gallstones and gallstones can also
be asymptomatic meaning you do not have any symptoms. These are called silent
gallstones.

TASK 4; DISCUSS DIETARY MANAGEMENT, MODIFIED DIETS AND

COUNSELING OF THE NAMED DISORDERS

Diet
 The best general eating principles are outlined on pages 20 to 28 of Dr Cabot's
"Healthy Liver & Bowel Book" or following the eight week program found in "The
Liver Cleansing Diet"
 Try to maintain a normal body weight. If overweight follow the program in "Can't
Lose Weight? Unlock the Secrets that Keep you Fat"
 Include often - high fiber foods like wholegrains, legumes, bran, raw fruits and
vegetables, especially apples and pears; also low-fat yoghurt; eggs and fish.
 Aim to limit your dairy product intake such as cow's milk, cream, processed
cheese and butter. Opt for organic yogurt and cheese such as parmesan, ricotta
and cottage.
 Avoid foods that contain high counts of bacteria or fungi – these are all dairy
products, preserved meats, delicatessen meats, hamburger meats, smoked meats,
and processed or junk foods. This is because these foods will trigger or exacerbate
gall bladder infections.

921
  Avoid saturated animal fats including fatty meats, butter, cream, ice cream,
cheese, chocolate, biscuits, fried foods (most gall stones are composed of
cholesterol); refined sugars and refined carbohydrates.
 Include healthy fats such as cold pressed nut and seed oils and foods rich in
essential fats such as cold water fish, avocados etc. Good fats are important for the
health of the gall bladder. An extremely low fat/no fat diet is NOT recommended.
 We also recommend that you avoid red meat for about three months
 Avoid artificial sweeteners - see www.dorway.com
 Drink plenty of filtered water throughout the day – 8 to10 glasses at least.

PROTEIN
Protein may be limited to 0.6 grams per kilogram ideal body weight per day. If the
patient simply cannot adhere to this restriction, then 0.75 grams per kilogram ideal body
weight per day. For your information, the Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA) for
protein in healthy persons is 0.8 grams per kilogram body weight per day. One can see
there is very little difference in the normal diet for healthy individuals and the diet that is
recommended to delay the progression of kidney disease. People probably eat twice the
amount of protein needed to be healthy.
Here is an example of how the protein in the diet would be figured:
A man 5’7” tall and 150 pounds (70 kilos)
0.6 grams X 70 kilos = 42 grams protein per day
0.75 grams X 70 kilos = 52 grams protein per day
Here are some samples of protein in foods:
1 egg = 7 grams protein
1 chicken thigh = 14 grams protein
8 ounces skim milk = 8 grams protein
1 slice bread = 2 grams protein
1 cup cooked rice = 4 grams protein
1/2 cup corn = 2 grams protein
CALORIES
According to the National Kidney Foundation Guidelines, calories in this special diet
should be 35 calories per kilogram per day for those less than 60 years of age and 30
calories per kilogram per day for those over 60 years of age. Calories are found in
carbohydrates, protein, fats and alcohol. As alcohol is not a necessary nutrient, it is not
recommended. People with diabetes may need to eat more calories from carbohydrates
to prevent weight loss. The medication to control blood sugar may need to be adjusted
and/or increased.
POTASSIUM
Potassium is not usually restricted until urine output begins to decrease. Sometimes
people with diabetes may need to have potassium limited.
Foods high in potassium are:
Bananas, Oranges, Orange Juice, Milk, Prunes, Prune Juice, Tomato Juice, Tomato Sauce,
Nuts, Chocolate, Dried Peas and Beans
SODIUM AND BLOOD PRESSURE

922
High sodium foods can increase blood pressure. High blood pressure is one of the major
causes of kidney disease. New research tells us strict blood pressure control is important.
Ask your doctor what your target blood pressure should be. A person may require more
than one high blood pressure medicine. The first line of high blood pressure medication
is called an “ace inhibitor.” This may improve a condition known as “proteinuria” or
protein in the urine. This can affect diabetics and non-diabetics with high blood pressure.
Some persons need a diuretic or “water pill” to help control high blood pressure.
High sodium foods to avoid include:
Salt, Bacon, Ham, Corned Beef, Pepperoni, Sausage, Pizza, Chinese Food, Fast Foods,
Pickles, Cheese, Soy Sauce, Canned Soups, Potato Chips, Fritos, Cheetos
FLUID RESTRICTION
There is usually no restriction in the amount of fluids you can drink until severe kidney
disease (Stage 4 or 5) is reached. The amount of urine your kidneys can make will usually
not decrease until it is almost time to begin dialysis. It is called “kidney failure” because
eventually the kidneys fail to make urine.
PHOSPHORUS
Phosphorus is a mineral found in almost all foods. Normal kidneys will balance the
amount of phosphorus in our bodies. However, when the kidneys fail to eliminate this in
the urine, the phosphorus will increase in the blood. High phosphorus foods will need to
be limited and/or avoided. A medication called a phosphate binder (such as Oscal,
Phoslo and Tums) may be ordered by your physician to be taken every time you eat. This
medication will bind the phosphorus in the food and eliminate it in the stool. Control of
phosphorus is very difficult for kidney disease patients. Ignoring this problem can lead to
bone disease with pain in the back and joints.
High phosphorus foods to eliminate are:
Milk (any kind) - Start learning to use a milk substitute like Cremora (powdered) or
Coffeemate (liquid) - Beans (red, black, white), Black Eyed Peas, Lima Beans, Nuts,
Chocolate, Yogurt, Cheese, Liver, Sardines, Desserts made with milk
ANEMIA
Healthy kidneys make a hormone that helps make red blood cells. One of the symptoms
of kidney disease is anemia, which causes weakness, tiredness and shortness of breath.
Your kidney doctor may give you an injection called “Procrit.” This may help improve
your anemia. The doctor may also order iron injections because in order to make red
blood cells, you will need enough iron. Unfortunately, in some people the special diet
will not provide enough iron and iron pills would be taken.
VITAMINS
Diseases of the heart and blood vessels remain the number one health problem in the
U.S. Recently, a new risk factor has been identified in kidney disease patients. It is an
amino acid called homocysteine. Over 75 percent of dialysis patients have increased
homocysteine levels. Too much homocysteine in the blood has been found to be
associated with increased risk of heart disease, stroke and blood vessel disease. Studies
have shown that homocysteine levels in the blood are strongly influenced by these
specific vitamins: Folic Acid, Vitamin B12 and Vitamin B6. The American Heart
Association has indicated that a reasonable therapeutic goal should be less than 10

923
micromoles per liter. Ask your kidney doctor if you should be taking a special vitamin to
help prevent high levels of homocysteine.
DIABETICS
Since about 40 percent of all kidney disease patients are diabetic, it is important to know
about good control of your blood sugar. There is a special blood test called a
“hemoglobin A1C.” This test tells what your blood sugars have been in the past two to
three months. The normal range is 4.5 to 6.0 percent. Poor control of blood sugar
contributes to the progression of your kidney disease. Be sure to ask your doctor how
you are doing with blood sugar control. It may be necessary to be referred to a diabetes
educator for help.
Sample Menu: 40-50 grams protein
(For non diabetic man 5’7” tall and 150 pounds (70 kilos) with CKD)
BREAKFAST
• 1/2 cup (4 ounces) orange juice • 1 English muffin or 2 slices bread
• At least one tablespoon margarine with jelly
• Coffee or tea with non-dairy creamer and sugar
SNACK
• 2 canned pear halves in heavy syrup
LUNCH
• 2 slices white bread • At least 2 tablespoons mayonnaise with lettuce and tomato
• 1 ounce chicken (such as a small thigh) or 1 hard boiled egg
• 2 canned peach halves in heavy syrup
• 7-UP, lemonade or Hawaiian Punch
SNACK
• Baked apple with 1/2 cup non-dairy whipped topping
DINNER
• 3-4 ounces steak (weigh after cooking, without bone) , sauté in tablespoons olive oil
• 1 small baked potato with at least 2 tablespoons margarine
• 1/2 cup fresh green beans, carrots or broccoli with margarine
• Lettuce, onions, cucumbers, green pepper
• At least 2 tablespoons olive oil with vinegar or lemon
• 1/8 apple or cherry pie with 1/2 cup fruit sorbet (this is not sherbet)
• Iced tea with sugar and lemon or Sprite
SNACK
• 1 small banana and 10 vanilla wafers
• Coffee or tea with non-dairy creamer and sugar
Here is a sample daily menu which might form part of a healthy renal diet plan.
Please consult your renal dietitian for a personal renal diet suitable for you.
Breakfast
1 scrambled egg
2 slices toast with margarine

924
1/2 cup strawberries
1/2 cup milk
1 cup coffee
Lunch
Turkey sandwich: 2 oz turkey
2 slices bread, lettuce & mayonnaise
1/2 cup coleslaw
1/2 cup grapes
1 cup iced tea with lemon
Dinner
4 oz grilled pork chop
1/2 cup rice
1/2 cup green beans with onion and basil
1/2 cup applesauce
Dinner roll and margarine
1 cup water with lemon
Snack
1/4 cup tuna salad
5-6 No salt added crackers

Suggested Teaching/Learning Resources

- Textbooks
- Internet
- Charts
- Diet sheets
- Food composition tables
- Resource persons

Evaluation

1. explain the functions of the gall bladder and kidney

2. identify disorders of the gall bladder and kidney
3. state the causes and symptoms

925
15.2.14 CARDIOVASCULAR DISORDERS

Specific Objectives

By the end of sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:

a) identify the types of cardiovascular disorders

b) state the causes and symptoms of cardiovascular disorders
c) Discuss the dietary management and modified diets and counseling of
cardiovascular disorders.

UNIT TASKS

TASK 1; IDENTIFICATION OF TYPES OF CARDIOVASCULAR DISORDERS

Heart disease is a broad term used to describe a range of diseases that affect your heart,
and in some cases, your blood vessels. The various diseases that fall under the umbrella
of heart disease include diseases of your blood vessels, such as coronary artery disease;
heart rhythm problems (arrhythmias); and heart defects you're born with (congenital
heart defects).
The term "heart disease" is often used interchangeably with "cardiovascular disease" — a
term that generally refers to conditions that involve narrowed or blocked blood vessels
that can lead to a heart attack, chest pain (angina) or stroke. Other heart conditions,
such as infections and conditions that affect your heart's muscle, valves or beating
rhythm also are considered forms of heart disease.

926
Heart disease is the No. 1 worldwide killer of men and women, including in the United
States. For example, heart disease is responsible for 40 percent of all the deaths in the
United States, more than all forms of cancer combined. Many forms of heart disease can
be prevented or treated with healthy lifestyle choices and diet and exercise.
Heart and Cardiovascular Diseases
When you think of heart disease, usually people think of coronary artery disease
(narrowing of the arteries leading to the heart), but coronary artery disease is just one
type of cardiovascular disease.
Cardiovascular disease includes a number of conditions affecting the structures or
function of the heart. They can include:
 Coronary artery disease (including heart attack)
 Abnormal heart rhythms or arrythmias
 Heart failure
 Heart valve disease
 Congenital heart disease
 Heart muscle disease (cardiomyopathy)
 Pericardial disease
 Aorta disease and Marfan syndrome
 Vascular disease (blood vessel disease)

Cardiovascular disease is the leading cause of death for both men and women in the U.S.
It is important to learn about your heart to help prevent heart disease. And, if you have
cardiovascular disease, you can live a healthier, more active life by learning about your
disease and treatments and by becoming an active participant in your care.

Coronary Artery Disease

Coronary artery disease (CAD) is atherosclerosis, or hardening, of the arteries that
provide vital oxygen and nutrients to the heart.

927
Abnormal Heart Rhythms
The heart is an amazing organ. It beats in a steady, even rhythm, about 60 to 100 times
each minute (that's about 100,000 times each day!). But, sometimes your heart gets out
of rhythm. An irregular or abnormal heartbeat is called an arrhythmia. An arrhythmia
(also called a dysrhythmia) can involve a change in the rhythm, producing an uneven
heartbeat, or a change in the rate, causing a very slow or very fast heartbeat.

Heart Failure
The term "heart failure" can be frightening. It does not mean the heart has "failed" or
stopped working. It means the heart does not pump as well as it should.
Heart failure is a major health problem in the U.S., affecting nearly 5 million Americans.
About 550,000 people are diagnosed with heart failure each year. It is the leading cause
of hospitalization in people older than 65.

Heart Valve Disease

Your heart valves lie at the exit of each of your four heart chambers and maintain one-
way blood-flow through your heart.
Examples include mitral valve prolapse, aortic stenosis, and mitral valve insufficiency.

Congenital Heart Disease

Congenital heart disease is a type of defect in one or more structures of the heart or
blood vessels that occurs before birth.
It affects about 8 out of every 1,000 children. Congenital heart defects may produce
symptoms at birth, during childhood and sometimes not until adulthood.
In most cases scientists don't know why they occur. Heredity may play a role as well as
exposure to the fetus during pregnancy to certain viral infections, alcohol, or drugs.

Cardiomyopathies
Cardiomyopathies are diseases of the heart muscle itself. People with cardiomyopathies
-- sometimes called an enlarged heart -- have hearts that are abnormally enlarged,

928
thickened, and/or stiffened. As a result, the heart's ability to pump blood is weakened.
Without treatment, cardiomyopathies worsen over time and often lead to heart failure
and abnormal heart rhythms.

Common Cardiovascular Diseases

The four most common types of cardiovascular disease are coronary heart disease (which
includes heart attack and angina pectoris or chest pain), stroke, high blood pressure and
heart failure. Other forms include rheumatic fever/rheumatic heart disease, congenital
cardiovascular defects, arrhythmias (disorders of heart rhythm); diseases of the arteries,
arterioles and capillaries (including atherosclerosis and Kawasaki disease); bacterial
endocarditis; cardiomyopathy; valvular heart disease; diseases of pulmonary circulation;
diseases of veins and lymphatics and other diseases of the circulatory system.

Atherosclerosis occurs when the inner walls of the arteries become more narrow due to a
buildup of plaque, which consists of fats, cholesterol cellular waste products, calcium and
other substances. Plaques can grow large enough to significantly reduce the blood's flow
through an artery. But most of the damage occurs when they become fragile and rupture.
Plaques that rupture cause blood clots to form. If this blood clot blocks a blood vessel
that feeds the heart, it causes a heart attack. If it blocks a blood vessel that feeds the brain,
it causes a stroke.

High blood pressure, also called hypertension, means the pressure in your arteries is
consistently above the normal range. Blood pressure is the force of blood pushing against
blood vessel walls. It's written as two numbers, such as 122/78 mm Hg. The top (systolic)
number is the pressure when the heart beats. The bottom (diastolic) number is the pressure
when the heart is at rest. High blood pressure is a consistently elevated pressure of 140
mm Hg systolic or higher and/or 90 mm Hg diastolic or higher. The great danger is that
you usually can't tell you have high blood pressure! There are no signs and no one knows
exactly what causes it. High blood pressure can lead to hardened arteries, heart failure,
stroke or heart attack.

Heart attacks occur when the blood flow to a part of the heart is blocked, often by a blood
clot. If this clot cuts off the blood flow completely, the part of the heart muscle supplied
by that artery begins to die. Call 9-1-1 to get help fast if you feel any of the warning signs
of heart attack.

Heart failure means that your heart isn't pumping blood as well as it should. It keeps
working, but the body doesn't get all the blood and oxygen it needs. See a doctor if you
notice symptoms such as:

 Swelling in feet, ankles and/or legs, called "edema"

 Fatigue that can be due to fluid buildup in lungs, called "pulmonary congestion"

Stroke and TIA ("mini" stroke) happen when a blood vessel that supplies oxygen to a part
of the brain gets blocked. Then that part of the brain can't work and neither can the part of
the body it controls. A stroke can also occur when a blood vessel supplying part of the

929
brain ruptures. Call 9-1-1 to get help fast if you have any of the warning signs of stroke
and TIA.

TASK 2; CAUSES AND SYMPTOMS OF CARDIOVASCULAR

Heart Disease
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Causes of Heart Disease
Heart Disease Risk Factors
Cardiovascular disease can take many forms: high blood pressure, coronary artery
disease, valvular heart disease, stroke, or rheumatic fever/rheumatic heart disease.
According to the World Health Organization, cardiovascular disease causes 12 million
deaths in the world each year. Cardiovascular disease is responsible for half of all deaths
in the United States and other developed countries, and it is a main cause of death in
many developing countries as well. Overall, it is the leading cause of death in adults.

In the United States, more than 60 million Americans have some form of cardiovascular
disease. About 2600 people die every day of cardiovascular disease. Cancer, the second
largest killer, accounts for only half as many deaths.

Coronary artery disease, the most common form of cardiovascular disease, is the leading
cause of death in America today. But thanks to many studies involving thousands of
patients, researchers have found certain factors that play an important role in a person's
chances of developing heart disease. These are called risk factors.

Risk factors are divided into two categories: major and contributing. Major risk factors
are those that have been proven to increase your risk of heart disease. Contributing risk
factors are those that doctors think can lead to an increased risk of heart disease, but
their exact role has not been defined.

The more risk factors you have, the more likely you are to develop heart disease. Some
risk factors can be changed, treated, or modified, and some cannot. But by controlling as
many risk factors as possible, through lifestyle changes and/or medicines, you can
reduce your risk of heart disease.

Major Risk Factors

High Blood Pressure (Hypertension). High blood pressure increases your risk of heart
disease, heart attack, and stroke. Though other risk factors can lead to high blood
pressure, you can have it without having other risk factors. If you are obese, you smoke,

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or you have high blood cholesterol levels along with high blood pressure, your risk of
heart disease or stroke greatly increases.

Blood pressure can vary with activity and with age, but a healthy adult who is resting
generally has a systolic pressure reading between 120 and 130 and a diastolic pressure
reading between 80 and 90 (or below).

High Blood Cholesterol. One of the major risk factors for heart disease is high blood
cholesterol. Cholesterol, a fat-like substance carried in your blood, is found in all of your
body's cells. Your liver produces all of the cholesterol your body needs to form cell
membranes and to make certain hormones. Extra cholesterol enters your body when
you eat foods that come from animals (meats, eggs, and dairy products).

Although we often blame the cholesterol found in foods that we eat for raising blood
cholesterol, the main culprit is the saturated fat in food. (Be sure to read nutrition labels
carefully, because even though a food does not contain cholesterol it may still have large
amounts of saturated fat.) Foods rich in saturated fat include butter fat in milk products,
fat from red meat, and tropical oils such as coconut oil.

Too much low-density lipoprotein (LDL or "bad cholesterol") in the blood causes plaque
to form on artery walls, which starts a disease process called atherosclerosis. When
plaque builds up in the coronary arteries that supply blood to the heart, you are at
greater risk of having a heart attack.

Diabetes. Heart problems are the leading cause of death among people with diabetes,
especially in the case of adult-onset or Type II diabetes (also known as non-insulin-
dependent diabetes). Certain racial and ethnic groups (African Americans, Hispanics,
Asian and Pacific Islanders, and Native Americans) have a greater risk of developing
diabetes. The American Heart Association estimates that 65% of patients with diabetes
die of some form of cardiovascular disease. If you know that you have diabetes, you
should already be under a doctor's care, because good control of blood sugar levels can
reduce your risk. If you think you may have diabetes but are not sure, see your doctor
for tests.

Obesity and Overweight. Extra weight is thought to lead to increased total cholesterol
levels, high blood pressure, and an increased risk of coronary artery disease. Obesity
increases your chances of developing other risk factors for heart disease, especially high
blood pressure, high blood cholesterol, and diabetes.

Many doctors now measure obesity in terms of body mass index (BMI), which is a
formula of kilograms divided by height in meters squared (BMI =W [kg]/H [m2]).
According to the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute (NHLBI), being overweight is
defined as having a BMI over 25. Those with a number over 30 are considered obese.

Smoking. Most people know that cigarette and tabacco smoking increases your risk of
lung cancer, but fewer realize that it also greatly increases your risk of heart disease and
peripheral vascular disease (disease in the vessels that supply blood to the arms and

931
legs). According to the American Heart Association, more than 400,000 Americans die
each year of smoking-related illnesses. Many of these deaths are because of the effects
of smoking on the heart and blood vessels.

Research has shown that smoking increases heart rate, tightens major arteries, and can
create irregularities in the timing of heartbeats, all of which make your heart work
harder. Smoking also raises blood pressure, which increases the risk of stroke in people
who already have high blood pressure. Although nicotine is the main active agent in
cigarette smoke, other chemicals and compounds like tar and carbon monoxide are also
harmful to your heart in a variety of ways. These chemicals lead to the buildup of fatty
plaque in the arteries, possibly by injuring the vessel walls. And they also affect
cholesterol and levels of fibrinogen, which is a blood-clotting material. This increases the
risk of a blood clot that can lead to a heart attack.

Physical Inactivity. People who are not active have a greater risk of heart attack than do
people who exercise regularly. Exercise burns calories, helps to control cholesterol levels
and diabetes, and may lower blood pressure. Exercise also strengthens the heart muscle
and makes the arteries more flexible. Those who actively burn 500 to 3500 calories per
week, either at work or through exercise, can expect to live longer than people who do
not exercise. Even moderate-intensity exercise is helpful if done regularly.

Gender. Overall, men have a higher risk of heart attack than women. But the difference
narrows after women reach menopause. After the age of 65, the risk of heart disease is
about the same between the sexes when other risk factors are similar.

Heredity. Heart disease tends to run in families. For example, if your parents or siblings
had a heart or circulatory problem before age 55, then you are at greater risk for heart
disease than someone who does not have that family history. Risk factors (including high
blood pressure, diabetes, and obesity) may also be passed from one generation to
another.

Also, researchers have found that some forms of cardiovascular disease are more
common among certain racial and ethnic groups. For example, studies have shown that
African Americans have more severe high blood pressure and a greater risk of heart
disease than whites. The bulk of cardiovascular research for minorities has focused on
African Americans and Hispanics, with the white population used as a comparison. Risk
factors for cardiovascular disease in other minority groups are still being studied.

Age. Older age is a risk factor for heart disease. In fact, about 4 of every 5 deaths due to
heart disease occur in people older than 65.

As we age, our hearts tend to not work as well. The heart's walls may thicken, arteries
may stiffen and harden, and the heart is less able to pump blood to the muscles of the
body. Because of these changes, the risk of developing cardiovascular disease increases
with age. Because of their sex hormones, women are usually protected from heart
disease until menopause, and then their risk increases. Women 65 and older have about
the same risk of cardiovascular disease as men of the same age.

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Contributing Risk Factors

Stress. Stress is considered a contributing risk factor for heart disease because little is
known about its effects. The effects of emotional stress, behavior habits, and
socioeconomic status on the risk of heart disease and heart attack have not been
proven. That is because we all deal with stress differently: how much and in what way
stress affects us can vary from person to person.

Researchers have identified several reasons why stress may affect the heart.

Stressful situations raise your heart rate and blood pressure, increasing the your heart's
need for oxygen. This need for oxygen can bring on angina pectoris, or chest pain, in
people who already have heart disease.

During times of stress, the nervous system releases extra hormones (most often
adrenaline). These hormones raise blood pressure, which can injure the lining of the
arteries. When the arteries heal, the walls may harden or thicken, making is easier for
plaque to build up.

Stress also increases the amount of blood clotting factors that circulate in your blood,
and makes it more likely that a clot will form. Clots may then block an artery narrowed
by plaque and cause a heart attack.
Stress may also contribute to other risk factors. For example, people who are stressed
may overeat for comfort, start smoking, or smoke more than they normally would.

Sex hormones. Sex hormones appear to play a role in heart disease. Among women
younger than 40, heart disease is rare. But between the ages 40 and 65, around the time
when most women go through menopause, the chances that a woman will have a heart
attack greatly increase. From 65 onward, women make up about half of all heart attack
victims.

Birth control pills. Early types of birth control pills contained high levels of estrogen and
progestin, and taking these pills increased the chances of heart disease and stroke,
especially in women older than 35 who smoked. But birth control pills today contain
much lower doses of hormones. Birth control pills are considered safe for women
younger than 35, who do not smoke or have high blood pressure.

But if you smoke or have other risk factors, birth control pills will increase your risk of
heart disease and blood clots, especially if you are older than 35. According to the
American Heart Association, women who take birth control pills should have yearly
check-ups that test blood pressure, triglyceride, and glucose levels.

Alcohol. Studies have shown that the risk of heart disease in people who drink moderate
amounts of alcohol is lower than in nondrinkers. Experts say that moderate intake is an
average of one to two drinks per day for men and one drink per day for women. One
drink is defined as 1?fluid ounces (fl oz) of 80-proof spirits (such as bourbon, Scotch,

933
vodka, gin, etc.), 1 fl oz of 100-proof spirits, 4 fl oz of wine, or 12 fl oz of beer. But
drinking more than a moderate amount of alcohol can cause heart-related problems
such as high blood pressure, stroke, irregular heartbeats, and cardiomyopathy (disease
of the heart muscle). And the average drink has between 100 and 200 calories. Calories
from alcohol often add fat to the body, which may increase the risk of heart disease. It is
not recommended that nondrinkers start using alcohol or that drinkers increase the
amount that they drink.

It is never too late 梠 r too early 梩 o begin improving heart health. Some risk factors can
be controlled, while others cannot. But, by eliminating risk factors that you can change
and by properly managing those that you cannot control, you may greatly reduce your
risk of heart disease.
Little Fact:
Lipitor is the best selling prescription drug for lowering blood cholesterol levels.

What are the risk factors for cardiovascular disease?

The most important behavioural risk factors of heart disease and stroke are unhealthy diet,
physical inactivity and tobacco use. Behavioural risk factors are responsible for about
80% of coronary heart disease and cerebrovascular disease.

The effects of unhealthy diet and physical inactivity may show up in individuals as raised
blood pressure, raised blood glucose, raised blood lipids, and overweight and obesity;
these are called 'intermediate risk factors'.

There are also a number of underlying determinants of CVDs, or, if you like, "the causes
of the causes". These are a reflection of the major forces driving social, economic and
cultural change – globalization, urbanization, and population ageing. Other determinants
of CVDs are poverty and stress.

What are common symptoms of cardiovascular diseases?

Symptoms of heart attacks and strokes

Often, there are no symptoms of the underlying disease of the blood vessels. A heart
attack or stroke may be the first warning of underlying disease. Symptoms of a heart
attack include:

 pain or discomfort in the centre of the chest;

 pain or discomfort in the arms, the left shoulder, elbows, jaw, or back.

In addition the person may experience difficulty in breathing or shortness of breath;

feeling sick or vomiting; feeling light-headed or faint; breaking into a cold sweat; and
becoming pale. Women are more likely to have shortness of breath, nausea, vomiting, and
back or jaw pain.

934
The most common symptom of a stroke is sudden weakness of the face, arm, or leg, most
often on one side of the body. Other symptoms include sudden onset of: numbness of the
face, arm, or leg, especially on one side of the body; confusion, difficulty speaking or
understanding speech; difficulty seeing with one or both eyes; difficulty walking,
dizziness, loss of balance or coordination; severe headache with no known cause; and
fainting or unconsciousness.

People experiencing these symptoms should seek medical care immediately.

What is rheumatic heart disease?

Rheumatic heart disease is caused by damage to the heart valves and heart muscle from
the inflammation and scarring caused by rheumatic fever. Rheumatic fever is caused by
streptococcal bacteria, which usually begins as a sore throat or tonsillitis in children.

Rheumatic fever mostly affects children in developing countries, especially where poverty
is widespread. Globally, almost 2% of deaths from cardiovascular diseases is related to
rheumatic heart disease, while 42% of deaths from cardiovascular diseases is related to
ischaemic heart disease, and 34% to cerebrovascular disease.

Symptoms of rheumatic heart disease

 Symptoms of rheumatic heart disease include: shortness of breath, fatigue,

irregular heart beats, chest pain and fainting.
 Symptoms of rheumatic fever include: fever, pain and swelling of the joints,
nausea, stomach cramps and vomiting.

Treatment

 Early treatment of streptococcal sore throat can stop the development of rheumatic
fever. Regular long-term penicillin treatment can prevent repeat attacks of
rheumatic fever which give rise to rheumatic heart disease and can stop disease
progression in people whose heart valves are already damaged by the disease.

Why are cardiovascular diseases a development issue in low- and middle-income

countries?

 Over 80% of the world's deaths from CVDs occur in low- and middle-income
countries.
 People in low- and middle-income countries are more exposed to risk factors
leading to CVDs and other noncommunicable diseases and are less exposed to
prevention efforts than people in high-income countries.
 People in low- and middle-income countries who suffer from CVDs and other
noncommunicable diseases have less access to effective and equitable health care
services which respond to their needs (including early detection services).
 As a result, many people in low- and middle-income countries die younger from
CVDs and other noncommunicable diseases, often in their most productive years.
 The poorest people in low- and middle-income countries are affected most. At
household level, sufficient evidence is emerging to prove that CVDs and other
noncommunicable diseases contribute to poverty. For example, catastrophic health

935
 care expenditures for households with a family member with CVD can be 30 per
cent or more of annual household spending.
 At macro-economic level, CVDs place a heavy burden on the economies of low-
and middle-income countries. Heart disease, stroke and diabetes are estimated to
reduce GDP between 1 and 5% in low- and middle-income countries experiencing
rapid economic growth, as many people die prematurely. For example, it is
estimated that over the next 10 years (2006-2015), China will lose $558 billion in
foregone national income due to the combination of heart

 Tobacco Use: Smokers have twice the risk of heart attack as nonsmokers. One-fifth of
the annual 1,000,000 deaths from CVD are attributable to smoking. Surveillance data
indicate that an estimated 1,000,000 young people become "regular" smokers each year.
 Lack of Physical Activity: People who are sedentary have twice the risk of heart disease
as those who are physically active. Despite these risks, America remains a predominantly
sedentary society. Surveys show that more than half of American adults do not practice
the recommended level of physical activity, and more than one-fourth are completely
sedentary.
 Poor Nutrition: Between 20% and 30% of the nation’s adults (some 58 million people)
are obese and thus have a higher risk for heart disease, high blood pressure, high
cholesterol, and other chronic diseases and conditions such as diabetes. Only 27% of
women and 19% of men report eating the recommended five servings of fruits and
vegetables each day.

TASK 3; DISCUSS THE DIETARY MANAGEMENT AND MODIFIED DIETS AND

COUNSELING OF CARDIOVASCULAR DISORDERS.

Dietary changes
Making small changes to your diet is one of the simplest and most effective ways to
reduce your risk of CVD. You can do this by
 reducing fat in your diet, especially saturated and trans-fats
 eating more fruit and vegetables, wholegrain food and soluble fibre
 drinking alcohol in moderation
 reducing salt to maintain a lower blood pressure

Fat
Reducing the proportion of fat in your diet, especially saturated fat, can help to reduce
blood cholesterol levels. There's a strong link between high blood cholesterol levels and

936
the risk of heart disease. For those who don't have CVD or aren't considered to be at
high-risk of CVD, normal blood cholesterol levels are below 5mmol/litre. This can be
measured by your GP. People with average energy needs should aim to consume no
more than 70g/day of fat and less than 20g/day of saturated fat.
Trans-fatty acids are a particular kind of fat that are naturally occurring in meat and dairy
products but may also be produced when plant-based oils are hydrogenated to produce
solid spreads, such as margarines. They're often found in confectionery and processed
food like pastry, biscuits and cakes. They've been found to have the same effect on
cholesterol levels as saturated fat and should be avoided as much as possible.
Thankfully, many manufacturers have now modified processing techniques to keep these
fats to a minimum. Check labels for hydrogenated fats.
When reducing total fat, it's important not to cut out the heart healthy fats from your
diet including mono and poly-unsaturated fats and omega-3, mostly found in plant and
fish oils.
How to modify your fat intake:
 use butter and other spreads sparingly
 choose lean cuts of meat or trim fat off
 grill, bake or steam food rather than frying
 swap saturated fats such as butter for unsaturated oils such as sunflower, rapeseed
or olive oil
 limit your intake of trans-fats from processed food
 eat two to three portions of oily fish each week (eg sardines, mackerel, fresh tuna,
salmon)

Essential fatty acids

Essential fatty acids such as omega-3s, which are found in oily fish, have been shown to
reduce the risk of CVD by lowering blood triglycerides, reducing blood clotting and
regulating heart rhythm. For general heart health try to eat two portions of fish per
week, one of which should be oily.
Stanols and Sterols
Certain plant-derived compounds, called stanol or sterol esters have been shown to
reduce cholesterol levels. Spreads, yoghurts, drinks and soya 'dairy alternatives' are now
available containing these products. These sterol enriched foods may be particularly
useful for those with raised blood cholesterol which has remained elevated even after
making other dietary changes. Clinical trials show that when used regularly, they can
reduce high cholesterol levels.
Fruit and vegetables
Fruit and vegetables are rich in many essential nutrients including vitamins C and E and
carotenoids (which are all antioxidants). They may help to protect the heart by limiting
the damaging effects of cholesterol on body tissues. Aim for at least five servings of fruit
and vegetables a day. (See the Fruit and Vegetables article for more information on what
a serving is.)

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Wholegrains and fibre
Studies of large groups of people in the US have shown that diets rich in wholegrain food
can reduce the risk of CVD by up to 30 per cent. You can include wholegrain food in
every meal by choosing wholemeal bread and wholegrain varieties of pasta and rice.
Soluble dietary fibre, found in oats, beans and pulses, can help to lower LDL cholesterol.
These foods should be included as part of an overall healthy balanced diet, at least two
to three times each week.
Alcohol
Consuming moderate amounts of alcohol - between one and two units a day - has been
found to reduce the risk of CVD. Alcohol can increase HDL cholesterol and makes it less
likely that clots will form. However, high intakes of alcohol are associated with increased
risk. It's also worth noting that saving up your weekly units for a weekend binge doesn't
offer the same benefits.
Soya protein
A diet that includes at least 25g of soya per day has been associated with reductions in
LDL cholesterol and CVD. Soya isoflavones in particular have been shown to reduce CVD
risk as they inhibit the growth of cells that form artery-clogging plaque. Soya protein is
also an excellent substitute for meat and is available in a convenient and tasty form in
many ready-made meals. Another good source of soya protein is soya milk and yoghurt.

 Heart attacks and strokes are major–but preventable–killers worldwide.

 Over 80% of cardiovascular disease deaths take place in low-and middle-income
countries and occur almost equally in men and women. Cardiovascular risk of
women is particularly high after menopause.
 Tobacco use, an unhealthy diet, and physical inactivity increase the risk of heart
attacks and strokes.
 Cessation of tobacco use reduces the chance of a heart attack or stroke.
 Engaging in physical activity for at least 30 minutes every day of the week will
help to prevent heart attacks and strokes.
 Eating at least five servings of fruit and vegetables a day, and limiting your salt
intake to less than one teaspoon a day, also helps to prevent heart attacks and
strokes.
 High blood pressure has no symptoms, but can cause a sudden stroke or heart
attack. Have your blood pressure checked regularly.
 Diabetes increases the risk of heart attacks and stroke. If you have diabetes control
your blood pressure and blood sugar to minimize your risk.
 Being overweight increases the risk of heart attacks and strokes. To maintain an
ideal body weight, take regular physical activity and eat a healthy diet.
 Heart attacks and strokes can strike suddenly and can be fatal if assistance is not
sought immediately.

Suggested Teaching/Learning Resources

- Textbooks

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- Internet
- Charts
- Diet sheets
- Food composition tables
- Resource persons

Evaluation
a. identify the cardiovascular disorders
b. state the causes and symptoms of cardiovascular disorders
c. Discuss the dietary management and counseling of cardiovascular disorders.

15.2.15 SURGICAL AND BURN THERAPY

Specific Objectives
By the end of sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) define given terms
b) state the types and causes of burns
c) identify the feeding methods and planning of modified diets
a) explain the dietary management and counseling

UNIT TASKS

TASK 1; DEFINITION OF TERMS

Burns

Definition
Burns are injuries to tissues caused by heat, friction, electricity, radiation, or chemicals.

Description
Burns are characterized by degree, based on the severity of the tissue damage. A first-
degree burn causes redness and swelling in the outermost layers of skin (epidermis). A
second-degree burn involves redness, swelling and blistering, and the damage may extend
beneath the epidermis to deeper layers of skin (dermis). A third-degree burn, also called a
full-thickness burn, destroys the entire depth of skin, causing significant scarring. Damage
also may extend to the underlying fat, muscle, or bone.
The severity of the burn is also judged by the amount of body surface area (BSA)
involved. Health care workers use the "rule of nines" to determine the percentage of BSA
affected in patients more than 9 years old: each arm with its hand is 9% of BSA; each leg
with its foot is 18%; the front of the torso is 18%; the back of the torso, including the
buttocks, is 18%; the head and neck are 9%; and the genital area (perineum) is 1%. This

939
rule cannot be applied to a young child's body proportions, so BSA is estimated using the
palm of the patient's hand as a measure of 1% area.
The severity of the burn will determine not only the type of treatment, but also where the
burn patient should receive treatment. Minor burns may be treated at home or in a doctor's
office. These are defined as first- or second-degree burns covering less than 15% of an
adult's body or less than 10% of a child's body, or a third-degree burn on less than 2%
BSA. Moderate burns should be treated at a hospital. These are defined as first- or
second-degree burns covering 15%-25% of an adult's body or 10%-20% of a child's body,
or a third-degree burn on 2%-10% BSA. Critical, or major, burns are the most serious and
should be treated in a specialized burn unit of a hospital. These are defined as first- or
second-degree burns covering more than 25% of an adult's body or more than 20% of a
child's body, or a third-degree burn on more than 10% BSA. In addition, burns involving
the hands, feet, face, eyes, ears, or genitals are considered critical. Other factors influence
the level of treatment needed, including associated injuries such as bone fractures and
smoke inhalation, presence of a chronic disease, or a history of being abused. Also,
children and the elderly are more vulnerable to complications from burn injuries and
require more intensive care.

Debridement — The surgical removal of dead tissue.

Dermis — The basal layer of skin; it contains blood and lymphatic vessels, nerves, glands,
and hair follicles.
Epidermis — The outer portion of skin, made up of four or five superficial layers.
Shock — An abnormal condition resulting from low blood volume due to hemorrhage or
dehydration. Signs of shock include rapid pulse and breathing, and cool, moist, pale skin.

TASK 2; TYPES AND CAUSES OF BURNS

Causes and symptoms

Burns may be caused by even a brief encounter with heat greater than 120°F (49°C). The
source of this heat may be the sun (causing a sunburn), hot liquids, steam, fire, electricity,
friction (causing rug burns and rope burns), and chemicals (causing a caustic burn upon
contact).
Signs of a burn are localized redness, swelling, and pain. A severe burn will also blister.
The skin may also peel, appear white or charred, and feel numb. A burn may trigger a
headache and fever. Extensive burns may induce shock, the symptoms of which are
faintness, weakness, rapid pulse and breathing, pale and clammy skin, and bluish lips and
fingernails.

Diagnosis
A physician will diagnose a burn based upon visual examination, and will also ask the
patient or family members questions to determine the best treatment. He or she may also
check for smoke inhalation, carbon monoxide poisoning, cyanide poisoning, other event-
related trauma, or, if suspected, further evidence of child abuse.

940
Treatment
Burn treatment consists of relieving pain, preventing infection, and maintaining body
fluids, electrolytes, and calorie intake while the body heals. Treatment of chemical or
electrical burns is slightly different from the treatment of thermal burns but the objectives
are the same.

Thermal burn treatment

The first act of thermal burn treatment is to stop the burning process. This may be
accomplished by letting cool water run over the burned area or by soaking it in cool (not
cold) water. Ice should never be applied to the burn. Cool (not cold) wet compresses may
provide some pain relief when applied to small areas of first- and second-degree burns.
Butter, shortening, or similar salve should never be applied to the burn since it prevents
heat from escaping and drives the burning process deeper into the skin.
If the burn is minor, it may be cleaned gently with soap and water. Blisters should not be
broken. If the skin of the burned area is unbroken and it is not likely to be further irritated
by pressure or friction, the burn

There are three classifications of burns: first-degree, second-degree, and third-degree

burns.

should be left exposed to the air to promote healing. If the skin is broken or apt to be
disturbed, the burned area should be coated lightly with an antibacterial ointment and
covered with a sterile bandage. Aspirin, acetaminophen (Tylenol), or ibuprofen (Advil)
may be taken to ease pain and relieve inflammation. A doctor should be consulted if these
signs of infection appear: increased warmth, redness, pain, or swelling; pus or similar
drainage from the wound; swollen lymph nodes; or red streaks spreading away from the
burn.

Classification Of Burns
First-Degree The burned area is painful. The outer skin is
(Minor) reddened. Slight swelling is present.
Second-Degree The burned area is painful. The underskin is affected.
(Moderate) Blisters may form. The area may have a wet, shiny
appearance because of exposed tissue.
Third-Degree The burned area is insensitive due to the destruction
(Critical) of nerve endings. Skin is destroyed. Muscle tissues
and bone underneath may be damaged. The area
may be charred, white, or grayish in color.

In situations where a person has received moderate or critical burns, lifesaving measures
take precedence over burn treatment and emergency medical assistance must be called. A
person with serious burns may stop breathing, and artificial respiration (also called
mouth-to-mouth resuscitation or rescue breathing) should be administered immediately.
Also, a person with burns covering more than 12% BSA is likely to go into shock; this

941
condition may be prevented by laying the person flat and elevating the feet about 12 in
(30 cm). Burned arms and hands should also be raised higher than the person's heart.
In rescues, a blanket may be used to smother any flames as the person is removed from
danger. The person whose clothing is on fire should "stop, drop, and roll" or be assisted in
lying flat on the ground and rolling to put out the fire. Afterwards, only burnt clothing that
comes off easily should be removed; any clothing embedded in the burn should not be
disturbed. Removing any smoldering apparel and covering the person with a light, cool,
wet cloth, such as a sheet but not a blanket or towel, will stop the burning process.
At the hospital, the staff will provide further medical treatment. A tube to aid breathing
may be inserted if the patient's airways or lungs have been damaged, as can happen during
an explosion or a fire in a enclosed space. Also, because burns dramatically deplete the
body of fluids, replacement fluids are administered intravenously. The patient is also
given antibiotics intravenously to prevent infection, and he or she may also receive a
tetanus shot, depending on his or her immunization history. Once the burned area is
cleaned and treated with antibiotic cream or ointment, it is covered in sterile bandages,
which are changed two to three times a day. Surgical removal of dead tissue
(debridement) also takes place. As the burns heal, thick, taut scabs (eschar) form, which
the doctor may have to cut to improve blood flow to the more elastic healthy tissue
beneath. The patient will also undergo physical and occupational therapy to keep the
burned areas from becoming inflexible and to minimize scarring.
In cases where the skin has been so damaged that it cannot properly heal, a skin graft is
usually performed. A skin graft involves taking a piece of skin from an unburned portion
of the patient's body (autograft) and transplanting it to the burned area. When doctors
cannot immediately use the patient's own skin, a temporary graft is performed using the
skin of a human donor (allograft), either alive or dead, or the skin of an animal
(xenograft), usually that of a pig.
The burn victim also may be placed in a hyperbaric chamber, if one is available. In a
hyperbaric chamber (which can be a specialized room or enclosed space), the patient is
exposed to pure oxygen under high pressure, which can aid in healing. However, for this
therapy to be effective, the patient must be placed in a chamber within 24 hours of being
burned.

Chemical burn treatment

Burns from liquid chemicals must be rinsed with cool water for at least 15 minutes to stop
the burning process. Any burn to the eye must be similarly flushed with water. In cases of
burns from dry chemicals such as lime, the powder should be completely brushed away
before the area is washed. Any clothing which may have absorbed the chemical should be
removed. The burn should then be loosely covered with a sterile gauze pad and the person
taken to the hospital for further treatment. A physician may be able to neutralize the
offending chemical with another before treating the burn like a thermal burn of similar
severity.

Electrical burn treatment

Before electrical burns are treated at the site of the accident, the power source must be
disconnected if possible and the victim moved away from it to keep the person giving aid
from being electrocuted. Lifesaving measures again take priority over burn treatment, so
breathing must be checked and assisted if necessary. Electrical burns should be loosely
covered with sterile gauze pads and the person taken to the hospital for further treatment.

942
Alternative treatment
In addition to the excellent treatment of burns provided by traditional medicine, some
alternative approaches may be helpful as well. (Major burns should always be treated by a
medical practitioner.) The homeopathic remedies Cantharis and Causticum can assist in
burn healing. A number of botanical remedies, applied topically, can also help burns heal.
These include aloe (Aloe barbadensis), oil of St.-John's-wort (Hypericum perforatum),
calendula (Calendula officinalis), comfrey (Symphytum officinale), and tea tree oil
(Melaleuca spp.). Supplementing the diet with vitamin C, vitamin E, and zinc also is
beneficial for wound healing.

Prognosis
The prognosis is dependent upon the degree of the burn, the amount of body surface
covered, whether critical body parts were affected, any additional injuries or
complications like infection, and the promptness of medical treatment. Minor burns may
heal in five to 10 days with no scarring. Moderate burns may heal in 10-14 days and may
leave scarring. Critical or major burns take more than 14 days to heal and will leave
significant scarring. Scar tissue may limit mobility and functionality, but physical therapy
may overcome these limitations. In some cases, additional surgery may be advisable to
remove scar tissue and restore appearance.

TASK 3; FEEDING METHODS AND PLANNING OF MODIFIED DIETS

The Burn Recovery Diet

In general, patients get a high-protein diet that also includes fat, plus vitamin and mineral
supplements.

Protein
Patients need a lot of protein while healing because the body will lose
protein through the burn wounds and muscles will break down trying to
produce extra energy for the healing process. The additional protein helps
rebuild lost muscle.
Carbohydrates
They also need more carbohydrates in their diet when recovering from a
burn. In fact, carbohydrates make up the bulk of their nutrition. The body
will turn the carbohydrates into glucose. Burn wounds use glucose for
energy. In fact, they can’t use any other source. By providing this energy
for healing, carbohydrates allow the protein eaten to rebuild muscle,
rather than be used as fuel.
Fat
We also include fat in the diet to provide essential fatty acids and extra
calories. But normally no more than 30% of the calories will come from

943
fat. Too much fat can weaken the immune system.

Patients should follow the diet plan. It’s very important that they do everything they can
to get proper nutrition. An adequate diet can reduce the damaging loss of lean body mass
and stored energy and protein. An inadequate diet can slow the healing process, cause too
much weight loss, and suppress the immune system.

Protein
Protein is important for building body tissue and synthesizing enzymes. Enzymes are
specialized organic substances that act to regulate the speed of chemical reactions in
human metabolism. Twenty amino acids of the 100 or more occurring in nature make up
proteins. Animals and plants are quick and available sources of what are termed
"essential" amino acids; they are called essential because the body cannot build them
internally. Normal growth and health are dependent upon these essential amino acids.
Dietitians recommend that a healthy diet includes 10-20% of daily calories from protein
(poultry, fish, dairy, and vegetable sources).
Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates provide most of the energy in the majority of human diets. Foods rich in
carbohydrates are usually the most abundant and cheapest. The carbohydrates
containing the most nutrients are the complex carbohydrates, such as unrefined grains,
tubers, vegetables, and fruits. Simple carbohydrates or sugars should be eaten in
moderation, since they are high in calories but low in nutrients.
Carbohydrates are needed in the form of glucose by the brain and central nervous
system (CNS). A minimum of 1.6 oz (50 g) of glucose is required daily for proper
functioning of the CNS. If the body is denied carbohydrates, it will use ketone bodies for
energy, but this is not a good energy source for the body, and may have unfavorable
health effects.
Fats
Fats supply energy and essential fatty acids and promote absorption of the fat-soluble
vitamins A, D, E, and K. The accumulation of body fat has become a serious health
concern; over 50% of Americans are considered overweight. Fats are compact fuels
efficiently stored in the body for later use when carbohydrates are in short supply. Fats
produce more than twice as much energy as carbohydrates, approximately 9 Kcals/gram
versus about 4 Kcals/gram for carbohydrate and protein. Dietary fats are broken down
into fatty acids that pass into the blood. These fatty acids are either saturated or
unsaturated (monounsaturated, polyunsaturated, or trans-unsaturated). Saturated fats,
derived mostly from animal sources, have been found to raise the level of total
cholesterol in the bloodstream, and certain unsaturated fats tend to lower the level of
total cholesterol in the blood stream. For example, monounsaturated fats like oleic acid
in olive oil reduce low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (bad cholesterol) and increase
high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (good cholesterol), thus reducing the risk of heart
disease. Saturated and trans-unsaturated fatty acids both raise serum cholesterol; in
contrast, neither monounsaturated nor polyunsaturated fats have this effect.
Inorganic mineral nutrients

944
Inorganic mineral nutrients are required to build tissues. They are also important for
muscle contractions, nerve reactions, and blood clotting. All of these mineral nutrients
must be supplied in the diet. Minerals are categorized as major elements or trace
elements. Major elements consist of calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, iron, iodine, and
potassium. Trace elements include copper, cobalt, manganese, fluorine, and zinc.
Vitamins
Vitamins increase the breakdown and absorption of proteins, carbohydrates, and fats.
Certain vitamins help form blood cells, hormones, nervous system chemicals, and
genetic materials. Vitamins are classified into two groups: fat-soluble vitamins, such as A,
D, E, and K; and water-soluble vitamins, such as vitamin C and the B-vitamin complex.
Fat-soluble vitamins are usually found in foods that contain fat. Because excess amounts
are stored in the body's fat and in the liver and kidneys, fat-soluble vitamins do not have
to be consumed every day. The water-soluble vitamins, C and B complex, cannot be
stored and must be consumed daily to replenish the body's supply.

TASK 4; DIETARY MANAGEMENT AND COUNSELING

BURN THERAPY

the management of a patient burned by flames, hot liquids, explosives, chemicals, or

electric current. Partial-thickness burns may be first degree, involving only the epidermis,
or second degree, involving the epidermis and dermis, whereas full-thickness or third-
degree burns involve all skin layers. Second-degree burns covering more than 30% of the
body and third-degree burns on the face and extremities, or more than 10% of the body
surface, are critical. In the first 48 hours of a severe burn, vascular fluid, sodium chloride,
and protein rapidly pass into the affected area, causing local edema, blister formation,
hypovolemia, hypoproteinemia, hyponatremia, hyperkalemia, hypotension, and oliguria.
The initial hypovolemic stage is followed by a shift of fluid in the opposite direction,
resulting in diuresis, increased blood volume, and decreased serum electrolyte level.
Potential complications in serious burns include circulatory collapse, renal damage,
gastric atony, paralytic ileus, infections, septic shock, pneumonia, and stress ulcer
(Curling's ulcer), characterized by hematemesis and peritonitis.

METHOD

The extent of the burn; its cause; its time of occurrence; and the patient's age, weight,
allergies, and any preexisting illness are recorded. If respiratory distress is present,
endotracheal intubation or tracheostomy may be performed. Specimens are obtained for
urinalysis; blood type; blood urea nitrogen level; hematocrit; prothrombin time;
electrolyte levels; blood gases; and cultures of nasal, throat, wound, and stool organisms.
Parenteral fluids and electrolytes, antibiotics, tetanus prophylaxis, and pain medication are
administered as ordered; large doses of analgesics and sedatives are avoided when

945
possible to prevent depression of respiration and masking of symptoms. An indwelling
urinary catheter is inserted, and a nasogastric tube and catheter for monitoring central
venous pressure may be indicated.

Local treatment of the burn may use the closed method or the more frequently used open
method, in which the injured area is cleaned and exposed to air and the patient is kept
warm by a blanket or linen over a bed cradle or by a heater or lamp. In the closed method,
a germicidal or bacteriostatic cream, ointment, or solution is applied to the burn, and the
wound is covered with a dressing. A porcine heterograft may be used to cover the wound
temporarily. This technique prevents fluid loss and reduces the risk of infection, but the
graft dries in 1 or 2 days and may pull and cause pain. Newly developed artificial skin
holds great promise for treating severe burns.

During the acute stage of a burn, the patient's blood pressure, pulse, respiration, and
cerebrovascular pressure are checked every 30 to 60 minutes, and the rectal temperature
every 2 to 4 hours. Oral hygiene and assistance in turning, coughing, and deep breathing
are provided every 2 hours, and the patient's sensorium is evaluated hourly. If oral fluids
are ordered, juices and carbonated drinks are offered, but plain water and ice chips are
avoided. Fluid intake and output are measured hourly; if a child excretes less than 1
mL/kg of urine or an adult less than 0.5 mL/kg, a diuretic or an increase in IV infusion of
fluid may be necessary. Blood transfusions, steroid therapy, and antipyretics may be
ordered; aspirin is contraindicated. Excessive chilling and exposure to upper respiratory
and wound infections are carefully prevented. Burned extremities are elevated, and
contractures are prevented by using firm supports to keep affected areas properly aligned.
The patient is weighed daily at the same time on the same scale, and, after the initial acute
period, an adequate intake of a high-calorie, high-protein diet is encouraged. To stimulate
appetite, the patient is offered frequent small meals of preferred foods and beverages that
are high in potassium. Vitamins may be required. Tranquilizers may be given before
wound care, but narcotics for pain usually are not needed after the acute phase. The
patient is encouraged to stand for a few minutes every hour or every second hour and is
generally able to walk in 7 to 10 days, but convalescence may be prolonged. Burn patients
often are frightened, withdrawn, and disoriented initially, but after a few days they may
become angry, depressed, or rebellious and need emotional support to help them
cooperate with their treatment and rehabilitation. Extensive plastic surgery and repeated
skin grafts may be required to restore function and the physical appearance of burn
patients.

Prevention
Burns are commonly received in residential fires. Properly placed and working smoke
detectors in combination with rapid evacuation plans will minimize a person's exposure to
smoke and flames in the event of a fire. Children must be taught never to play with
matches, lighters, fireworks, gasoline, and cleaning fluids.
Burns by scalding with hot water or other liquids may be prevented by setting the water
heater thermostat no higher than 120°F (49°C), checking the temperature of bath water
before getting into the tub, and turning pot handles on the stove out of the reach of
children. Care should be used when removing covers from pans of steaming foods and
when uncovering or opening foods heated in a microwave oven.
Thermal burns are often received from electrical appliances. Care should be exercised
around stoves, space heaters, irons, and curling irons.

946
Sunburns may be avoided by the liberal use of a sunscreen containing either an opaque
active ingredient such as zinc oxide or titanium dioxide or a nonopaque active ingredient
such as PABA (para-aminobenzoic acid) or benzophenone. Hats, loose clothing, and
umbrellas also provide protection, especially between 10 A.M. and 3 P.M. when the most
damaging ultraviolet rays are present in direct sunlight.
Electrical burns may be prevented by covering unused electrical outlets with safety plugs
and keeping electrical cords away from infants and toddlers who might chew on them.
Persons should also seek shelter indoors during a thunderstorm to avoid being struck by
lightning.
Chemical burns may be prevented by wearing protective clothing, including gloves and
eyeshields. Chemical agents should always be used according to the manufacturer's
instructions and properly stored when not in use.

Suggested Teaching/Learning Resources

- Textbooks
- Internet
- Charts
- Diet sheets
- Food composition tables

Evaluation

1. define the following terms

a) Burns

b) Description
c) Debriefed
d) Shock

2. state the types and causes of burns

3. identify the feeding methods and planning of modified diets
4. explain the dietary management and counseling

15.2.14 CARDIOVASCULAR DISORDERS

Theory

15.2.14T Specific Objectives

By the end of sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
1. Identify the cardiovascular disorders
2. State the causes and symptoms of cardiovascular disorders
3. Discuss the dietary management and counseling of cardiovascular disorders.

15.2.16 HIV AND IDS

947
 Theory

15.2.16T Specific Objectives

By the end of sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
define given terms
1. state the causes and mode of HIV and Aids transmission
2. explain the signs and symptoms
3. discuss the dietary management and counseling

15.2.16 C Competence
The trainee should have the ability to:
 formulate and plan the dietary management for HIV and Aids
 counsel patients

Content
T ASK 1: DEFINITION OF TERMS .

HIV AND AIDS

AIDS
Acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS) is an infectious disease caused by the
human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). It was first recognized in the United States in
1981. AIDS is the advanced form of infection with the HIV virus, which may not cause
recognizable disease for a long period after the initial exposure (latency). No vaccine is
currently available to prevent HIV infection. At present, all forms of AIDS therapy are
focused on improving the quality and length of life for AIDS patients by slowing or
halting the replication of the virus and treating or preventing infections and cancers that
take advantage of a person's weakened immune system.

HIV

HIV stands for the Human Immunodeficiency Virus and is a 'Retrovirus'

 Acquired — because it is a condition that has to be contracted. It cannot be

inherited or transmitted through the genes.
 Immune — because it affects the body’s immune system, the part of the body that
fights off diseases.
 Deficiency — because it makes the immune system stop working properly.

 Syndrome — because people with AIDS experience a number of different

symptoms and opportunistic diseases.

TASK 2: CAUSES AND TRANSMISSION

Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) is a systemic viral infection that weakens the
body's ability to fight infection and can cause acquired immune deficiency syndrome
(AIDS, the last stage of HIV disease).

948
 HIV is spread by sexual contact with an infected person,
 By sharing needles and/or syringes (primarily for drug injection) with someone who
is infected
 Less commonly (and now very rarely in countries where blood is screened for HIV
antibodies), through transfusions of infected blood or blood clotting factors.
Babies born to HIV-infected women may become infected before or during birth or
through breast-feeding after birth.

T ASK 3: SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS

1. depression
2. Diarrhea
Diarrhea can be a life threatening problem if not treated correctly and
rapidly
3. Thrush
most common HIV opportunistic infection
4. Weight Loss
Weight loss is a common problem in HIV and AIDS. Weight loss is a serious problem
5. Lipodystrophy
Fat redistribution syndrome
6. Lactic Acidosis
This emerging problem can make you sick, miserable, and can even be fatal.
7. Sinus Infections
Your head feels congested and full. The pressure behind your eyes makes it hard to
concentrate. The pounding in your head and face is relentless.
8. Fatigue
Fatigue is a common problem in HIV and Aids
9. Nausea / Vomiting
Nausea is not only aggravating and can make you feel sick, when associated with
vomiting it can be dangerous
10. Burning and Tingling of the Feet and Hands
That burning in your feet can be very painful.

Explaining Some of the frequently reported symptoms of HIV/AIDS infections are:

 constant or rapid unexplained weight loss of more than 10 pounds in two months;
lack of appetite
 unexplained long-lasting diarrhea or bloody stools
 constant fatigue that is not associated with physical activity or mental depression
 persistent fevers, night sweats, dry cough, or difficulty breathing for more than
two weeks
 lightheadedness, dizziness, headaches, mental disorders
 a thick, whitish coating of yeast on the tongue or mouth that cannot be scraped off
(This is called "thrush.")

949
  severe or recurring vaginal yeast infections and chronic pelvic inflammatory
disease (PID)
 purplish growths or blotches on or under the skin, inside the mouth, or on the
nose, eyelids, or rectum
 swollen glands or enlarged lymph nodes in the neck, armpits, or groin for more
than a month

TASK 4: DIETARY MANAGEMENT AND COUNSELING

If you are HIV negative

The following preventative measures might seem personally restrictive, but they are
effective in the prevention of HIV infection:

8. Do not have sexual intercourse with people known or suspected to be infected

with AIDS; multiple partners; a person who has multiple partners; or people who
use intravenous (IV) drugs. Always know the HIV status of any sexual partner.
Do not engage in unprotected sex unless you're absolutely certain your partner is
not infected with HIV.
9. Do not use intravenous drugs. If you do use IV drugs, do not share needles or
syringes. ..
10. Avoid exposure to blood from injuries or nosebleeds where the HIV status of the
bleeding person is unknown. Using protective clothing, masks and goggles may
be appropriate when caring for people who are injured.
11. The blood for transfusions should be well screened .
12. HIV positive women should be counseled, before becoming pregnant, about the
risk to unborn babies. Pregnant women with HIV should be made aware of
medical advances that may help prevent the fetus from becoming infected. ..
13. Use condoms to prevent HIV transmission. .
14. Get tested immediately if you know or think that you have had contact with
someone who has HIV. Seek medical treatment if the result is positive because
early treatment may help.

If you are HIV positive

If you have been diagnosed with HIV/AIDS, the following preventative measures can
help you protect others:

7. The only way to protect your sexual partner from HIV infection is to avoid
practices that expose them to infected body fluids. Always use a new latex
condom for any sexual activity.
8. If you are pregnant, seek medical treatment immediately. The HIV infection can
be passed on to your baby but if treatment is received during pregnancy the risk
to the baby can be reduced by as much as two-thirds. Delivery of the baby by
cesarean section cuts the risk even further.
9. Tell the people who need to know about your diagnosis. It is important to tell any
previous or current partners that you are HIV positive. .
10. If you use intravenous drugs, never share your needles and syringes with anyone
else as they may contain traces of HIV infected blood.
11. Do not donate blood or organs.

950
12. Do not share personal items such as razor blades or toothbrushes. These items
may also contain traces of HIV-infected blood.

When infected with the HIV virus the body's defence system - the immune system - works
harder to fight infection. This increases energy and nutrient requirements. Further
infection and fever also increase the body's demand for food. Once people are infected
with HIV they have to eat more to meet these extra energy and nutrient needs. Such needs
will increase even further as the HIV/AIDS symptoms develop.

Food is essential for our bodies to:

 develop, replace and repair cells and tissues;

 produce energy to keep warm, move and work;
 carry out chemical processes such as the digestion of food;
 protect against, resist and fight infection and recover from sickness

Energy
■ Energy requirements are likely to increase by 10% to maintain body weight
and physical activity in asymptomatic HIV-infected adults, and growth in
asymptomatic children.
■ During symptomatic HIV, and subsequently during AIDS, energy requirements
increase by approximately 20% to 30% to maintain adult body weight.
■ Energy intakes need to be increased by 50% to 100% over normal requirements
in children experiencing weight loss.

proteins
There are insufficient data at present to support an increase in protein
intake for PLWHA above normal requirements for health i.e. 12% to
15% of total energy intakeHIV status.

VITAMINS AND MINERAL INTAKE

Vitamins and minerals are essential to keep healthy. They protect against opportunistic
infection by ensuring that the lining of skin, lungs and gut remain healthy and that the
immune system functions properly. Of special importance are vitamin A, vitamin C,
vitamin E, certain B-group vitamins and minerals such as selenium, zinc and iron. A
mixed diet as recommended in Chapter three should provide enough of these vitamins
and minerals. Some background information on micronutrients, their nutritional role and
food sources is provided in Annex 3.
Vitamin A is important to keep the lining of skin, lungs and gut healthy. Vitamin A
deficiency increases the severity of diseases such as diarrhoea while infection will
increase the loss of vitamin A from the body. Good vitamin A sources are dark green,
yellow, orange and red vegetables and fruit. These include spinach, pumpkin, cassava
leaves, green peppers, squash, carrots, amaranth, yellow peaches, apricots, papaya and
mangoes. Vitamin A is also contained in red palm oil, yellow maize, orange and yellow
sweet potatoes, egg yolks and liver.

951
Vitamin C helps to protect the body from infection and aids in recovery. It is found
particularly in citrus fruits such as oranges, grapefruit, lemons and mandarins. Guavas,
mangoes, tomatoes and potatoes are also good sources of vitamin C.
Vitamin E protects cells and aids resistance to infection. Foods containing vitamin E are
green leafy vegetables, vegetable oils, peanuts and egg yolks.
Vitamin B-group. This group is necessary to keep the immune and nervous system
healthy. Vitamins, however, may be lost from the body through the use of certain
medicines for the treatment of tuberculosis. Good food sources include white beans,
potatoes, meat, fish, chicken, watermelon, maize, grains, nuts, avocados, broccoli and
green leafy vegetables.
Iron. Iron-deficiency anaemia is a widespread problem in many countries, especially
among women and children. Good iron sources are green leafy vegetables, seeds,
whole-grain products, dried fruit, sorghum, millet, beans, alfalfa, red meat, chicken, liver,
fish, seafood and eggs.
Selenium is an important mineral because it helps to activate the immune system. Good
sources include whole grains such as wholemeal bread, maize and millet and dairy
products such as milk, yoghurt and cheese. Meat, fish, poultry, eggs and other protein-
rich foods are also good sources, as are peanut butter, dried beans and nuts.
Zinc is also important for the immune system. Zinc deficiency reduces the appetite.
Sources include meat, fish, poultry, shellfish, whole-grain cereals, maize, beans, peanuts
and milk and dairy products.
.
Energy
■ Energy requirements are likely to increase by 10% to maintain body weight
and physical activity in asymptomatic HIV-infected adults, and growth in
asymptomatic children.
■ During symptomatic HIV, and subsequently during AIDS, energy requirements
increase by approximately 20% to 30% to maintain adult body weight.
■ Energy intakes need to be increased by 50% to 100% over normal requirements
in children experiencing weight loss.

proteins
There are insufficient data at present to support an increase in protein
intake for PLWHA above normal requirements for health i.e. 12% to
15% of total energy intakeHIV status.

Suggested Teaching/Learning Resources

- Textbooks
- Internet
- Charts
- Diet sheets
- Food composition tables
- Resource persons
Evaluation
1. state the causes and mode of HIV and Aids transmission

952
2. explain the signs and symptoms
3. discuss the dietary management and counseling

15.2.17 EMERGING TRENDS

Theory

15.2.17T Specific Objectives

By the end of sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a. identify the emerging trends
b. discuss challenges related to the emerging trends
c. explain ways of managing the challenges

15.2.17 C Competence
The trainee should have the ability to:
identify challenges related to emerging trends in management of health through
diet
outline ways of managing the challenges

Content
15.2.17T 1 Identification of the emerging trends
15.2.17T 2 Challenges related to the emerging trend
15.2.17T 3 Managing challenges

Suggested Teaching/Learning Resources

Textbooks
Internet
Diet sheets
Food composition tables

953
16.2.0 HOSPITALITY ACCOUNTING

16.2.01 Introduction
This module unit is intended to equip the trainee with necessary knowledge and
skills in bookkeeping and accounting aspects for purposes of decision making in
hospitality industry.

16.2.02 General Objectives

At the end of this module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) understand the nature and purpose of bookkeeping and accounting
b) appreciate the basic bookkeeping and accounting principles
c) prepare and understand financial statements from various organisations
d) apply accounting knowledge and skills in decision making

954
16.2.01 NATURE AND PURPOSE OF BOOKKEEPING

Theory

16.2.01T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) explain the meaning and importance of bookkeeping
b) discuss accounting principles and concepts
c) explain the meaning of business transactions
d) identify the main users of financial information

16.2.01 C Competence
The trainee should have the ability to practice accounting principles and concepts

Content
16.2.01T 1 Meaning and importance of bookkeeping
16.2.01T 2 Accounting principles and concepts
16.2.01T 3 Business transactions
16.2.01T 4 Users of financial information

Practice

16.2.01P Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit the trainee should be able to practice
accounting principles and concepts

Content
16.2.01P 1 Accounting principles and concepts

Suggested Teaching/Learning Resources

- Calculators
- Textbooks
- Cash book, petty cashbooks, day book
- Guest speakers

Suggested Teaching/Learning Activities

- Group discussions
- Demonstration exercises

Suggested Evaluation Methods

- Tests
- Term papers
- Assignments

16.2.02 ACCOUNTING EQUATION AND THE BALANCE SHEET

Theory

16.2.02T Specific Objectives

955
 By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) explain the meaning of assets, liabilities, capital and their classification
b) explain the accounting equation
c) explain the meaning and uses of balance sheet
d) describe the effects of financial transactions on the balance sheet

16.2.02 C Competence
The trainee should have the ability to:
i) solve problems involving accounting equation
ii) prepare a balance sheet after effecting business transactions

Content
16.2.02T 1 Assets, liabilities and capital
16.2.02T 2 Accounting equations
16.2.02T 3 Balance sheets
16.2.02T 4 Effects of financial transactions on the balance sheet

Practice

16.2.02P Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) solve problems involving accounting equation
b) prepare a balance sheet after effecting business transactions

Content
16.2.02P 1 Solving accounting equation
16.2.02P 2 Preparing balance sheets

Suggested Teaching/Learning Resources

- Calculators
- Textbooks
- Cash book, petty cashbooks, day book
- Guest speakers

Suggested Teaching/Learning Activities

- Group discussions
- Field trips
- Demonstration exercises

Suggested Evaluation Methods

- Tests
- Term papers
- Assignments

16.2.03 DOUBLE ENTRY SYSTEM AND LEDGER ACCOUNTS

Theory

16.2.03T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:

956
 a) explain the meaning of double entry and rules of double entry system
b) explain the various types of ledger accounts
c) describe the recording of transactions in ledger accounts

16.2.03 C Competence
The trainee should have the ability to:
i) open a ledger account
ii) record transactions in the ledger account

Content
16.2.03T 1 Double entry system
16.2.03T 2 Ledger accounts
16.2.03T 3 Recording transactions in ledger accounts

Practice

16.2.03P Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) open a ledger account
b) record transactions in the ledger account

Content
16.2.03P 1 Opening a ledger account
16.2.03P 2 Recording transactions in the ledger

Suggested Teaching/Learning Resources

- Calculators
- Textbooks
- Ledger accounts books
- Cash book, petty cashbooks, day book
- Guest speakers

Suggested Teaching/Learning Activities

- Group discussions
- Demonstration exercises

Suggested Evaluation Methods

- Tests
- Term papers
- Assignments

16.2.04 BALANCING ACCOUNTS AND EXTRACTING A TRIAL BALANCE

Theory

16.2.04T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) explain the procedure of balancing the accounts
b) explain the procedure of extracting a trial balance

957
16.2.04 C Competence
The trainee should have the ability to:
i) balance the accounts
ii) extract a trial balance

Content
16.2.04T 1 Balancing the accounts
16.2.04T 2 Extraction of a trial balance

Practice
16.2.04P Specific Objectives
By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) balance the accounts
b) extract a trial balance

Content
16.2.04P 1 Balancing the accounts
16.2.04P 2 Extracting a trial balance

Suggested Teaching/Learning Resources

- Guest speakers
- Calculators
- Textbooks
- Bank statements
- Cash book, petty cashbooks, day book

Suggested Teaching/Learning Activities

- Group discussions
- Demonstration exercises

Suggested Evaluation Methods

- Tests
- Term papers
- Assignments

16.2.05 FINAL ACCOUNTS OF SOLE TRADERS

Theory

16.2.05T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) explain the meaning of trading, profit and loss accounts
b) differentiate between gross profit and net profit
c) prepare a balance sheet
d) explain the relationship between trading account and profit and loss account
e) explain the relationship between trading, profit and loss account and the
balance sheet

16.2.05C Competence
The trainee should have the ability to:

958
 i) prepare a trading account
ii) prepare a trading profit and loss account
iii) prepare a balance sheet

Content
16.2.05T 1 Meaning of trading, profit and loss accounts
16.2.05T 2 Gross profits and net profit
16.2.05T 3 Balance sheets
16.2.05T 4 Relationship between trading account and profit and loss account
16.2.05T 5 Relationship between trading, profit and loss account and balance sheet

Practice

16.2.05P Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) prepare a trading account
b) prepare a trading profit and loss account
c) prepare a balance sheet

Content
16.2.05P 1 Preparation of a trading account
16.2.05P 2 Preparation of a profit and loss account
16.2.05T 3 Preparation of a balance sheet

Suggested Teaching/Learning Resources

- Calculators
- Textbooks
- Bank statements
- Cash book, petty cashbooks,
day book
- Guest speakers

Suggested Teaching/Learning Activities

- Group discussions
- Demonstration exercises

Suggested Evaluation Methods

- Tests
- Term papers
- Questions and answers

16.2.06 BANKING SYSTEM

Theory

16.2.06T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) describe the modern banking system
b) explain services offered by banks

959
 c) explain the types of accounts offered by banks

16.2.06 C Competence
The trainee should have the ability to:
i) discuss the modern banking system
ii) analyse services offered by banks
iii) identify types of accounts offered by banks

Content
16.2.06T 1 Modern banking system
16.2.06T 2 Services offered by banks
16.2.06T 3 Types of accounts offered by banks

Practice

16.2.06P Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) discuss the modern banking system
b) analyse services offered by banks
c) identify types of accounts offered by banks

Content
16.2.06P 1 Modern banking system
16.2.06P 2 Services offered by banks
16.2.06P 3 Types of accounts offered by banks

Suggested Teaching/Learning Resources

- Guest speakers
- Textbooks
- Handouts
- Bank statements
- ATM cards
- Cash book, petty cashbooks, day book

Suggested Teaching/Learning Activities

- Field trips
- Group discussions
- Demonstration exercises

Suggested Evaluation Methods

- Tests
- Term papers
- Questions and answers

16.2.07 BOOKS OF ORIGINAL ENTRY

Theory

16.2.07T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:

960
 a) explain the meaning of books of original entry
b) explain the importance and uses of books of original entry

16.2.07 C Competence
The trainee should have the ability to:
i) prepare a two column and three column cashbook
ii) prepare a petty cash book
iii) prepare the various daybooks

Content
16.2.07T 1 Meaning of books of original entry
16.2.07T 2 Importance and uses of books
of original entry
- Cash book
- Petty cash book
- Day books

Practice

16.2.07P Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) prepare a two column and three column cashbook
b) prepare a petty cash book
c) prepare the various daybooks

Content
16.2.07P 1 Preparation of a cashbook
- two column cashbook
- three column cashbook
16.2.07P 2 Preparing petty cashbooks
16.2.07P 3 Preparation of daybooks
- posting journal entries to the ledger

Suggested Teaching/Learning Resources

- Transparencies
- Projectors
- Guest speakers
- Calculators
- Textbooks
- Handouts
- Bank statements
- Cash book, petty cashbooks, day book

Suggested Teaching/Learning Activities

- Group discussions
- Demonstration exercises

Suggested Evaluation Methods

- Tests

961
 - Term papers
- Questions and answers

16.2.7 Work plan Organization and

control
Unit Task 1: Definition of terms
 Work plan: This is a schedule chart or graph that summarizes the different tasks
and how they will be carried out within a specific period of time.
 Organization: This is the act of arranging tasks in a systematic way for action.
 Work control: this is a fully integrated module system with multi-step work flow,
work authorization, work assignment and status tracking.

Unit 2: Importance of planning and work organization

 It better defines the course of action to be undertaken
 Gives a rough estimate of time required to do the work
 Gives a good idea about the expenses that will be involved (budget)
 Gives a clear idea about what is to be done everyday, every week and every month
 Helps avoid duplication of labour
 Gives everyone a clear idea of their respective roles

Unit task 3: Steps in work organization

 Break the work into manageable tasks. The tasks can then be assigned to
competent people and the necessary resources availed
 Define the work in each work package as a series of interdependent activities or
tasks. These can be sequenced, scheduled and monitored
 Define the tasks at a level of detail
 Integrate the work into a total system
 Present the sequence of tasks in some format
 Verify that completion of all the tasks in each work package will produce its
respective deliverable and that the summation or integration of all the work
activities will result in attaining the work’s objectives.
 Develop and include contingency allowance – how they will be administered and
by whom

16.2.8 Staff organization in different

types of laundries
Staffing involves recruitment, selection, training and staff welfare

Unit Task 1: Need for staff organisation

 Division of labour
 Specialization
 Time management
 Training

Training
 This starts with an induction period which includes:
- Things explained e.g. condition of service
- The need for personal hygiene, courtesy, security, safety and fire precautions
- Observations to be made and reported
- Places shown e.g linen rooms, offices, stores

962
 - People met e.g. supervisors
 On-the-job training follows the induction period. This may be done in 2 ways:
- By working with other staff
- By use of ‘order of work’ cards or a training manual under the direct
supervision of an assistant housekeeper
 Off-the-job training or refresher training becomes necessary when;
- Standards are not being met
- There is an increase in costs
- There are changes in policy, customs equipment etc.

Reasons for training

 To enable staff to settle in more quickly and feel that they belong
 Show staff the importance of their job and what is expected of them
 Show staff their conditions of work are being considered
 Maintain standards for satisfaction of the users
 Prevent staff fatigue by use of incorrect methods
 Increase staff skills
 Prevent accidents
 Increase the sense of team work
 Improve supervision

Specialization
 Each worker becomes an expert in an isolated area of operation therefore
increasing his efficiency
 Workers do not have to switch tasks during the day thus saves time and money.
However, performing repetitious tasks lead to an ignorant, dissatisfied work force.

Division of Labour
This implies assigning tasks to individual workers

Time management
This means managing time in order to achieve specific long and short term goals.
Time management helps prioritize tasks and math them with time and other resources

Task 2: Organization structures of different types of laundries

963
 Housekeeping department in a large hotel

Executive Head Housekeeper

Deputy Head Housekeeper

Linen keeper Florist Assistant

Floor Assistant Floor

Housekeeper Housekeeper Linen Room staff

Asst. Florist

Cleaner Room

Attendants

Cloakroom Cleaner staff Valet/

Attendant Attendant Porter

Organisation chart of a residential establishment

Domestic Bursar

Assistant Bursar
Assistant Bursar
(Catering)
(Housekeeping)

Head Gardener Linen keeper Porters

Maintenance Domestic

Staff Assistant

Gardeners

964
 Organisation chart of a hospital

16.2.9 Operational Control in laundry

Unit Task 1: Operational control measures before the laundry process

 Items are sorted and packed into different containers
 Heavily soiled articles and intected linen are separated
 Articles are loaded into machines separately because each category to requires
a different water temperature and chemical formula
 Before loading the linen into the washers special care is taken to presoak and
pre-treat heavily stained items.

Unit Task 2: Operational control measure during the laundry process

 Loading washers and dryer should be maximum. Under-loading leads to
increase in operational cost overloading can lead to poor washing.
 Laundry operators should use cold water programs whenever possible to save
the energy needed to heat the water
 Chemical control is important linen washed with the wrong chemical or with
incorrect amount of chemicals will not produce results or will ruin he articles
by deteriorating their fabric composition
 Too much chemical can also cause damage linen as well as waste precious
budget dollar
 Good quality water – hard water prevents detergents from releasing their
sudsy action to remove soil leaving a grayish shade in unclean order in
finished linen.
 Bleaches help kill bacteria, whitens linen and removes stains but can destroy
some fabrics hence should be sued in moderation.
 Softeners are added are used to eliminate static clung smooth wrinkles and
make ironing easier
 Starches give a crisp look uniforms and linen
 Drying should be done with minimum moisture possible to reduce dry time
spinning during washing assists to remove moisture
 Dryers should be loaded to capacity to minimize energy cost.

Unit Task 3: Operational control measure after laundry

 Ironing or pressing is done to improve quality of finished work
 Items are counted and recorded before returning to the linen room
 Bagging of clean linen is done to protect from dust during transportation

16.2.9 Reception Function

Define terms

Reception
Section of front office dealing with check-ins and room status.

Receptionist
Person who works at the reception desk and deals with guest check-ins, rooms and
may handle guests complaints.

965
 Duties and responsibilities of a Receptionist
 Receive guest and greet them on arrival
 Keep records of room status
 Communicate with other departments e.g distribute arrival and departure lists
to other departments
 Keep up to minute records
 Handle guest complaints
 Ensure guest and staff receive appropriate messages
 Log and record all wake up calls required
 Co-ordinate room changes with housekeeping staff as required
 Perform reception daily duties and tasks to the highest standard

Qualities of a Receptionist
 Courteous
 Tactful
 Diplomatic
 Problem solver
 Informative
 Good sales person
 Untiring worker
 Good personal appearance
 Good feet for standing on
 Good sense of humour

Importance of Reception
 It is the centre of the guest service activities
 It is where the guest is first met by a representative of the hotel
 It is the key department that coordinates and sets the pace for most guest
services including housekeeping, food and beverage, security, sales office and
other minor departments providing services to overnight guests

Location of Reception
The reception is located at the front-of the-house. It is located at the entrance so that
the guest has the first contact with the receptionist. In large hotels the guest will be
met by the porter and doorman before the receptionist. In small hotels the guest will
have the first contact with the receptionist.

Human and public Relations

Role of Public Relations department

 The public relations department’s main role is to ensure that the general public
receive a clear, attractive impression of the image and service of a hotel.
 The public relations department must ensure that eh guest relations officers and
front office staff are fully briefed on up-to-date press releases
 The public relations staff will create an image of the hotel through the use of media
e.g. radio, TV, internet or newspaper. This keeps to keep the name of hotel in
mind of the public.

Role of human relations

966
Reservations and Registrations

Reservation
It is the booking or reserving of accommodation by a guest and involves a
particular type of guest-room being reserved for a particular person or persons for
a certain period of time.

Importance of Reservation
Reservation is important in a hotel because it:
 Gives the first impression of hotel to guests
 Sells the main product of a hotel i.e. accommodation
 Generates customers for other departments
 Provides important management information to other departments

Sources of reservation
 Walk ins
 Agencies e,g airlines, tour operators
 Reservation network systems
 Telephone
 Fax
 Crucial

Types of reservations
Reservations are of two main types:
 Guaranteed – means that the guest will guarantee to pay for room whether they
arrive or not. In return the hotel promises to hold the room until the check-out
time of the day following the date of arrival.
- Pre-payment – guest pay full payment for the room in advance
- Credit card – credit card number of guest is recorded and of guest fails to
turn up, the hotel will bill the card holder in the normal way.
- Advance deposit – the guest sends a specified amount of money in
advance to cover one night’s accommodation
- Contractual deposit – normally involves a corporation where a company
has agreed with hotel to pay for an agreed number of rooms regardless of
whether or not they are used.
 Non-guaranteed reservation
It is a reservation in which the guest has simply agreed and confirmed that they
will arrive with this type of reservation room until a stated cancellation time
usually 6.00 p.m on the day of arrival. If the guest does not arrive by
cancellation time, room is then released.

Reservation Activities
They involve the following:
 Receiving reservation inquiries
This is the first step in reservation. The reservoir agent will obtain the
following information from a guest
- Guest’s names
- Proposed
- Type of room(s)
- Number of persons

967
 Summarized reservation activities

Receive inquiries

Determine room availability

Accept or deny request

Documentation of reservation details

Confirm reservation

Maintain reservation records

Compile reservation reports

 Determine room availability

-After receiving the reservation requests, the next step is to determine if the
type of accommodation requested is available and the dates requested.
- It is important that a close check is kept to avoid overbooking
- Overbooking may be done intentionally in order to ensure 100% occupancy
is achieved
- Whether hotels intentionally or not an effective system has to be used to
check room availability. This can be accomplished by:
o Forecast boards
o Reservation charts
o Computerized systems
 Accept or deny requests for reservations
- The reservation check will check room availability then either accept or
deny booking.
- If room is available, then details of the guests will be taken and recorded on
a reservation form or computed terminal
- Bookings can be denied if
o hotel does not have requested accommodation or the available dates
o hotel is fully booked
o guest is black listed
 Documenting reservation details

968
 - If the request of reservation is accepted, the clerk will complete a
reservation from, recording all necessary details of the guest.
- The reservation form is the only document which contains al the relevant
information about the guest and accommodation request.
- If a computer is used, the details are typed directly on the system

 Maintain reservation details

- Maintenance of reservation records consist of two types of activity:
o Filing original booking
o Modification of booking
 Filing original booking
- In a manual reservation system, the reservation forms or cards and relevant
correspondence are usually filed in a chronological order i.e according to
date of arrival, then alphabetical according to guest’s surnames
- Letters, memos, reservations check and attached to original reservation
form and correspondence.
 Modifying bookings
- Changes or cancellations should be made as soon as they are requested. A
cancellation or amendment form is completed by reservation clerk and
attached to original reservation form and correspondence
 Compiling reservation reports
- Reservations report help a hotel to maximize its room sales by accurate
control of room availability and the forecast of potential room sales.
- Management reports will be generated depending on the needs of the hotel
and capability of reservation system.
- Other reports are arrival and departure lists room availability reports, group
status report, turn away reports (report on number of reservations denied),
revenue forecast report, special arrivals list etc.
 Registration
The purpose of registration is to record a guests arrival and confirm their
personal details as well as satisfy legal requirements

 Registration form
Details on a registration from include:
- Arrival date
- Departure date
- Arrival date
- Number of rooms
- Room type
- Daily rate
- Number of guests
- Advance deposits
- Room number
- Package plan
- Name
- Address
- Passport number, date and place of issue
- Nationality

969
 - Company name
- Payment methods
- Departing to
- Guest’s signature
- Receptionists signature
 The check-in process
- The check in process can be summarized as:
- Guest arrival
- Check reservation details
- Check if the guest has reservation
- If yes, complete registration, if no check room availability ; deny or accept
reservation
- Assign room and room rate
- Check method of payment
- Issue room key
- Escort guest to room
 Developing check in skills
- One can develop check in skills by:
o Developing appropriate vocabulary and phrases
o Adopting an appropriate manner and style of speech
o Understanding the operational procedures involve din checking in
guests
 Documentation, reservation and registration
A number of documents are used in reservations. They are:
- Conventional charts – they display the availability of each room in a hotel
by room number. Reservations are marked in pencil to allow any
necessary alterations and cancellations
- Density charts – they show and record the total number of reservations
held for each type of room on a specific date. Density charts are suitable
for large hotels with:
o A large number of rooms with similar décor, location and price
o The guest will usually stay for a short period
o There is need for quicker handling of large number of bookings.
 Computerized reservation systems
- Computerized reservation system controls not only room availability but
the whole process of reservations. The advantage of computerized is that it
is capable of generating reservation reports in a short period of time.
 Reservation forms
 Confirmation reservations
 Amendment or cancellation forms

16.2.08 BAD DEBTS AND PROVISION FOR DOUBTFUL DEBTS

Theory

16.2.08T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) explain the meaning of bad and doubtful debts
b) determine bad and doubtful debts

970
 c) explain how to record bad and doubtful debts in ledger accounts

16.2.08 C Competence
The trainee should have the ability to:
i) open a bad debts accounts
ii) prepare a provision for doubtful debts account

Content
16.2.08T 1 Meaning of bad and doubtful debts
16.2.08T 2 Determining bad and doubtful debts
16.2.08T 3 Recording bad and doubtful debts

Practice

16.2.08P Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) open a bad debts accounts
b) prepare a provision for doubtful debts account

Content
16.2.08P 1 Opening a bad debt account
16.2.08P 2 Preparing provision for doubtful debts making accounting entries

Suggested Teaching/Learning Resources

- Projectors
- Transparencies
- Guest speakers
- Calculators
- Textbooks
- Handouts
- Bank statements
- Cash book, petty cashbooks, day book

Suggested Teaching/Learning Activities

- Group discussions
- Demonstration exercises

Suggested Evaluation Methods

- Tests
- Term papers
- Questions and answers

16.2.09 DEPRECIATION OF FIXED ASSETS

Theory

16.2.09T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) explain the meaning of depreciation
b) identify the reasons of depreciation

971
 c) explain the various methods of calculating depreciation
d) incorporate depreciation calculations into the accounting records

16.2.09 C Competence
The trainee should have the ability to:
i) calculate depreciation using different methods
ii) record depreciation in the book of accounts

Content
16.2.09T 1 Meaning of depreciation
16.2.09T 2 Reasons of depreciation
16.2.09T 3 Methods of calculating depreciation
16.2.09T 4 Recording depreciation

Practice

16.2.09P Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) calculate depreciation using different methods
b) record depreciation in the book of accounts

Content
16.2.09P 1 Calculation of depreciation
16.2.09P 2 Recording depreciation in:
- depreciation account
- provision of depreciation account

Suggested Teaching/Learning Resources

- Guest speakers
- Calculators
- Textbooks
- Handouts
- Cash book, petty cashbooks, day book

Suggested Teaching/Learning Activities

- Group discussions
- Demonstration exercises

Suggested Evaluation Methods

- Tests
- Term papers
- Questions and answers

16.2.10 YEAR END ADJUSTMENT

Theory

16.2.10T Specific Objectives

972
 By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) explain the meaning of year end adjustment
b) explain adjustments on expense and revenue accounts and repayments
c) discuss records of year end adjustments

16.2.10 C Competence
The trainee should have the ability to:
i) determine the year end adjustment
ii) adjust expense and revenue accounts for accruals and prepayments

Content
16.2.10T 1 Definition of terms
16.2.10T 2 Expense on revenue of accounts and repayments
16.2.10T 3 Records of year-end adjustments

Practice

16.2.10P Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) determine the year end adjustment
b) adjust expense and revenue accounts for accruals and prepayments

Content
16.2.10P 1 Determining the year end adjustment
16.2.10P 2 Adjusting year end adjustment
- expense accounts
- revenue accounts

Suggested Teaching/Learning Resources

- Guest speakers
- Calculators
- Textbooks
- Handouts
- Cash book, petty cashbooks, day book
- Bank statements

Suggested Teaching/Learning Activities

- Group discussions
- Demonstration exercises

Suggested Evaluation Methods

- Tests
- Term papers
- Questions and answers

16.2.11 BANK RECONCILIATION STATEMENT

Theory

973
16.2.11T Specific Objectives
By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) explain the meaning and importance of bank reconciliation statement
b) explain the causes of differences in bank statement and cash book
c) explain the procedure of preparing a reconciliation statement

16.2.11 C Competence
The trainee should have the ability to:
i) adjust the cash book balance
ii) prepare a bank reconciliation statement

Content
16.2.11T 1 Bank reconciliation
16.2.11T 2 Causes of differences between bank statement and cashbook
16.2.11T 3 Procedure of preparation of bank reconciliation

Practice

16.2.11P Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) adjust the cash book balance
b) prepare a bank reconciliation statement

Content
16.2.11P 1 Adjusting the cashbook
16.2.11P 2 Preparing a bank reconciliation statement

Suggested Teaching/Learning Resources

- Projectors
- Transparencies
- Guest speakers
- Calculators
- Textbooks
- Handouts
- Bank statements
- Cash book, petty cashbooks, day book

Suggested Teaching/Learning Activities

- Demonstration exercises
- Group discussions

Suggested Evaluation Methods

- Tests
- Term papers
- Questions and answers

16.2.12 CONTROL ACCOUNTS

974
 Theory

16.2.12T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) explain the meaning and importance of control accounts
b) explain the procedure of preparing sales control accounts
c) explain the procedure of preparing purchases control account

16.2.13 C Competence
i) The trainee should have the ability to:
ii) draw up sales ledger control accounts
iii) draw up purchases ledger control accounts

Content
16.2.12T 1 Meaning of control accounts
16.2.12T 2 Preparation procedure of sales control accounts
16.2.12T 3 Preparation procedure of purchases control account

Practice

16.2.12P Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) draw up sales ledger control accounts
b) draw up purchases ledger control accounts

Content
16.2.12P 1 Preparing sales ledger control accounts
16.2.12P 2 Preparing purchases ledger control accounts

Suggested Teaching/Learning Resources

- Calculators
- Textbooks
- Handouts
- Bank statements
- Cash book, petty cashbooks, day book
- Guest speakers
- Projectors
- Transparencies

Suggested Teaching/Learning Activities

- Group discussions
- Demonstration exercises

Suggested Evaluation Methods

- Tests
- Term papers
- Questions and answers

16.2.13 CORRECTION OF ERRORS

975
 Theory

16.2.13T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) describe the errors not affecting the trial balance
b) describe the errors affecting the trial balance
c) explain how to correct errors affecting the trial balance
d) explain the importance of suspense account

16.2.13 C Competence
The trainee should have the ability to:
i) identify errors not affecting the trial balance
ii) identify errors affecting the trial balance
iii) correct the various errors in ledger accounts
iv) prepare a suspense account

Content
16.2.13T 1 Errors not affecting the trial balance
16.2.13T 2 Errors affecting the trial balance
16.2.13T 3 Correction of errors
16.2.13T 4 Importance suspense account

Practice

16.2.13P Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) identify errors not affecting the trial balance
b) identify errors affecting the trial balance
c) correct the various errors in ledger accounts
d) prepare a suspense account

Content
16.2.13P 1 Identification of errors not affecting the trial balance
16.2.13P 2 Identification of errors affecting the trial balance
16.2.13P 3 Correcting errors in the ledger accounts
16.2.13P 4 Preparing a suspense account

Suggested Teaching/Learning Resources

- Calculators
- Textbooks
- Handouts
- Bank statements
- Cash book, petty cashbooks, day book
- Guest speakers

Suggested Teaching/Learning Activities

- Group discussions
- Demonstration exercises
- Researching

976
 Suggested Evaluation Methods
- Tests
- Term papers
- Questions and answers

16.2.14 ACCOUNTS FOR NON-PROFIT MAKING ORGANIZATION -

Theory

16.2.14T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) explain the nature of a non-profit making organisation
b) describe the preparation of receipt and payments account
c) describe the preparation of income and expenditure accounts
d) explain the meaning of accumulated fund
e) describe the trading accounts for special activities
f) explain preparation of a balance sheet
g) describe the preparation of a subscriptions accounts

16.2.14 C Competence
The trainee should have the ability to:
i) prepare a subscription account and a trading account
ii) draw a statement of affairs account
iii) prepare an income and expenditure account
iv) prepare a balance sheet

Content
16.2.14T 1 Nature of non-profit making organisation
16.2.14T 2 Receipts and payment of accounts
16.2.14T 3 Income and expenditure accounts
16.2.14T 4 Accumulated fund
16.2.14T 5 Trading accounts for special activities
16.2.14T 6 Preparation of balance sheet
16.2.14T 7 Preparation of subscription accounts

Practice

16.2.14P Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) prepare a subscription account and a trading account
b) draw a statement of affairs account
c) prepare an income and expenditure account
d) prepare a balance sheet

Content
16.2.14P1 Subscription account and trading account
16.2.14P2 Preparation of statement of affairs account
16.2.14P3 Preparing of income and expenditure
16.2.14P4 Preparing a balance sheet

977
 Suggested Teaching/Learning Resources
- Calculators
- Textbooks
- Handouts
- Bank statements
- Internet
- Cash book, petty cashbooks, daybook

Suggested Teaching/Learning Activities

- Group discussions
- Field trips
- Demonstration exercises
- Guest speakers

Suggested Evaluation Methods

- Tests
- Term papers
- Questions and answers

16.2.15 PARTNERSHIP ACCOUNTS

Theory

16.2.15T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) explain the meaning of partnership
b) explain types of partners
c) describe the main features of a partnership agreement
d) explain admission procedures of new partner

16.2.15 C Competence
The trainee should have the ability to prepare partnership deeds
Content
16.2.15T1 Meaning of partnership
16.2.15T2 Types of partners
16.2.15T3 Features of a partnership agreement
16.2.15T4 Admission procedures of new partner

Practice

16.2.15P Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to prepare
partnership deeds

Content
16.2.15P1 Preparing prepare partnership deeds

Suggested Teaching/Learning Resources

- Calculators
- Textbooks

978
 - Handouts
- Bank statements
- Cash book, petty cashbooks, daybook
- Internet

Suggested Teaching/Learning Activities

- Group discussions
- Field trips
- Demonstration exercises
- Guest speakers
- Researching

Suggested Evaluation Methods

- Tests
- Term papers
- Questions and answers
- Reports

16.2.16 COMPANY ACCOUNTS

Theory

16.2.16T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) explain the nature and type of companies accounts
b) explain the procedure for preparation of final accounts for companies

16.2.16 C Competence
The trainee should have the ability to:
i) prepare final accounts of a hotel company
ii) prepare a balance sheet

Content
16.2.16T1Nature and type of companies accounts
16.2.16T2Preparation of final accounts for companies

Practice

16.2.16P Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) prepare final accounts of a hotel company
b) prepare a balance sheet

Content
16.2.16P1 Preparing final accounts
16.2.16P2 Preparing balance sheet

Suggested Teaching/Learning Resources

- Calculators
- Textbooks

979
 - Handouts
- Bank statements
- Internet
- Cash book, petty cashbooks, daybook

Suggested Teaching/Learning Activities

- Group discussions
- Field trips
- Demonstration exercises
- Guest speakers
- Researching

Suggested Evaluation Methods

- Tests
- Term papers
- Questions and answers
- Reports

16.2.17 EMERGING TRENDS

Theory

16.2.17T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) identify the emerging trends in accounting
b) explain the challenges of emerging trends
c) explain how to cope with emerging trends

16.2.17 C Competence
The trainee should have the ability to:
i) identify the emerging trends in accounting
ii) manage challenges of emerging trends

Content
16.2.17T1Emerging trends in accounting
16.2.17T1Managing challenges or emerging trends in accounting

Practice
16.2.17P Specific Objectives
By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) identify the emerging trends in accounting
b) manage challenges of emerging trends

Content
16.2.17P1 Identify the emerging trends in accounting
16.2.17P2 Manage challenges of emerging trends

980
 Suggested Teaching/Learning Resources
- Calculators
- Textbooks
- Handouts
- Reports
- Cash book, petty cashbooks, day book

Suggested Teaching/Learning Activities

- Group discussions
- Field trips
- Guest speakers
- Researching
- Writing reports

Suggested Evaluation Methods

- Tests
- Term papers
- Questions and answers
- Reports

981
17.2.0 LAW RELATED TO HOSPITALITY INDUSTRY

17.2.01 Introduction
This module unit is intended to give the trainee an overview of the law as it relates
to hospitality industry

17.2.02 General Objectives

At the end of this module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) understand the general set up of Kenya’s legal system
b) understand the legal implications in relation to catering and accommodation
business issues
c) identify the correct defenses for various offences
d) understand the statutes that apply to catering and accommodation business
e) understand the legal requirements when operating a catering and
accommodation establishment

982
17.2.01 SOURCES OF KENYAN LAW

Theory

17.2.01T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) define law
b) describe the constitution of Kenya
c) explain legislation and its function
d) describe the common law
e) describe African common law
f) describe Islamic Law

17.2.01 C Competence
The trainee should have the ability to:
i) draw a flow chart to show the sources of Kenyan Law
ii) research and report on sources of Kenyan Law

Content
17.2.01T 1 Definition of law
17.2.01T 2 Constitution of Kenya
17.2.01T 3 Legislation and its functions
17.2.01T 4 Common law
17.2.01T 5 The African Common Law
17.2.01T 6 The Islamic Law

Practice

17.2.01P Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) draw a flow chart to show the sources of Kenyan Law
b) research and report on sources of Kenyan Law

Content
17.2.01P 1 Flow chart of sources of Kenya law
17.2.01P 2 Research and report

Suggested Teaching/Learning Resources

- Handouts
- Textbooks
- Extract of relevant articles from the penal code
- Internet

Suggested Teaching/Learning Activities

- Role play
- Group discussions
- Case studies
- Researching

983
 Suggested Evaluation Methods
- Presentations
- Questions and answers
- Reports

17.2.02 ORGANIZATION OF JUDICIARY

Theory

17.2.02T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) define judiciary and its organisation
b) describe the district magistrate courts
c) describe the resident magistrate court
d) describe the Kadhi’s court
e) describe the high court
f) describe the court of appeal

17.2.02 C Competence
The trainee should have the ability to:
i) sketch the structure of the judiciary
ii) compile a field visit report on various courts

17.2.02T 1 The judiciary its organisation

17.2.02T 2 The district magistrate courts
- first class
- second class
- third class
17.2.02T 3 Resident magistrate court
- chief magistrate
- principal magistrate
- senior resident magistrate
- resident magistrate
- judicial service commission
17.2.02T 4 Khadhi’s courts
- Chief kadhi
- Kadhi
17.2.02T 5 High court
- Chief justice
- Puisne judges
- Commissioners of assize
17.2.02T 6 The court of appeal of Kenya
- Chief justice
- Judges of appeal

Practice

17.2.02P Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) sketch the structure of the judiciary

984
 b) compile a field visit report on various courts

Content
17.2.02P 1 Sketching the structure of judiciary
17.2.02P 2 Field reports

17.2.03 THE LAW OF TORT

Theory

17.2.03T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) define terms
b) state the general defenses
c) discuss the capacity in tort
d) describe specific torts

Content
17.2.03T 1 Definitions of terms
17.2.03T 2 General defenses
- self defense
- volenti non fit injuria
- inevitable accident
- act of god
- statutory authority
- necessity
- mistake
17.2.03T 3 Capacity in tort
- the Government
- infants or minors
- husband and wife
- aliens and non citizens
- heads of state and diplomats
- judges and magistrates
- trade unions
- corporations
17.2.03T 4 Specific torts
- trespass to the person – defamation
- false imprisonment
- malicious prosecution
- trespass to goods

17.2.03 C Competence
The trainee should have the ability to research and discuss the law of tort.

985
 Practice

17.2.03P Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to research and
discuss the law of tort.

Content
17.2.03P 1 Field study and report writing

Suggested Teaching/Learning Resources

- Handouts
- Magazines
- Textbooks
- Extract of relevant articles from the penal code
- Interactive software
- Resource persons
- Internet

Suggested Teaching/Learning Activities

- Role play
- Researching
- Group discussions
- Case studies

Suggested Evaluation Methods

- Presentations
- Questions and answers
- Reports

17.2.04 THE LAW OF CONTRACT

Theory

17.2.04T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) define terms
b) explain types of contracts
c) explain the essentials of a valid contract
d) explain the capacity in contract
e) explain contract reality

17.2.04 C Competence
The trainee should have the ability to research and report on the various types of
contracts in catering and accommodation industry

Content
17.2.04T 1 Definitions of terms
17.2.04T 2 Types of contract
17.2.04T 3 Essentials of a valid contract
17.2.04T 4 Contract capacity
- infants or minors

986
 - persons of unsound mind and drunkard
- married women
- aliens or non citizens
- corporations
- co-operative societies
- trade unions
17.2.04T 5 Contract realities

Practice

17.2.04P Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to research and
report on the various types of contracts in catering and accommodation industry

Content
17.2.04P 1 Field study and report writing

Suggested Teaching/Learning Resources

- Handouts
- Magazines
- Textbooks
- Extract of relevant articles from the penal code
- Journals related to Law in hospitality
- Interactive software
- Internet
- Rsource persons

Suggested Teaching/Learning Activities

- Role play
- Researching
- Group discussions
- Case studies

Suggested Evaluation Methods

- Presentations
- Questions and answers
- Reports

17.2.05 CONTRACT OF EMPLOYMENT

Theory

17.2.05T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module
unit, the trainee should be able
to:
a) define terms
b) discuss the duties of employer
c) discuss the duties of employee
d) discuss terms imposed by statute

987
 e) explain types of dismissal
f) reasons for dismissal

17.2.05 C Competence
The trainee should have the ability to practice drawing an employment contract
between an employer and an employee.

Content
17.2.05T 1 Definition of terms
17.2.05T 2 Duties of employer
17.2.05T 3 Duties of employee
17.2.05T 4 Statutory duties of employer
17.2.05T 5 Types of dismissal
17.2.05T 6 Reasons for fair dismissal

Practice
17.2.05P Specific Objectives
By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to practice drawing
an employment contract between an employer and an employee.

Content
17.2.05P 1 Drawing an employment contract

Suggested Teaching/Learning Resources

- Handouts
- Magazines
- Textbooks
- Extract of relevant articles from the penal code
- Journals related to Law in hospitality
- Interactive software
- Internet
- Resource persons

Suggested Teaching/Learning Activities

- Role play
- Group Researching
- Group discussions
- Case studies

Suggested Evaluation Methods

- Presentations
- Questions and answers
- Reports

17.2.06 BUSINESS ENTERPRISE

Theory

17.2.06T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:

988
 a) explain types of business
b) describe methods of acquiring business premises

17.2.06 C Competence
The trainee should have the ability to carry out a field study of types of business
ownership in catering and accommodation industry

Content
17.2.06T 1 Types of business
17.2.06T 2 Methods of acquiring business
premises

Practice

22.1.6P Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to carry out a field
study of types of business ownership in catering and accommodation industry

Content
17.2.06P 1 Report on types of business in
catering and accommodation
industry

Suggested Teaching/Learning Resources

- Handouts
- Magazines
- Videos
- Textbooks
- Extract of relevant articles from the penal code
- Journals related to Law in hospitality
- Interactive software
- Internet
- Resource persons

Suggested Teaching/Learning Activities

- Role play
- Researching
- Group discussions
- Case studies

Suggested Evaluation Methods

- Presentations
- Questions and answers
- Reports

17.2.07 SALE OF FOOD BEVERAGE AND ACCOMMODATION SERVICES

Theory

17.2.07T Specific Objectives

989
 By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) explain the requirements of Food and Drugs Act
b) describe food hygiene regulations
c) explain the requirements of the Trade Descriptions Act

17.2.07 C Competence
The trainee should have the ability to:
i) Carry out field study and report on hygiene regulations practices in catering
and accommodation industry
ii) Make reports on trade descriptions of food and beverage services in catering
and accommodation premises

Content
17.2.07T 1 Food and Drug Act
17.2.07T 2 Food hygiene regulations
17.2.07T 3 Trade Descriptions Act

Practice

17.2.07P Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) Carry out field study and report on hygiene regulations practices in catering
and accommodation industry
b) Make reports on trade descriptions of food, beverage and accommodation
services in catering and accommodation premises

Content
17.2.07P 1 Food, beverage and
accommodation hygiene
regulations
17.2.07P 2 Trade descriptions of food,
beverage and accommodation
services

Suggested Teaching/Learning Resources

- Handouts
- Magazines
- Videos
- Textbooks
- Extract of relevant articles from the penal code
- Journals related to Law in hospitality
- Interactive software
- Internet
- Field trips
- Reports
- Resource persons

Suggested Teaching/Learning Activities

- Role play
- Researching

990
 - Group discussions
- Case studies

Suggested Evaluation Methods

- Presentations
- Questions and answers
- Reports

17.2.08 PUBLIC HEALTH ENVIRONMENT AND SAFETY LEGISLATION

Theory

17.2.08T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) explain the provision of the dangerous Drugs Act
b) explain the provision of foods drugs and chemical substances Act
c) explain provisions of the Public Health Act
d) explain the provision of the use of poisonous substances Act
e) discuss environment conservation Act
f) discuss disposal Act

20.2.08 C Competence
The trainee should have the ability to:
i) Carry out field study and report on acts that apply in catering and
accommodation industry
ii) Make reports on offences and punishment as spelt out in acts related to services
in catering and accommodation premises

Content
17.2.08T 1 Dangerous Drugs Acts
offenses and punishment
17.2.08T 2 The Food Drug and chemical
substances Act offenses and
punishment
17.2.08T 3 The Public Health Act
sanitation and housing
protection of food stuffs,
public water supplies, meat,
milk and other articles of food
offense and punishment
17.2.08T 4 The use of poisonous
substances Act regulation for
protection of persons against
risks of poisoning offense and
punishment defenses
17.2.08T 5 Environment and conservation
Act offences and punishment
17.2.08T 6 Disposal Act offences and
punishment

991
 Practice

17.2.08P Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) Carry out field study and report on acts that apply in catering and
accommodation industry
b) Make reports on offences and punishment as spelt out in acts related to services
in catering and accommodation premises

Content
17.2.08P 1 Field study and report on acts
that apply in catering and
accommodation industry
17.2.08P 2 Report on offences and
punishment as spelt out in acts
related to services in catering
and accommodation premises

Suggested Teaching/Learning Resources

- Handouts
- Magazines
- Textbooks
- Internet
- Resource persons
- Field trips
- Extract of relevant articles from the penal code
- Journals related to Law in hospitality
- Interactive software

Suggested Teaching/Learning Activities

- Role play
- Researching
- Group discussions
- Case studies

Suggested Evaluation Methods

- Presentations
- Questions and answers
- Reports

17.2.09 LAW OF INSURANCE

Theory

17.2.09T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) define a contract of insurance
b) outline cases of the basic principles of insurance
c) explain the classes of insurance
d) describe claims procedure

992
17.2.09 C Competence
The trainee should have the ability to:
i) identify the classes of insurance that apply to catering and accommodation
business
ii) Carry out field study and report on the claims procedure for catering and
accommodation business

Content
17.2.09T 1 Definition of terms
22.1.09T 2 Principles of insurance
17.2.09T 3 Classes of insurance
17.2.09T 4 Claims procedure

Practice

17.2.09P Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) identify the classes of insurance that apply to catering and accommodation
business
b) carry out field study and report on the claims procedure for catering and
accommodation business

Content
17.2.09P 1 Classes of insurance that apply
to catering and
accommodation business
17.2.09P 2 Carry out field study and
report on the claims procedure
for catering and
accommodation business

Suggested Teaching/Learning Resources

- Handouts
- Magazines
- Internet
- Textbooks
- Field trips
- Extract of relevant articles from the penal code
- Journals related to Law in hospitality
- Interactive software
- Resource persons
- Reports

Suggested Teaching/Learning Activities

- Role play
- Researching
- Group discussions
- Case studies

993
 Suggested Evaluation Methods
- Presentations
- Questions and answers
- Reports

17.2.10 INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY LAW

Theory

17.2.10T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) explain the meaning and scope of intellectual property Law
b) describe the procedure used in the registration of trade and service marks
c) explain the functions of trade and service marks
d) discuss infringement of trade and service marks
e) analyse the remedies for infringement of trade and service marks
f) discuss the current trends in the intellectual property Law

17.2.10 C Competence
The trainee should have the ability to:
i) Carry out a field study on the functions of trade and service marks
ii) Make reports on the remedies for infringement of trade and service marks
iii) Carry out a study on the current trends in the intellectual property Law

Content
17.2.10T 1 Meaning and scope of
intellectual property Law
17.2.10T 2 Registration of trade and
service marks
- essential requirements
- procedure and duration
- conditions and disclaimers
- un-registable marks
17.2.10T 3 Functions of trade and service
marks
17.2.10T 4 Infringement of trade and
service marks
- acts constituting infringement
17.2.10T 5 Remedies for infringement
17.2.10T 6 Current trends
- World trade organisation
- The trade related aspects of intellectual property rights agreement
- Well known marks

Practice

17.2.10P Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) Carry out a field study on the functions of trade and service marks

994
 b) Make reports on the remedies for infringement of trade and service marks
c) Carry out a study on the current trends in the intellectual property Law

Content
17.2.10P 1 Field study on the functions of
trade and service marks
17.2.10P 2 Report on the remedies for
infringement of trade and
service marks
17.2.10P 3 Carry out a study on the
current trends in the
intellectual property Law

Suggested Teaching/Learning Resources

- Handouts
- Internet
- Reports
- Magazines
- Videos
- Textbooks
- Extract of relevant articles from the penal code
- Journals related to Law in hospitality
- Interactive software
- Resource persons
- Field visits

Suggested Teaching/Learning Activities

- Role play
- Researching
- Group discussions
- Case studies

Suggested Evaluation Methods

- Presentations
- Questions and answers
- Reports

17.2.11 ADMINISTRATIVE AUTHORITIES AND LICENSING LAW

Theory

17.2.11T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) discuss the structure and operations of local government authorities
b) outline the provision of the trade licensing act
c) explain procedures of applying for a license
d) discuss the conduct of licensed premises

17.2.11 C Competence
The trainee should have the ability to:

995
 a) understand the structure and operations of local government authorities
b) apply for a license for a catering and accommodation premise
c) discuss in the conduct of licensed catering and accommodation premise

Content
17.2.11T1Structure and operations of
local government authorities
local government Act
17.2.11T2The trade licensing Act
licensing of business
enforcement
17.2.11T3License application
17.2.11T4Conduct of licensed premises

Practice

17.2.11P Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) carry out field study on the structure and operations of local government
authorities
b) make a report on procedures of applying for a license for catering and
accommodation premise
c) discuss in groups the conduct of licensed catering and accommodation premise

Content
17.2.11P 1 Field study on the structure
and operations of local
government authorities

17.2.11P 2 Report on procedures of

applying for a license for
catering and accommodation
premise
17.2.11P 3 Group discussion on the
conduct of licensed catering
and accommodation premise

Suggested Teaching/Learning Resources

- Handouts
- Internet
- Resource persons
- Magazines
- Videos
- Textbooks
- Extract of relevant articles from the penal code
- Journals related to Law in hospitality
- Interactive software

Suggested Teaching/Learning Activities

- Role play

996
 - Researching
- Group discussions
- Case studies

Suggested Evaluation Methods

- Presentations
- Questions and answers
- Reports

17.2.12 EMERGING TRENDS

Theory

17.2.12T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) identify emerging trends of laws related to catering and accommodation
industry
b) explain the challenges of emerging trends
c) discuss how to cope with the challenges

17.2.12 C Competence
The trainee should have the ability to:
i) Carry out a field study on emerging trends of laws related to catering and
accommodation industry
ii) Manage challenges of laws related to catering and accommodation industry

Content
17.2.12T 1 Identification of emerging
trends
17.2.12T 2 Challenges
17.2.12T 3 Coping with challenges

Practice

17.2.12P Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) carry out a field study on emerging trends of laws related to catering and
accommodation industry
b) discuss in groups on how to manage challenges of laws related to catering and
accommodation industry

Content
17.2.12P 1 Field study on emerging trends
of laws related to catering and
accommodation industry
17.2.12P 2 Group discussion on how to
manage challenges of laws
related to catering and
accommodation industry

997
Suggested Teaching/Learning Resources
- Handouts
- Magazines
- Internet
- Resource persons
- Textbooks
- Extract of relevant articles from the penal code
- Journals related to Law in hospitality
- Interactive software

Suggested Teaching/Learning Activities

- Role play
- Researching
- Group discussions
- Case studies

Suggested Evaluation Methods

- Presentations
- Questions and answers
- Repor

998
MODULE III

Introduction

The Module III course is designed to equip the trainee with knowledge, skills and attitudes
required to perform the duties of a manager in a catering and accommodation establishment.

This module also equips the trainee with skills required to supervise and guide production or
service of food and beverage products. A trainee is required to take the remaining elective
Module

General Objectives
At the end of this Module , the trainee should be able to:
a) Manage catering and accommodation operations in a catering and accommodation
establishment.
b) Supervise and guide production or service of food and beverage products.
c) Appreciate the need for having knowledge of human relations, sales and marketing skills.
d) acquire research techniques and apply them when carrying out research work to improve
service delivery in his/her work

Entry Requirements

Trainees entering this Module should have any of the following minimum requirements

1. Passed Module II of Diploma in Catering and Accommodation Management

OR

2. Not referred in not more than 2 units of Diploma in Catering and Accommodation

OR

3. Equivalent qualification

999
Module Units and Time Allocation

Codes Module unit Time

(Hours)
19.3.0 Accommodation operations 150
management II
20.3.0 Principles and practices of 100
management
21.3.0 Sales and marketing 80
22.3.0 Human relations 80
23.3.0 Research project 90

Elective Modules For Module II and III

Food and Beverage Production 200
Management
Food and Beverage Service 200
Management
TOTAL 990
Industrial Attachment 330
Total 990

1000
18.2.0 BUSINESS PLAN
BUSINESS PLAN
INTRODUCTION
This module unit is intended to equip the trainee with necessary knowledge;
skills and attitude that will enable him/her start, operate and manage a
personal or group business enterprise effectively. It is also important to instill
in a trainee the drive necessary to venture into profit making activities.
GENERAL OBJECTIVES
By the end of this module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) Demonstrate positive attitude towards self employment
b) Understand concepts and elements of entrepreneurship development
c) Demonstrate entrepreneurial behaviour in starting ,operating and
managing a business enterprise prepare a viable business plan.

By the end of this topic the trainee should be able to

a) Explain the business plan
b) Identify components of a business plan

Task 1: Meaning of business plan

Defining a business plan can be difficult, as the definition might be different

for every organization. A business plan, in its simplest form, will usually
define where you want your business to be within a certain period of time
(usually five years) and how you plan on getting there. A business plan is as
important for starting a business as blueprints are for building your house.

A business plan is a document that summarizes the operational and financial

objectives of a business and contains the detailed plans and budgets showing
how the objectives are to be realized.

Because the business plan contains detailed financial projections, forecasts

about your business's performance, and a marketing plan, it's an incredibly
useful tool for business planning.

A business plan is a map for where the company is heading. The New World
Encyclopedia defines a business plan as "a formal, written statement of a set
of business goals, the financial background and nature of the business, and
the strategy for reaching those goals." It therefore defines much about the
company for outsiders and those who have or plan to have a stake in the
company

Task 2: Importance of a business plan

The purpose of a business plan is to provide guidance for the organization in

all major operational aspects. Business plans vary in their complexity and

1001
scope, and can vary widely depending on the needs of the organization.
Despite the possible variations in business plans, however, there are several
key components they have in common.

Action Plan

An action plan is a written document that describes the steps that

supervisors, trainers, learners and co-workers will complete to help maximize
the transfer of learning.
The content and layout of an action plan should support the users of the
plan, especially the users. In developing an action plan, keep in mind these
important points:
Write activities as discrete steps that are realistic, measurable and
attainable.
Identify clear responsibilities for all the involved: learners, supervisors, co-
workers and trainers.
 Develop a specific time schedule for completing activities.
 Identify resources necessary to complete the activities, including plans
for acquiring those resources.
 A sample of a completed action plan includes several features to
consider as you design a format of your own. Copy the blank action
plan format for your use or develop your own format. The example
action plan is very detailed. This level of detail may not always be
necessary, depending on the performance problem and the learning
intervention being undertaken.

A business plan can help to move you to action. You may have been thinking
for years about starting a business or engaging in some venture, but the
process may seem too daunting, too large and too complicated. A business
plan will help you to pull apart the pieces of starting a business and examine
each piece by itself. So instead of one large problem, you have a sequence
of smaller problems. And by solving the small problems, the large problem is
automatically solved. So writing a business plan can help to move you to
action by breaking down a seemingly insurmountable task (starting a
business) into many smaller, less intimidating tasks.

Road Map

Once you have started your business, a business plan can be an invaluable
tool to help keep you on track and moving in the direction you want to go. In
the hurley-burley of daily business, it is very easy to lose sight of your
objectives and goals; therefore, a business plan can help to keep you
focused. A business plan can also serve to help others to understand your
vision, including suppliers, customers, employees, friends, and family.

Sales Tool

Perhaps most importantly, a business plan can serve as a sales tool. You will
probably need outside financing to start your business, and a business plan is

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the tool you need to convince investors to come on board. You may also
want and need concessions from suppliers or customers a business plan can
help you get them. Finally you may need to convince family members, or
even yourself, that your ideas will bear fruit. A well-written business plan can
serve to sell people close to you on the benefits of proceeding with your
concept.

Use of a business plan

Evaluating a New Venture

It would be a shame to keep the benefits of a well-done plan to yourself. And
you shouldn't. You can use your plan to find funding. But a good plan can
also help sell your products, services, and your whole company to prospects
and suppliers. Furthermore, a plan is a valuable tool for communicating your
visions, goals and objectives to other managers and key employees in your
firm.

Selling with Your Plan

As a rule, your business plan is only likely to be required in the later stages of
being selected as a supplier. Let the customer's process decide when or if
you'll present your plan. As an added benefit, working your way through the
early stages of vendor selection will give you a chance to rework your plan, if
necessary, to stress the areas you've learned are more important to your
potential customer.

Informing Suppliers and Customers

Companies large and small have been trying to trim the number of suppliers
and customers they deal with and develop deeper and stronger relationships
with the ones they keep. An essential part of this is getting to know more
about existing and prospective vendors and clients. So don't be surprised if
one day, when you're trying to set up a new supplier relationship or pitch a
deal to a big company, the person you're negotiating with asks to see your
business plan. Customers are likely to be concerned about how well your
respective strategies fit with theirs.

Monitoring Your Business's Performance

A business plan can be used to monitor your performance has many benefits.
If your cash flow is running much shorter than projected at the moment, even
though you're not currently in trouble, that information may help you to spot
disaster before it occurs. By comparing plan projections with actual results,
you gain a deeper understanding of your business's pressure points or the
components of your operation that have the most effect on results.

Spotting trouble early

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 You don't have to be a wizard to get some solid hints about the future
beyond tomorrow, especially when it comes to the operations of your own
business. You can look at virtually any page of your business plan and find an
important concept or number describing some expected future event that, if
it turns out to be diverging from reality, may hint at future trouble. Say your
profit margins are shrinking slowly but steadily and seemingly irreversibly. If
you can see that within a few months your declining margins will push your
break-even point too high to live with, you can take action now to fix the
problem. You may need to add a new, higher-margin product; get rid of an
old one; or begin marketing to a more profitable clientele. All these moves,
and many more you could take, have a good chance of working if your
careful comparison of plan projections with actual results warns you of
impending danger.

Understanding pressure points

Not all tips that come from comparing plans with results have to do with
avoiding danger. Some help you identify profit opportunities. Others may
show how seemingly minor tweaks can produce outsized improvements in
sales or profitability.

Many businesses fail because of events that are impossible to foresee. It's
probably not a bad idea, as part of your business planning process, to try to
include some information in your business plan about the activities or
intentions of the potential embargos. If nothing else, crafting a scenario in
which the unthinkably awful occurs may help you to deal with it if it does. But
some things are just wild cards and can't be predicted. For these you just
have to trust the luck of the draw.

When you're asking yourself whether the numbers add up, keep the needs of
your business and your business partners, if you have any, in mind. Even if it
looks like it'll take an air strike to keep your business from getting started,
you don't want to do it if the numbers say that long-term it's headed
nowhere.

Attracting Good People

It takes money to make money, sure, but it also takes people to make a
company, that is, unless you're a one-person company. Sometimes even then
a plan can be an important part of your effort to attract the best partners,
employees, suppliers and customers to you.

Prospective partners

Partners are like any other investors, and it would be a rare one who would
come on board without some kind of plan. Partners want to know your basic

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business concept, the market and your strategy for attacking it; who else is
on your team; what your financial performance, strengths and needs are; and
what's in it for them. Luckily, these are exactly the same questions a
business plan is designed to address, so you're likely to please even a
demanding prospective partner by simply showing him or her a well-prepared
plan. The one difference is a plan probably won't contain the details of a
partnership agreement. And you'll need one of these to spell out the
conditions of your partnership, no matter how well you and your prospective
partner know, understand and trust one another.

Prospective employees

Although employees may not be making cash contributions to your business,

they're making an investment of something equally important--their own
irreplaceable time. The kinds of employees you probably want are careful,
thorough, good at assessing problems and risks, and unwilling to leap into
hazardous waters. As it happens, these are just the kind of people who are
going to want to see a written plan of your business before they come on
board.

So even if you don't show your plan to more than a few prospective
employees, when you need it, you may really need it bad. Make sure you're
ready when a promising but inquisitive job candidate shows up at your
doorstep. Another thing, as we've pointed out, not all businesses have plans.
So by having one, you'll be making yourself a more desirable employer.

Update Your Plan

The writing a business plan is one of those skills that improves with practice.
The first one or two times you create one, you may feel a little unsure of
yourself and even less certain that what you're doing has value.
If you go on to start several ventures during your career, you'll naturally write
several business plans, and each one will be better than the last. It's likely as
well that with better planning skills will come improved business skills,
boosting the odds that each successive company you start will do better than
the one before..

Updating a plan is normally easier than starting from scratch. Instead of

trying to figure out what your basic business concept is, you only have to
decide whether it's changing. Instead of wondering where you'll find the
current market research you need, you just have to go back to the original
source for updated figures. You'll usually be able to reuse the financial
formulas, spreadsheets, management biographies and other more or less

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evergreen contents of your plan. Here are eight reasons to think about
updating your plan. If one applies to you, it's time for an update.

1. A new financial period is about to begin. You may update your plan
annually, quarterly or even monthly if your industry is fast changing.

2. You need financing, or additional financing. Lenders and other

financiers need an updated plan to make financing decisions.
3. Significant markets change. Shifting client tastes, consolidation trends
among customers and altered regulatory climates can trigger a need
for plan updates.
4. New or stronger competitors are looking to your customers for their
growth.
5. Your firm develops or is about to develop a new product, technology,
service or skill. If your business has changed a lot since you wrote your
plan, it's time for an update.
6. You have had a change in management. New managers should get
fresh information.
7. Your company has crossed a threshold, such as moving out of your
home office, reaching $1 million in sales or employing 100 people.
8. Your old plan doesn't seem to reflect reality anymore. Maybe you did a
poor job last time; maybe things have just changed faster than you
expected. But if your plan seems irrelevant, redo it.

Indicators of a good business plan

 A Sound Business Concept: The single most common mistake made

by entrepreneurs is not selecting the right business initially. The best
way to learn about your prospective business is to work for someone
else in that business before beginning your own. There can be a huge
gap between your concept of a fine business and reality.
 Understanding of Your Market: A good way to test your
understanding is to test market your product or service before your
start. You think you have a great kite that will capture the imagination
of kite fliers throughout the world? Then craft some of them and try
selling them first.
 A Healthy, Growing and Stable Industry: Remember that some of
the great inventions of all time, like airplanes and cars, did not result in
economic benefit for many of those who tried to exploit these great
advances. For example, the cumulative earnings of all airlines since
Wilber Wright flew that first plane are less than zero. (Airline losses
have been greater than their profits.) Success comes to those who find
businesses with great economics and not necessarily great inventions
or advances to mankind.
 Capable Management: Look for people you like and admire, who
have good ethical values, have complementary skills and are smarter
than you. Plan to hire people who have the skills that you lack. Define
your unique ability and seek out others who turn your weaknesses into
strengths.

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  Able Financial Control: You will learn later the importance of
becoming qualified in accounting, computer software and cash flow
management. Most entrepreneurs do not come from accounting
backgrounds and must go back to school to learn these skills. Would
you bet your savings in a game where you don't know how to keep
score? People mistakenly do it in business all the time.
 A Consistent Business Focus: As a rule, people who specialize in a
product or service will do better than people who do not specialize.
Focus your efforts on something that you can do so well that you will
not be competing solely on the basis of price.
 A Mindset to Anticipate Change: Don't commit yourself too early.
Your first plan should be written in pencil, not in ink. Keep a fluid
mindset and be aggressive in making revisions as warranted by
changing circumstances and expanding knowledge.
 Include Plans for Conducting Business Online: Consumer and
business-to-business online sales are set to expand exponentially in the
coming decade, and small retailers can reach an ever-increasing pool
of customers.

Components of a business plan

A good business plan accomplishes three key tasks. One, it focuses on the
projected goals. Next, once the goals are down on paper, it compels the
entrepreneur to come to some hard decisions about the feasibility of the
venture. And finally, it can work like a sales document, aiming to draw the
attention of potential investors by highlighting the features of the business.

Here are 7 components to include for your business plan to be effective

1. The Mission Statement: Use this statement to spell out the reasons
for getting into your chosen business. Perhaps you are starting a health
and fitness center because you have the expertise and believe you
have new ideas that you can put into practice. Although it doesn’t
have to be lengthy, you do need to highlight your motives for choosing
your venture.

2. Describe the Business: Provide detailed descriptions about every

aspect of your business. Do you provide services, such as a
consultancy firm or a beauty parlor? Or is it products you deal with?
Describe your products. Do you source your products from a

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 wholesaler? Or do you produce them yourself? What is it that makes
your business different?

3. Long-term and Short-term Goals: Project your goals over a period

of 3-5 years as your long-term objectives. These could include factors
like marketing plans or new products for the future. Or perhaps
opening new offices or stores, or setting up new online websites. Your
short-term period could be from a few months up to a year. Goals could
include getting a license for the business, thinking of a name for the
business, finding space for setting up your office, or anything required
to get your business going.

4. Specify your Customers: You need to specify who you envision as

your customers. Who will need your products or services? Why would
they require or want your products or services? This will also help you
to concentrate on the kind of marketing you will need to do in order to
attract your customers.

5. Analysis of the Competition In order to determine what the odds are

for your business to be successful, it is vital to learn about the
competition. If you take the health and fitness center example, you will
need to find out about all similar businesses in your locality and the
kind of services they provide. If, for instance, most of them are
machine-based centers, perhaps you could provide something different
such as additional services of yoga and meditation, for example. This
will increase the chances of your business being a success, because
you will be able to identify a niche that has less competition.

6. Analyze Your Finances It is important to conduct a realistic financial

analysis of your business. You need to spell out all your monthly
expenses, both for the business and your own requirements, along with
what you realistically think your monthly earnings will be. See that you

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 put everything in the list such as upgrades of computers, the rent of
the office, electricity charges, and so on. This will tell you whether you
can afford your business while also maintaining your present lifestyle.
You could discover that you will need to take out a small loan to
manage your expenses until you start earning adequately from your
business. Or, you could take a part-time job to cover for your current
expense, until your business starts earning enough to become a full
time enterprise for you.

7. Marketing your Business. Specify where and how you will market or
advertise your business. You could do it through websites, write articles
to be published in online article websites, via press releases,
newspaper articles, or by offering presentations, free of cost, at local
organization forums or groups. Try everything. You may be amazed at
the amount of business that can be garnered just by making a free
presentation at a meeting held by an association of homeowners in
your locality.

In order to keep your business on track, keep referring to your business plan
at periodic intervals. You can also change some of it down the road as you
identify what is working for you and what is not.

If you have trouble formulating a business plan, or simply cannot find the
time, consider hiring a professional to help. But whatever you do, just get
started.

Components of a business plan

An executive summary

This should be a short, self-explanatory piece which covers the key points
you have made in your plan, including condensed version of the timetable
and finances. You should conclude this by emphasizing why you believe the
plan is sound and deserves support.

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Statement of purpose for the plan

Have you designed it primarily to be an operating guide, or a financing

proposal? In this section, you should also include something about the team
and structure that will be used to put the plan into action. You should also
start to make the case for why you think the plan has merit and should
succeed.

Objectives and academic/training rationale

This section will cover a description of the programme being proposed, how it
will be developed and how it will be delivered. It should cover the level of
award the programme will lead to and how the components of the
programme will fit together. In short, it will contain the kind of information
that a validation document usually comprises.

The market

This section should describe the target market in very general terms (for
example: employees with FE qualifications in who wish to convert to degree
status) and should also attempt to describe a target student in some detail
(for example: most students are likely to be full-time employees who have
not been in a formal learning environment for 10 years. They are likely to
have young families, etc.). You should cover: location, age, gender,
profession, income, lifestyle, etc.

It is worth considering why students are studying and how their participation
is likely to be funded. Do they want to progress professionally and how? To
what degree do they value academic credit? Is likely that a student's
employer will fund their place on the course or will they be self funding. You
may find that they are distinct market segments that have varying profiles.
Understanding target markets, their motivations and financial status are
fundamentals in focusing the specific design and delivery of the programme.

You should also cover in this section what the total market is for the
programme and what proportion of that market you expect to capture. What
is the market's growth potential, and will you be in a position to capitalise on
this growth and increase your intake or market share? You should
substantiate this information from the market research you have carried out.
This leads neatly into the next section about competition.

Competition and feasibility study

You should try and list your five biggest competitors by name. Describe why
you believe that your programme will be better received than theirs.
Describe the research you have carried out to confirm the feasibility of
funding and providing a programme that fits the needs of your target market:

1010
  Have you ascertained, for instance, that potential students are
interested in learning by using electronic methods, or would they feel
more comfortable in a part-time, face-to-face course?
 Are employers in the field starting to convert their training to more self-
paced programmes?
 The case study on developing a programme on nutrition provides an
example of how a feasibility study can shape a programme and the
kinds of questions which should be researched.

Strengths and weaknesses of the programme and its development

team in light of the environment

Who will be involved in developing the programme? Where might the

programme be vulnerable in terms of the competition? Consider whether
opportunities open to you are appropriate for you to pursue - You need to
strike a balance between target markets that are attractive and those that
your organisation has the capacity to function within. You should notes what
plans are in place to compensate for any weaknesses and show how the
programme has strengths and features which distinguish it from the
competition.

SWOT (Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities and Threats) analysis is a

useful tool in helping you understand the business environment you aim to
work in and your ability to function within it have a worthwhile description of
how to use SWOT.

Marketing mechanisms

In this section you should show how you plan to market the programme so
that it will come to the attention of your specific target audience. Will you
advertise in trade journals? Would it be better to work only through the
training managers of large corporate? Perhaps general newspaper
advertising would work best? You should state clearly what the plan is, and
why you have decided on this particular course of action.

Selling and pricing

Selling is, of course, not the same as marketing. Once people know about the
course, how will you make sure they enroll? Who will deal with potential
students and what information will be prepared for them? What sort of follow-
up procedure will be put in place and who will carry it out? What fees will you
charge and how have you set the fee? Is it competitive in the marketplace?
Does one fee fit all your potential clients or can you differentiate between
market segments (for example individual or corporate clients and national
and international students).

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Resources

Apart from discussing any physical resources that might be needed, this
section should show how institutional input will be used. This is an important
part of quantifying the real costs of developing and delivering the
programme.

Timescales

See the section on leaving enough time for some ideas about how long the
development part of the project might need. This section should also draw on
the financial predictions to show at what point the programme will break
even or begin to make a profit.

Costing and cash flow

A full projected costing of the development of the project, as well as the

delivery costs over a period of five or so years. This should make it clear
what cash will be required and what costs will be 'in kind' by virtue of the
institution putting in the resources noted under that heading earlier. This will
give a much truer figure on which to base pricing than one which does not
take account of the use of institutional input. Costs can then be compared
with projected incomes to allow you to evaluate whether the project is
attractive to you or not. You should keep the plan as concise as possible.
Probably the most important point is not to underestimate your funding
requirements, and also to allow enough time for the development of the
programme and effective marketing.

Recommended Format of writing a Business plan

Cover page

Your business plan should have a cover page. A conservative and

professional cover is recommended. More consideration is made by a lender
with that type of cover. Your cover should include:
1. Name of the business
2. Address
3. Telephone number
4. Name of Owner(s)
5. Logo (A professional, attractive logo can be used to dress up the cover
page)
6. Submitted to (for financing only)

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E.g.

Create a cover page for your business plan With the Following layout and
Format

Business Plan

Name of Company ..
Address of Company
City, State ZIP Code
Telephone Number
Fax Number ..
Date of Plan Presentation .

You may also include: ..

Presented to: ..
Name .
Company

Name of Owner/Contact Person ..

Address
City, State zip ..
Telephone ..
E-mail

Preliminary pages include the following

 Title page
 Acknowledgement
 Dedication
 Table of content
 List of tables and figures

Executive Summary
Complete this section after the rest of the business plan. Simply highlight the most important
aspects of the plan. Mission, goals and objectives
General Description of Business
What business are you in? What are the key products or services of
your business?
What market do you believe exists for these products or services?
(Describe your current market).
What is the location of your business? Why is this advantageous?
How do you operate your business? Who is involved in the
operations? How much of your time is spent in the business?

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In what stage of development is your business? (Development
stage, first year of operations, stable or mature business, stagnant
mature business, etc)
Is growth a part of your plan for your business? If so, describe what
kind of growth you are projecting and how you think that growth will
occur (adding products or services, expanding your market,
changing your product or service mix, etc)

Mission Statement
What is the vision for the future of your business?
What is the purpose of your business – internally and externally?
Include your Mission Statement

Goals and Objectives

What are your short-term (within one year) and long-term (two to
five years) goals and the objectives to reach your goals?
Industry Information
Identify your business industry
What are the current industry trends? Include growth patterns, niche
markets and size of the market.
What are the future industry trends?

Business History (if applicable)

Provide a brief history of your business, including when it was
founded, why it was started, profitability and growth patterns and
how the business has changed over time.

How does your business fall into the current and future trends of the
industry?

o Marketing Plan
A marketing plan is a written document that details the necessary
actions to achieve one or more marketing objectives. It can be for a
product or service, a brand, or a product line. Marketing plans
cover between one and five years. A marketing plan may be part of
an overall business plan. Solid marketing strategy is the
foundation of a well-written marketing plan. While a marketing plan
contains a list of actions, a marketing plan without a sound strategic
foundation is of little use.
Products/Services

In marketing, a product is anything that can be offered to a market

that might satisfy a want or need. In retailing, products are called
merchandise. In manufacturing, products are purchased as raw
materials and sold as finished goods. Commodities are usually raw
materials such as metals and agricultural products, but a commodity
can also be anything widely available in the open market. In project
management, products are the formal definition of the project

1014
deliverables that make up or contribute to delivering the objectives
of the project.
In general usage, product may refer to a single item or unit, a group
of equivalent products, a grouping of goods or services, or an
industrial classification for the goods or services. A related concept
is sub product, a secondary but useful result of a production
process.
Describe each product/service you will sell. List each quarterly.
What is special or unique about the product/service you offer?
What benefit does the customer get from your product/service?
Who will your primary suppliers be? Will you have credit terms with
them?
Customer Analysis
Describe the people buying or who are most likely to buy
product/service. (If you have more than one target market, describe
each). HINT: Resist the urge to say “everyone”. Some people will
use the products/service more often or in larger quantities than
others
Provide a customer profile including: gender, age, income,
occupation, education and family status, or if selling to other
business, provide an organizational profile including: purchasing
decisions and procedures for buying.
Competitive Analysis
List your strongest three to five competitors and where they are
located. What customer profiles are they targeting?
What are their strengths and weaknesses? Include the following
factors: products, price, quality, location, selection, customer
service, expertise, reliability, reputation, management and
advertising.
What are your key competitive advantages? Explain why customers
will buy from you rather than your competition.

Market Potential
Describe your geographic trade area.
Describe the size of your market in terms of potential customers.
Include whether this market is growing, stable, declining and why.
What is your market potential in terms of total potential sales? This
should be based on market size, target market size, number that will
be actual customers, average order size and number of orders per
year.
Pricing
How will you price products/services? If necessary, include price
strategy chart. Make sure you have considered your cost of goods.
How does this pricing position you in the market?
Promotional Strategies: include the following:

Advertising
What advertising tools will you use and why did you choose these?
Tools could include: newspaper, magazines, direct mail, yellow

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 pages, radio, TV, Internet, business cards and brochures. How often
and how much will you spend on your advertising budget?

Public Relations
Explain if you will use public relations and what activities this might
include as a part of your promotional strategies. These activities
might include: trade shows, discounts, special events, sponsorship
and customer service.

Personal Sales
What part do personal sales pay in the purchase of your
product/service?
Who will be responsible for selling?
What qualifications will your salespeople are expected to have?
What are your customer service policies?

o ORGANIZATIONAL MATTERS/MANAGEMENT PLAN

A management plan is a structured document that usually includes
objectives, goals, standards and guidelines, management actions,
and monitoring plans.
Business Structure
Describe the legal structure of your business (sole proprietorship,
partnership, corporation or Limited Liability Company). Include in
this the ownership of the business.
Management Team
Describe your management team. Include key positions and the
qualifications (or needed qualifications) of employees.
Personnel
Describe the positions in your company, the job responsibilities and
skills (or needed skills) of employees. What is your plan for filling
positions? Explain how you will recruit and what training might be
needed.
Outside Advisors
Describe what outside advisors you will use to enhance your
business. This should include the cost to your business and what
services they will provide. Examples include: accountant, attorney,
insurance agent and marketing agency.
If you will use an advisory board, list potential members and area of
expertise.
Risk Management
What types of insurance will you require and what are the costs?
(Include proof of insurance or a quote)
What are your exit strategies, including succession planning?
Process
Describe the process necessary to get your product/service to your
customer. This should include your inputs, how you will add value,
packaging and delivery. Also, include the type of labor inputs

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 necessary.

o Operational Plan/production plan

Explain the daily operation of the business, its location, equipment,
people, processes, and surrounding environment.
Production
How and where do you produce your products or services?
Explain your methods of:
 Production techniques and costs

 Quality control

 Customer service

 Inventory control

 Product development

Location
Describe the locations of production, sales, storage areas, and
buildings.
Do you lease or own your premises?
Describe access to your buildings (walk in, parking, freeway, airport,
railroad, and shipping).
What are your business hours?
If you are trying to get an expansion loan, include a drawing or layout
of your proposed facility.
Legal Environment
Describe the following:
 Licensing and bonding requirements

 Permits

 Health, workplace, or environmental regulations

 Special regulations covering your industry or profession

 Zoning or building code requirements

 Insurance coverage

 Trademarks, copyrights, or patents (pending, existing, or

purchased)

Personnel
 Number of employees

 Type of labor (skilled, unskilled, professional)

 Where do you find new employees?

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  Quality of existing staff

 Pay structure

 Training methods and requirements

 New hiring in the coming year?

 Who does which tasks?

 Are schedules and procedures in place?

 Do you have written job descriptions for employees? If not, take

time to write some. Written job descriptions really help internal
communications with employees.

 Do you use contract workers as well as employees?

Inventory
 What kind of inventory do you keep: raw materials, supplies,
finished goods?

 Average value in stock; that is, what is your inventory

investment?

 Rate of turnover and how it compares with industry averages?

 Seasonal buildups?

 Lead time for ordering?

Suppliers
Note the following information about your suppliers
 Their names and addresses.
 Type and amount of inventory furnished.
 Credit and delivery policies.
 History and reliability.
 Do you expect shortages or short-term delivery problems?
 Are supply costs steady or fluctuating? If fluctuating, how do you
deal with changing costs?
 Should you be searching out new sources of supply, or are you
satisfied with present suppliers?
Credit Policies
 Do you sell on credit? If so, do you really need to? Is it customary
in your industry and expected by your clientele?
 Do you carefully monitor your payables (what you owe to
vendors) to take advantage of discounts and to keep your credit
rating good?
You need to carefully manage both the credit you extend and the credit
you receive.
Managing Your Accounts Receivable

1018
  If you do extend credit, what are your policies about who gets
credit and how much?
 How do you check the creditworthiness of new applicants?
 What terms will you offer your customers; that is, how much
credit and when is payment due?
 Do you offer prompt payment discounts? (It is best to do this only
if it is usual and customary in your industry.)
 Do you know what it costs you to extend credit? This includes
both the cost of capital tied up in receivables and the cost of bad
debts.
 Have you built the costs into your prices?
You should do an aging at least monthly to track how much of your
money is tied up in credit given to customers and to alert you to slow
payment problems. A receivables aging looks like the following table.
Table 2: Accounts Receivable Aging
Over 90
Total Current 30 Days 60 Days 90 Days
Days

Accounts
receivable
aging

Collecting from delinquent customers is no fun. You need a set policy

and you need to follow it.
 When do you make a phone call?
 When do you send a letter?
 When do you get your attorney to threaten?
Managing Your Accounts Payable

You should also age your accounts payable (what you owe to
your suppliers). Use this format.
Table 3: Accounts Payable Aging

Over 90
Total Current 30 Days 60 Days 90 Days
Days

Accounts
payable
aging

This helps you plan whom to pay and when. Paying too early
depletes your cash, but paying late can cost you valuable
discounts and damage your credit. (Hint: If you know you will be

1019
 late making a payment, call the creditor before the due date. It
tends to relax them.)
Are prompt payment discounts offered by your proposed
vendors? Do you always take them?

o Financial Plan
This is the part that scares many clients the most. Without realizing it, you

have gathered most of the information needed in this section just by

completing the previous sections. Your SBDC counselor can help you pull it all

together.

Pre-Startup
How much money will it cost to get ready to open
 Building or remodeling costs
 Equipment, furniture and fixture costs
 Inventory costs
 Rent or mortgage, utilities, insurance and employees
prior to opening
 Pre-opening advertising

Attorney(s), accountant(s) and other consultants prior to opening

Historical Financial Documents for existing companies (if

you are expanding or buying an existing business)
 Profit and Loss statements:
1. Month-end for every complete month for the
last 12 months
2. Year-to-date for the current year
3. Year-end for the last 5 complete years
 Balance Sheets
1. Year-end for the last 5 complete years
2. Year-to-date for current year
 Income Tax Returns for the last 5 complete years

How do you propose to finance this? How much will

come from:
 Personal savings
 Bank loans
 Personal loans from friends or family
 Outside investors
 Other

1020
 Projections
▪ What will your monthly sales be for the first year?
What will your sales be for years 2 and 3?
▪ What will your monthly expenses be for the first
year? What will they be for years 2 and 3?
▪ Complete Monthly Income, Cash Flow and Balance
Sheet Projections for Years 1, 2 and 3. Be sure to include
an explanation of how you came up with these numbers.
It is critical for you to provide assumptions so that
development of numbers can be understood.

o Appendix and Attachments

Following this page, attach:
 Resumes
 Letters of endorsements
 Copies of contracts and agreements
 Licenses, certifications, and other credentials
Copies of market study material and other data used to develop
elements in the business plan

1021
WRITING A BUSINESS PLAN
BUSINESS PLAN

COVER PAGE
Name of business:
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
Address and telephone:
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
Name of owner:
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
Date:
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
Signature:
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
Summarised statement on:
i) Business description
ii) Opportunity and entity
iii) Target market
iv) Management team
v) Financial plan
vi) Critical risks and problems and solutions

BUSINESS DESCRIPTION
i) Owner Details
Name:.................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
Age:....................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................

1022
Address:..............................................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................................................
Occupation:.........................................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................................................
Education/Professional
Qualifications: ...................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
.........................
Business
Experience: ........................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
....................
ii) The Business Venture
Name of business:
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
Location of business:
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
Legal form of business:
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
Major activity of business:
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................

Principal customers
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
Location of customers:
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
Amount to be invested by owners

1023
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
Amount to be borrowed:
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
Total amount needed for the venture:
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
iii) The Product/Service
Name of
product/service: .................................................................................................................................
..........................
Features of
product/service ..................................................................................................................................
.........................
Benefits obtained from
product/service: .................................................................................................................................
..........................
Unique features of
product/service: .................................................................................................................................
...........................
iv) Entry Plan
Competitive advantage of the business:
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
Weakness of competition:
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
Pricing plan:
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
Plans to attract customers:
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................

1024
v) Growth plan
Trends which signal business growth:
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................

Opportunities arising from this trend:

............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
Plans to take advantage of the opportunities:
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
MARKETING PLAN
i) Potential Customers
Type of customers (individuals, institutions):
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
Total target market population:
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
Number of customers who can buy product/ service:
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
ii) Competition
Names of the key competitors:
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
Location in relation to your business:
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
Size of the competitors:

1025
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
Comparisons between your product(s) or service(s) and those of the competitors:
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................

Strength and weakness of the competitors:

............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
Plans to capitalize on the weakness of the competitors:
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
iii) Pricing.
Methods of calculating the selling price of your product/ service:
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
Factors which will influence your price setting e.g. competitors prices:
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
Actual selling price(s) of your product(s) or service(s):
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................

Credit terms to be offered:

............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
Discounts to be allowed:
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
Any after-sales service(s) and relevant costs:

1026
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
iv) Sales Tactics
Method of direct selling or personal selling:
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
Method of indirect selling:
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
Method of recruitment and retention of the sale force:
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
Utilization of distributors or agents:
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
Ways of selecting and motivating distributors or agents:
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
Geographical area you intend to serve:
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
v) Advertising and promotion
Media to be
used: ...................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
.........
Product/service image to be portrayed:
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
Image to be projected regarding business:
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
Frequency of advertisements:

1027
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
Cost per advertisement placement:
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
Measuring effectiveness of the advertisements:
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................

Plans for initial promotional campaign:

............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
Plans for regular promotional methods:
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
Cost of each promotional event:
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................

Measuring effectiveness of promotional campaigns:

............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
vi) Distribution
Channels to be utilized:
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
Means of transport you will use:
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
Transport cost per month:
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
Anticipated distribution problems:

1028
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
Overcoming distribution problems:
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................

ORGANISATION PLAN
i) Structure

E.g. of an organizational marketing Plan

ii) Key Personnel

Number of positions:
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
Title of positions:
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
Duties of positions:
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
Remuneration level:

1029
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
Incentive package:
............................................................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................................................

iii) Ordinary Employees.

Numbers required:
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
Titles and duties:
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
Remuneration:
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
Incentive package:
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................

iv) Support Services

Banking:
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
Book keeping:
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
Legal:
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................

Postal:

1030
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
Management advice:
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................

Other:
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................

PRODUCTION PLAN

i) Production and sales

No Item Total Quantity per year Sales per year Capacity/Utilisation

ii) Machinery/equipment
No Item Unit Price Total Value Maintenance Costs

Total:

iii) Raw Material Requirement

No Item Quantity Total Annual Requirement

Value Source

Total:

iv) Utilities / Infrastructure

No Item Annual Requirement Total Annual Maintenance
Costs

Total:

v) Labour

1031
No Particulars No. of Staff Annual Further Training
Wages/Salaries Required
Skilled
Semi-skilled
Unskilled
Owner’s Salary
Total:

vi) Administrative and Selling Costs

No. Item Quantity Amount

Total:

TYPE OF COST MONTHLY COST

Source of materials
Materials required
Transportation
Workers/labour
Overhead expenses
Cost per unit
TOTAL COST

1032
FINANCIAL PLAN
i) Pre- operational Costs
ITEM COST
Transport
Market research
Plan properties
Meeting people
Photocopying
Installations
TOTAL COST

ii) Working Capital.

ITEM AMOUNT
Stock of raw materials
Work in progress
Stock if finished goods
Debtors
Cash
TOTAL WORKING CAPITAL

1033
MODULE III

Introduction

The module III course is designed to equip the trainee with knowledge, skills and attitudes
required to perform the duties of a manager in a catering and accommodation establishment.

This module also equips the trainee with skills required to supervise and guide production or
service of food and beverage products.

General Objectives
By the end of this course, the trainee should be able to:
e) Manage catering and accommodation operations in a catering and accommodation
establishment.
f) Supervise and guide production or service of food and beverage products.
g) Appreciate the need for having knowledge of human relations, sales and marketing skills.
h) acquire research techniques and apply them when carrying out research work to improve
service delivery in his/her work

Entry Requirements
Trainees entering this course should have any of the following minimum requirements

4. Passed Module II of Diploma in Catering and Accommodation

OR
5. Not referred in not more than 2 units of Diploma in Catering and Accommodation
OR
6. Equivalent qualification

1034
Module Units and Time Allocation

Codes Module unit Time

(Hours)
19.3.0 Accommodation operations 150
management
20.3.0 Principles and practices of 100
management
21.3.0 Sales and marketing 80
22.3.0 Human relations 80
23.3.0 Research project 90
TOTAL 990
Industrial Attachment 330
Total 990

1035
19.3.0 ACCOMMODATION OPERATIONS MANAGEMENT II

19.3.1 Introduction
This course unit is intended to equip the trainee with knowledge skills and attitude to
enable him/her work efficiently in catering and accommodation establishment.

19.3.2 General Objectives

At the end of this course unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) plan and supervise accommodation functions
b) control accommodation operation staff effectively
c) recruit, select, induct and train accommodation staff
d) supervise cleaning and laundry procedures
e) make requisition for purchase of accommodation equipment and materials

1036
 19.3.0 Course Unit Summary and Time Allocation

Code Sub-module unit Content T P Total

Hours
19.3.01 Introduction to  Classification of 6 14 20
Accommodation accommodation
Management establishments
 Functions of the
establishments
 Duties and
responsibilities of the
accommodation manager
19.3.02 Work Study  Definition 10 20 30
 Importance of work
study
 Stages of work study
 Motion economy
 Work measurement
 Time study
 Ergonomics
 Evaluation
19.3.03 Special Functions  Type of function 6 18 24
 Theme interpretation
19.3.04 Internal  Definition of terms 6 16 22
Environment  Ventilation
 Lighting
 Noise
 Conditioning
19.3.05 Linen and Laundry  Definition 6 16 22
Systems  The linen control system
 Laundry options
 The dry-cleaning system
19.3.06 Contract Services  Definition of terms 10 20 30
 Types of contract
services
 Advantages and
disadvantages
 Factors considered when
engaging a contract
service
 Contract specification
 Pricing a contract
 Checking system
19.3.07 Emerging Issues  Emerging issues and 1 1 2
and Trends trends
 Challenges of emerging
issues and trends
 Coping mechanisms

Total 45 105 150

1037
1038
19.3.01 INTRODUCTION TO ACCOMMODATION MANAGEMENT

Theory

19.3.01T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) classify types of accommodation establishments
b) discuss functions of accommodation establishments
c) explain the duties and responsibilities of the accommodation manager

19.3.01 C Competence
The trainee should have the ability to:
i) prepare job cards
ii) make a work schedules
iii) prepare a duty roster
iv) supervise duties efficiently

Content
19.3.01T 1 Accommodation establishments

CLASSSIFICATION OF LODGING ESTABLISHMENT

Establishment can be classified into commercial and welfare sectors
Commercial sector
These include hotels of various kinds, motels, town and country clubs, boarding houses
and holiday camps. The hotels and motels may be classified as follows:
1. First class luxury hotels with private bathrooms, suites and lounges, where the
décor is luxurious and provision is made for particular personal services to the
guests. These are expensive and employ many staff.
2. Bed and breakfast- are inns which are usually small, privately owned
establishment located in suburban and rural locations
3. Time- Share condominiums-are apartments, villas, or bungalows usually built
near popular vacations sports
4. Cruise Ships- can be described as floating luxury hotels/ resorts that provide most
of the same services and amenities as property located on land.
5. Casinos- are generally first class hotels that provide elaborate facilities for
gambling, ranging from slot machines to sophiscated roulette tables.

-Are highly profitable establishment which offer luxurious lodging and

lavish entertainment at low cost attracting potential customers.
6. Motels and Motor hotels- are specialized establishments catering for motorist,
situated on main trunk roads. They usually have parking facilities close by
accommodation
7. Expensive clubs- found in town or country, providing facilities for recreation and
relaxation with some sleeping accommodation and are very much run on the line
of a first class hotel
8. Holiday Camps- generally consists of chalet-type accommodation and the amount
of service varies. In some places cooking facilities are provided for guests.

1039
 9. Boarding Houses- are small hotels, generally with simple furnishing and
providing little services.

WELFARE SECTORS
These are establishment satisfying a social need at reasonable standard of
cleanliness and comfort is expected at the lowest possible cost with a
tremendous difference in staffing and services offered throughout the wide range
of establishment in this group. Examples include hospitals, retirement homes,
universities and colleges
Hotels- for young people and university halls of residence are medium to long
stay establishment.
 Staffs are kept at a minimum and students are expected to make their own beds,
keep their rooms tidy.
 Rooms may be cleaned weekly or by students and apart from public areas, there
may be little or no cleaning at weekends
 Some hotels are self- catering so cooking facilities may also be provided.

HOSPITALS
In hospitals, the staff residences may be likened to hostels or university halls of
residence.
_The residences’ rooms normally receive a weekly clean and sometimes
residents clean their own rooms with equipment provided by the hospitals.
Hospitals also contain administrative arrears, laboratories, training schools,
laundries kitchen and patients areas .Some of these are prestige or high risk areas
e.g. operating theatres and renal, transplant and premature baby units, burnt
units. In these and other patient areas, great emphasis must be laid on the
control of infection
Lodging facilities can also be categorized by size
e.g.
Small-up to 75 rooms
Medium-from 75 to 200 rooms
Large-from 200-500 rooms
Very large-more than 500 rooms
The size of a property can be used to estimate the amount of work required of the
housekeeping department on a daily basis to maintain the property.100-room property
can be serviced with a relatively small number of housekeeping staff. Above 1000 rooms
will require more housekeeping staff to service the guest rooms
Classification by type of service
Lodging properties can also be categorized by service. Economy or budget properties
focus on meeting the basic needs of the traveling public with the aim of providing a

1040
clean, comfortable room that are not expensive. The market segments will attract guests
traveling with children, bus tours, students, budget-minded retirees. Such properties do
not offer food & beverage services except for breakfast
Mid-market
Properties offer all the amenities expected in a “home-away-from-home
setting”.Restaurants,coffee shops, bars, luggage service, meeting rooms, health club,
room service etc are generally offered in such properties
The quality bed linen, towels, room furniture, lobby décor and customer service must be
good or very good.Travellers include business people, individual tourists conventioneers
and guests wishing to receive a guaranteed level of excellent service
Mid-market properties features suites that consists of a bedroom, adjacent livingroom, a
kitchenette with refrigerator
Luxury
Offer world-class service which includes any type of convenience that would be expected
by any traveler in any country in the world.
Luxury properties may feature extravagant amenities like imported chocolates, specialty
toiletry items, slippers, and silk robes, special services like executive floors, concierge,
foreign language translators, nanny & private secretary

Housekeeping in different types of establishment

Type of Aims of housekeeping department

establishment
Hotels Aesthetic-the objective is to achieve a clean, pleasant and attractive
Boarding house appearance

Motels
Holiday camps
Hospitals Clinical-objective is to remove as much soil and therefore micro-
Nursing homes organisms as possible; prevent cross infection and achieve a high
degree of hygiene
Convalescent
homes
hospices

1041
Hostels Normal and Acceptable standards-objective is to remove dust & dirt
University halls of such as litt ers and obtain a comfortable place
residence
Local authority
homes

19.3.01T 2 Functions of the establishments

The aim of all Hotels or establishments that offer accommodation is to provide their
customers with clean, attractive, comfortable and welcoming surroundings that offer
value for money. Nothing sends a stronger message than cleanliness in a hospitality
industry. No level of service, friendliness or glamour can equal the sensation a guest has
upon entering a spotless, tidy and conveniently arranged room. Both management and
guest consider keeping the place clean and in good order a necessity, for a hotel to
command a fair price and to get repeat business.

A survey carried out showed 63% travelers rated cleanliness and appearance as their
first priority in their choice of hotels. The housekeeping department takes pride in
keeping the hotel clean and comfortable so as to create a ‘home away from home’.
Good housekeeping is considered as the backbone of accommodation sector as its main
aim is to provide a clean comfortable, safe and aesthetically appealing environment.

Housekeeping is an operational department of the hotel. It is responsible for cleanliness,

maintenance, aesthetic upkeep of rooms, public areas, back areas and surroundings.

A hotel survives on the sale of rooms, food, beverage, and other minor services like
laundry, health clubs, health spa, sightseeing, shopping arcades etc. The sale of rooms
constitutes a minimum of 50% of these sales.

Thus a major part of hotels margin of profit comes from room sales because a room once
made can be sold over and over again. However, the days when the room remains
unsold there is a total loss of revenue. To this extent, rooms are more perishable than
food. The housekeeping budget typically accounts for 20% of the properties total
operating expenditure. The largest element of operating cost in the housekeeping
department is labour. The effort that the housekeeping department makes in giving a
guest a desirable room has a direct bearing on the guest experience in the hotel.

Guest rooms are the heart of the hotel. Unless the décor is appropriate, the air odour
free, furnishing and upholstery is spotlessly clean the hotel may loose a guest as a
potential customer. The housekeeping department not only prepares the clean
guestroom on a timely basis for the guests who are arriving but also cleans and
maintains everything in the hotel so that the property is fresh and attractive as the day it
opens for business. The housekeeping thus contributes in a big way towards the overall
reputation of a property. It is a 24 hour and 365 day operation. Scientific housekeeping

1042
demands the employment of the most effective cleaning materials and procedures,
attention to purchasing the most suitable linen supplies, maintenance of decorative area
under the housekeeping department purview and proper organization and supervision.

Other than hotels, professional housekeeping service is very much in demand in

hospitals, cooperate buildings, airports, airlines, cruisers, banks shopping arcade. Since
most such organizations prefer to out source these functions, contract housekeeping is
becoming a lucrative entrepreneurship venture these days.

AIMS OBJECTIVES & RESPONSIBILITIES of HOUSEKEEPING DEPARTMENT:

· To achieve the maximum possible efficiency in ensuring the care and comfort of
the guests.

a) Establish a welcoming atmosphere and ensure courteous, reliable service

from all the staff of the department.

b) Ensure a high standard of cleanliness and general upkeep in all areas for
which the department is responsible.

c) Provide linen in rooms, food service areas etc and maintain an inventory for
the same.

· To provide uniforms for all the staff and maintain adequate inventory for the
same.

a) Cater to the laundry requirement, staff uniforms and guest clothing.

b) Deal with the lost and found articles. This ensures the smooth running of the
department.

· To resist in the maintenance of the building while contributing to a safe and

healthy environment.

· To provide and maintain the floral decorations and landscaped areas of the
hotel.

· To select the right contractor and ensure that the quality of work is maintained.

· To coordinate the renovation of the property as and when required in

consultation with the management and the interior designer.

· To coordinate with the purchase department of the guest supplies, cleaning

agents, equipments, linen, carpets and other items used in the hotel.

· To ensure training control and supervision of all staff attached to the

department.

1043
 · To establish a good working relationship with other departments.

· To ensure that safety and security regulations are made known to all the staff of
the department.

· To keep the G.M and administrator informed of all matters requiring special
attention.

BRAND LOYALTY:

Resident guest may be loyal to a particular chain of hotels or properties.Eg. Holiday Inn,
Hyatt, etc.Change of brand loyalty can be explained as a matter of habit, maximization of
value to price or past experience with service since it is difficult to explain pre purchased
information about services. Consumers may be reluctant to change brands as they are
uncertain.

Guest also become brand loyal as they realize that repeat patronage to a particular
property gives them personalize service and greater satisfaction of their needs. This is
due to the fact that guest is recognized as his needs are known by the staff.

Decreasing brand loyalty may be due to:

· The availability of individual brands only in certain locations. This forces the client
to choose another brand. In this way the consumer learns about competing
brands and is able to make a more realistic evaluation of the kind of brand he
would like to patronize.

· Travel writers give useful tips about different hotels, their services and comfort of
stay.

· Travel agents also help in giving information about different hotels.

· Trade magazines often do monthly assessments of different hotels.

AREAS of RESPONSIBILTY of HOUSEKEEPING DEPARTMENT:

· Guestrooms / Floors:

Room attendants and floor supervisors are responsible for the cleanliness
maintenance and security of guestrooms and surrounding areas.

· Public Areas:

a) Front of the house areas.(Eg. swimming pools, parking area, club, food
service area etc.)

1044
 b) Back of the house areas.(Eg. Staff canteen, service elevator, locker rooms,
administrative canteen, laundry, linen rooms, basement, store except
kitchen which is cleaned by the kitchen stewards)

c) Linen and Uniform rooms:

The housekeeping department is responsible for its functioning for the

repairs and renewal of linen and for maintenance of proper inventory and
stock records of all linen items. Linen includes room linen, food service
linen, soft furnishings, uniforms, bed and bath linen.

d) Laundry: OPL (On Premises Laundry):

If the laundry is on premises then the guest laundry from the rooms is
directly collected and delivered by the laundry ballet. However all hotel
linen is first collected in the linen room and then sent to the laundry for
washing. OPL (off premises laundry) is the laundry of both the guest and
linen which is done by the external laundry. All the linen including the
guest laundry is collected in the linen room from it is sent to the external
laundry for washing. The washed linen including the guest laundry is
collected at the linen from where it is sent to the guest rooms and other
service points.

e) Resident Guests:

They are given their service by room attendance and they are not charged for it.
Some hotels have a shoeshine machine in the corridor.

f)Florist:

It could either be given out for contract or be a part of the responsibility

of the housekeeping department. An employee of the housekeeping
department would be required to do the flower arrangements in the
lobby, guestrooms, restrooms, restaurants. Any banquet requirements
like a backdrop for a wedding are done on contract.

g) Extra Room Complimentries & Supplies:

Iron, first-aid, hot water bags, ice bags, thermometer, hair dryer etc are given out
for guest use at no extra cost. However a request for extra beds should be
routed through the Front office since the guest would be charged extra
for it.

19.3.01T 3 Duties and responsibilities of the accommodation

manager

1045
 the duties include
 Assessing man power levels
 Reruitement and selection of staff
 Induction and training of staff
 Deployment and scheduling of staff
 Supervision
 Quality control
 Inspection of premises
 Staff welfare
 Hygyiene control
 Waste disposal
 Selection and purchasing of soft furnishing
 Linen control and laundering
 Cleaning and maintenance
 Interior design
 Health , ssfety, fire and security
 Welfare of building users
 Front office operations

Practice

19.3.01P Specific Objectives

By the end of the sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) prepare job cards for their assistants
b) make a work schedule
c) prepare a duty roster
d) carry out demonstrations
e) supervise duties efficiently

Content
19.3.01P 1 Preparation of job card
19.3.01P 2 Making work schedules
19.3.01P 3Preparing duty rosters
19.3.01P 4Carrying out demonstrations
19.3.01P 5 Supervision of duties

Suggested Teaching/Learning Resources

- Internet
- Journals
- Textbooks
- Resource persons
- Magazines
- Job cards
- Work schedules
- Check lists

Suggested Teaching/Learning Activities

- Group discussions
- Researching

1046
 - Preparing work schedules and duty roster

Suggested Evaluation Methods

- Assignments
- Tests
- Reports

19.3.02 WORK STUDY

Theory

19.3.02T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) define terms
b) explain the importance of work study
c) discuss the stages of work study
d) discuss motion economy
e) discuss work measurement
f) explain time study
g) discuss ergonomics
h) discuss the methods of evaluation

UNIT TASKS
Unit Task 1 Definition of Terms

Work study
This is a generic term for those techniques which are used in the examination of human
work in all its contexts, and which lead systematically to the investigation of all factors
which affect the efficiency and economy of the situation being reviewed in order to effect
improvement.
It involves the study of such factors as people, equipment, tools, materials and layout.

Method study
This is defined as the systematic recording and critical examination of existing and
proposed ways of doing work as a means of developing and applying easier and more
effective methods and thus reducing costs.

Unit Task 2: Importance of work Study

 It improves methods of work and work processes
 It improves the layout of the working area
 It improves the design of the equipment and plant
 It assists in staffing requirements e.g. hours of work required to clean, service and
maintain the establishment
 It helps in reduction of costs
 It helps develop better working environment
 It reduces fatigue among staff
 It helps utilize staff equipment and materials to their fullest
 It helps introduce standardization in the work situation

1047
  It reduces accident rates
 It improves standards of work
 It reduces complaints and grievances on the part of employee and customer
 It reduces wastage in all areas

Unit Task 3 Stages of work Study

Stage 1: Select the work to be studied

Usually, routine or repetitive tasks are chosen, e.g. dusting, bed making, mopping, etc.

Stage 2: Record the facts

The facts gathered can be recorded by using one of the following techniques or a
combination.
 Charts in the form of process charts, time scale charts, etc
 Diagrams in the form of flow diagrams and string diagrams
 Models – three dimensional, two dimensional drawn to scale or cut out or
templates
 Filming – using cine and still films

Stage 3: Examine the facts

When all the facts have been obtained and represented by one of the recording techniques,
the facts must be examined systematically and analytically in an objective manner.

Stage 4: Develop a better method

Once the facts have been examined and the questions have been answered, then try to
develop a better method by using one or more of the following factors:
 Elimination – eliminating certain activities or unnecessary parts of the job
 Combination – Combining activities together
 Simplification – simplifying processes or activities
 Change of sequence – the order of work carried out may be changed to improve
performance

Stage 5: Introduce and maintain the better method

In order to complete this process, it is essential to carry out detailed planning and
preparation, gain the assistance and cooperation of all staff, and monitor its progress very
carefully, especially in the first few days. Extra supervision, guidance and training may be
required to give staff confidence and alleviate fears particularly if the change is
considered. If problems do occur, they should be investigated and corrected immediately.

Unit Task 4 Motion Economy

Motion economy is concerned with the economy of movement. Fatigue will be reduced
and time fully used if movement can be eliminated, reduced or simplified.
The seven principles of motion economy are:
 Minimum movement
 Simultaneous movement
 Symmetrical movement
 Natural movement
 Rhythmical movement

1048
  Habitual movement
 Continuous movement
In carrying out tasks, these movements may be made individually, or two or more may be
combined together in order to reduce fatigue.
They are studied in order to develop better working methods, increase flow of work, and
improved design of tools and equipment.

Unit Task 5 : Work measurement

Work measurement is the application of techniques designed to establish the time for a
qualified worker to do a specified job at a defined level of performance.
It is concerned with investigating, reducing and subsequently eliminating ineffective
time.
People tend to work at different rates depending on a number of factors:
 Type of job involved
 Amount of mechanization
 The working environment
 The amount of job satisfaction
 The rate of pay and value of incentives
 The ability and attitudes of fellow workers
 The amount of rest periods
 If the job is full time or part time

It is possible to work out standard times for a job by calculating the average time it would
take a number of workers to perform it.
There are two main techniques of work measurements:
 Time study – Observation of a job while it is being done.
 Activity sampling – Involves random observation of activities during a normal
shift or period of work including waiting or idle time. Each observation records
the work occurring at that instant and is expressed as a percentage of all the
observations which record that activity. This provides an idea of the percentage
time spent on that particular activity.

Unit Task 6: Time study

The job is observed while it is being done. A stop watch is used to measure the job
accurately. A standard rating scale is used which runs from 0-100, based on the BSI
recommendations. A performance of 100 is considered normal. A slow worker may
achieve only 90 or 85, and a fast worker may achieve 110 or 120.
A standard hour is made up of 60 standard minutes.

Unit Task 7: Ergonomics

This is the study of the relation of the work to the environment, tools and equipment so as
to avoid unnecessary strain and tension, thereby to make the best use of human resources.
Naturally it is impossible to provide ideal condition for every individual worker, but every
effort should be made to make conditions as pleasant as possible.
Ergonomics is a recognized science, and at a simple level, is very similar to motion
economy. It is concerned with the following:
 Environment – The type of environment plays a very important part in the amount
of stress, strain, tension and fatigue the worker endures in relation to the efficient

1049
 use of human resources. Factors include light, heat, humidity, ventilation and
noise.
 Space layout – Each worker needs a well laid out work station. It is important to
take into account the amount of working space and the height of working surfaces
in relation to the size of the individual worker in order to provide good posture
with minimum physical effort.
 The design of tools and equipment - Equipment and tools should be well designed,
well balanced, not heavy, easy to use and maneuver, and not inclined to ‘run
away’ with the operator. Attachments should also be easy to connect and remove.

Unit Task 8: Evaluation

19.3.02P Specific Objectives

By the end of the sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) practice motion economy
b) practice aspects of ergonomics
c) evaluate the work done

Content
19.3.02P 1 Practicing motion economy
19.3.02P 2 Practicing ergonomics aspects
19.3.02P 3Evaluating work done

Suggested Teaching/Learning Resources

- Internet
- Journals
- Textbooks
- Resource persons
- Magazines
- Field trips
- Reports

Suggested Teaching/Learning Activities

- Group discussions
- Researching
- Preparing work schedules
- Writing reports

Suggested Evaluation Methods

- Assignments
- Tests
- Reports

19.3.03 SPECIAL FUNCTIONS

Specific Objectives
By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) identify different types of functions
b) explain themes for functions

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 The trainee should have the ability to interpret themes of various functions.

Unit task 1: Identification of different types of functions

There are several functions that can be held in an accommodation establishment. These
include:
- Meetings
- Exhibitions
- Seminars
- Workshops
- Baby showers
- Bridal showers
- Birthday Parties
- Weddings

Unit Task 2: Theme interpretation for various areas

 Conference rooms/Lounges/Common rooms

Basic requirements for room preparation

Flowers
Potted plants
Brochures
Drinking water/glasses
Folders and pens
Wall hangings

Point to note
1. Table arrangements will vary according to function
2. Requirements may vary depending on the function

 Guest Rooms
Basic requirements
Fruit baskets
Wall hangings
Reading materials
Drinking water and glasses
Matching bedcovers
Clean and well pressed bed linen
Slippers
Bedside rugs and door mats
Mini bar
Magazines

Point to note
Variations will be made depending on the type of guest

 Sick Rooms
Basic requirements

1051
 Fresh flowers
Get well card
Energy drink
Drinking water and glasses
Matching bedcovers
Slippers
Bedside Rugs

Point to note
Minimal décor is a requirement for sick rooms

 Sanitary Areas
Basic Requirements
Tissue paper
Air freshener
Flowers
Potted plants
Wall hangings
Notices on use of facility
Hand soap
Hand towel/Tissue
Tooth glass
Any other

 Public Areas
Basic requirements
A large flower arrangement
Lined waste bin
Wall hangings
Potted plants
Notices

Suggested Teaching/Learning Resources

- Internet
- Journals
- Textbooks
- Resource persons
- Magazines
- Field trips
- Work schedules
- Duty rosters
- Flowers
- Wall hangings

1052
 - Check lists

Suggested Teaching/Learning Activities

- Group discussions
- Researching
- Preparing work schedules
- Arranging flowers
- Writing reports

Suggested Evaluation Methods

- Assignments
- Tests
- Reports

19.3.04 INTERNAL ENVIRONMENT

Theory

19.3.04T Specific Objectives

By the end of the sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) define terms
b) discuss ventilation
c) discuss lighting
d) discuss noise
e) discuss room conditioning

19.3.04 C Competence
The trainee should have the ability to:
i) identify internal environment devices
ii) choose internal environment devices
iii) operate internal environment devices

Content
19.3.04T 1 Definition of terms
19.3.04T 2 Ventilation
- importance
- ways of ventilating a room
- laws governing ventilation standards
19.3.04T 3 Lighting
- importance
- types of lighting
- types of light fittings
- factors to consider when planning a lighting system
19.3.04T 4 Noise
- causes
- effects of noise environment
- minimizing noise
19.3.04T 5 Room conditioning

1053
 - importance
- ways of room conditioning

Practice

19.3.04P Specific Objectives

By the end of the sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) identify internal environment devices
b) choose internal environment devices
c) operate internal environment devices

Content
19.3.04P 1 Identification of internal environment devices
- ventilation
- lighting
- conditioning
19.3.04P 2 Choosing of internal
environment devices
19.3.04P 3 Operating internal
environment devices

Suggested Teaching/Learning Resources

- Internet
- Journals
- Textbooks
- Resource persons
- Magazines
- Field trips
- Reports
- Check lists

Suggested Teaching/Learning Activities

- Group discussions
- Researching
- Writing reports

Suggested Evaluation Methods

- Assignments
- Tests
- Reports

19.3.05 LINEN AND LAUNDRY SYSTEMS

Theory

19.3.05T Specific Objectives

By the end of the sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) define the term laundry system
b) outline the linen control system

1054
 c) state advantages and disadvantages of laundry options
d) outline the dry-cleaning system

19.3.05 C Competence
The trainee should have the ability to:
i) supervise the linen and laundry control
ii) supervise the dry cleaning procedure

Content
19.3.05T 1 Definition
19.3.05T 2 The linen control system
- selecting and purchasing
- collection/receiving
- exchange
- counting and bagging
- storage
- washing/dry cleaning
- checking and inspection
- storage in central linen room
- re-distribution
19.3.05T 3 Laundry options
- types
- onsite laundry
- off site laundry
- linen hire
- advantages and disadvantages of each type
19.3.05T 4 The dry cleaning system
- arrival
- marking
- checking
- sorting
- dry cleaning
- pressing
- airing
- re-distribution

Practice

19.3.05P Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) supervise the linen and laundry control
b) supervise the dry cleaning procedure

Content
19.3.05P 1 Supervise linen control system
- selection and purchasing
- collection/receiving
- exchange
- counting and bagging
- storage

1055
 - washing/dry cleaning
- checking and inspection
- storage in central linen room
- redistribution
19.3.05P 2 Supervise the dry cleaning
procedure
- arrival
- marking
- checking
- sorting
- dry cleaning
- pressing
- airing
- redistribution

Suggested Teaching/Learning Resources

- Laundry
- Internet
- Journals
- Textbooks
- Resource persons
- Magazines
- Field trips
- Job cards
- Work schedules
- Duty rosters
- Reports
- Check lists

Suggested Teaching/Learning Activities

- Group discussions
- Researching
- Preparing work schedules
- Writing reports

Suggested Evaluation Methods

- Assignments
- Tests
- Reports

19.3.06 CONTRACT SERVICES

19.3.06 Specific Objectives

By the end of the sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) define contract services
b) identify the types of contract services
c) discuss the advantages and disadvantages of contract services
d) explain factors to consider when engaging contract services
e) write a work specification for a contractor

1056
 f) price a given contract
g) outline the checking system for the contractor

Unit Task 1: Definition of terms in contract services

Cleaning Contract
This is an agreement made between an individual/cleaning company and another
individual/company in respect to cleaning services to be provided for a
specific location such as a residence, office building or commercial building.
The agreement provides for the terms of the agreement, the work to be performed and the
payment provisions as well as the cleaning service providing evidence od
adequate insurance coverage.

Unit Task2: Types of contract services

- cleaning services
- laundry services
- linen services
- pest control services
- flower arrangement
- shoe cleaning
- landscaping
- dry cleaning
- refuse collection

Unit Task 3 Advantages and disadvantages of contract services

Advantages
1. No need to train staff for short term tasks
2. The job itself will be fully insured with reliable and fully trained operators
3. Reputable cleaning services are generally available 24/7
4. Outsourcing will allow you to concentrate on other areas
5. No need for specialized equipment by the establishment
6. The cleaning cost is known over a period of time

Disadvantages
1. It weakens the management role in supervision
2. Security problems due to high labour turnovers in contract companies
3. The housekeeping staff have no time to practice their skills
4. There is possibility of using cheap cleaning agents which can affect surfaces

Unit Task 4: Factors to consider when engaging contract services

Unit Task 5: Work specifications of contractor

1. Definition of terms and exact details of work to be done.
2. Include details of frequencies of service
3. Provision of supervisors may be a requirement laid down in a specification and
also details of how a contract is to be monitored, channels of communication in
case of complaint.

1057
 4. Details of provision which will be made by clients e.g. stores, changing facilities,
sluices, and those will be made by the contractor e.g. uniforms, security, waste
disposal, access to equipment, etc, must be identified.
5. Any restrictions imposed on the contractor must be made clear e.g. working hours,
restriction on chemicals used, staffing restrictions, e.g. minimum wages, union
membership, etc
6. Insurance requirements of the contractor must be covered in the specification.
7. Duration of the contract, breach of contract, or termination arrangement must be
covered

Unit Task 6: Pricing a contract

Pricing your services when starting out can seem rather difficult..
After you've bid on a few jobs you can adjust your pricing to accurately reflect your place
in the market.
When pricing your services, keep in mind these things:

Net Profit - You need to operate with a profit. Generally speaking, you need to project
your expenses, taxes you'll pay, and the salary you will draw. Your cash flow should be
enough to run the business and still have some left over for future expansion, major
purchases, etc.

Supply and Demand - Is the market flooded with commercial cleaners or is there a
shortage in your area? If you're stepping into a starved market, you can price your services
at a premium. If not, you may need to lower your prices or offer a specialty service others
are lacking to get your foot in the door.

Check Out the Competition - What does your competition charge? You can find out by
calling other companies just outside of your area. This way you're not viewed as a
competitor. You can assume that companies in your area will have similar pricing
structures.

Visit with Supply Stores - Contact the janitorial supply stores in your area. These people
can provide a wealth of information. Let them know you're going into business and you're
calling to determine supply prices for your future needs. Since they love to have new
customers, you will be in a position to ask other questions about the business environment
that they otherwise might not be inclined to answer.

What should you expect to earn for your services?

The rates for commercial cleaning varies depending on your location. The cost of living in
your area, the types of cleaning services you provide, plus the points mentioned above all
determine your price. Rates can range from earnings of $15 an hour up to $40 or more. Of
course, you will be charging your customer a set price, but your mindset when pricing
jobs should be to think in terms of the value of your time. If you think a job will take
about 2 hours and you think $30 an hour is a reasonable rate, then charge that customer
$60.

1058
Put together some financial projections, do a little research and set your price. Remember,
you don't have to be precise. Just be careful not to set your prices so low that you're
working for free or on a minimal profit margin.

Unit Task 7: Contract checking system

Suggested Teaching/Learning Resources

- Internet
- Journals
- Textbooks
- Resource persons
- Magazines
- Contract penal code
- Reports
- Check lists

Suggested Teaching/Learning Activities

- Group discussions
- Researching
- Writing reports

Suggested Evaluation Methods

- Assignments
- Tests
- Reports

19.3.7 EMERGING ISSUES AND TRENDS

Theory

19.3.7T Specific Objectives

By the end of the sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) identify emerging trends in accommodation management
b) identify challenges arising from emerging trends
c) explain ways of coping with challenges arising from the emerging issues

19.3.7 C Competence
The trainee should have the ability to:
i) identify emerging trends in accommodation management
ii) manage challenges arising from the emerging trends and issues

Content
19.3.7T 1 Emerging issues and trends
19.3.7T 2 Challenges
19.3.7T 3 Coping with challenges

1059
 Practice

19.3.7P Specific Objectives

By the end of the sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) identify emerging trends in accommodation management
b) manage challenges arising from the emerging trends and issues

Content
19.3.7P 1 Identifying emerging trends
in accommodation
management
19.3.7P 2 Managing challenges
arising from the emerging
trends and issues

Suggested Teaching/Learning Resources

- Internet
- Journals
- Textbooks
- Resource persons
- Magazines

Suggested Teaching/Learning Activities

- Group discussions
- Researching
- Writing reports

Suggested Evaluation Methods

- Assignments
- Tests
- Reports

1060
 20.3.0 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICES OF MANAGEMENT – (70 HOURS)

24.3.01 INTRODUCTION

This module unit is aimed at equipping the trainees with knowledge, skills
and attitudes that would enable him/her to appreciate management
functions in tourism establishment

24.3.02 GENERAL OBJECTIVES

By the end of this module unit, the trainee should be able to:

a) apply principles of management in tourism establishment

b) apply the management theories in his/her day to day activities
c) understand the impact of environmental factors on the management of
a tourism organization
d) Appreciate the emerging trends in management

1061
TOPIC: INTRODUCTION

Specific Objectives
By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) explain the nature and scope of management
b) identify various levels of management
c) explain various levels of management
d) explain the managerial roles
e) highlight qualities of an effective manager

UNIT TASKS

Task 1 explaining the Nature and scope of management

Management is an integrating force or agency consisting of some basic functions for
accomplishing the objectives of an organization. Thus management is the dynamic life
giving element in every organization. So by bring together factors of production,
management enables societies to get better and increase the supply of goods and services.

DEFINITIONS OF MANAGEMENT
1. According to McFarland
Management is a process by which managers create, direct, maintain and operate
purposive organizations through systematic coordinated and cooperative human efforts.

2. Henry Fayol
To manager is to plan, to organize, to command, to coordinate and to control.

3. George R Terry
Management is a distinct process consisting of activities of planning, organizing,
actuating, performed on the efforts of group members in order to utilize available
resources of the group human efforts, materials, machines and methods in order to attain
organization goals.

NB. These definitions clearly identify four functions of management. However modern
management classifies managerial function into five.

CHARACTERISTICS OF MANAGEMENT
Management has the following salient features.
 Management is a process. This refers to the process of getting thing done by
working with people to accomplish objectives.
 Management is goal oriented thus aims at achieving organizational
goals/objectives
 Management is a group activity. It’s concerned with group efforts and not
individual/efforts
 Management is a economic resource as it aims at reaping rich results in economic
terms
 Principles of management have universal application. Apply more or less in every
situation.
 Management is a system of authority. Managers at different levels have varying
degree of authority.
 Principles of management are dynamic and not static

1062
  Management is integrative; the essence of management is to integrate human and
other resources to achieve desired goals.
 Management is both science and an art. Management has an organized body of
knowledge consisting of well-defined concepts, principles and techniques that
have a wide application and thus a science. The application of this concepts
principles and techniques requires skills thus management is also considered as an
art.

Task 2 identifying the different Levels of management

All managers’ carryout managerial functions, however the time spent for function may
differ. The management levels include:

Executives Top 1st Level

Dept. Mgrs Middle 2nd Level

Supervisors/ Operating 3rd Level

Mgt.

 Top level management

Includes the Board of directors, the President, and other officers of the corporation
such as the Secretary, the treasurer, the Vice-Presidents and the General Managers.
The duties of these groups are to develop overall organisational goals, establish
operating policies, set long-range objectives and evaluate overall progress.

 Middle level management

The middle managers reports directly to the top management. They include plant
managers, department managers, chief engineers, controllers and superintendents.
The duties of this group are to carry out the long-range objectives set by top
management. They are more interested in the day-to-day activities than their
superiors.

 Lower level management

This level of management reports directly to the middle managers. They Consists
of the lowest level of management including foreman, supervisors and unit heads.
Supervise workers who perform the day-to-day operation. Watch and direct
workers, responsible for seeing that performance very closely. If problems arise,
they will often take corrective action right on the spot.
Operating managers are very concerned with specific jobs and performance, while
top managers are more interested in the overall objectives and long range
planning.

1063
Although managers work at different levels, all obtain results by establishing an effective
environment for effective group endeavor.

Task 3 explaining the Managerial skills and roles

MANAGEGERIAL SKILLS
A skill is the ability to do something. Hence managerial skills are the mixture of talents
that managers should possess in order to perform their roles efficiently. These skills make
managers unique and different from their subordinates. Basically there are four
managerial skills namely:-

1. CONCEPTUAL SKILLS
These are mental abilities that enable managers to build their businesses in a wholistic
manner. They enable managers to think in an abstract manner. It enables them to see
relationships with both the internal and external environment.
These skills increase in importance as we move up the managerial levels.

2. TECHNICAL SKILLS
These are abilities to use knowledge and expertise of a particular discipline to achieve the
ends of goals. They are as a result of training and practice.
Since first level managers/supervisors spend most of their time with operating employees,
they must have a good understanding of the work the subordinates perform if they are to
supervise them.

3. DIAGONISTIC SKILLS
These are skills that enable managers to define and understand situations and
circumstances. They assist managers to interpret situations at hand and take corrective
action. They increase in importance as we move up the managerial hierarchy.

4. INTERPERSONAL SKILLS/HUMAN SKILLS

These are the abilities to work effectively with others and build cooperative group
relationships to achieve organizational goals. They entail communication and motivation.
They enable managers to understand someone else position, to present ones own position
in reasonable way and assist managers in dealing with conflicts and resistance.
These skills have equal importance at all levels.

1064
MANAGERIAL ROLES BY HENRY MINTZBERG
Henry Mintzberg identified ten managerial roles which he grouped into three categories
namely:-
1. Inter personal roles
2. Informational roles
3. Decisional roles

Interpersonal roles

(i) Figure head. In this role the manager plays a symbolic role. He carries out a
variety of social, legal and ceremonial duties e.g. signing of certain documents,
receiving visitors’ etc.
(ii) Leader. The manager relates with subordinate motivates and develops them. He
is accountable of the activities of subordinates. He/she hires, trains and develops
the subordinates.
(iii) Liaison roles. The manager serves as a liaison between the organization
and the external environment. Thus he establishes a network of contacts with other
organization, customers, suppliers etc.

Informative roles

(i) Monitor role/Nerve centre. The managers seek information inside and outside
the organization. He attends meetings with subordinates.
(ii) Disseminator Role. In this role the manager passes information to subordinates.
He may conduct staff meetings, send memorandums to subordinates and meets
them informally. He ensures that they have necessary information to carry out
their tasks efficiently.
(iii) Spokesperson Role. He acts as the representative of the organization. He
gives information to people outside the organization about its performance and
policies. E.g. speaks to the community and in professional meetings, prepare
advertisements etc.

Decisional Roles

(i) Entrepreneur Role. The manager takes initiative for bringing change in his
organization. He performs the initiative and informative role in the organization.
(ii) Disturbance Role. The manager deals with problems that arise when
organization operations breaks down. He/she is responsible for the corrective
action.
(iii) Resource allocator role. The manager decides who will get what in the
organization. He schedules every activity of the organization and ensures a
balance in operations allocations of people, money etc.
(iv) Negotiator Role. The manager is responsible for representing the organization is
various important negotiations with other parties.

N/B Mintzberg emphasizes that these ten roles are inseparable and should be viewed as an
integrated whole. E.g. status as manifested in interpersonal roles, brings information to the

1065
mangers, and it’s this information that will enable manager perform the decisional role
effectively.

Task 4 Qualities of an effective manager

QUALITIES OF A MANAGER
The basic job of a manager is the effective utilization of human and other resources to
achieve organizational objectives. He lays down the goals and directs the activities of the
group toward effective utilization of resources so as to achieve organizational goals. The
manager manages work, subordinates and other managers and materials.
In order for a manager to succeed he must posses the following qualities.

1. Education –He should be well educated. He should posses both general education
and specific education in business management/administration.
2. Training -managerial skills are acquired through training.
3. Intelligence –manager should have an ability to think scientifically ad analyze
problems accurately.
4. Leadership –Manager should be able to inspire and channel the efforts of people
toward attainment of organizational goals. (Motivate)
5. Foresight –The manager should be able to foresee problems which might face the
business and take necessary measures
6. Maturity – a good manager should be emotionally mature and have a balanced
temperament. He should have high frustration tolerance.
7. Technical knowledge- a manager should possess peculiar knowledge to the
technique of production being used in the enterprise
8. Human relations attitude. A manager should be able to maintain good working
relationship with others. He should treat workers well.
9. Self-confidence. A manger should have confidence and take initiative on decision
made. He should not fear carrying out his duties.

LEARNING RESOURSES
i. Principles and practice of management by Saksena
ii. Management dynamics by Sagimo
iii. Management by Harold Koontz.
iv. Management principles by A Cole

EVALUATION
i. define the term management.
ii. Describe the skills that managers should posses in order to be effective managers.
iii. Explain the ten managerial roles as propounded by Henry Mintzberge.
iv. Describe the essential qualities of managers.

TOPIC: EVOLUTION OF MANAGEMENT THOUGHT

Specific Objectives
By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) discuss the evolution of schools of management thought
b) explain the systems approach to management

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 c) explain the modern management approaches

UNIT TASKS

Task 1 Explain the Evolution of schools of management thought

EARLY CONTRIBUTORS TO MANAGEMENT
Management is as old as civilization. Evidences of management exist in:-
1. Management of antiquity (ancient history)
a) Babylon
It has been shown that ancient Babylon practiced management in various ways:-
 They had financial control inform of stone tablets
 They had concepts of managerial responsibilities as evidenced in the code of
Hammurabi. The code stipulated what was expected from the cities of Babylon

b) Egypt
Ancient Egyptians practiced management in the following ways:-
 They practiced some management in their skill of construction of pyramids. The
building required a lot of planning and organization of both material and people.
 They had well-organized systems of leadership i.e. the Pharaoh, Priests and
common people.
 They demonstrated some planning in their farming on the Nile valley and
irrigating it through the ages.

2. The Roman empire

The Roman Empire practiced management in: -
 Keeping records: the empire was very large and thus required complex
administration
 Existence of the judiciary; the existence of magistrates created a system to
control human behaviour.
3. Roman Catholic Church
The existence of the Roman Catholic Church in Rome shows some degree of
management:-
 The existence of the Popes seat at the Vatican, its headquarters, shows some
form of centralization of authority
 The spreading of the gospel through missionary required some organization of
human and physical resources
 The existence of the Pope as the head of the church (leadership)
 Hierarchy of authority – the Pope at the top, the Bishops and Priests and the
congregation at the bottom
4. Military Organization
The success of the War Generals in their conquest efforts was based in their ability to
organize their men.
e.g., Napoleon, Alexander the great, Hitler

5. The Bible
Examples in the bible of existence of management include:-
In the book of exodus
 Moses led his people form captivity in Egypt (leadership)
 He chose able men to be rulers over others (delegation of duty)

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  Rulers judged all seasons, but difficult/complex cases were taken to Moses
(hierarchy of authority)
6. Cameralites
These were a group of German and Austrian public administrators in the (16 th to the 18th
who held the believe that:-
 To enhance the position of the state it was necessary to maximize material
wealth
 The same qualities needed to acquired individual wealth have to be applied to
the state and other departments
 They emphasized specialization of functions that is a person to what he is best
in
 They advocated for simplification of administrative procedure (policies and
procedures)
 They called for control techniques – how well we have achieved what we
planned to do.

PERIOD OF MANAGERIAL AWAKENING

The period around 18th Century during the industrial revolution, management took a more
defined direction as the study was geared towards maximizing production. Pioneers of
this period include: -

1. CHARLES BABBAGE
He was a professor of mathematics at the Cambridge University. Through visiting
industries in UK and France he found that manufacturers were unscientific and used
guesswork in production.
He felt that science and mathematical methods should be used in operations of factories.
He advocated that factories:
(i) Should use data/information which is obtained through research
(ii) Determine the precise cost of every process
(iii) Should pay workers fairly and give bonus when they produce more to motivate
them.

2. JAMES WATT & MATHEW BOLTON

They were sons of the distinguished inventor of the steam engine. They used the
following management techniques:-
 Market research and forecasting
 Planned machine layout to facilitate better flow of work
 Production planning and standardization of product components
 Elaborate statistical records and advanced control systems.
 Maintenance of advanced reports and cost accounting data

3. ROBERT OWEN
He was a manager of textile firm in Scotland. He believed that workers performance is
influenced by total environment/working conditions. He came up with the idea of human
relation in management. He emphasized on:-
 Short working hours
 Better housing facilities
 Training and workers hygiene
 Education and scholarship for workers children

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  Provision of canteen and rest places in work place

N/B the extent to which these principles are practiced will depend on management
perception, nature of competition, employees attitudes and perceptions, size of the
business organization, rate of employee turnover, government policies and societal
influence.

THEORIES OF MANAGEMENT
Groups of assumptions have been formulated to explain productivity in business
organizations due to forces such as technological forces, social forces, economical,
political etc.
The study of theories enables managers to do the following:-
 Avoid making mistakes of the past
 Compare the past and present in order to make rational decisions
 Approach problems systematically
 Compare their business organization with other businesses
 Come up with quality goods and survive the market competitions and retain
their customers
 It enables manager to maximize profit, which is the major aim of business
organizations
 Make predictions for better achievement of organizational goals

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DEVELOPMENT OF MANAGEMENT PRINCIPLES
Over the last century management has evolved in several faces. They can be summarized
as:-
(i) The classical theory (1900s)
(ii) Human relations theory (developed 1930s)
(iii) Behavioral Science theory
(iv) Modern management theories

THE CLASSICAL THEORY

The classical theory was based on the assumption that people are rational and economic
oriented. According to this theory people consider the opportunities available and do
anything necessary to achieve highest gains. It argues that an incentive given to the
employee leads to better work.
This theory has three schools of thought
 Scientific management theory
 Administrative management theory
 Bureaucratic management

SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT THEORY

The major advocate of scientific management is one Fredrick Taylor. He alleged that
individuals could be programmed to be efficient as machines. The key to scientific
management is the concept “man as a machine” Taylor believed that workers who were
motivated by money and limited by physiology needed constant directions. He studied
scientific management in four main areas.
1) Standardization
2) Time and task study
3) Systematic selection and training
4) Pay incentives
TAYLOR’S PRINCIPLES OF SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT
1. Financial incentives. High pay should be tied to successful completion of
work. Loss incase of failure should be personally costly. No work no pay
2. Standard conditions. A worker should be given standard conditions and
appliances in order to accomplish the task with certainty
3. Workers must be scientifically selected and trained so as to be more
productive
4. Separation between planning and doing. There should be specialization of
task whereby the management does all the planning and workers are only
instructed what to do.
5. Each task must be scientifically designed so as to replace the old rule of
thumb method each person should have a clearly designed daily task
which should require a full day’s effort to complete.
6. Bringing scientifically designed jobs and workers together so that there
will be a match between them.
7. Bilateral mental revolution. There should be a complete mental revolution
on both management and workers to effect that they must take their eyes
off the profits and together concentrate on increasing productions so that
profits were so large that didn’t have quarrels about sharing them.

CONTRIBUTIONS OF SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT

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 (i) Promotes Expertise in the organization.
(ii) Enabled workers to be paid by result and take the advantage of incentive
payments.
(iii) Contributed towards standardization of tools equipments, materials and work
method. Thus work could be accomplished with a higher degree of certainty
(iv) Minimized wastage of time, material and energy thus advocated for better se
of resources
(v) Its emphasis of scientific selection and training enabled the right people to
occupy the right jobs
(vi) It has established harmonious relationships between worker and managers
through the advocating of elimination of rule of thumb.
(vii) It has led to proper achievement of equal division of responsibilities between
workers and management.
(viii) It gives detailed instruction and constraint guidelines for worker which
management use.
LIMITATION OF SCIENTIC MANAGEMENT
 It reduces workers to mere role of rigid adherence to methods (mindless machines)
 It puts planning and control in the hand of management and ignores worker thus
lowering their morale
 It assumes that everything can be scientifically be quantified.
 It rules out any realistic bargain on wages rates, since every job was measured,
timed and rated.
 There is no room for initiative
 Scientific methods overlooks human desire for job satisfaction (job conditions are
often the cause of strikes)
 It overlooked the social needs of workers since it assumed that people are rational
and therefore motivated by material gains.

ADMINISTRATIVE MANAGEMENT THEORY

Around the same time when scientific management theory was in action, a similar view of
classical organization theory evolved. This new theory was referred to as administrative
organizational theory. It concentrated on the broad problem of departmentation, division
of labor and coordination. For Taylor and the scientific managers concentrated on
individual worker upwards, the administrative manager worked from the managing
director downwards.

Henry Fayol was the main advocate of this view.

He first divided industrial undertaking into six separate activities: -
1. Technical (production and manufacturing)
2. Commercial (buying and selling)
3. Financial (search for capital)
4. Security (protection of properties and persons)
5. Accounting (stocktaking, balance sheets etc)
6. Managerial (planning, organizing etc)
According to Fayol managerial activities were the most important and deserved the most
attention. He divided his approach of studying management into three parts.
 Managerial qualities and training
 Principles of management
 Element of management
Managerial qualities and training

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The following are managerial qualities according to Fayol.
1. Good physical health
2. Good mental health – ability to understand and learn, make sound judgment
(intelligence and wisdom)
3. Upright morals – willing to accept responsibilities with initiative, loyalty, tact and
dignity. Moral qualities help the manger to respect himself/herself, his/her
decision and also others
4. General education - a manager should have general acquaintance with matter not
belong to the function performed.
5. Special knowledge – that is knowledge peculiar to the function performed.
6. Experience. That is knowledge arising from work itself. Fayol held that
managerial abilities should be acquired in the same way one acquires technical
ability. That is first in school and later in the workshop.

GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF MANAGEMENT

Fayal’s principles of administrative management may be summarized as:-

1. Division of work
According to this principle, work should be divided at every stage and employees
assigned particular task to perform and in the essence become specialized. This will
lead in turn to efficient labour utilization.
2. Authority and responsibility
Fayol suggested that there should be parity between authority and responsibility. The
right to give orders should be accompanied by authority.
3. Discipline
Workers should have respect to both fellow workers and to the management. There
should also be respect for agreements between employees and employers
4.Unity of command
An employee should receive commands form one superior only
5.Unity of direction
Activities of the same nature aimed at achieving same goals should be put under one
command. That is on leader.
6. Remuneration of personnel
Remunerations should be fair and satisfactory to both the employees and the
employer. Workers should be paid for wages to motivate them in their work.
7. Centralization. The decision for centralization or decentralization depends on interest
of organizational purpose, quality of workers, size of the organization and nature of work
to be accomplished
8. Scalar chain
Taylor suggests that there should be clear lines of authority from the top to bottom of
the organization, and employees should be encouraged to follow the proper hierarchy
of command. However this can be short circuited when strictly following it would be
detrimental.

9. Order
This principles states that order should be maintained all through the organization
10. Subordination of individual interests to the general interest
According to this principle, the interest of the organization should super side that of
the individual. The interests of an individual or one group in the organization should
not prevail over the general interests of the organization.

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11. Equity.
This principle states that management should exercise a combination of justice and
fairness towards employees (kindness)

12. Stability of tenure of personnel

A worker should not feel threatened in his/her position. They should be given time to
settle in their jobs.

13. Initiative
This principles state that mangers should allow works to exercise initiative by
scarifying personal vanity (within the limits of authority and discipline)

14. Esprit de corps

This principles emphasizes the need for team work in the organization

Elements of management
Fayol regards elements of management as the managerial functions i.e.
 Planning – looking ahead and making provisions
 Organizing – arrangement of resources
 Coordination – harmonizing efforts
 Commanding – giving orders and instruction
 Control – verifying whether the result conform to the plan adopted.

BUREAUCRATIC THEORY
Max Weber formulated this theory. He was a German Sociologist who was very sensitive
to the abuse of power by people in managerial positions.
In order to reduce these abuses Weber proposed an organizational system that had a
hierarchal structure based on formal authority.
From the above analysis, bureaucracy can be defined as a photo type form of organization
that emphasizes order, systems rationality, uniformity and consistence.
According to Weber consistent performance can be achieved because organizational
members are guided by a set of rational rules and regulations rather than the actions of
position holders.

SALIENT FEATURES OF BUREACRACY

(i). Clear Division of Labour. (By Functional Specialization)

Job responsibilities and levels of authority are clearly defined for each employee thus
there are no overlaps of responsibilities between jobs.

(ii) A Well Defined Hierarchy Of Authority

Each position in the organization is controlled by and reports to a single position one level
up in the hierarchy.

(iii) Maintenance of Written Records

There should be a written record of organization activities that keeps rules and regulations
visible to all participants. It also allows for evaluation of past decision and activities and
adds to the organizational memory.

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(iv) A System of Rules And Regulations
There should be laid down rules and regulations to ensure rational and consistent
organization behaviors.
Rules and regulations allow organizations activities to be performed in a predictable and
routine manner.

(v) Impersonal Approach to all Interpersonal Activities.

This principle emphasizes equality in dealing with employees, customers or clients so as
to eliminate favourism.

(vi) Merit Based Employment

Selection and promotion within the organization should be based on qualification, ability
and performance (technical competence and not family relationships, friendship or
political reasons.
(vii) Autonomous Decisions by Office Bearers.
Employees must not use their rights and privileges of their jobs to enrich themselves.
Power dos not belong to an individual but its part of the office.

(viii) Centralization of Authority

For bureaucracy to operate, efficiently authority should be centralized so as to coordinate
the different specialized functions.

ADVANTAGES OF BUREACRACY
1. Leads to consistent employees’ behaviour. This makes management easier.
2. Assists managers to achieve and maintain quality because of strict adherence to
procedures.
3. It eliminates conflicting job duties because duties and responsibilities are clearly
defined.
4. Lead to maximum utilization of human resource (clear division of labour)
5. It minimizes dissatisfaction because promotion is based on merit and expertise.
6. Division of labour leads to specialization which in turn may increase production
7. Helps to minimize wastage of the organization scarce resources
8. Maintenance of written records makes planning easier.
9. Organizational goals may be achieved with ease.
DISADVANTAGES OF BUREAUCRACY
1. Rules and procedures when many affects efficiency
2. Bureaucracy makes organization rigid especially as concerns decision making
3. Its very expensive as it involves a lot of paperwork
4. Its time consuming especially when decisions are needed urgently. (Tall
organizational structure)
5. Does not give room to participative management thus kill initiative?
6. It’s likely to cause resistance and dissatisfaction on the part of the employees
because of its lack of flexibility.

LIMITATION OF THE CLASSICAL THOUGHT

 It ignores the psychological aspects as man is seen to be motivated purely by
economical incentives and nothing else
 Much emphasis has been drawn to structures and attainment of organizational goals.
While peoples needs are ignored.

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 There is no room for participative management, which may cause poor morale among
the employees.
 The theory has been criticized as a case of the past when organizations were relatively
stable and environment being predictable
 Social aspects and group dynamics receive very little attention
 The classical theory principles are too general for today’s complex organizations.

THE HUMAN RELATIONS THEORY

This movement developed as a reaction to the classical models. It’s associated with
people like Mary Follet and Elton Mayo.
Mary believed that the fundamental problem in all organizations was in developing and
maintaining dynamic and harmonious relationships she believed that conflicts in
organizations were not necessarily wasteful outbreak of incompatibility but a normal
process through which socially valuable differences register for the enrichment of all
concerned.
Elton Mayo and the Hawthorne Studies
These studies were carried out in several stages over several years.
The emphasis was on the worker rather than work itself. The studies were concerned with
studying people in terms of their social relations at work. The conclusions gave rise to the
ideal of social man and to the importance of human relationships.
1. The first stage of the experiment was to study the effect of lighting on output.
Two groups of workers were selected for study. One group has a consistent level of light
while the experimental group had its light varied form better to worse.
The significant result was that the output increased in both groups. Obviously some
factors other than pure physical conditions were at work in the situation. Thus Elton Mayo
was invited at this stage to carry on the studies.

2. The next stage was the Relay assembly test room.

The objective of this study was to determine the effect of the physical conditions on
productivity.
Six women form the relay assembly section were segregated and segmented to numerous
changes in the working conditions e.g.
 Rest pauses were introduced and varied
 Lunch breaks were varied in length and timing
 Alteration of the working week
Once again regardless of whether the conditions were improved or worsened, productivity
always increased.
At the end of the experiment the researchers realized that they were not only studying the
relationship between physical working conditions fatigue, monotony and productivity but
had entered into the study of employee attitudes and values.
The women were responding to the attention of the researchers and saw themselves as a
special group. These behaviors has been called the Hawthorne’s effect
3. Third stage consisted of interview programs to establish employees’ attitudes towards
working conditions, job and supervision.
The interviews were first structured and lasted 30 min eventually the pattern became
relatively unstructured and lasted longer.
The conclusion made was that relationships with people were in important factors in
attitudes of employees.
4. The forth stage was referred to as the Bank Wiring observation room.

1075
Fourteen men from the Bank working plant were moved to a separate room with more
less the same working conditions as those in the main wiring room.
It was discovered that the group was developing its own rules, standards and behaviors.
They restricted production according to their norms and protect its own interests against
those of the company. The group had developed its own un official organization/informal
organization.
5. Final stage took the form of personnel counseling in which employees were able to
discuss their work problems. The result was improved relationships between workers,
supervisors and the management and general personal adjustment.
Main conclusion of Hawthorne studies
 Organization is a social system. This social system defines individual roles and
establishes norms that may different from those of the formal organization.
 Social and psychological factors exercise a greater influence on the behaviour of
workers. Therefore managers should adopt a sound human approach to all
organizational problems.
 Informal groups at work exercises strong influence over behaviors of workers

 There is emergence of informal leadership in the organization. This informal

leadership enforces group norms.
 Group dynamics – in organization members do not react as individuals but as
members of a group.
 Money is not the only motivator of human behaviour, social and psychological
need of workers is very strong. E.g. praise, status etc.
 Conflicts can arise between group goals and organizational goals. Conflicts should
be handled properly so as not to harm the interests of workers.

BEHAVIOURAL SCIENCE APPROACH

This approach emphasizes on behaviors of individuals and people in groups. It draws
its concepts from psychology and sociology.
According to this approach, management is getting things done through people hence
managers should understand human behaviors and relationships. It is concerned with
human relationships and how managers can utilize the relationships for the good of
the organization, the manager as a leader and the leadership style, group dynamics and
motivation in management and how to improve employee’s morale. The approach
focuses on how the understanding of individual behaviors and relationship influences
the leadership style and general motivation at work.
Proponents of this approach include people like Abram Maslow, Mc Gregor, Fiedler,
Herzburg, and Chaster Barnard.
Theories that explain human behaviors and motivation will be discussed in later
chapters.

Task 2 describing the systems approach to management

SYSTEMS APPROACH
The approach is based on the generalization that an organization is a system and its
components are interrelated and interdependent.
A system is a set of interrelated items, which work together for a common goal. The
basis of systems theory in management is the limitations of the classical theory. Each
system may comprise of subsystems and each sub system may be further composed of
smaller units.

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An organization is a system because it has the following characteristics;
(a) It is goal oriented meaning that every organization exists to achieve
certain objectives and goals
(b) An organization consists of sub systems inform of departments and
sections, which are interdependent and inter related.
(c) An organization transforms inputs (raw materials) to outputs (finished
products).

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Task 3 explaining modern approaches to management
Contingency approach
.

LEARNING RESOURSES
i. Principles and practice of management by Saksena
ii. Management dynamics by Sagimo
iii. Management by Harold Koontz.
iv. Management principles by A Cole

EVALUATION
i. Explain the meaning of system approach to management.
ii. Highlight the characteristics of management as a system.
iii. Outline the benefits of system approach in management.
vi. Describe the conclusions drawn from the hawthorns studies at the western electrical
plant
v. Explain Fayols principles of administrative management.
vi. Describe the principles of scientific management.
vii. Explain the short comings of bureaucratic management.

TOPIC: THE CONTEXT OF ORGANIZATIONS AND SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY

Specific Objectives
By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) describe the organization and its environment
b) explain the social responsibility of an organization
c) highlight management ethics

UNIT TASKS
Task 1 Organization and its environment

ENVIRONMENT OF MANAGEMENT
An environment is the sum total of the factors or variables that may influence the
existence of a business organisation. It’s sometimes seen as all factors both outside and
inside an organisation that can affect the organisation in attaining its goals.

- It’s the aggregate social, cultural, economic and physical conditions that influence
the life of an individual organization
- They are those forces from within and without the organization that impart the
organizational ability to accomplish its objectives

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 - Environmental factors affect the practices and type of decisions made pertaining
managerial issues
- All environments can be macro or micro i.e. external & internal factors respectively.

External Factors/Environment
This is the macro environment. An environment that is beyond management reach. It
exists outside the organisation thus managers cannot manipulate it. External factors can
be summarized as:-
1. Economic Factors
Important aspects of the economy that affects decision making include:-
a) Inflation – price levels (firms pay more for raw materials)
b) Economic growth – influence demand for products
c) Interest rates (determines how much it will cost an organisation to borrow
money)
d) Unemployment – influence the supply of labour
e) Fiscal and tax policy – affects the control & availability of credits which affect
business operations
f) Constraints imposed by customers – (attitudes & desires) i.e. when a substitute
appears in the market it causes confusion
g) Constraints imposed by competitors
2. Sociology Factors
Sociological factors are concerned with humans and their interaction with
one another. These include customs & values of the society within which
the firm operates
- Such forces influence consumer tastes & preferences employees expectations and
attitudes and the accepted role of business in that society (Muslim religion)
3. Government Factors. These forces associated with the government and legal
systems within the environment.
4. Economic Factors
Important aspects of the economy that affects decision making include:-
h) Inflation – price levels (firms pay more for raw materials)
i) Economic growth – influence demand for products

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 j) Interest rates (determines how much it will cost an organisation to borrow
money)
k) Unemployment – influence the supply of labour
l) Fiscal and tax policy – affects the control & availability of credits which affect
business operations
m) Constraints imposed by customers – (attitudes & desires) i.e. when a substitute
appears in the market it causes confusion
n) Constraints imposed by competitors

5. Sociology Factors
Sociological factors are concerned with humans and their interaction with
one another. These include customs & values of the society within which
the firm operates
- Such forces influence consumer tastes & preferences employees expectations and
attitudes and the accepted role of business in that society (Muslim religion)

6. Government Factors
These forces associated with the government and legal systems within which
a firm operates.
These includes:-
- Change in character of government e.g. change in parliament or president
- Shift in government politics
- Export & import restriction
- Change in government personnel e.g. government reshuffle, Parastatal appointment
etc

7. Locational Factors
Where an organisation is located has a bearing on the kind of practices an
organisation has. These may include:-
a) Availability of both skilled & unskilled labour
b) Means of transport & communication
c) Housing facilities
d) Water supply
e) Raw material supply

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 f) Government polity on industries
g) Local laws and regulations

8. Technological Factors
The rate of technological changes greatly affects the mode and style of doing
business or running organisations e.g.
- Organisations that have not embraced technological changes have been thrown out
of business or are incurring higher costs
- Technological advancements calls for training and development of personnel (more
allocation of resources)
- Automation of work and the resultant effect on labor reduction affects workers
satisfaction.

Internal Factors & Environment

This is that part of organisations environment that exists inside the organisation and has
immediate implications for managing the organisation. It’s the environment which
managers can manipulate and control in order to achieve their organisational goals. They
include: -

1. Managerial Factors
Changes in management of an organisation may affect policy and
implementation. Managerial factors include: -
a) Changes in managerial patterns
b) Changes in personnel policies
c) Changes in organisational chart

2. Operational Factors
Operational factors that affect management include: -
a) Factory layout and modification of factory
b) Licensing policy
c) Tax rates

3. Growth and Development Factors

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 Changes in this area which may affect management can be analysed as:-
— Finance available
— Investment decisions
— Market stability
— Mergers

4. Method/Process Factors
a) New discoveries in production process
b) New technologies
c) Use of alternative raw materials

5. Design Factors
Those are factors concerned with the designing and packaging of new
products
- Designing of new products
- Appeal to the market
- Competitors.

Task 2 Social responsibility of an organization

Social responsibility refers to the business obligation to refrain from harmful practices
and deliberately engage in activities that benefits the society.

Arguments for social responsibilities

 it discourages additional government intervention
 social involvement creates a favourable image
 It’s better to prevent social problem than to cure them.
 Give the business an opportunity to solve problems that the government has
failed to solve
 Give the business an opportunity to solve problems that it has created.
 The society has powers to deny the operation of a business.

Arguments against social responsibilities

 It cuts on the profits of the business.
 The society pays for the social responsibility through increased prices.
 There is lack of accountability by the business to the society.
 Business people lack the social skills to deal with the problems of society.
 Business has enough power and additional social involvement would further
increase its power and influence.
 There is no complete support for involvement in social actions.

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Task 3 Management ethics
Ethics is defined as the discipline dealing with what is good and bad and with moral duty
and obligation.
Business ethics is concerned with truth and justice and has a variety of aspects such as
expectations of the society, fair competition, advertising, public relations, social
responsibilities, consumer autonomy and corporate behaviour in the home county as
well as abroad

Ways of enhancing business ethics

 Establishing a code of conduct
 Discussing ethical issues in management meetings
 Rewarding those who behave ethically and punishing those who do not.
 Managers should behave themselves ethically and be role models to other
organizational members.


Question: Explain the reasons why managers behave unethically.

LEARNING RESOURSES
i. Principles and practice of management by Saksena
ii. Management dynamics by Sagimo
iii. Management by Harold Koontz.
iv. Management principles by A Cole

EVALUATION
i. describe the external factors that affect the management.
ii. Outline the main social responsibilities of an organization.
iii. Explain the social responsibilities of an organization towards the following publi
 Employees
 Local community
 Government
 publics
iv. Outline ways in which managers may enhance ethic in their business
organizations.

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TOPIC: PLANNING

Specific Objectives
By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) explain the nature and purpose of planning
b) outline the types of plans
c) explain ways of making planning effective

UNIT TASKS
Task 1 explaining the Nature and purpose of planning
Planning is the most fundamental function of management. It determines the course of
action to achieve the desired results.
Planning therefore is the outlining of things to be done, the people to do those things and
the method to accomplish the objectives of the organizations.
It is deciding in advance what to do, how to do it, when to do it and who to do it. Planning
is characterized by thinking before doing.
Planning precedes all other managerial functions because without set goals to be reached
and lines of action to be followed, there is nothing to organize, direct or control.

Nature and characteristics of planning.

1. Planning is goal oriented – i.e. it is a means towards accomplishment of
objectives.
2. Planning involves the selection of the best course of action.
3. Planning is mainly concerned with looking ahead into the future.
4. Planning is required at all levels of managements (its all pervasive)
5. Planning is flexible as it is based on future conditions which are too dynamic.
6. Planning is a continuous and unending process. (Assumption and events on which
plans are based change therefore old plans have to be reused periodically).
7. Planning governs the survival, growth and prosperity of an organization.
8. Planning is the basis of all management functions.
ADVANTAGES OF PLANNING
 Planning facilitates the process of decision making.
 It helps management to implement programmes in a systematic manner.
 Planning helps organizations adjust to changing environments and
therefore helps reduce risks and uncertainties.
 Objectives of the organization can easily be achieved through proper
planning.
 Planning facilitates optimum utilization of the available resources. The
most efficient and economical methods are adopted.
 It encourages a sense of involvement and team spirit that in turn increases
motivation.
 Planning facilitates the process of control in the organization. Sound
planning enables the management to control events rather than to be
controlled by them since planning provide standards against which
performance is evaluated.
 Planning serves as a training device for future managers.

LIMITATION OF PLANNING
 Planning is an expensive exercise in the organization.
 It is a time consuming exercise.

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 It makes the entire organization set up extremely rigid as people have to follow the
laid down plan. This may curb initiative and individual freedom and sometimes may
cause delays.
 Planning is based on forecasts which are never 100% accurate.
 Elasticity of plans makes planning a cumbersome process.
 Planning encourages a false sense of security against risk and uncertainty.
 The effectiveness of planning may be affected by external forces which are beyond
the control of those responsible for preparing plans.
 Some managers may have a negative mental attitude towards planning. They may
consider the present more important than the future and may resist change.

Task 2 describing different Types of plans

A plan is a projected course of action.
FEATURES OF A GOOD PLAN
A good plan should have the following features;
 It should be based on clearly defined objectives
 It should be simple
 It should provide for proper analysis and classification of action.
 It should be relatively stable, balanced and well coordinated.
 It should use all the available resources and opportunities before creating new
resources.
 A good plan should be realistic and viable. This means that it should be
implement able.
 It should open up new avenues and ways of doing things and reveal specific
opportunities previously unknown to the planner.
TYPES OF PLANS
Different types of plans are prepared and can be classified into two broad categories;
1. Standing plans.
These are long term in nature and can be used repetitively over along period. They
include the following plans;
 Vision
 Mission statement
 Objectives
 Policies
 Rules
 Methods
 Strategies

2. single use plans

These are plan that are designed for a specific situation and can not be used again in the
same format. They include;
 programmes
 projects
 schedules
 budgets
 standards
STANDING PLANS
1. VISION
This refers to the unique dream of the organization. It explains the position the
organization desires to be in the future.

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 2. MISSION STATEMENT
This is a central guiding concept, describing the fundamental reason for the existence
of an enterprise or organization. It gives a clear cut idea about the basic long term
commitment of an organization and is the basis for developing organizational
objectives.
A mission statement of an organization therefore, is a unique aim that sets the
organization apart from others of its type.

3. ORGANISATIONAL OBJECTIVES
Organizational objectives are goals or targets towards which an organization directs
its efforts. They maybe established on areas such as;
 Market standing
 Innovation productivity
 Resource level
 Profitability
 Managers performance and development
 Social responsibility
 Work performance and attitude

ESSENTIAL CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD OBJECTIVES

Sound objectives should posses the following feature;
 They must be clear and specific so as to avoid confusion and
misunderstanding.
 They should be measurable so as to act as standards for control.
 Objectives must be result oriented and as such focus on results rather than
work.
 They should as much as possible be in written form in order to act as
reference and reminder.
 Objectives should be realistic and attainable.
 They must also be well coordinated

IMPORTANCE OF OBJECTIVES
 Clear objectives leads to unified plans
 Objectives act as motivators to those who are assigned tasks to accomplish
them.
 The lead to unity of direction for organizational members.
 The serve as rationale for resource allocation.
 Unproductive tasks can be avoided when work is goal oriented.
 Objectives act as standards for control of managers.
 They act as sound basis for developing administrative controls.

BARRIERS TO EFFECTIVE GOAL SETTING.

 Educating and training managers on goal setting.
 Making available enough resources to assist in goal setting.
 Low Morale of managers.
 Lack of information.
 Lack of coordination.

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MANAGEMENT BY OBJECTIVES (MBO)
MBO is a system of Management where the organization strives to attain its goals while
at the same time meeting the goals and satisfaction of each member in the Organization.
MBO Involves effective participation and involvement by each member of the
Organization.

CHARACTERISTICS OF MANAGEMENT BY OBJECTIVES (MBO)

 MBO focus on goals and their achievement
 MBO is characterized by high degree of participation of the concerned people in
goal setting and performance appraisal.
 MBO tries to inter-relate goals in the organization.
 MBO aim at improving relationships in Organization.
 Optimization of resources.
 Multiple accountability:
STEPS INVOLVED IN MANAGEMENT BY OBJECTIVES
1. Defining the goals. Managers should first of all explain the rationale for MBO to
the Subordinates.
2. Establishment of objectives for the coming period. Superior and Subordinates
should meet to set objectives for the coming period. This should include
clarification of the key results and performance standards to be achieved in line
with unit and general organizational objectives.
3. Intermediate reviews of performance by superior to measure progress towards
attainment of established goals and necessary actions taken.
4. At conclusion of time period set for achievement of objectives, a final summary
review is conducted. This may include counseling of managers on their areas of
weakness.

ADVANTAGES OF MANAGEMENT BY OBJECTIVES (MBO)

 MBO forces managers to think in term of results rather than activities. This leads
to improved planning.
 MBO provides a basis for training and development
 MBO provides a basis for performance appraisal (help evaluate employees)
 MBO leads to participatory management which may increase workers Motivation
and commitment.
 MBO saves top management time to address other Organizational problems.
 MBO may lead to good health manager and subordinate relationships.
 It’s a basis for reducing conflicts and resistance to changes.

DISADVANTES OF MANAGEMENT BY OBJECTIVES

 Its time consuming in case of large organizations.
 MBO involves a lot of paperwork making it very costly.
 There may be a problem of participation by some members.
 Objectives are difficult to set especially if they owner along period.
 MBO Inflexible / rigid.
 MBO emphasizes of short term goals at the expense of long term goals.
 The Organization may over emphasis on quantitative goals at the expense of
qualitative goals.

POLICIES

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Policies are general statements which guides thinking in decision making. A policy
defines the limit within which decisions can be made and achieved.
Thus policies are statements which provide ready answer for day to day members of the
organization.

TYPES OF POLICIES
1. Originated Policies
these are deliberately formulated by top manages on their own initiative holder to
guide the actions of their subordinates.
2. Appealed policies
These are formulated on requests / appeals of subordinates.
3. Imposed policies
Are those policies that arise from the influence of offside forces like government,
trade unions e.t.c
4. Implied Policies
Are those policies inferred from the behaviours or conduct of organization al
members particularly the top executives. (Interpreting the action of the boss) e.g.
promotion made on the basis of seniority.

ESSENTIAL CHARACTERISTICS OF SOUND POLICIES

 Should be based on the objectives of the organization & also contribute towards
attainments of objective.
 Should make for consistence in the operations of the organization.
 Should be relatively stable
 Should be flexible i.e. give room for attractions.
 Should be clear, unambiguous and explicit .It should not leave scope for
misinterpretation.
 Should be reviewed & revised regularly so as to be relevant.
 Should be communicated to the concerned persons.
 Should be consistent with the ethical behaviors of the society.
 Should be based on careful consideration of resources and environment of the
organization.

POLICY FORMUTATION PROCESS

The process of policy formulation involves the following steps
1. Definition of the policy area
The policy area should be decided in view of the objectives and needs of the
Organization.
2. Identification of policy alternatives
Alternatives policies are developed in light of both internal and external
environments of the organization.
3. Evaluation of alternative
The Identification policy alternatives are evaluated in terms of their contribution
to the organizational Objectives, cost and implication.
4. Choice of policy
The most appropriate policy is chosen.
5. Communication of policy
The policy should be communicated to those concerned with its implementation.

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IMPORTANCE OF POLICIES
 They facilitate quick and correct decisions by serving as guides to thinking and
action.
 The save time and effort by pre-deciding problems.
 Effective policies lead to unfired pattern of action
 Good policies assist in training & orientation of new employees.
 They permit delegation of authority to lower level employees: - subordinates can
understand their tasks and what is expected of them.
 Policies bring about coordination of organizational activities.

PROCEDURES
A procedure is a step by step process showing how to handle/ undertake a certain activity.
It lays down the specific manner in which a particular activity is to be preformed.

ESSENTIALS OF A GOOD PROCEDURE

1. Should be simple and straight forward to be understood.
2. Should be put in written for reference purposes.
3. Should be tested before implementation.
4. Must be reviewed and revised regularly to keep them up to date.
5. Must be consistent with the objectives of the organisation.
6. Should be communicated to those concerned.

IMPORTANCE OF PROCEDURES
1. Simplify work by eliminating unnecessary steps.
2. Ensures consistence of operations in the organization thus eliminating conflicts.
3. Provides standards for appraisal of employees.
4. Minimizes wastage of Organizational resources.
5. Indicates a standard way of performing work and therefore ensures uniformity of
action
6. It eliminates need for further decision making by laying down a standard path to
follow.

RULES
Rules are prescribed guide to conduct. They specify what to be done and what may not be
done in a given situation. They do not give any room for decision making. They are in the
nature of commands seeking to structure, discipline and restrain behaviour of a group in
formal organization

METHOD
A method outlines the specific way in which a particular step in the procedure is to be
performed. It specifies the mechanical way by which an operation is to be performed.

SINGLE USE PLANS

These are plans used once and for a particular situation & cannot be utilized in the same
format again. They are discussed below.

PROGRAMMES
Is a single use plan which contains a series of actions designed to accomplish a given task.
A programme specifies;
 Steps to be taken.

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  Resources to be used.
 Time limit for each step.
 Task assignment.
BASIC STEPS IN PROGRAMMING.
 Divide various activities needed into clear cut steps.
 Arrange the steps into a sequence.
 Allocate responsibilities to particular people.
 Allocate time duration for each step.
 Determine the other resources needed.
 Write down the programme.

PROJECTS
A project is a scheme for investing resources. It usually contains time bound activities
which have to be accomplished over time.

SCHEDULES
Scheduling is the process of establishing time sequence for work to be done schedule
prescribes the exact time when each activity should begin and end.
Starting and finishing dates for different activities
They are essential for avoiding delays and for ensuring continuity.

STANDARDS.
Is a criterion against which performance is compared and evaluated? It is a guide for
performance evaluation.

BUDGETS
Is a statement of anticipated results expressed in numerical terms for a specific period of
time in future.
Budgets are usually prepared for certain duration of time.

Task 3 Explaining ways of making planning effective

REASONS WHY PEOPLE FAIL IN PLANNING

 Lack of commitment to planning
 Failure to develop and implement sound strategies.
 Lack of managerial objectives and goals.
 Underestimation of the importance of planning premises
 Excessive reliance on experience.
 Lack of support from the top management
 Lack of adequate control measures

OVERCOMING PLANNING BARRIERS

 Planning should not be left to chance. A climate conducive to planning should be
created in the organization.
 Planning must start at the top. Top management initiative and support is essential
for effective planning.
 Planning should be definite, that is time specific and focused.
 Plans must be properly communicated to all those concerned in the organization.
 Long range planning should be integrated with short range planning.
 Planning must include awareness and acceptance of change as a necessary aspect.

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 Planning must be organized to allow for a wider participation in the formulation
and execution of plans.
 Plans should be flexible to allow for easier adoption to the changing environment.
 Managers need to be educated and trained on the art of planning and the need for
the same.
 Plans should be revised regularly to ensure that the premise, on which they were
based on, still holds.

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STRATEGIC PLANNING
A strategy is a special kind of plan formulated in order to meet the challenge of the
policies of the competitors.
Managers at the strategic planning process have the primary task of coping with the
uncertainty created by uncontrollable organizational environment.

Strategic planning process

In order to formulate a strategic plan the following steps are suggested
1. Goal Formulation
This is most essential step in strategic planning. The step defines the mission of the
organization and establishes the objectives that will help translate that mission into
concrete terms.
2. Identification of current objectives and strategy
Managers identify the objectives that are already in place and see how well they fit in the
newly defined mission.
3. Environmental analysis
A critical analysis of the environment is done using the SWOT analysis where the
strength, weakness, opportunities and threats are identified and a plan to accommodate
them is drawn.
This step tries to identified the why in which changes in vary of the environmental factors
facing the organization may influence the organization.
4. Resource Analysis (self appraisal)
This involves the evaluation of the current human resource and the physical resources of
the organization to identify weakness that can be addressed.
5. Identification of strategic opportunity
Here the opportunities that are available to the organization and the threats it faces are
determined.
6. Determine the extent of strategic change required
The aim here is to see whether depending on the various resources and the environment,
the existing strategy needs to be changed. Gaps are identified in the existing strategy so as
to determine the magnitude of the change.
7. Strategic decision making (choice)
This stage involves identification, evaluating and selecting alternative strategic
approaches. The strategy that best fits with the goals, resources and conditions of the
organization should be selected.
8. Strategy Implementation
It involves incorporating the selected strategy into the operations of the organization.
9. Measurement and control of progress
The strategy is monitored in order to ensure that the implementation is going as planned
as that the goals are being achieved.

PRINCIPLES OF PLANNING
1. The Principals of contribution to objectives
This means that planning aims at facilitating the achievement of organizational goals.
therefore a good plan should indicate how the stated objectives will be achieved.
2. The principle of primacy of planning.
It states that planning comes first in all managerial functions and therefore each
manager must start with planning.

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3. Principle of efficiency of plans
It states that the goodness or efficiency of a plan should be measured by its
contribution to the objectives as offsets by the costs.
4. Principle of planning premises
It states that the better the understanding of the planning premises the more
coordinated the plans are.
5. The principle of strategy and policy Framework
It states that the more strategies and policies are carefully developed and understood,
the more the consistent and effective the plans are expected to be.
6. Principle of commitment
It states that good planning should allow a period in future necessary to foresee the
accomplishment of plans.
7. Principle of flexibility
It state that each plan must give room for corrections and therefore plans should not be
rigid.
8. Principle of Limiting Factor
It states that each plan must identify the limiting factors or critical points that are
likely to affect the plans.
9. Principle of navigational change
It states that each good planning requires continuous revision such that planning is a
continuous process.
LEARNING RESOURSES
i. Principles and practice of management by Saksena
ii. Management dynamics by Sagimo
iii. Management by Harold Koontz.
iv. Management principles by A Cole
v. Principles and practice of management by Saleemi

EVALUATION
i. Explain the nature and purpose of planning.
ii. How can managers make planning effective?
iii. Describe the strategic planning process
iv. Explain the principles of planning

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TOPIC: ORGANIZING

Specific Objectives
By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) explain the nature and purpose of organizing
b) outline types of organization structures
c) explain ways of making organizing effective

UNIT TASKS

Task 1 Explaining the Nature and purpose of organization function.

Organizing refers to the arrangement of the human and material resources of the
organization in the most efficient and effective way to achieve organizational goals. It
involves structuring of the organization roles and allocation of responsibilities and
authority to organizational members.

Process of organization
The process of organization involves a number of steps:
i) determination of objectives
The nature of the work to be accomplished and specific targets to be attain, are
determined
ii) identification of activities
Here the total job is subdivided into essential activities (major functions)
iii) grouping of activities
Similar and closely related activities are grouped together into divisions and departments.
(Departmentation)
iv) assignment of duties
Specific jobs are assigned to individuals to ensure certaininy of work performance.
v) delegation of authority
Authority is delegated to individuals to enable them perform the assigned tasks.

Importance of Organization
1. Facilitates administration.
Organisation provides a framework within which management can perform the functions
of planning, directing and control.
2. Facilitates optimum use of enterprise resources.
It helps avoid duplication of work and overlapping of functions.
3. Encourages good human relations.
4. Facilitates growth and diversification.
It leads to division of work and delegation of authority
5. Facilitates coordination.
It brings a balance between the various activities in the organisation
6. Stimulates creativity and initiative.
It encourages creative thinking

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Power, Authority and Responsibility
Power
Power is the ability to do something.
While authority is one source of power, a manager's source of power and influence
could be derived from other sources. Authority is not power. Power is the product of
personality in a specific situation. Authority can be delegated; power cannot. Either it
exists or it does not.
Sources of Power
a) Reward power
The person having this power has the ability to reward those who comply
b) Coercive power
Is the actual and perceived power to threaten and/or punish.
Is based on fear that failure to comply with rules/instructions will result in
some form of punishment, eg. Fines, suspension or dismissal.
c) Legitimate power
It involves subordinates compliance with rules, orders and instructions by the
leader when these are perceived by subordinates to be legitimate in terms of
the leader's scope of authority.
d) Referent power
This type of power comes from the feeling/desire on the part of the other
persons to identify with a person or his/her opinions.
The other persons want to identify with the powerful person regardless of the
outcome.
e) Expert power
Managers have expert power to the extent that the other employees attribute
knowledge and expertise to them.
The experts are seen to have knowledge/ability only in well-defined areas.
e.g. engineers may have expert power in their area of specialisation but not
outside of it.
Authority
Authority is the right of a person to influence the actions of others. Some managers have a
limitation in their use of authority because:
 They lack knowledge and training
 Lack of support from top management.
 Resistance of informal groups within the organisation
 Arrogance and lack of consultation with subordinates
 Lack of proper communication

Responsibility
Is the obligation to perform certain functions on behalf of the organization.
Responsibility and authority do not exist in isolation, they must inevitably go hand in
hand. A manager must be given sufficient authority to fulfill his responsibility.

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Task 2 Outlining Types of organization structures
Departmentation
This refers to the Process through which tasks or activities are grouped logically into
distinct areas and assigned to managers
Management needs to develop a structure that will
 Be flexible
 Meet the needs of the firm
 Permit growth and development
The organisation structure must be modified as the firm grows and becomes more
complex tasks have to be accomplished.
Bases of Departmentation:
 By Function or Functional Departmentation
This is the most widely used basis.Activities are grouped on the basis of the essential
functions that must be performed to attain the enterprise's goals. The tasks to be
performed depend on the nature of the business.
 By Product or Product Departmentation
In departmentation by product, a production unit is set up for each good and service.
Most large, multiproduct companies are organized according to a product structure.
E.g. a large food corporation can have a different division for each of its major types of
food products.
Each division (quite independent) is responsible for a product or a related family of
products, including the production, marketing and distribution of the products.
Organizing along the product line results in specializing in activities according to each
product grouping
 By Geographical Location
A manager is put in charge of the area and is given responsibility for all aspects of the
unit's activities. Local factors are not neglected in decision making.
Especially attractive to large-scale firms whose activities are geographically dispersed, eg.
Services, financial and other non-manufacturing firms are generally organised on a
geographical basis.
A firm may be organized along geographical lines for the following reasons:
- Lower cost of operating
- If a firm's plants are located close to the market, transporting costs are cut down.
- Plants for manufacturing and assembly can be so located as to reduce transport
costs.
- Convenience to customers
e.g. chain restaurants and chain supermarkets to be close to the customers
- Knowledge of local circumstances helps decision making and aids the creation of
customer goodwill
- Provides a good training ground for managers

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 - Legal and political considerations
 By Customers
The customer is the key to the way activities are grouped. It caters for customers of
different needs and brings benefits of specialization.
The special and widely varied needs of customers for clearly defined service impel many
suppliers to departmentalize on this basis. E.g. the manufacturer who sells to both
wholesalers and industrial buyers frequently finds that the needs of the two markets can
best be met by specialised salesmen.
 By numbers
This involves placing specific number of undifferentiated persons at the direction of an
executive, a supervisor or manager.
 By process
The activities are grouped on the basis of production processes involved or the
equipments. It is more common in manufacturing industries and at lower levels of the
organisation
Question;
Explain the advantages and disadvantages of the basis of departmentation
explained above?

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Matrix organization
A matrix structure usually combines a functional form of structure with a project-
based structure.
The functional managers provide technical expertise whereas the project manager
provides the leadership required to steer the project through during its relatively
temporary lifetime. The functional and purpose forms of departmentation are
combined in the same organization structure with functional managers in charge of
essential functions and an overlay of project managers responsible for the end
product/purpose a project.

Diagram of a Matrix Organization

PWANI CONSTRUCTION COMPANY

Chief Executive
Officer

Architect & Resources Finance Legal

Civil Engineer Manager Manager Advisor

Project W
Manager

Project X
Manager

Project Y
Manager

Project Z
Manager

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Advantages of Matrix Organization
 It combines lateral with vertical lines of communication and authority.
 Better control of project; greater security.
 Better customer relations and higher morale of staff.
 Shorter project development because of division of labour.
 It focuses on the requirements of the project group and links responsibility for
completion to the project manager.
 It encourages functional managers to co-ordinate with project managers and
contributes their resources to successful completion of the project.
 Help in the development of managers, as their work includes wider
responsibilities.
Disadvantages of Matrix Organization
 The functional specialist and the project groups may experience conflict in the
area of allocation of resources and priorities.
 Disunity of command leads members of the project teams to division of their
loyalties between project manager and functional specialist.
 More complex internal operation.
 More difficult to manage and possible inconsistent application of company
policy in different managers.
 Functional managers may neglect their job and let project manager do
everything.
 Too much shifting of staff from project to project may hinder training of new
employees.

Line and staff organization

Task 3 Explaining ways of making organizations effective

Span of control
This refers to the number of subordinates that one superior can effectively supervise
and manage. It refers to the number of subordinates reporting directly to a
supervisor.
There is a limit to the number of persons and activities that a manager can effectively
manage. This is may be determined by the following factors:
 Subordinate training.- well trained personnel requires less supervision and
thus a wider span
 Supervisor/managers training- well trained supervisors can manage more
subordinates than less trained supervisors
 Clarity of plans- when plans are clear to the subordinates, they are able to
work with minimal supervision and thus a wider span of management/
control
 Clarity of delegation- when delegation is clear and effectively done one
superior can be able to manage a larger number of subordinates.
 Subordinates’ attitude –positive attitude employees requires less
supervision as opposed to negative attitude employees.

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  Organization philosophy and management attitude- when an organization
is used to a narrow span of control it will always try to maintain that. Also
the managers’ desires shall influence the span of management

Delegation
Delegation refers to the process by which individual manager transfers part of his
legitimate authority to subordinates without passing own the ultimate
responsibility which has been entrusted to him by his own superior.

Importance of Delegation
A manager gets things done through others, and so delegating is a skill that effective
managers have to develop.
 Relieves the delegator of certain time-consuming work
 The more tasks managers are able to delegate, the more opportunity they have to
seek and accept increased responsibilities from higher-level managers.
 Delegation frequently leads to better decisions since subordinates closest to the
'firing line' are likely to have a clearer view of the facts.
 Effective delegation speeds up decision-making.
 Delegation contributes to development of subordinates.
 General personnel respond to delegated authority favourably.
Reasons why subordinates avoid being delegated tasks:
 Many subordinates fear criticism for mistakes
 Some hesitate to accept new assignments when there is a lack of necessary
information and resources to do a good job.
 Some subordinates lack self-confidence, and are apprehensive about accepting
authority.
 Some subordinates just find it easier to ask the boss to decide for them how to deal
with a problem.
 Rewards for assuming the additional job may be inadequate.
 Insecurity - some subordinates want to avoid responsibilities and risks and so
would like their bosses to make all the decisions.
Question: Explain reasons why some managers fail to delegate authority
Describe the Process of delegation

Centralization and decentralizations

This refers to the extent to which authority has been passed down to lower levels or
has been retained at the top of the organisation.
A decentralised organisation is one in which authority is distributed to lower levels,
i.e. authority is delegated to the broader base of executives who are at the lower levels
of the hierarchy.
In highly centralised organisations, authority and control are retained at central points
usually the top of the organisation.

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Advantages of Decentralization
 Decentralisation reduces the workload on over-burdened executives.
 Decisions can be made much faster.
 Decentralisation can result in better decisions.
Individuals close to a problem are normally more familiar with local
conditions: hence they can often make better decisions than people at higher
levels.
 People learn faster when they can participate or have the responsibility for
performance - decentralisation is therefore important in developing talents.
 Decentralisation can improve morale. It provides the freedom which contributes to
an employee's independent status opportunity for self-actualisation.
Disadvantages of Decentralization
 Control at the top may be more difficult.
 Lack of uniformity of standards and policies among organisation units.
 Creates problems of coordination between separate organisational units.
 Capable managers are not always available or willing to participate in decision-
making.
 Duplication of efforts may arise.

Centralization
Advantages
 The top executives are more aware of the overall needs of the organisation and are
more likely to make decisions in the organisation's best interests.
 There is greater uniformity of action and policy when decisions are made by the
executive office. This allows all units to follow a uniform plan of action.
 It is easier to maintain the secrecy of strategic plans and proposals.

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Disadvantage
 Offers junior managers no opportunity in making decisions because virtually all
important decisions are made at the top.
 Top managers are unnecessarily burdened by routine and less important details.
 Reduce initiatives and morale
 Information may get distorted as it travels down.

Decision making
The work of a manager involves working on decisions and constantly solving problems.
The manager therefore has to confront problems and make effective decisions on what
action to take.
Decision making refers to the process that leads to the selection of an alternative between
two or more competing alternatives.

Steps in decision making

i) Identify And Define The Problem
A problem is half solved when it is well defined. Accurate dignosis of the problem is
necessary to find the right solution. This step should result in a statement of the desired
result. Cause, magnitude and boundaries within which it can be solved is also identified.
ii) Analyse the Problem
This step involves collection of all facts that are pertinent to the decision. The data
collected must be classified and analysed.
iii) Develop Alternative solutions
Alternatives are possible courses of action. Identify various possible courses of action.
iv) Evaluate The Alternatives
The developed alternatives are then evaluated on the basis of their contribution to the
organizational goals and the limiting factors involved. (Risks, economy, timing, other
resources)
v) Select The Best Alternative
Evaluation of alternatives will reveal the best alternatives. This is where the real choice is
made and a plan of action adopted.
vi) Implement The Decision
Implementation of the decision involves developing detailed plans, communication of
decisions, gaining acceptance of decisions and cooperation of those concerned.
vii) Follow Up
Actual results of the decisions should be compared with the expected results and
appropriate action taken.

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COMMITTEES
A committee is an official group formed to deliberate on specific issues or problem in the
organisation.

Main features of a committee

1. Plurality of persons.
2. Should have a chairperson and a secretary.
3. Committees meetings should have agenda.
4. The mandate of the committee should be clearly defined.
5. Committees meetings should have minutes.

ADVANTAGES OF COMMITTES
1. Committees act as a managerial training and development ground.
1. High quality decisions are made since committees comprise of experts with
diverse skills and knowledge.
2. They improve coordination in the organisation as members are drawn from
different departments.
3. They may lead to higher motivation especially to those who are appointed to the
committees.
4. A committee enables different and even conflicting interest groups to be involved
in the process of decision making.
5. There is a great likelihood of the decisions made by the committees to be
accepted as compared to individual decisions.
6. Committees may be used as a management tool for diluting or consolidating of
authority vested in a single person or for postponing action.

LIMITATIONS OF COMMITTEES
1. it is expensive to constitute and manage committees
2. Committees are time consuming as members spent much time on deliberations
before a decision is made.
3. There is a risk of compromise based decisions in a bid to avoid conflicts.
4. There is lack of accountability in decisions made by a committee.
5. Weak management may hide behind committees.
6. There is a risk of individual domination on the basis of status or the position that
one holds.

MAKING COMMITTES EFFECTIVE

1. The mandate of the committee needs to be clearly defined so as to keep the
committee on focus.
2. Committees should have specific agendas to work from.
3. The size of the committee should be appropriate. (not so large)
4. It should have the right membership.
5. The chairperson should be suitable.
6. They should be provided with the necessary resources to accomplish their tasks.
7. A committee should be provided with a reasonable deadline.
8. A final written report should be presented by the committee for action.
9. Members of the committees should not devote too much time on committee
assignments and forget their regular jobs.

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LEARNING RESOURSES
i. Principles and practice of management by Saksena
ii. Management dynamics by Sagimo
iii. Management by Harold Koontz.
iv. Management principles by A Cole
EVALUATION
i. Describe the factors that determine the degree of centralization and
decentralization.
ii. Explain the benefits of organizing.
iii. Explain the factors that influence the span of control.
iv.

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TOPIC: STAFFING

Specific Objectives
By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) explain the meaning of staffing
b) explain the manpower planning process
c) explain the job analysis and evaluation
d) describe the recruitment and selection procedures
e) describe the approaches to job design
f) explain the guidelines used in wages and salaries administration
g) explain the basis for collective bargaining
h) explain the principles of industrial relations
i) describe the bases of job separation

UNIT TASKS

Task 1 explaining the meaning of staffing

Staffing function is concerned with acquisition, development and maintenance of an

efficient and satisfied work force in the organization.
It involves the recruitment training development and appraisal of personnel in the
organization.
This staffing/personal management enables to contribute most effectively to the
organization purpose in the performance of their duties, as well as to attain those personal
and social satisfactions which they tend to naturally seek within their working
environment.
Staffing is the acquisition and the maintenance of human resource necessary for the
organizational success.

OBJECTIVES OF STAFFING
 To build and maintain cordial relations between people working at different level.
 To ensure effective utilization of available resources.
 To provide fair working conditions, wages and amenities to employees.
 To achieve the development of employees to their fullest potential.
 To help other mangers in solving their personnel problems.

FUNCTIONS OF THE PERSONNEL DEPARTMENT

The function of the personnel department can be divided into two:-

Managerial Function
This is concerned with planning, organizing, directing and controlling the activities
related to the human resources..
Operative Function
This involves:-
 Procurement/employment
 Development.
 Compensation.
 Integration.
 Maintenance.
 Record & Research.

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Task 2 Explaining Manpower planning (MPP)
MANPOWER PLANNING
Also known as human resource planning manpower planning is the development of a
comprehensive staffing strategy for meeting organizational future human resource
needs.

It is the process by which management determines how the organization should move
from its present/current manpower position to its desired manpower position.

IMPORTANCE OF MANPOWER PLANNING

1. Helps in correcting staff imbalances in time, thus management can reduce labour
costs of overstaffing and under utilization of talents is brought to light.
2. MPP provides a sound basis for development of personnel to make an optimum
use of available talents.
3. MPP identifies gaps in existing manpower so that suitable training programmes
may be developed for building specific skills required in future.
4. MPP enables the management to cope with uncertain environment.
5. MPP involves an inventory of current manpower to determine its status and
therefore untapped talents available in the organization can be identified.
6. Helps management to have the right people at the right jobs at the right time.

Manpower Planning Process

Manpower planning process involves four basic steps:-
1. Assess current staffing needs. This involves assessment of the current jobs needed
the organization, shortages and supplies should be identified in this step.
2. Forecasting future human resource needs. A systematic attempt to probe into the
future human resource needs should be done. This should put into consideration of
the organization and also technological changes.
3. formulate staffing strategy
A staffing strategy should be formulated based on the needs of the organization.
4. Implementation of the strategy
The strategy is adopted and put into use.
5. Evaluate and update
The implemented strategy is monitored evaluated and updated to ensure that the
goals of the enterprise are being met.

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Task 3 Explaining Job analysis and evaluation

JOB ANALYSIS
Job analysis refers to the process of determining the fundamental elements of a job
through systematic observation and analysis. Job analysis occurs during the assessment of
the organizational manpower needs.
It involves breaking up of a job into its basic elements and studying them in details to
obtain all the pertinent facts about the job. e.g.
 what the worker is expected to do
 Methods and techniques used
 The working conditions
 Skills required. (Content, job duties and personal qualities)

Job analysis serves the following purposes.

1) It provides a basis for MPP and for recruitment and selection
2) Helps in matching the employee competencies and the job during selection
3) Facilitates job evaluation and performance appraisal which is necessary in wage
determination
4) Helps in devising training and development programmes for employees.
5) Facilitates proper allocation of authority
6) It facilitates job design.
The end result of job analysis is job description

JOB DESCRIPTION
This is a clear summary of duties and responsibilities of a specific job.
It describes the title of the job, its location, tasks to be performed and work conditions.

JOB SPECIFICATION
This is a statement of the minimum acceptable human qualities required for the successful
performance of a job.
It specifies the physical requirements, education and knowledge, work experience,
aptitude (ability to learn) and personal characteristic that one should possess in order to
handle the duties of a particular job effectively.

JOB EVALUATION/GRADING
This technique/process of establishing the relative merits of jobs within an enterprise in
order to establish pay differentials
It involves the assessment of the work content of all jobs in the organization and their
classification into broad categories called job grades.

Advantages of job evaluation

1. Helps in selecting new staff
2. Assists in transferring employees from one department to another
3. Ensures that staff doing the same job receives the same rates of pay thus avoid
wage anomalities.
4. Assist in evaluating new jobs and deciding on appropriate rates of pay
5. May improve relationship between management and workers
6. Provide data needed for collective bargaining
7. May result in improved staff morale and thus low labour turn over and increased
output

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 8. Useful for estimating budgets.

Disadvantages of job evaluation

1. It may place all jobs into few grades and reduce chances of promotion
2. Job grades fails to take into account individual differences in workers abilities
3. There is a tendency to view workers in terms of their grades
4. Job grades are rarely evaluated while job content change time to time.
5. Salary scales are not solely based on job grading but also other factors such as
trade union influence etc

Question:
Describe the purpose of manpower planning in business organizations.

Task 4 Describing Recruitment and selection

JOB RECRUITMENT
This is the acquisition of human resources to fill up particular positions in the
organization
 Thus recruitment is to seek out, to explore to evaluate, to induce and to obtain
commitment from prospective employees so as to fill up positions required for the
successful operation of an enterprise.
 Each organization has its own policies and procedures that guide the recruitment
e.g.
 When to declare a job vacant
 When to advertise for the job
 The source of recruitment
 How to advertise etc
 Recruitment is very important because it increases the number of applicants from
which a real choice can be made.

SOURCES OF RECRUITMENT
Sources of recruitment can be classified into two broad sources i.e.
1. Internal sources
 Transfers
 Promotions
2. External sources
 Advertisements
 Education institutions etc

INTERNAL SOURCES OF RECRUITMENT

Advantages
 Increases morale in the organization especially for the person being promoted.
 It’s easier to assess employees because you know them.
 it’s a form of rewarding god performance of work
 It is less expensive as it does not involve many procedures e.g. advertising short
listing.
 There is no need for initiation/orientation as the person being recruited
understands the procedures & operations of the enterprise.

1108
Disadvantages
 There is a danger of inbreeding in the organization
 There may be a problem of morale for those who were not promoted
 It may create infighting for promotions which may affect performance.
 It discourages the hiring of experts
 A strong manager development programme becomes necessary
 There may be need to retrain the employee so as to suit the new responsibilities.

Organizations do have policies that guide them on transfers and promotions in the
organization.
For instance a good transfer policy should have the following characteristics.
 it should ensure that the transferred workers in their new positions are not given
completely new kinds of jobs
 Responsibilities for recommending and approving transfers should be clearly
defined.
 How a transfer is going to affect security of the employee should be spelt out
clearly.
 Complete accurate job description of the jobs to which transfer are under
consideration. Etc.
A good promotion policy should entail the following:-
 Promotions should be recommended by line managers and decided by their
supervisors in line management.
 Likely opening for promotion should be given wide publication.
 Accurate job description should be prepared for each job.

External sources of Recruitment

It involves acquiring manpower from outside the organization. The sources include:-
o Direct application from suitable candidates
o Through management consultants
o Academic institutions e.g. colleges, universities
o Employment bureaus and agencies
o Sister organizations
o Government departments
o Through recommendations and suggestions current employees
o Unsolicited applicants.

Merits of External recruitment

 It’s an inexpensive way of hiring qualified professionals.
 New blood is brought into the organization thus new insight
 There is no danger of inbreeding and favourism.
 There is a wider choice as the person is selected from among a large number of
applicants.

Demerits of external recruitment

 The person selected might not fit well in the organization
 There is a longer orientation and initiation programme.
 The person recruited may meet with resistance from the other employees
 There is a morale problem for those from within who have not chosen

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  It may be time consuming and costly coz of the many procedures involved.

JOB ADVERTISEMENT
This is informing the public about existence of a vacancy position in an organization. It is
a usually done through the mass media or in meetings. The job advert should contain the
following elements;
-Details of the employing organization
-Position to be filled
-Location of the position
-Key duties and responsibilities of the position holder
-Essential requirements of the job
-The minimum personal qualifications
-Deadline of submitting applications
-To whom the application should be directed
PRINCIPLES OF EFFECTIVE JOB ADVERTISEMENT
In order to make an effective job advertisement the following principles should be
observed;
 Always provide brief but sufficient information about the position to be filled.
 Give brief but sufficient information about the employing organization.
 Provide details of all the essential personal requirements.
 Outline clearly the essential requirements of the position.
 Provide the main conditions of the position especially the salary.
 State clearly where or to whom the application should be directed.
 The advertisement should be presented in an attractive form.

JOB SELECTION
Selection is the process of offering jobs to one or more candidates form among those who
applied for the job.
It involves a series of steps which screens the candidates for choosing the most suitable
person for the vacant post
Benefits of selecting the right kind of people
 Proper selection and placement of personnel go along way towards building up a
suitable workforce. This in turn keeps the rate of absenteeism and labour turnover
low.
 Competent employees will show higher efficiency and enable the organization to
achieve its objectives.
 The rate of industrial accidents will be considerably low if suitable employees are
placed on various jobs.
 When people get jobs of their choice and taste they get higher job satisfaction
(contended workforce)
 Saves the organization time, money and efforts of having recruit and select incase
where wrong selection was made.
Factors to consider when selecting employees: -
 Physical characteristics – sound body, limb, height, weight, sight etc
 Personal characteristics – age, sex, marital status, no of children, family
background etc.
 Proficiency/skills and abilities – qualification and past experience.
 Competence – potentiality of an individual for learning and becoming proficient
in a job. Capacity to acquire knowledge.

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  Temperament and character – emotional, moral and social qualities, loyalty etc
high intelligence can never serve as a substitute for qualities such as honesty and
trustworthiness
 Interest – without interest, work is colorless and monotonous. With interest work
seems meaningful and worthwhile.

THE SELECTION PROCEDURE

The selection procedure usually varies from organisation to organisation and even from
department to department depending on the position to be filled. The number of steps in
the procedure and their sequence may also vary.

Selection procedure can involve the following process/steps.

1. Preliminary interview
Most organizations start with preliminary interview. They are used to eliminate the
obvious/unqualified candidates.
It offers advantage both to the applicant and organization as it saves time, costs and
efforts of both the applicant and the organization. Only those who are suitable are allowed
to fill the application blanks.

2. Receiving Applications
When a vacant has been advertised or enquiries are made from suitable sources,
applications are received from the candidates. This may be standard form or just ordinary
application letters.

3. Evaluation of applications
The application blanks and letters and curriculum vitae are evaluated as per the individual
qualities and the vacant job. Only questions that have job relevance should be encouraged.
E.g. education, work experience and other specific job relate data.

4. Employment tests
Tests have become an integral part of the selection process. However certain conditions
should be met of tests are to be used for employee selection they include:-
 A test should be reliable – provide consistent retort
 Should be valid – measure what they are designed to measure (e.g. job
performance)
 Should be objective – can be interpreted by different people in the same way
 Should be standardized
Advantages of tests
 They eliminate biasness in the selection personnel
 They can identify talents of individuals that can otherwise be overlooked.
 Reduce the cost of selection and placement as a large number of candidates can be
listed at the same place same time.
 Psychological tests can measure the aptitude of candidates and predicate their
success.
 Provides health basis for comparing applicants’ background.
Classification of tests
 Intelligence tests. They judge mental capacity of the applicants.
 Aptitude tests. They measure an applicant’s capacity and potential for
 development
 Proficiency tests. This measure skills already acquired by the individual.

1111
  Personality tests. They measure the total personality of the applicant.
 Interest tests. This reveals areas that an individual shows special concern and
involvement. This will suggest what type of job may be satisfying to
employee.

5. Interviews
Interviews are the most widely used and probably the most importance way of assessing
the qualification of a candidate. They are able to obtain additional information, provide
information about the firm etc.
Guidelines for effective interviews
 Plan for the interview (job specification & description)
 Create a good climate for the interview – friendly and open report with the
applicant should be established
 Allow sufficient time for uninterrupted interviews
 Conduct a goal-oriented interview – irrelevant details should be left out.
 Avoid certain types of questions leading questions or those that may imply
discrimination or embarrassing questions.
 Seek answers to all questions & check for unconsciousness.
 Record results of the interview immediately on completion.

Structured interviews
These are a series of job related questions with predetermined answers that are
consistently applied to all the candidates for a particular post/job.
Unstructured interviews
These are a series of questions asked by interview panels and which do not follow any
format.
They have the following disadvantages
 Highly susceptible to distortion and bias
 Rarely job oriented
 Infringe on individual privacy
 Highly inconsistent
 The interviewee can only ask questions or look for details/qualities he/she likes
and ignore the others.
Significance of interviews in the selection process
 Since the candidate is physically present, the interviewer gets an opportunity to
study various aspects of his personality.
 Mental and social make up the candidate is manifested in the interview.
 Its cheaper and effective if properly planned
 Correct judgment of the candidate can be made

5. Reference Checking
A referee is potentially an important source of information about candidate’s abilities
and personality. Prior to final selection the prospective employer normally makes
investigation on the references supplied by the applicant.

6. Medical Examination
Physical and medical examination helps to determine if the applicant is fit for performing
the job. Contagious diseases are identified.

7. Placement on the job.

1112
This involves making an employment offer. It involves assignment of duties and
introduction of other staff members.

STAFF TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT

Training implies the act of increasing the knowledge and skills required for efficient
performance. The major purpose of development is to improve managerial behaviour and
performance.

Staff development refers to the process of changing employee behaviour, altitudes and
opinions through some type of guided experience.

Objectives of training
 Increase knowledge and skills of worker in doing specific jobs
 To impart new skills and techniques among the workers
 To bring about change in attitude of the worker towards fellow workers, supervisors
and the organization
 To make workers handle materials, machines and equipments efficiently thus check
on wastage of time and materials.
 To reduce the number of accidents by providing safety training to workers
 To prepare workers for higher challenges
 To make workers adapt to changes in the environment quickly

TYPES OF TRAINING
1. Internal training (on the job training)
2. External training (off the job training)

Internal training programmes

They include:-
1. Orientation/induction training
Is a type of training meant to adopt workers to specific job requirements? Most
organizations have a formal orientation program for new employees who join the
organization. Usually the new employees could be put under old or senior employees.

Reasons for induction training

1. It helps to build up new employees’ confidence in the organization and himself
so as to become an efficient employee.
2. Helps to develop a feeling of belongingness and loyalty to the organization
3. Help to forge god relationship between newcomers and the old employees
4. Helps to give newcomers necessary information in the organization
5. Help to have a good impression of the organization

2. Apprenticeship
Apprentice is one of the oldest training methods. The worker is placed under a qualified
senior who he/she understudies. The worker learns by observing and assisting his senior.
It is common for trade jobs.

1113
 3. Delegation
Is a process where by the superior assigning certain responsibilities and authority to
his/her subordinates. The subordinate learns through performance of the job or duties
delegated.
4. Refresher training/retraining
This helps worker to learn new ways of handling things while still line their jobs. It also
assists workers to refresh the knowledge and skill learned long time age. eg seminars,
workshops etc

5. Job Rotation
In job rotation employees perform more tasks on a given schedule. The objective of job
rotation is to make workers conversant with different parts of their jobs. The worker may
be assigned duties in different departments on work observe different departmental head.

6. Membership to committees
Committees enable members to interact together, pool their experiences and ideas with an
aim of solving problem. The committee members as a result to develop some problem
solving skills

7. Creation of “Assistant to” positions

A trainee is posted to a department as an assistant. He/she acquire actual managerial
experience.

8. Vestibule Training
It is similar to apprenticeship. The only difference is that the line managers on the job
floor itself do not provide it. It is instead provided by special instructors outside/away
from the job floor.
It has the following advantages: -
 Can be imported to a large number of people without affecting work at the work
floor
 Relieve off the superior the responsibility of training
 Instructors are specialists and devotes full attention to training
 The trainees concentrate better as it’s away from the self normal work station.

External training programmes

They include: -
1. Training institutions
Specialized institutions offer training specific field e.g. colleges, universities, polytechnics

2. Lectures, Conferences and seminars

These may be used to impart knowledge and develop analytical skills

3. Case study
Workers evaluate and analyze a real life situation suggesting alternative solution to
prevailing problems. Such analysis is used in solving problems at hand.

4. Brainstorming sessions
This consists of evaluating of ideas put forward by a group of people convened for that
particular purpose.

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5. Role Play
It’s a training method under which participants assume certain role and enact them in a
classroom situation. The others act as observers and critics

BENEFITS OF TRAINING TO THE EMPLOYER.

1. Less supervision – Adequately trained employees will need less supervision as
they are self reliant in work performance.
2. Economical operations.- well trained employees will use the organizational
resources prudently as there will be less wastage of materials and low rates of
accidents.
3. High moral – training help to improve job satisfaction and morale of workers.
Their attitude toward the organization will also change positively.
4. Uniformity – training enhances uniformity of procedures as the best method of
performance can be standardized and taught to all employees.
5. High productivity – when skills of the employees are increased the performance
of the employee is enhanced in term of quality and quantity.
6. Manpower development – training enables the organization to have a study
supply of competent people to fulfill the organization’s human resource need.
7. Less learning period – training helps to reduce the learning time to reach
acceptable level of performance

BENEFITS OF TRAINING TO THE INDIVIDUAL

 Training creates a feeling of confidence in the mid of the worker
 Training enable an individual acquire new skill which are an asset for the
individual
 Trainings provides opportunities for quick promotion and self development
 Trained individuals are likely to earn more
 Trained individuals handle machines safely and are less prone to accidents
 Training and develops adaptability among workers.

Task 5 Explaining Job design

JOB DESIGN
People spend a great deal of their time on job. This is the process of deciding the content
of a job in terms of its duties and responsibilities, work methods and on the relationship
that should exist between the jobholder and his superiors and subordinates.

Task 6 Describing Wages and salaries administration

WAGES AND SALARY ADMINISTRATION
This section is concerned with the dues paid as compensation for work performed.
Policies with regard towages and salary administration should be a vital component of the
personnel policy of the organization since it will enable the organization to attract capable
and competent individuals and also retain them in the organization.
A good personnel compensation policy should cover the following elements
- Level of adequacy of payment
- Equity in wage payment
- Recognition of efficiency
- Incentive payment

Compensation may take different forms:

1115
  Wages. These are compensations paid to workers for task performed over a
short duration.
 Salaries. This is labour compensation paid out once a month

Factors determining labour compensation

 Cost of living
 Wages parity/market rates
 Employer paying capacity
 Degree of unionization
 Performance efficiency of the employee
 Government regulation
 Availability of worker for the particular job

METHODS OF LABOUR COMPENSATION

1. Time Rate
This refers to fixed compensation for a particular period of time e.g. week, a day or month
or even hours. This method has the advantage of:-
- Wages can be calculated easily
- Employee is assured of pay at the end of the period.
- It eliminates the need for measure performance
- Suitable for jobs that cannot be divided into smaller units.
2. Piece Rate
This refers to a fixed compensation per unit of output
This method motivates efficient workers and reduces the level of supervision in the
organization
3. Commission Rate
This refers to compensation based on the % of sales made. It’s more common in
insurance and travel agency businesses.
4. Bonus Rates
This refers to labour compensation whereby one work on time rate but any extra
production or overtime worked, a higher rate is paid.

STAFF WELFARE & BENEFITS

This refers to any service or amenities provided to the employee. This includes:
 Transport services to and from work
 Staff housing plan
 Staff canteen/ rest places.
 Incentive tours
 Staff get-together/ parties.
 Credit plan e.t.c.
Staff welfare services serves to ensure that employees are as comfortable as possible at
the work place.

Task 7 Explaining the basis of Collective bargaining

It is essentially about reaching compromises in the face of conflicting interests, whereas
participation, is about reaching optimum decisions on matters of common interest.
Collective bargaining is carried out by employers and trade unions.

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Task 8 Explaining the principles of Industrials relations
INDUSTRIAL RELATIONS
This describes the formal relationship between employers and trade unions or other
groupings of employees together with the institutional arrangement which arise from
these relationships.
Industrial relations attempts to bridge the gap between management goals/employers
goals and the goals of the employees.

Objectives of industrial relations

 To safeguard interests of labour and management by securing understanding
 To avoid industrial conflicts and develop harmonious relationships
 To raise productivity
 To establish and nurse growth of industrial democracy
 To eliminate possible strikes
 To establish government control over such plants which operate at losses
Significance of Industrial Relations
 Smooth industrial relations help secure economic progress
 It helps establish and maintain true democracy
 Results in collective bargaining
 It helps the government in framing laws
 Results in less number of disputes in the organization
 Promote orderliness

PARTIES INVOLVED IN INDUSTRIAL RELATIONS

In industrial relations three parties are involved,. The workers represented by trade
unions, the employers represented by employee associations or management and the
government as the arbitrator.
The agreement reached by the three parties is usually referred to as a triplet agreement.

Employers Associations
They represent the interests of the employers e.g. Association of Kenya Manufacturers,
Federation of Kenya Employers (KFE)
Function Employers Associations
1) Represent employers in collective bargaining
2) Develop machinery for avoiding industrial disputes
3) They provide information and advice on employee’s affairs.
4) Represents employers on national issues.

Trade Unions
This refers to an association of workers whose major aim is to protect and promote the
interests of members, through collective bargaining with the management/employers and
sometimes in presence of the government.
Functions of trade unions
 They demand for higher wages for their members
 They demand for better working conditions for members
 Protect members against unfair dismissal and victimization
 They educate the workers on their rights
 They serve the interaction function with other trade unions in the field which
improves their bargaining power

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  Serves the political function i.e. can be used as stepping stone to ones political
ambitions.

Types of Trade Unions

 Company unions – comprises employees of only one organization
 Craft unions – covers workers with a particular skill irrespective of the
organization.
 Professional unions – caters for people in the same profession e.g.
doctors./teacher, lawyers etc
 General union – cater for workers from various fields occupations and
organizations e.g. C.O.T.U.

Factors that have slowed down union growth

 Political dominance and influence
 Existence of about surplus
 Lack of sufficient funds to run union offices incase of strike
 Multiplicity of trade reduces their bargaining power.
 Legal restriction which makes it difficult to organize strikes
 Hostile attitude of the employers whereby they don’t want to hear anything about
trade unions
 Lack of good organization due to poor leadership
 Poor policies inherited from colonial government
 Lack of awareness on the part of the employee.

ACHIEVEMENTS OF TRADE UNION

 They have fought for revision of minimum wages and better working conditions.
 They have successfully challenged management power to dismiss employees
 They have provided to their members security and protection from management.
 Have been able to train their workers on labour

Union Membership
a) Closed shop – it arrangement whereby organization only employ workers
afflicted to unions.
b) Union shop – is whereby a compromise is made between the unions and employer
in the employer can hire can hire anyone whether union member or not provided
he/she joins the union at a particular time
c) Preferential union shop- here an agreement is made between the worker union and
employer first to hire union members before considering other job applicant.
Incase of layoff, members are laid of last.

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Task 9 explaining the basis of Job separation

PERSONNEL RECORDS
The personnel department keeps records which are necessary to help the top management
in the formulation of appropriate personnel policies and procedures
He records need to be
 Accurate
 Relevant
 Comprehensive
 Simple
 Accessible
The data collected by the department helps in finding solutions for personnel problems
such as absenteeism, labour turn over etc.
Information provided include: -
 Personal data
 Position and experience
 Salary scale
 Medical background
 Record of absenteeism
 disciplinary letters
 Promotion letters
 Labour turnover
 Industrial accidents
 industrial disputes
 Wages
Usually individuals have individual files in which information that relates to a particular
person is kept.

USES OF PERSONNEL RECORDS

 It helps in promotion and transfer of employees
 Its necessary for salary and other computation of other benefits
 Indicates when individuals leave is due
 Help in formulating inventive plans and other strategies to correct personnel
problems
 Serves as evidence and references in court of law
 Serves as reference when handling staff disputes especially in collective
bargaining
 It is a legal requirement that organization keep records.

LABOUR TURNOVER
This refers to the number of employees that leave the organization within a specified
period. It’s expressed as a percentage
For example. No of leaver x 100
No of employees

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CAUSES OF LABOUR TURNOVER
Causes can be internal or external

Internal causes of labour turnover. e.g.

 Low wages
 Unsuitable work or working conditions
 Inability to perform
 Breach of discipline
External causes of labour turnover. e.g.
 Lack of transport
 Retirement age
 Natural attrition
 Health reasons

LEARNING RESOURSES
i. Principles and practice of management by Saksena
ii. Management dynamics by Sagimo
iii. Management by Harold Koontz.
iv. Management principles by A Cole

EVALUATION
i. Explain the benefits of recruiting the right people inn an organization
ii. Outline the principles of job advertisement.
iii. Describe the selection procedure.
iv. Explain the Reasons why organizations conduct induction training
v. Outline reasons why trade unions in developing countries have not been successful.

TOPIC: DIRECTING

Specific Objectives
By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) explain the meaning of leading/directing function
b) describe the various leadership styles
c) explain various motivation theories
d) explain the importance of coordination in management
e) explain the importance of communication and supervision in
management

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UNIT TASKS
Task 1 Explaining the meaning of directing function

DIRECTING
Directing literary implies moving into action. When any administrative decision is taken,
it must be converted into action by proper implementation otherwise it is of use.

DEFINITION OF DIRECTING
It is the function of management that involves instructing, guiding and inspiring human
factor in the organization to achieve organizational goals.
It covers the following elements
 Communication
 Leadership
 Supervision
 Motivation
 Coordination

PROCESS OF DIRECTION
The process of directing should include the following steps:
1. Determine what is to be done.
2. Issue specific orders and precise instructions.
3. Provide guidance and supervisions.
4. Motivate the subordinates.
5. Maintain constant communication with subordinates.
6. Maintain discipline and reward those who perform efficiently.
7. Provide effective leadership to the subordinates so that they work with zeal.

PRINCIPLES OF DIRECTING
1. Effective leadership-focused and supportive.
2. Direct supervision – personal contact with subordinate.
3. Unity of command-an employee should receive directions from only one superior.
4. Harmony of objectives – between individuals & group objectives.
5. Strategic use of informal organization.
6. Principle of follow through.
7. Managerial communication – two-way communication.

Task 2 describing the different Leadership styles

LEADERSHIP
According to Chester Barnard, leadership is the ability of a supervisor or manager to
influence the behavior of his subordinates and persuade them to follow a particular course
of action.

IMPORTANCE OF LEADERSHIP
1. Efficient leadership motivates the members of staff.
2. Efficient leadership helps in directly group activities.
3. Leadership helps to reduce resistance and conflicts in the organization.
4. Good leadership assists in bringing change and increase interpersonal
communication.
5. Leadership ensures cohesiveness among group members.

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 6. Leadership helps to develop talents of individuals.
7. Good leadership enables optimal utilization of the organizational personnel.

THREORIES OF LEADERSHIP
1. Trait theory
According to this theory leadership behaviour is the sum total of the traits that an
individual posses. A successful leader must therefore posses certain tracts or qualities.
These qualities include:-
 Intelligence.
 Initiative and creativity.
 Open mind
 Self confidence
 Vision and foresight
 Maturity
 Sense of responsibility
 Physical fitness

2. Situational theory
According to this theory, leadership is a function of the situation in which the leader
works & emerges. It argues that a leader may be successful in one situation and fail in
another.
3. Behavioral theory
According to this theory, leadership is a function of effective role behaviour. A leader
should posses’ favourable leader behaviour to inspire and guide subordinates.

LEADERSHIP STYLES

1. Autocratic / Authoritarian Leadership

This is whereby power is highly centralized. The subordinates are not allowed to make or
participate in decision-making.
An acrobatic leader demands complete loyally and unquestionable obedience from the
subordinates.
Advantages of Autocratic Leadership
 Tasks are accomplished on time.
 Decision-making is not delayed.
 Communication is fast
Disadvantages of Autocratic Leadership
 There is social distance between the leader & the being led.
 May lead to high labour turnover because of job insecurity.
 Members lack commitment to organization goals.
 The work may not be effectively done in the obscene of the leader.
 Workers initiative is suppressed.

2. Democratic /Participative Leadership

This is a subordinate centered leadership whereby the leader involves the total
participation of the subordinates in decision-making process. He leads by consent of the
group rather than by use of authority.
Advantages of Democratic Leadership
 Effective consultation between the leader & subordinates.

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  Effective delegation since then is trust confidence between sub & the
leader.
 There is openness & Friendliness.
 High motivation within workers leading to cooperation.
 High productivity & quality of work.
 New ideas & change are welcome.
 Open communication.
Disadvantages of Democratic Leadership
 Decision-making is time consuming since a lot of consultation is required.
 The job may not be perfectly done, as the leader may not be able to oversee
directly.
 Concept may develop due to familiarity.
 Some workers may take advantage of the freedom and trust given to them.
 May allow for even unfair critism by the workers
 Over delegation may lower the quality of work

3. Pseudo Democratic or Manipulative Leadership

This leader makes his desires known & then appoints a committee to deliberate but
primarily to approve his proposal.
Group members go through the nation of cooperative action but to no avail since the
decisions have been reached before hard.
The leader may be very successfully being tolerated when he rewards those who support
him.
4. Bureaucratic Leadership
A bureaucratic leader insists of rules and regulation that have been put in place. Thus
leadership is reduced to a routine job.

5. Laissez faire/ free rein Leadership.

In this style the leader believes in the competence of the subordinates and thus leaves it
to the subordinates to decide and control themselves.

6. Charismatic Leadership

This is where the leader has total loyalty and support of the subordinates. It may be as a
result of special qualities that he/ she posses and as such the followers strongly believe in
his/her ideas. A Charismatic leader posses natural, inborn unique traits and attributes that
distinguishes him/her from other leaders. He may be kind, forceful, persevering, sincere,
humble, etc.

LEADERSHIP STYLE ACCORDING TO LICKERT

Likert has classified leadership styles into for types. They include:
1. Exploitative / Authoritative
This is a system that is highly autocratic. It has very little trust in subordinates. People are
motivated through fear and punishment with occasional rewards. Communication is
downward and decision-making is limited to the top.

2. Benevolent Authoritative

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The manager has patronized confidence in the subordinates and motivates with some
rewards some fear and punishment. The manager permits some upward communication
and solicits some ideas and opinions and also allows some delegation of decision making
but with close policy control.

3. Consultative Leadership
The manager has substantial but not complete trust and confidence in subordinates. He
tries to use subordinates ideas and opinions and he use rewards for motivation with
occasional punishment. Upward & downward communication is allowed and the general
policy is made at the top, but specific decisions are made at lower levels.

4. Participative Leadership
The leaders have complete trust and confidence in subordinates. He gets ideas and
opinions from the subordinates. Rewards are given on the basis of group participation.
Subordinates engage in communication and also in decision making throughout the
organization.

Task 3 explaining the Motivation theories

MOTIVATION
This is an act of stimulating someone or oneself to get a desired course of action. It is that
inner state of mind that channels workers behavior and energy towards the attainment of
desired goals.

Factors Affecting or Determining Motivation

 The Nature of the job: - A job that is challenging and good enough will motivate
an individual and use versa.
 The Work environment: - When the work environment is conducive, worker will
be motivated e.g. a spacious office will motivate an employee.
 Participation in planning: - When employees are given an opportunity to
participate in planning & implementation the highly motivated.
 Better reward system: - When the employees are well compensated they become
more motivated.
 Security: - When employees are provided with security at work and have security
of tenure, they are highly motivated.
 Recognition by management: - When the management recognizes the efforts of
the workers, they will be highly motivated.
 Trust and loyalty: - When there is trust and loyally between the subordinates & the
management motivation becomes high in the organization.
 Room for advancement. : - career growth and development.
 Delegation of authority: - transfer of authority from upper to lower level.
 Good management practices.

Importance of Motivation
 Through motivation high performance in the organization can be realized.
 Motivation enhances willingness of people to work thus minimizes conflicts and
resistance to change.
 Sound motivation minimizes chances of absenteeism and labour turnover.
 Increases motivation reduces the need of close supervision which may be expensive to
the organization

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 Effective motivation leads to cordial relationship between workers and management,
as there is increased job satisfaction.
 Good motivation may lead to improvement of skills of individuals within the
organization.

Methods of Motivating employees

A motive is a need or driving force within a person. The management can motivate their
employees through:
 Fair remuneration – Fair & reasonable reward for the services rendered.
 Incentives – Bonuses, pension scheme & profit sharing opportunities.
 Security of tenure – Assure continues employment
 Good working conditions- working hours, medical, etc.
 Recognition
 Participation- In decision making
 Communication – Adequate upward & downward
 Safety programmes – Compensation / hospital expenses
 Health programmes – protection against health hazards
 Education & development programmes.

Features of a Sound Motivation Programmes

 It should be productive – Must result into positive increase of productivity of
labour.
 Must be competitive – The costs of the motivation system /programme must be
justified in its benefits.
 Should be comprehensive. It should provide for both physiological and
psychological need and cover all employees at all levels.
 Should be flexible – It should be capable of being adjusted easily in case of
changes in the environment and knowledge.
 It should be acceptable to the employees.

MOTIVATION PROCESS
A person feels motivated when the available incentive lead to satisfaction of his needs.
The following are steps in motivation process
1. Awareness of needs
When a person realizes a need or motive that is not satisfied, it creates tension in his
minds. Thus motivation process starts with awareness of a need.
2. Search for action
The person looks for suitable action to relieve his tension and satisfy his needs.
He thus develops certain goals and attempt to fulfill them.
3. Fulfillment of needs
The suitable action is undertaken and therefore the need is satisfied or fulfilled.
4. New need arises.
Once the need has been satisfied, another need begins to dominate the mind.
THEORIES OF MOTIVATION
Various theories have been developed to explain what motivates employees at work. They
include:
 Maslow’s need hierarchy theory
 Hertzberg’s two factor /hygiene theory
 McGregor theory X & Y

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  McClelland theory etc
 Expectancy theory

ABRAHAM MASLOW NEED HERARCHY OF NEEDS THEORY

Maslow developed a theory of motivation on the basis of human needs. The main
arguments of Maslow’s theory are:
1. Man is a perpetually wanting animal and his needs are never fully satisfied. The
moment a need is satisfied another one starts to dominate the minds of an
individual.
2. Human needs differ in importance and therefore can be arranged in a hierarchy.
3. An individual need in the hierarchy emerge only when the lower level needs are
reasonably well satisfied.
4. Satisfied needs to not motivate behaviour.
5. Lower order needs are more fifth then higher level needs
The needs can be classified as follow:

Self actualization

Ego/esteem needs

. Social needs

Security/safety needs

Physiological needs
1. Physiological Needs
These are the lowest level needs. They include basic needs such as food, shelter Oxygen,
sleep, clothing, sex. etc. They are very essential for survival of human life and must be
satisfied before other needs emerge.

2. Safety Needs
Once the psychological needs are reasonably well satisfied, safety need begin to dominate
an individuals mind. They include the need for protection against, murder, fire, accidents,
sickness and old age unemployment, theft, disability etc.

3. Social Needs
This refers to the need to belong and be accepted by others. They include the need for
love and the need for affection association with others.

4. Ego / Esteem Needs

This include the need for self respect, feeling of personal worth and the need for personal
worth and independence and the need for reorganization, status, power, prestige
&achievement.

5. Self actualization Need / Self fulfillment

This is the need to become the best that one is capable of. Its need to realize one’s fullest
potential. This is the highest need on the hierarchy. Although it is achieved in very rare

1126
cases, the management can help in its realization through provision of individual
development programmes in the organization.

MC GREGOR’S THEORY X AND Y

Mc Gregor has classified the basic assumptions about human nature into two parts.

Theory X and theory Y.

THEORY X
This is based on the assumption that people don’t want to work and are forced to work. It
assumes that:
1. The average human being has an inherent dislike of work and will avoid it if he
can (lazy)
2. He lacks ambition, dislike responsibilities and prefers to be led-incapable of
directing his own behaviour & is not interested in achievement (lack creativity)
3. People are inherently self-centered and are indifferently to organizational needs.
4. People are naturally/ by nature resistant to change thus have a conservative nature.
5. People are not by nature very bright and are prove to be influenced by others.
6. Motivation only occurs at physiological and safety levels.

THEORY Y
Under this theory people love work and enjoy it .The theory assumes:
1. Work is as natural as play or rest provided the conditions are favorable.
2. The average human being love work provided it’s meaningful and can be a
source of satisfaction.
3. Commitment to objectives of an organization is a result of the rewards associated
with the achievements.
4. The average human being is dynamic and adopts to change when is brought in a
logical manner.
5. The average human being love responsibility.
6. People are creative and self-directed.

Management under theory X

 They should be directly supervised and controlled
 They should receive specific instructions, written where possible
 They should be given deadlines
 There should be close communication between the management and employees
 They should not participate in decision making at any level.

Management under theory Y

 People should be involved I decision making
 Delegate work to them
 They do not need to be coerced.
 No close supervision is needed
 Recognize their contribution and reward them appropriately

HERZBERRG’S TWO-FACTOR THEORY

(Motivation hygiene theory)
Hertzberg collected data on job attitudes through interviewing engineers and accountants.

1127
He concluded that there are two categories of needs that are independent of each other and
affect behaviour in different ways.

When people feel dissatisfied with their job they were concerned by the environment in
which they job, this had to do with the job itself.
1. Hygiene / dissatisfiers
They tent to being job dissatisfaction. Their removal or making them favourable does not
motivate work or improve production but only reduce dissatisfaction.
They include:
 Supervision
 Administrative polices
 Working conditions
 Interpersonal relationships with supervisors
 Job security Status
 Money /Salary

2. Motivation/Satisfies
These are factors, which improve on motivation of individuals. They build strong
motivation. There absence does not cause dissatisfaction but bring about a condition of
not satisfied.
They include: -
 Recognition for accomplishment
 Feeling of achievement
 Promotion
 Challenging work
 Increased Responsibility
 Opportunity for growth

Motivators are job centered, inherent to the job while hygiene’s are extrinsic. The theory
highlights that the most effective technique of intrinsic motivation in job enrichment.
The theory also points out that the opposite of job satisfaction is not job dissatisfaction but
no job satisfaction. Likewise the opposite of job dissatisfaction is not job satisfaction but
job dissatisfaction.

MORALE
This is a term used to describe the overall climate prevailing among workers. Its an
attitude of a satisfaction with desire to continue in willingness to strive for goals for a
particular enterprise.
Lack of morale can result in:-
 Increased cases of Absenteeism
 Antagonism towards rules and supervision
 Excessive complains & grievances
 High labour turnover
 Friction between employees and the management or the employer
 Lateness at work
 Increased accidents at work
 Alcoholism as a result of frustration

Task 4 Examining the need for Coordination

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COORDINATION
This may be defined as an on going process whereby manager develop an integrated
orderly and synchronized pattern of group effort among the subordinates and tries to
attain unity of effort in the pursuit of common objectives.

NEEDS FOR COORDINATION

The following are reasons that make coordination necessary.

1. Increase in size and complexity of operation- coordination becomes necessary
when operations become multiple & complex.
2. Clash of interest help to avoid conflict between individual and Organizational
goals.
3. Specialization- when there is a lot of specialization in the organization
coordination becomes necessary.
4. Interdependent of units
The various units & department that depend on each other need to be coordinated
5. Conflicts- In order to minimize potential conflicts coordination is necessary
especially between the line & staff offers

STEPS FOR ACHIEVING EFFECTIVE COORDINATION

1. Clearly defined goals of the organization and units/ departments.
2. Simplified organization whereby the lines of authority and responsibility from top
to bottom of the organization are clearly defined.
3. Effective leadership and supervision.
4. Establishment of an effective communication system within the organization
5. Establishment of liaison departments or employing a liaison officer
6. Introduction of staff groups, task force committees etc to take over some of the
coordinative functions of line managers.

Task 5 Analyzing the Communication channels within an organization.

SUPERVISION
Supervision refers to the expert overseeing of workers performance to ensure that workers
are efficiently instructed, guided and assisted to ensure effective and efficient
performance of their tasks in the organization.

Functions of Supervision
1. The supervision guides and instructs his subordinates on work performance.
2. He/she communicates important information to the subordinates
3. Maintains effective reporting about work performance in his/her respective section
4. Trains the workers on specific skill of work performance
5. Maintains discipline within his/her section
6. Organizes work within his/her respective sections to ensure order.

Guidelines to Effective Supervision

 Maintain an appropriate span of control. The supervisor should not supervise too
many employees or very few employees
 Ensure that the supervisor posses the relevant skill As per their duties are
concerned

1129
  Motivate the supervisors well so as to ensure that they perform their duties with
zeal
 Continuously upgrade the skill and knowledge of the supervisor as per as modern
technology is concern
 Manager should offer necessary support to the supervisors to ensure that they
realize the objectives of their section
 Maintain a good system of reporting and ensure regular follow up on the reports
and especially recommendations made by supervisors
 Managers should provide all the relevant information about the organization and
the specific section that the supervisor is responsible for
 Utilize the ideas of the supervisors and allow them some degree of creativity and
initiative
 Establish the characteristics of the group being supervised in order to determine
the degree of supervision. This means that implies that more closer supervision is
required for a less motivated workforce and the vise-versa

Importance of Supervision
 Ensures order and discipline in the organization.
 Leads to effective and efficient performance of work at the organization
 Workers learn new skills that are essential for work performance.
 Effective supervision leads to improved morale in the organization
 Effective supervision enhances proper flow of information and therefore enhances
effective communication
 It ensures timely delivery of services and products to the clients.

LEARNING RESOURSES
i. Principles and practice of management by Saksena
ii. Management dynamics by Sagimo
iii. Management by Harold Koontz.
iv. Management principles by A Cole

EVALUATION
i.
ii.
iii.

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TOPIC: CONTROLLING

Specific Objectives
By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) explain the meaning of controlling function
b) describe various systems and processes of control

UNIT TASKS

Task 1 explaining the meaning of controlling function

Control is that function of management that involves monitoring, measurement and

correcting performance of employees and other organizational resources according to the
plan.
The aim of control is to develop a feedback and to establish any deviations from the plan
so as to take corrective action.
IMPORTANCE OF CONTROL

1. Control enables managers to rectify mistakes and improve performance and efficiency
2. Control helps in making effective plans planning what can be achieved.
3. Control facilitate the decision making process. The organization can verify the quality
of various policies.
4. Control helps managers to keep performance in the line with the plan.
5. Control provides a base for improving performance of work.
6. Good control system promotes employees morale.
7. Facilitates decentralization of authority duties can be delegated when there is effective
control system.
8. Control help in resource allocation.

ESSENTIAL REQUIREMENT FOR A GOOD CONTROL SYSTEM

1. Economy
A good control system should be affordable and worth the cost.
2. Simplicity
It should be understandable and simple to administer. It should not be complicated.
3. Suitability
It should be suitable to the nature and requirement of the activities being controlled.
4. Promptness
It must detect and report deviations as soon as possible, thus should have time
reporting of deviations.
5. Flexibility
It should be able to adjust according to changes in need and circumstances.
6. Suggestive of remedial action.
A good control system should disclose where failures are occurring, who is
responsible and what should be done about them.
7. Organizational pattern
It should conform to the basic structure of organization.(authority responsibility
relationships of the organization)
8. Objectivity
Control should be objective verifiable and specific it shouldn’t be influenced by
personalities

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Task 2 explaining different Systems and process of control

TYPES OF CONTROL

BUDGETARY CONTROL

A budget is a plan expressed in numerical terms for a specific period of time in future.
There are several types of budgets. They include:-
 Sales budget – this shows the volume of sales expected
 Production budgets – shows the quantity and quality of goods to produced
 Material budgets – quantity & quality of raw materials
 Labour budgets – labour requirements
 Capital expenditure budgets – capital investment in assets
 Overhead budget – shows the estimates of overhead costs expected
 Master budget –shows the expected expenditure for the whole enterprise.

Budgetary control is therefore the process of defining desired performance through the
preparation of budgets, measuring and comparing actual results with the corresponding
budget data and taking appropriate actions to correct any deviations.
The use of budgets to coordinate, evaluate and control day to day operations in
accordance with the specified goals in the budget.

ADVANTAGES OF BUDGETARY CONTROL

 Improved planning – expression of plans and policies in quantitative terms gives an
overall view of operations and the relative importance of different activities.
 Budgetary controls promote efficiency by eliminating wasteful expenditures.
 Budget provides useful information for preparing quotations and filling tenders.
 Budgeting promotes cooperation and team spirit since all activities of various
departments together.
 Budgets serve as a yardstick with which performance of employees can be evaluated
and controlled.
 Helps management to delegate authority more freely over specified functions.
 It helps in determination of capital requirements and controlling the cash position of
the organization.
 It indicates where executive action is necessary in order to secure desired
performance.

DISADVANTAGES OF BUDGETARY CONTROL

 Budgeting is time consuming process and also expensive.

 Budgets may be used to hide efficiencies, as past precedents often become evidence
 For the present
 Rigid adherence to budgets discourages initiative.
 Budgets are estimates and can never be one hundred percent accurate.
 Budgets are only tools to efficient management and not a substitute for it.
NON-BUDGETARY CONTROLS
1. BREAK EVEN ANALYSIS

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Break-even analysis is frequently used in business and economics to analyze the
implication of various pricing and production decisions. This is an important planning and
control device as it depicts the relationship between revenue and the total costs (fixed and
variable). The break-even point is the point where the sales revenue is equal to the total
costs.
Therefore below the break-even point losses occur and above it profits occur. The fixed
and the variable costs are also indicated.
Break even point

Total revenue
Costs

total cost

fixed costs

Sales
Break-even chart
Although the break-even analysis is an important control tool, it ignores.
- Price changes
- Time gap between production and sales
- Plant size
- Technology

2. PERSONAL OBSERVATION

Personal observation is a very important control tool as it supplements the other control
devices such as budgets, audits reports etc. a manager who sits in his office and depend
only on the scientific devices hardly realizes a thorough job.
Personal observation allows the manager a better involvement in all the operations of the
organization.

However, personal observation suffers the following limitations,

 Manager has to be present thus it consumes a lot of time.
 There may be bias in the assessment of individual performance.

1133
 It requires to be supplemented by other devices personal observation cannot give all
the details.
 Some critical areas in the organization cannot be effectively evaluated through
observation.
 Hawthorne effect may affect the efficiency of personal observation.

3. AUDITING
Auditing can either be external or internal, external auditing is carried out by an external
chattered accountant and is enforced by law in respect to all joint stock companies and
cooperatives. It ensures that the stakeholders and any interested parties are safe guarded
against any manipulations and malpractices of management. The external out for certifies
that the profit and loss account and the balance sheet of the firm gives a true and fair
picture of profit or loss and the picture of Financial state of affairs of the company
respectively.
For internal audits and a member of staff is appointed specifically for this function in the
organization to verify all financial transactions and records and also analyze the overall
control system in the organization.

4. REPORTS (Special)
Some complex operations in the organization require special analysis and reporting. This
system of control can help supplement other control techniques especially where routine
accounting and statistical reports falls to give adequate information.

THE CONTROL PROCESS

The control process involves four major steps.

1. Establish of standards
The setting of standards against which actual performance/results are to be evaluated is
essential in managerial control. The standards should be clearly and precisely stated,
accurate acceptable and attainable as they serve as the criteria against which the results
are evaluated. They should also be communicated effectively.
2. Measurement of actual performance.
The actual performance is measured against the set standard. That is comparing the
performance with the standards. The major question here is what have we achieved.

3. Compare the performance

Deviation/gaps from the expected standards are established through comparing the results
and the expected performance. Critical deviation should be identified and diagnose their
causes and their impacts on the organization.
4. Taking corrective action.
This implies taking a remedial action in order to bring back actual results in the line wit
the standards. This may involve review of the plan/standards or putting in place steps to
prevent deviations.

LEARNING RESOURSES
i. Principles and practice of management by Saksena
ii. Management dynamics by Sagimo
iii. Management by Harold Koontz.
iv. Management principles by A Cole

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EVALUATION
i. Explain the purpose of control in business organizations.
ii. Describe the control process.
iii. “Planning is looking ahead while control is looking back” Discus
iv. Explain the advantages of budgetary controls in the organization.
v. Describe five forms of non-budgetary controls.
vi. Explain the limitations of personal observation as a control system.
vii. Explain the major requirements of an effective control system

TOPIC: QUALITY ASSURANCE AND STANDARDS

Specific Objectives
By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
1. explain the meaning of quality assurance and standards
2. explain quality of product and services
3. explain the basis of service standards

UNIT TASKS
Task 1 explaining the meaning of quality assurance and standards
Task 2 explaining quality of product and services
Task 3 explaining the basis of service standards

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 21.3.0 SALES AND MARKETING FOR HOSPITALITY
INDUSTRY
21.3.0 SALES AND MARKETING FOR HOSPITALITY INDUSTRY

21.3.01 Introduction
This module unit is intended to provide trainees with basic knowledge and
skills that are necessary for him or her to appreciate the role of sales and
marketing in an organisation.

21.3.02 General Objectives

By the end of this module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) understand the marketing concepts
b) understand consumer behaviour
c) understand various sales and marketing activities performed in an
organisation
d) explain the marketing mix elements
e) understand the qualities of a good salesman
f) distinguish between the functions of sales and marketing departments
g) appreciate the process of selling
h) evaluate sales performance

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 21.3.0 Course Unit Summary and Time Allocation

Code Sub-Module Content T P Total

Unit Hours
21.3.1 Introduction  Definition of terms
 The marketing concepts
1 4 5
 Nature of marketing
services
21.3.2 The Marketing  The external
Environment environment
2 4 6
 The internal
environment
21.3.3 Consumer  Meaning of terms
Behaviour  Consumer buying
patterns 2 4 6
 Consumer buying
process
21.3.4 Market  Meaning and importance
Segmentation of segmentation
2 4 6
 Basis of segmentation to
an organisation
21.3.5 Marketing Mix  Meaning of marketing
mix
2 4 6
 Elements of marketing
mix
21.3.6 Product  Meaning of product
 Stages of new product
development
 Factors affecting new
3 5 8
product development
 Causes of new product
failure
 Product life cycle
21.3.7 Pricing  Meaning of pricing
 Pricing methods
2 5 7
 Factors considered in
pricing
21.3.8 Promotion  Meaning of terms
2 5 7
 Elements of promotion
21.3.9 Distribution  Meaning of distribution
Channels  Channels of distribution 2 5 7
 Types of middlemen
21.3.1 Qualities of  Introduction to
0 Salesman salesmanship
 Qualities of a salesman
 Knowledge of the 2 5 7
product
 Psychology of the
customers

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21.3.1 Functions of  Distinguishing between
1 Sales And sales and marketing
Marketing departments
Departments  Functions of a sales 2 5 7
department
 Functions of a marketing
department
21.3.1 Process of  Meaning
2 5 7
2 Selling  Steps in a selling process
21.3.1 Evaluation of  Meaning of evaluation
3 Sales  Methods used to
Performance measure performance of
sales
3 5 8
 Actual sales versus
budgeted sales
 Decisions taken to
correct sales variances
21.3.1 Emerging Trends  Identification of
4 emerging trends
1 1 2
 Challenges
 Coping with challenges

Total 29 61 90

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21.3.01 INTRODUCTION

21.3.01T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) definition of marketing
b) explain the marketing concepts
c) explain the nature of services

Unit Tasks
Unit Task 1 defining marketing

There are many definitions of marketing. The better definitions are focused upon customer
orientation and satisfaction of customer needs.
 Marketing is the social process by which individuals and groups obtain what they
need and want through creating and exchanging products and value with others
 Marketing is the management process that identifies, anticipates and satisfies
customer requirements profitably
 Marketing is the process of understanding and influencing markets.

Unit Task 2 explaining the marketing concepts

The marketing concept is a philosophy. It makes the customer, and the satisfaction of his or
her needs, the focal point of all business activities. It is driven by senior managers, passionate
about delighting their customers.
• choosing and targeting appropriate customers
• positioning your offering
• interacting with those customers
• controlling the marketing effort
• continuity of performance

Unit Task 3 Nature of marketing services

The Nature of Marketing

Marketing is misunderstood by many - it is not simply advertising.

Advertising is only one small element of marketing. A firm's Marketing Policy is part
of its strategic business plan and is essentially a process whereby the firm's ability to
supply services is brought into balance with expected demand for its services
from present and future clients. This mechanism ensures that the firm maintains
growth and profitability. In an era where in most sectors of work cut-throat
competition prevails; no firm can afford to be without knowledge, however basic, of
marketing

The nature of services

Marketing services is accepted as more difficult than marketing products. Services have
several qualitative differences and are:-

1. Heterogeneous - in other words they cannot be standardised.

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 2. Inseparable - Unlike producing for instance baked beans, the production,
Marketing and delivery of services is very often the same process.

3. Perishable and cannot be stored. This means that supply and demand must be
matched or production will be lost.

4. Intangible - they cannot be seen and very seldom can they be objectively
measured.

21.3.02 THE MARKETING ENVIRONMENT

21.3.02T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a. explain the internal and external environment of marketing

Unit Task
Unit Task 1 Marketing environment

The Marketing Environment

What is the marketing environment?

The marketing environment surrounds and impacts upon the organization. There are three
key perspectives on the marketing environment, namely the 'macro-environment,' the 'micro-
environment' and the 'internal environment'.

The micro-environment
This environment influences the organization directly. It includes suppliers that deal directly
or indirectly, consumers and customers, and other local stakeholders. Micro tends to suggest
small, but this can be misleading. In this context, micro describes the relationship between

1140
firms and the driving forces that control this relationship. It is a more local relationship, and
the firm may exercise a degree of influence.

The macro-environment
This includes all factors that can influence and organization, but that are out of their direct
control. A company does not generally influence any laws (although it is accepted that they
could lobby or be part of a trade organization). It is continuously changing, and the company
needs to be flexible to adapt. There may be aggressive competition and rivalry in a market.
Globalization means that there is always the threat of substitute products and new entrants.
The wider environment is also ever changing, and the marketer needs to compensate for
changes in culture, politics, economics and technology.

The Internal Environment

All factors that are internal to the organization are known as the 'internal environment'. They
are generally audited by applying the 'Five Ms' which are Men, Money, Machinery, Materials
and Markets. The internal environment is as important for managing change as the external.
As marketers we call the process of managing internal change 'internal marketing.'

Essentially we use marketing approaches to aid communication and change management.

The external environment can be audited in more detail using other approaches such as
SWOT Analysis, Michael Porter's Five Forces Analysis or PEST Analysis.

FIVE FORCES ANALYSIS

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Analyzing the environment - Five Forces Analysis

Five Forces Analysis helps the marketer to contrast a competitive environment. It has
similarities with other tools for environmental audit, such as PEST analysis, but tends to
focus on the single, stand alone, business or SBU (Strategic Business Unit) rather than a
single product or range of products. For example, Dell would analyse the market for Business
Computers i.e. one of its SBUs

Five forces analsysis looks at five key areas namely the threat of entry, the power of buyers,
the power of suppliers, the threat of substitutes, and competitive rivalry.

The threat of entry.

 Economies of scale e.g. the benefits associated with bulk purchasing.
 The high or low costs of entry e.g. how much will it cost for the latest technology?
 Ease of access to distribution channels e.g. Do our competitors have the distribution
channels sewn up?
 Cost advantages not related to the size of the company e.g. personal contacts or
knowledge that larger companies do not own or learning curve effects.
 Will competitors retaliate?
 Government action e.g. will new laws be introduced that will weaken our competitive
position?
 How important is differentiation? e.g. The Champagne brand cannot be copied. This
desensitises the influence of the environment.

The power of buyers.

 This is high where there a few, large players in a market e.g. the large grocery chains.
 If there are a large number of undifferentiated, small suppliers e.g. small farming
businesses supplying the large grocery chains.
 The cost of switching between suppliers is low e.g. from one fleet supplier of trucks
to another.

The power of suppliers.

The power of suppliers tends to be a reversal of the power of buyers.
 Where the switching costs are high e.g. Switching from one software supplier to
another.
 Power is high where the brand is powerful e.g. Cadillac, Pizza Hut, Microsoft.
 There is a possibility of the supplier integrating forward e.g. Brewers buying bars.
 Customers are fragmented (not in clusters) so that they have little bargaining power
e.g. Gas/Petrol stations in remote places.

The threat of substitutes

 Where there is product-for-product substitution e.g. email for fax Where there is
substitution of need e.g. better toothpaste reduces the need for dentists.
 Where there is generic substitution (competing for the currency in your pocket) e.g.
Video suppliers compete with travel companies.
 We could always do without e.g. cigarettes.

Competitive Rivalry

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  This is most likely to be high where entry is likely; there is the threat of substitute
products, and suppliers and buyers in the market attempt to control. This is why it is
always seen in the center of the diagram.
SWOT ANALYSIS
Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities and Threats (SWOT).
SWOT analysis is a tool for auditing an organization and its environment. It is the first stage
of planning and helps marketers to focus on key issues. SWOT stands for strengths,
weaknesses, opportunities, and threats. Strengths and weaknesses are internal factors.
Opportunities and threats are external factors.

In SWOT, strengths and weaknesses are internal factors. For example: strength could
be:
 Your specialist marketing expertise.
 A new, innovative product or service.
 Location of your business.
 Quality processes and procedures.
 Any other aspect of your business that adds value to your product or service.

A weakness could be:

 Lack of marketing expertise.
 Undifferentiated products or services (i.e. in relation to your competitors).
 Location of your business.
 Poor quality goods or services.
 Damaged reputation.

In SWOT, opportunities and threats are external factors. For example: An opportunity
could be:
 A developing market such as the Internet.
 Mergers, joint ventures or strategic alliances.
 Moving into new market segments that offer improved profits.
 A new international market.
 A market vacated by an ineffective competitor.

A threat could be:

 A new competitor in your home market.
 Price wars with competitors.
 A competitor has a new, innovative product or service.
 Competitors have superior access to channels of distribution.
 Taxation is introduced on your product or service.

A word of caution, SWOT analysis can be very subjective. Do not rely on SWOT too much.
Two people rarely come-up with the same final version of SWOT. TOWS analysis is
extremely similar. It simply looks at the negative factors first in order to turn them into
positive factors. So use SWOT as guide and not a prescription.

Simple rules for successful SWOT analysis.

 Be realistic about the strengths and weaknesses of your organization when conducting
SWOT analysis.
 SWOT analysis should distinguish between where your organization is today, and
where it could be in the future.

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  SWOT should always be specific. Avoid grey areas.
 Always apply SWOT in relation to your competition i.e. better than or worse than
your competition.
 Keep your SWOT short and simple. Avoid complexity and over analysis
 SWOT is subjective.

Once key issues have been identified with your SWOT analysis, they feed into marketing
objectives. SWOT can be used in conjunction with other tools for audit and analysis, such as
PEST analysis and Porter's Five-Force analysis. So SWOT is a very popular tool with
marketing students because it is quick and easy to learn. During the SWOT exercise, list
factors in the relevant boxes. It's that simple. Below are some FREE examples of SWOT
analysis - click to go straight to them

PEST ANALYSIS.
What is PEST Analysis?

It is very important that an organization considers its environment before beginning the
marketing process. In fact, environmental analysis should be continuous and feed all aspects
of planning. The organization's marketing environment is made up of:

1. The internal environment e.g. staff (or internal customers), office technology, wages and
finance, etc.

2. The micro-environment e.g. our external customers, agents and distributors, suppliers, our
competitors, etc.

3. The macro-environment e.g. Political (and legal) forces, Economic forces, Sociocultural
forces, and Technological forces. These are known as PEST factors.

Political Factors
The political arena has a huge influence upon the regulation of businesses, and the spending
power of consumers and other businesses. You must consider issues such as:

1. How stable is the political environment?

2. Will government policy influence laws that regulate or tax your business?

3. What is the government's position on marketing ethics?

4. What is the government's policy on the economy?

5. Does the government have a view on culture and religion?

6. Is the government involved in trading agreements such as EU, NAFTA, ASEAN, or

others?

Economic Factors
Marketers need to consider the state of a trading economy in the short and long-terms. This is
especially true when planning for international marketing. You need to look at:

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1. Interest rates.

2. The level of inflation Employment level per capita.

3. Long-term prospects for the economy Gross Domestic Product (GDP) per capita, and so
on.

Socio-cultural Factors
The social and cultural influences on business vary from country to country. It is very
important that such factors are considered. Factors include:

1. What is the dominant religion?

2. What are attitudes to foreign products and services?

3. Does language impact upon the diffusion of products onto markets?

4. How much time do consumers have for leisure?

5. What are the roles of men and women within society?

6. How long are the population living? Are the older generations wealthy?

7. Does the population have a strong/weak opinion on green issues?

Technological Factors
Technology is vital for competitive advantage, and is a major driver of globalization.
Consider the following points:

1. Does technology allow for products and services to be made more cheaply and to a better
standard of quality?

2. Do the technologies offer consumers and businesses more innovative products and
services such as Internet banking, new generation mobile telephones, etc?

3. How is distribution changed by new technologies e.g. books via the Internet, flight
tickets, auctions, etc?

4. Does technology offer companies a new way to communicate with consumers e.g.
banners, Customer Relationship Management (CRM), etc?
The external environment facing businesses

Business ethics - introduction

What is business ethics?

Business Ethics is a relatively new, but increasingly important, part of Business Studies. The
question, or problem, is this:

1145
A business is expected to achieve its objectives, usually to make a decent profit for the
owners/shareholders. In doing so, it may need to overlook the wishes of others.

For example, it could lie about the benefits of its products in order to get more revenue. It
could skip important safety checks to save costs. What should the business do?

To some extent, this is an area already covered by Business Law. When society largely
agrees, a law can be passed to stop behaviour the society disapproves of. For example,
discrimination against women is illegal (it wasn’t always so).

What Business Ethics Covers

Business Ethics looks at areas that are too new, or too controversial, for society to agree on.
For example, the medical business is increasingly controversial. The pharmaceutical
businesses concentrate their (very expensive) research on illnesses that afflict rich people,
because rich people (or the government of a rich country) can afford to buy these new
treatments when they are launched on the market. This means too little research is done into
illnesses (like malaria) that primarily affect poor people and poor governments. Is this right?

So, we can have profit-maximising businesses that don’t worry too much about who gets in
their way; or we can have ethical businesses that are very careful with people get in their
way, but which don’t make very much profit. This is the contrast, the trade-off that we are
faced with.

Or is it? Increasingly, there is thought about a middle way. Consumers in developed countries
are increasingly aware of ethical issues, and some are prepared to pay for it.

For example, BodyShop was one of the first businesses to build on this trend, and made their
market niche largely out of the fact that their products are kinder to the world than are
competing products. Why buy from BodyShop? Because their products aren’t tested on
animals. So, the ethical nature of the product becomes part of the unique selling point
("USP") of the product and central to the Marketing of that product. In other words, there is
no conflict between ethics and profit, because an ethical stance is part of the profit-making
process.

Since then, many businesses in all sorts of markets have followed this line. Washing
powders, for example. BP is trying to portray the oil business as environmentally friendly.
Other businesses have been pushed in this direction by adverse publicity. Triumph, a Swiss
makers of bras, was forced to abandon an investment in Myanmar (Burma ) because of
widespread opposition to a dictatorial and unpleasant government. And Nike (and others)
have been widely criticised for using cheap labour in developing countries, which is what you
would expect from a profit-maximising business.

One difficult question is ‘what sort of things count as ethical question?’ There is no
agreement on this, hence the difficulty. Take the example above. Some people might say
well-done to Nike for creating jobs in a very poor part of the world where jobs are
desperately needed. But other people have said that it is unethical to exploit very poor people,
and to make them work in poor conditions for low wages, especially when the business could
afford to pay them more.

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Business and the Environment - Introduction
This has become an enormously important area, and businesses are under increasing pressure
to change their behaviour in environmentally less damaging ways.

1. Much more is now known about environmental damage.

2. Many people now take an interest in environmental matters; it has become fashionable.

3. People are better informed, better educated and more questioning than they used to be.

4. Higher living standards means more waste and more business activity. Higher populations
mean the same thing, except that populations in developed economies are fairly stable.
However, increasingly dense populations in some areas means the problems can be
concentrated in certain areas (eg big cities).

There is no doubt that the environment is a very important issue. On the other hand, the
debate, to which business is subject, is very confused and often based on half-truths.
Consumption produces waste eg human waste, and production to meet that consumption also
produces environmental damage. The only way to remove environmental damage entirely is
to stop producing and consuming.

1. One problem is the scale at which we produce and consume. This is a direct consequence
of more wealth and higher living standards. That is what being ‘better off’ means. The
environment is very good at absorbing and re-cycling even quite nasty waste if it is given
time, and if the scale isn’t too large. Unfortunately, the scale of waste production is always
rising due to more consumption and (in some parts of the world) more people. The problem is
worse if it is concentrated in certain areas, as it usually is around centres of high population.

2. Another part of the problem is the kinds of goods and services we demand. Some products
create more environmental damage in their production and consumption than others. Some
medical treatments, for example, produce radio-active waste. Using energy produces large
amounts of CO2. In Germany, for example, businesses are now responsible for the packaging
they use. So packaging is now returned instead of ending up as litter. We can change these
choices to less damaging products if we choose to.

3. A third part of the problem is the way in which we choose, as a society, to produce goods
and services. There is no good reason for animal-testing on cosmetics (as opposed to medical
products) and businesses are stopping it more and more. There is no strict need for so much
car travel as opposed to travel by less polluting trains, provided we chose, as a society, to
make the necessary changes to the way we ‘produce’ travel ie fewer roads and more trains.

4. A fourth part of the problem is the power and professionalism of ‘pressure groups’.
Groups like Green Peace are very good at choosing their targets, and stimulating public
sympathy. Combined with the world-wide spread of the media, they can soon put a business
under enormous pressure to make changes. Senior executives don’t like being asked
awkward questions, or contacted at home, and at a purely human level they may choose the
quiet life and make the changes asked of them.

5. The science underlying an understanding of the environment is still disputed by scientists.

For example, there is no doubt that global warming and climate change exists. However,

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some scientists say it is due to industrial pollution, and others are equally convinced it is all
due to very long-term climate changes which are entirely natural and completely unstoppable.
There are many examples like this.

Economics - Inflation
What is Inflation? Inflation is a general rise in prices, or a fall in the value of money. It
means that year after year, £100 buys gradually less and less.

How is Inflation Measured?

Inflation is measured by the Retail Price Index (RPI). This is like a huge shopping trolley
which government inspectors take round the shops every month. They fill it with a
representative sample of all the goods and services that people typically buy. Then they add
up the prices and compare them with the previous month’s prices. Although figures are
collected monthly, they are normally quoted annually eg inflation is 2% pa which means
average prices are rising by 2% every year.

Inflation is given as an index number. This means the first year’s calculation is set at 100,
and every year after is measured in relation to that. So if 1990 = 100, and 2000 = 110, we
know instantly that prices have risen 10% over the 10 years. This is just a way of making the
data quicker to understand.

The RPI isn't the only measure of inflation. There is also RPI(X) which excludes mortgage
repayments, and RPI(Y) which excludes indirect taxes (VAT and duties such as fuel duty).

The RPI is a good measurement but not 100% accurate, so it is possible sometimes that the
government under- or over-reacts to inflation data.

What’s Wrong With Inflation?

It’s a matter of degree; 25% inflation is much worse than 5% inflation. Some countries (eg
Russia and Serbia) have recently had hyper-inflation with prices rising by up to 1000% pa!
Low inflation, such as the 2% or so the UK has at present, is not a real problem.

The UK has had a big problem with inflation in the past. It rose to 28% in the late 1970s. This
caused significant problems with growth and employment. The memory of this time makes
the government very determined now to keep inflation under control. Why?

1. Inflation distorts prices between different time periods. Normally, people save some
money, and there is a balance between savings and spending. Savings go to banks where they
become loans for business investment. If there is inflation, you’re better off spending the
money now before it loses its value, so consumption now rises at the expense of consumption
later; savings are money you plan to spend later.

2. Instead of saving, consumers may start borrowing. £10 000 borrowed now will buy lots
of things, and by the time you repay it in a few year’s time, the £10 000 is worth less, and is
probably easier to repay if your salary has risen because of inflation. So consumers tend to
borrow more and spend even more.

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3. Interest rates rise. If a lender normally wants 5% to let someone else use the money for a
while, and inflation is also 5%, then the lender will want 10%. This puts up business costs
and makes borrowing less and therefore investment less; less investment means less growth
and employment.

4. Inflation causes uncertainty which increases risk. Higher risk means businesses are less
likely to invest, with the results mentioned in 3.

5. Inflation re-distributes wealth and income. People with fixed incomes eg some
pensioners see the real value of their income fall (they become worse off) and other people
get pay rises to compensate for inflation (they become better off). Wealth moves from savers
to borrowers eg house price inflation makes the owners of houses much better off, and the
mortgages become easier and easier to repay.

6. Input prices (raw materials, wages and supplies) rise so business costs rise. Wages are
often the largest business cost, and there could be a danger of a ‘wage-price’ spiral where
rising costs leads to higher prices, workers ask for a pay rise in compensation, so costs rise
again, so prices rise again, and so on.

7. ‘Shoe-leather’ costs. Because prices are always changing businesses and consumers
spend a lot of time looking for the best price (walking up and down the high street) which
is a cost and they may not find the best deal, which is another cost.

8. ‘Menu costs’ are the costs of constantly changing prices as in the literal example of
reprinting the menu. But it’s not just the price labels on the goods, but the whole business
system that has to be changed.

9. Wage negotiation. If there is inflation, workers will want pay rises. The actual time and
cost of negotiating this, and making the necessary administrative changes can be quite high.
Whilst managers are negotiating, they aren’t doing anything else.

10. Asset-price inflation. Houses, shares and other investments (even art & antiques!) often
rise in price during inflation as investors look for a safe haven for their money. These prices
then rise due to strong demand, which attracts further buying. So normal spending patterns
are changed because of less spending on normal goods and services and more spending on
assets. This switch reduces demand for normal businesses and creates an artificial ‘bubble’
in these other markets.

11. Trade. If the UK has higher inflation than competitor countries (which it isn’t now, but
it has been for a lot of the last few decades) then UK prices gradually rise above imported
prices. More imports are bought, so demand leaks out of the country and leaves UK
businesses in a weak position. The same effect occurs with UK export businesses. The
eventual effect may be a fall in the £ which puts prices back where they were, but leaves UK
consumers worse off because they can buy fewer imports than before.

How is Inflation Caused?

There are three main views about how inflation is caused:

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1. Demand-pull. This means buyers want to buy more than sellers can actually produce; so
sellers start to put prices up.

2. Cost-push. This means business costs start to rise (eg oil prices rise, or wages start to rise)
and sellers need to put prices up to compensate.

3. Monetarist view. This means the government allows too much money to be created . If the
supply of money rises, then the price falls just as if the supply of potatoes rises, then the price
falls. The price of money here is how many goods and services it will buy. If the price of
money falls, then it will buy fewer goods and services ie prices of goods and services rise and
the value of money falls. This is inflation.

4. In practice, we might get bits of each.

How is Inflation Controlled by the Government?

In 1997 the new Labour government gave monetary independence to the Bank of England.
This means the Bank decides what to do without political interference. The Bank created the
Monetary Policy Committee (MPC) which is given the job of deciding on the level of
interest rates. They have a target of 2.5% inflation +/- 1% (1.5% - 3.5%).

If inflation looks to be getting too high, then they will raise interest rates. This affects
businesses and consumers.

1. Consumers will find it more attractive to save more and spend less. They will find it more
expensive to borrow money for spending. Most consumers also have mortgages. The
repayments become more expensive so their disposable income falls and they spend less.
Overall, spending in the economy falls.

2. Businesses find it more expensive to borrow money for investment and growth. Investment
spending is also spending in the economy, and this falls.

Of course, there is a cost to this, because growth and employment are reduced, so the Bank
has to weigh this up carefully. If inflation looks too low, it cuts interest rates with the
opposite effect, and growth and employment are increased.

How is Inflation Prevented?

As well as the activities of the MPC, there are other factors which make inflation more or less
likely. Basically, inflation is rising prices, so anything that stops prices rising will make
inflation less likely.

1. Competition. If there is a lot of competition in a market, businesses try harder to keep

prices low to keep buyers.

2. Elasticity of demand. If goods are elastic, buyers will resist price rises. Elasticity is
related to substitutability, so if there are plenty of substitutes, then buyers will simply switch
spending away from the more expensive products. Imports are a kind of substitute.
Competition leads to more choice, so this affects substitutes as well.

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3. Elasticity of supply. If businesses can increase output without increasing costs, then price
rises are less likely. For example, economies of scale make sellers keen to actually cut costs
to expand output and sales.

4. If output rises, businesses buy more inputs, so we need to think of the elasticities of
supply and demand in these markets as well, not just finished products. As businesses buy
more inputs, these prices may stay much the same, or start to rise which puts up business
costs. Wages are especially important because wages can be a very large business cost, and
because the labour market isn’t quite the same as the potato market.

5. Labour causes particular problems.

- Wages are ‘sticky’ downwards. If there are too many potatoes on the market, the price
falls until buyers decide to buy again. But workers don’t like wage cuts, and it is much
easier to put the price of labour up than down, even if it might be a good idea. This gives us a
rare benefit of inflation, because it cuts the real cost of wages (albeit slowly) while other
prices are rising, so labour ends up being cheaper if this is what is needed eg unemployment
is high.

- Skills shortages may develop in particular parts of the labour market. For example,
two years ago there was a desperate shortage of IT workers due the dot.com boom. Wages for
these workers rose sharply, and businesses even started ‘poaching’ each others’
employees with ever-ritzier job offers. This puts up costs. Inevitably other groups of workers
got jealous and began to press for rises which put up costs even more. At the same time there
were pockets of high unemployment in the country because some workers are geographically
immobile (they won’t/can’t move to where the jobs are) or occupationally immobile (they
don’t know how to do the new jobs) or both.

6. Efficiency. If costs rise there are two answers. Only one is to raise prices. The other is to
become more efficient so unit costs fall and profits are restored. The more efficient
businesses are, the less likely it is they will have to raise prices, and the less likely is
inflation.

Economics of International Competition

Trade Barriers

The world is full of trade barriers which make exports and imports more difficult and more
expensive. There are considerably fewer trade barriers than there used to be. This reduction is
mainly due to the work of the WTO, and this organisation is working to further reduce trade
barriers. At the same time, there has been a growth in the number of regional trading blocs.
The EU is perhaps the best known of these, but there are others such as NAFTA , the Andes
Pact in the east of S America, Mercosur in the west of S America and ASEAN . These blocs
promote trade within the bloc, but often erect further barriers between blocs.

Costs of Production

Competing in a market depends on having as low or preferably lower costs of production

than competitors. This is not as simple as having access to cheap raw material and other
factor inputs (the factors of production used by businesses). It also depends how efficiently

1151
these factors are used. What counts is productivity ie the amount of output produced from a
given amount of input.

Example:

Suppose two farmers use land to produce crops. In Country A a farm costs £5000 and in
Country B a farm costs £10 000. We might think land is cheaper in country A so their
farmers have lower costs and a competitive advantage. But it also depends on how much is
produced. Suppose Country B also has superior knowledge and technology in farming, and
produces 150 tons of crop instead of 50 tons of crop in Country A. The unit cost of each ton
is £100 per ton in Country A and £66.67 per ton in Country B. So it is in fact Country B that
has the competitive advantage. We than have to think about what gives low per unit costs,
and the answer to that is efficiency and productivity, productivity of all the factors of
production (land, labour, capital and enterprise) and productivity most of all of labour
because the UK and most of its competitors are high-wage economies.

The Behaviour of Businesses

Low costs are a good place to start a new business from, but you still have to sell the product.
To do this you must offer customers (industrial and consumers) a product which meets their
needs in the fullest way possible, needs for a good price, needs for quality, needs for
reliability and so on.

Some businesses still do not behave as if their customers are the most important things to
business success. A change in business behaviour is often needed to ensure that the customers
are the prime focus of business activity, that their needs are fully met (including adapting as
these needs change – innovation) and that the low and efficient costs are used as a platform
for successful fulfilment of those needs.

However, there is a possible problem in that it is more difficult to understand the needs of
export customers who may have different values and priorities than domestic customers;
successful export businesses make the effort to understand these differences properly.

International Organisations and Groupings of Developed Economies

The main groupings and categories of economies are as follows:

1. The European Union

2. The World Trade organisation ("WTO"). This used to be called GATT (General
Agreement on Tariffs and Trade). It has worked hard since 1945 to reduce international
barriers to trade with considerable success, despite some very hard-fought battles. Almost all
countries are members. The most recent new member is China, which had fought hard for
many years to gain acceptance. The advantage of membership is that the same rules then
apply to all members (MFN – Most Favoured Nation Status – which means your access to
a country’s market is as good as the ‘most favoured nation’) and your exports can’t be
kept out for any reason, economic or political. Breaches of the rules are referred to a kind of
‘court’ and the WTO can fine countries large sums of money for breaking the rules, as the
US is alleged to have done with its recent import duties on steel.

1152
Every few years the WTO arranges a new ‘round’ of talks with the aim of getting all the
members to agree to some new reduction in barriers to trade. Because the interests of
different members are so different (eg developed countries v. developing countries) this can
be a very difficult job. Lower barriers to trade mean lower costs and more efficiency. More
efficiency means more growth. The work of the WTO since 1945 has led to a dramatic
increase in world trade, and has arguably contributed to the growth of all economies during
that time.

3. G-7. This a ‘club’ of the 7 biggest economies in the world; the USA, Japan, Germany,
the UK, France. Italy and Canada. They meet to discuss the world economy, the interests of
themselves, and possible economic co-operation such as exchange rate co-ordination. Russia
has observer status in order to make it feel better about itself.

4. The OECD (Organisation of Economic Co-operation and Development). This is a

much bigger club of all the developed countries, and nearly-developed countries, in the
world. It was originally set up in 1945 to co-ordinate the economic recovery of the war-
damaged countries of Europe, but it has a much bigger and wider role of discussion and co-
operation between countries now. Its HQ in Paris publishes very well-respected economic
analyses and forecasts.

Eastern Europe

One of the most significant political changes of the last century was the collapse of the Soviet
empire in 1989. This has allowed freedom to a number of Eastern European countries. They
have gradually, and with difficulty, converted their centrally-run command economies to
market economies. This has opened up new opportunities for EU businesses including UK
businesses:

1. A large number of new consumers, although most of them still have fairly low incomes.

2. There are opportunities for joint ventures, where EU technology and management skills
can be combined with cheaper labour and land.

3. On the other hand, any Eastern European business that manages to update itself can use its
lower cost base to become a competitive threat to EU & UK businesses.

4. Eastern Europe is nearer Germany, and has historical and linguistic ties with Germany.
Many Eastern Europeans speak German as a second language as opposed to English. This
puts UK businesses at a disadvantage, and German businesses have already been very active
in forming trading links.

The Eastern European economies have many problems for business associated with their
Communist past, and the fact that the changeover to a market economy is far from complete.
The main problems are as follows:

1. Bureaucracy. Many things e.g. permissions are still controlled by the government
and the process of gaining these permissions can be very complex and time-
consuming. In Russia this is dealt with by bribery. Protection money is also demanded
by organised crime (the ‘Russian Mafia’).

1153
 2. Low incomes. Many E European consumers simply have very little spare money to
spend.

3. Political instability. The democratic political systems are still new and haven’t in
all cases reliably settled down. Bulgaria and Rumania are problem cases.

4. Infrastructure is still very poor. This is not merely a matter of roads, railways and
electricity supplies, but also the financial infrastructure to borrow money or raise
finance by selling shares. The legal infrastructure to enforce contracts is also poor.

5. Economic conditions are still fragile because they are so new after so many years
of the command economy system. Inflation has been a problem in some countries,
especially Russia where it reached 1000% at one stage. There is a possibility of
sudden economic collapse.

6. Some countries, such as the Ukraine, Byelorussia, and Russia itself, have made
limited progress towards a market economy, and are very risky places to do business.

Developing Economies

This is a very broad area, and it is easy to over-generalise. Mostly, these countries are in ‘the
South’ and have low to very low incomes. They are also in earlier stages of economic
development; many are still primarily based around raw materials and industrialisation is
very limited. A smaller group has broken away and has developed more quickly. Because
they are now well into the industrial stage of development they are often called NICs (newly
industrialised countries).

Poor infrastructure is a common and major problem. Health and education are both limited,
with high mortality rates. Financial infrastructure is also very limited. Political instability can
be a major problem, and coups and even revolutions may occur. The political system is
usually non-democratic and corruption and bribery may be rife. These are basic preconditions
for doing business which we take for granted in the UK; indeed, very few people stop to think
about them. But the absence of trust and the legal enforcement of contracts can make
business impossible, especially for outsiders. So business opportunities can be very limited.

There are a few Western businesses that operate in these markets, but they have years of
experience of the local scene and know how it works. The risk, however, is that they get
sucked into the corruption and lower their ethical standards. Most developed countries have
had to pass laws against bribery by western businesses operating in developing countries.
Some western businesses, such as Nike, have has problems with pressure groups due to their
behaviour in developing countries.

The Newly Industrialised NICs

The exact definition of a NIC is not always easy to give. Some ‘NICs’ e.g. South Korea
and Singapore are now effectively developed economies, just as Japan became several
decades ago. China is a NIC, but only parts of it; it is a huge country and much of it is still
very backward. Thailand, Malaysia and Indonesia are all examples of NICs although they are
all at different stages of development with different levels of growth, employment and
income. Some of these NICs operate as cheap bases for foreign investment. Japanese

1154
businesses, for example, are very active in Thailand. Some of these NICs have their own very
effective businesses e.g. Taiwan (arguably no longer a NIC).

Either way, these countries can offer very effective competition to business in developed
economies. Local businesses have low costs, and where this is combined with educated
management (often holding MBAs from the best US universities) they have become MNC s
able to compete with the best MNCs from developed countries. Their low costs attract
investment, especially manufacturing investment from western businesses who ‘export’
jobs.

This means previous production plants in developed countries close down, and jobs are lost.
This is a very contentious area. Some people argue these jobs are lost due to ‘unfair’
competition from countries where not only wages are lower, but also the other employment
costs of health and safety, paid holidays, sickness benefit and all the protection provided to
workers in developed economies. The MNCs are accused of ‘exploiting’ the workers of
these countries (no-one actually bothers to ask these workers what they want, to which the
answer is probably a reasonably reliable job). There is pressure to ban imports from these
countries unless the producers have met the same standards usual in developed economies.
This, of course, is absurd because these countries are much poorer and can’t afford all these
‘perks’ just as the UK couldn’t 100 years ago.

Another way of looking at the same issue is that a developed economy develops by replacing
lower-wage jobs with higher-wage jobs. This is associated with rising productivity. So, it is
actually a benefit if a developed economy loses relatively simple and unproductive
manufacturing jobs provided it replaces these with other and better jobs. That way UK
workers get better off, and so do the workers in the developing country who previously had
either an agricultural job or no job at all.

Development is a huge and complex topic which is widely misunderstood. It is best to leave
it at this point, but to leave you with the thought that businesses need to be very careful what
they do or don’t do in the developing world; it can be very risky.

Trade Barriers

The world is full of trade barriers which make exports and imports more difficult and more
expensive. There are considerably fewer trade barriers than there used to be. This reduction is
mainly due to the work of the WTO, and this organisation is working to further reduce trade
barriers. At the same time, there has been a growth in the number of regional trading blocs.
The EU is perhaps the best known of these, but there are others such as NAFTA , the Andes
Pact in the east of S America, Mercosur in the west of S America and ASEAN . These blocs
promote trade within the bloc, but often erect further barriers between blocs.

Costs of Production

Competing in a market depends on having as low or preferably lower costs of production

than competitors. This is not as simple as having access to cheap raw material and other
factor inputs (the factors of production used by businesses). It also depends how efficiently
these factors are used. What counts is productivity ie the amount of output produced from a
given amount of input.

1155
Example:

Suppose two farmers use land to produce crops. In Country A a farm costs £5000 and in
Country B a farm costs £10 000. We might think land is cheaper in country A so their
farmers have lower costs and a competitive advantage. But it also depends on how much is
produced. Suppose Country B also has superior knowledge and technology in farming, and
produces 150 tons of crop instead of 50 tons of crop in Country A. The unit cost of each ton
is £100 per ton in Country A and £66.67 per ton in Country B. So it is in fact Country B that
has the competitive advantage. We than have to think about what gives low per unit costs,
and the answer to that is efficiency and productivity, productivity of all the factors of
production (land, labour, capital and enterprise) and productivity most of all of labour
because the UK and most of its competitors are high-wage economies.

Globalisation - Effects
The Effects of Globalisation on Business

The effects vary a lot from one part of the world to another, and from one area of business to
another. Communications infrastructure is important to modern businesses, but not all
countries have got one. There is also the ‘non-traded’ sector i.e. goods and services which
are not traded internationally. Domestic services, for example, have to be provided where the
house is; you can’t export a clean house.

Competition

- Foreign businesses buy into domestic markets.

- Deregulation opens up markets to competition.
- Deregulation encourages innovation in new products and markets which challenges
traditional market leaders

Meeting consumer expectations and tastes

- Generally, consumers all over the world are better informed, have higher incomes and
therefore higher and more exacting expectations. This forces businesses to meet higher
standards.

Economies of scale

Selling into a global market allows for enormous economies of scale, although not all
industries benefit from these.

Choice of location

Businesses are now much freer to choose where they operate from, and can move to a
cheaper and more efficient location. In the last decade the UK has been seen by many
businesses as an attractive business location, especially in financial services, and many
businesses have located in the UK which has boosted the UK economy but also provided
increased competition for UK businesses. This increased movement of businesses and jobs
has, to some extent, forced governments to compete with each other in providing an attractive
and low-cost location. Ireland, for example, offers ‘tax holidays ’ to businesses relocating
there. Manufacturing businesses are increasingly relocating to low-wage countries such as

1156
Indonesia. Inputs vary in price across the world, and businesses now have more freedom of
movement in moving to get hold of those cheaper inputs e.g. labour in developing countries,
or financial advice in the City of London. One limitation on this is that managers won’t
always move to some countries if living conditions are unpleasant or even dangerous.

Multi-national and multi-cultural management

This is a major challenge to businesses and their managers. A multi-national business

environment is more complex with more variables, and so is more difficult to manage. A
multi-cultural employment policy leads to employees of many different nationalities,
languages, religions and cultures in different offices across the globe. These employees react
in quite different ways to incentives, to motivation and it is very difficult to find managers
who are sensitive to all these different factors. It is very easy to inadvertently give offence
and demotivate workers. For example, the Japanese were initially very disappointed with
their Thai employees who didn’t respond well to Japanese methods of building up corporate
loyalty and motivation. Once they turned production targets into a game, the Thais worked
extremely well.

Globalisation of markets

National borders are becoming less and less important. Markets stretch across borders and
MNCs are well-placed to take advantage of this. The same issues of language and culture and
so on arise. Consumers are more alike, but by no means the same. Many businesses have
made expensive mistakes by not taking local variation sufficiently into account. Marketing, in
particular, is a minefield because of its dependence on language. The marketing books are
full of stories, often very amusing, of how businesses got it wrong.

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21.3.03 CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR

21.3.03T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) define consumer behaviour
b) identify the various consumer buying patterns
c) explain the factors that influence consumer buying process

Unit Tasks
Unit Task 1 Defining consumer behaviour
Definition- Consumer behaviour is the study of when, why, how, what, and where people do
or do not buy products.

Unit Task 2 Explaining Consumer buying patterns

Consumer Buyer Behaviour

If a marketer can identify consumer buyer behaviour, he or she will be in a better position to
target products and services at them. Buyer behaviour is focused upon the needs of
individuals, groups and organisations.

It is important to understand the relevance of human needs to buyer behaviour (remember,

marketing is about satisfying needs).

Let's look at human motivations as introduced by Abraham Maslow by his hierarchy of

needs: The hierarchy is triangular. This is because as you move up it, fewer and fewer people
satisfy higher level needs. We begin at the bottom level.

Physiological needs such as food, air, water, heat, and the basic necessities of survival need
to be satisfied. At the level of safety, man has a place to live that protects him from the

1158
elements and predators. At the third level we meet our social and belongingness needs i.e. we
marry, or join groups of friends, etc.

The final two levels are esteem and self-actualisation. Fewer people satisfy the higher level
needs. Esteem means that you achieve something that makes you recognised and gives
personal satisfaction, for example writing a book. Self-actualisation is achieved by few. Here
a person is one of a small number to actually do something. For example, Neil Armstrong
self-actualised as the first person to reach the Moon.

The model is a little simplistic but introduces the concept a differing consumer needs quite
well.

To understand consumer buyer behaviour is to understand how the person interacts with the
marketing mix. As described by Cohen (1991), the marketing mix inputs (or the four P's of
price, place, promotion, and product) are adapted and focused upon the consumer.

The psychology of each individual considers the product or service on offer in relation to
their own culture, attitude, previous learning, and personal perception. The consumer then
decides whether or not to purchase, where to purchase, the brand that he or she prefers, and
other choices.

21.3.04 MARKET SEGMENTATION

21.3.04T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) explain the meaning and importance of market segmentation
b) explain the basis for market segmentation in an organisation

Unit Tasks

Unit Task 1 Meaning and importance of segmentation

Definition

1159
  To divide a market by a strategy directed at gaining a major portion of sales to a
subgroup in a category, rather than a more limited share of purchases by all category
users.
 Market segmentation is the segmentation of markets into homogenous groups of
customers, each of them reacting differently to promotion, communication, pricing
and other variables of the marketing mix. Market segments should be formed in that
way those differences between buyers within each segment are as small as possible.
Thus, every segment can be addressed with an individually targeted marketing mix.
 Segmentation is essentially the identification of subsets of buyers within a market
who share similar needs and who demonstrate similar buyer behaviour. The world is
made up from billions of buyers with their own sets of needs and behaviour.

Aims of segmentation

 Segmentation aims to match groups of purchasers with the same set of needs and
buyer behaviour. Such a group is known as a 'segment'.

Segmentation is a form of critical evaluation rather than a prescribed process or system, and
hence no two markets are defined and segmented in the same way. However there are a
number of underpinning criteria that assist us with segmentation:

– Is the segment viable? Can we make a profit from it?

– Is the segment accessible? How easy is it for us to get into the segment?
– Is the segment measurable? Can we obtain realistic data to consider its
potential?

Importance

 Better serving customers needs and wants

 Higher Profits
 Opportunities for Growth
 Sustainable customer relationships in all phases of customer life cycle
 Targeted communication
 Stimulating Innovation
 Higher Market Shares

Unit Task 2 Explaining basis for segmenting the market

Market segmentation – bases of segmentation

It is widely thought in marketing that segmentation is an art, not a science.

The key task is to find the variable, or variables that split the market into actionable segments
There are two types of segmentation variables:

 Needs
 Profilers

The basic criteria for segmenting a market are customer needs. To find the needs of
customers in a market, it is necessary to undertake market research.

1160
Profilers are the descriptive, measurable customer characteristics (such as location, age,
nationality, gender, income) that can be used to inform a segmentation exercise.

The most common profilers used in customer segmentation include the following:

Profiler Examples

Geographic
• Region of the country
• Urban or rural

Demographic
• Age, sex, family size
• Income, occupation, education
• Religion, race, nationality

Psychographic
• Social class
• Lifestyle type
• Personality type

Behavioural
• Product usage - e.g. light, medium, heavy users
• Brand loyalty: none, medium, high
• Type of user (e.g. with meals, special occasions)

21.3.05 MARKETING MIX

21.3.05T0Specific Objectives
By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) explain the meaning of marketing mix
b) identify the elements of marketing mix

Unit Tasks
Unit Task 1 Meaning of marketing mix
Definition –
Marketing mix is the combination of elements that you will use to market your product.
There are four elements: Product, Place, Price and Promotion. They are called the four Ps of
the marketing mix.

1161
Unit Task 2 Identifying the elements of marketing mix
 Product
 Place
 Price
 Promotion

21.3.06 PRODUCT

21.3.06T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) explain the meaning of a product
b) describe the stages involved in the development of a new product
c) discuss the factors which affecting new product development
d) explain the causes of new product failure
e) explain the product life cycle

Unit Tasks
Unit Task 1 Meaning of product

The end result of the manufacturing process, to be offered to the marketplace to

satisfy a need or want.

Unit Task 2 Stages of development of a new product

1162
Stage 1: Idea generation

New product ideas have to come from somewhere. But where do organisations get their ideas
for new product development?

Some sources include:

• Within the company i.e. employees

• Competitors.
• Customers
• Distributors, Supplies and others.

Stage 2: Idea Screening

This process involves shifting through the ideas generated above and selecting ones which
are feasible and workable to develop. Pursing non feasible ideas can clearly be costly for the
company.

Stage 3: Concept Development and Testing

The organisation may have come across what they believe to be a feasible idea; however, the
idea needs to be taken to the target audience. What do they think about the idea? Will it be
practical and feasible? Will it offer the benefit that the organisation hopes it will? Or have
they overlooked certain issues? Note the idea and concept is taken to the target audience not a
working prototype at this stage.

Stage 4: Marketing Strategy and Development

How will the product/service idea be launched within the market? A proposed marketing
strategy will be written laying out the marketing mix strategy of the product, the
segmentation, targeting and positioning strategy sales and profits that are expected.

Stage 5: Business Analysis

The company has a great idea, the marketing strategy seems feasible, but will the product be
financially worth while in the long run? The business analysis stage looks more deeply into
the cashflow the product could generate, what the cost will be, how much market shares the
product may achieve and the expected life of the product.

Stage 6: Product Development

Finally it is at this stage that a prototype is finally produced. The prototype will clearly run
through all the desired tests, and be presented to the target audience to see if changes need to
be made.

Stage 7: Test Marketing

1163
Test marketing means testing the product within a specific area. The product will be launched
within a particular region so the marketing mix strategy can be monitored and if needed, be
modified before national launch.

Stage 8: Commercialization

If the test marketing stage has been successful then the product will go for national launch.
There are certain factors that need to be taken into consideration before a product is launched
nationally. These are timing, how the product will be launched, where the product will be
launched, will there be a national roll out or will it be region by region?

Unit Task 3 Factors which make it difficult to develop a new product

1. Engineering of Product
Product engineering refers to the process of designing and developing a device, assembly,
or system such that it be produced as an item for sale through some production
manufacturing process.

2. Features of Product
3. Market Potential
4. Making it reliable at economical cost
5. Sourcing reliable components with repeatability.
6. Turn around time from design to release of product

Unit Task 4 Causes of new product failure

Causes of New Product Failure

Many new products with satisfactory potential have failed to make the grade. Many of the
reasons for new product failure relate to execution and control problems. The following is a
brief list of some important causes of new product failures after they have been carefully
screened, developed and marketed.
1. No competitive point of difference, unexpected reactions from competitors, or both.
2. Poor positioning.
3. Poor quality of product.
4. Non-delivery of promised benefits of product.
5. Too little marketing support.
6. Poor perceived prices/quality (value) relationship.
7. Faulty estimates of market potential and other marketing research mistakes.
8. Faulty estimates of production and marketing costs.
9. Improper channels of distribution selected.
10. Rapid change in the market (economy) after the product was introduced.

Some of these problems are beyond the control of management; but it is clear that successful
new product planning requires large amounts of reliable information in diverse areas. Each
department assigned functional responsibility for product development automatically

1164
becomes an input to the information system needed by the new product decision maker. For
example, when a firm is developing a new product, it is wise for both engineers and
marketers to consider both the kind of market to be entered (e.g., consumer, organizational,
international) and specific target segments. These decisions will be of paramount influence
on the design and cost of the finished good, which will, of course, directly influence, price,
sales, and profits.

Unit Task 5 Product life cycle

The Product Life Cycle (PLC) is based upon the biological life cycle. For example, a seed is
planted (introduction); it begins to sprout (growth); it shoots out leaves and puts down roots
as it becomes an adult (maturity); after a long period as an adult the plant begins to shrink and
die out (decline).

In theory it's the same for a product. After a period of development it is introduced or
launched into the market; it gains more and more customers as it grows; eventually the
market stabilises and the product becomes mature; then after a period of time the product is
overtaken by development and the introduction of superior competitors, it goes into decline
and is eventually withdrawn.

However, most products fail in the introduction phase. Others have very cyclical maturity
phases where declines see the product promoted to regain customers.

Sale

Strategies for the differing stages of the Product Life Cycle.

Introduction.
The need for immediate profit is not a pressure. The product is promoted to create awareness.
If the product has no or few competitors, a skimming price strategy is employed. Limited
numbers of product are available in few channels of distribution.

Growth.
Competitors are attracted into the market with very similar offerings. Products become more
profitable and companies form alliances, joint ventures and take each other over. Advertising
spend is high and focuses upon building brand. Market share tends to stabilise.

Maturity.
Those products that survive the earlier stages tend to spend longest in this phase. Sales grow
at a decreasing rate and then stabilise. Producers attempt to differentiate products and brands

1165
which are key to this. Price wars and intense competition occur. At this point the market
reaches saturation. Producers begin to leave the market due to poor margins. Promotion
becomes more widespread and use a greater variety of media.

Decline.
At this point there is a downturn in the market. For example more innovative products are
introduced or consumer tastes have changed. There is intense price-cutting and many more
products are withdrawn from the market. Profits can be improved by reducing marketing
spend and cost cutting.

21.3.07 PRICING

21.3.07T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) explain the meaning of pricing
b) explain the methods used in pricing of a product and service
c) explain factors considered in pricing

Unit Tasks

Unit Task 1 Meaning of pricing

Definition
Method adopted by a firm to set its selling price. It usually depends on the firm's average
costs, and on the customer's perceived value of the product in comparison to his or her
perceived value of the competing products. Different pricing methods place varying degree
of emphasis on selection, estimation, and evaluation of costs, comparative analysis, and
market situation. See also pricing strategy.
No matter what type of product you sell, the price you charge your customers or clients will
have a direct effect on the success of your business. Though pricing strategies can be
complex, the basic rules of pricing are straightforward:
 All prices must cover costs and profits.
 The most effective way to lower prices is to lower costs.
 Review prices frequently to assure that they reflect the dynamics of cost, market
demand, response to the competition, and profit objectives.
 Prices must be established to assure sales.

Unit Task 2 Methods of pricing

Pricing Strategies.
There are many ways to price a product. Let's have a look at some of them and try to
understand the best policy/strategy in various situations.

1166
 Pricing strategy matrix

 Premium Pricing.
Use a high price where there is uniqueness about the product or service. This approach is
used where a substantial competitive advantage exists. Such high prices are charge for
luxuries such as Canard Cruises, Savoy Hotel rooms, and Concorde flights.

 Penetration Pricing.
The price charged for products and services is set artificially low in order to gain market
share. Once this is achieved, the price is increased.

 Economy Pricing.
This is a no frills low price. The cost of marketing and manufacture are kept at a minimum.
Supermarkets often have economy brands for soups, spaghetti, etc.

 Price Skimming.
Charge a high price because you have a substantial competitive advantage. However, the
advantage is not sustainable. The high price tends to attract new competitors into the market,
and the price inevitably falls due to increased supply. Manufacturers of digital watches used a
skimming approach in the 1970s. Once other manufacturers were tempted into the market and
the watches were produced at a lower unit cost, other marketing strategies and pricing
approaches are implemented.

Premium pricing, penetration pricing, economy pricing, and price skimming are the four
main pricing policies/strategies. They form the bases for the exercise. However there are
other important approaches to pricing.

 Psychological Pricing.
This approach is used when the marketer wants the consumer to respond on an emotional,
rather than rational basis. For example 'price point perspective shs.99 not shs.100.

 Product Line Pricing.

Where there is a range of product or services the pricing reflect the benefits of parts of the
range. For example car washes. Basic wash could be shs.100, wash and wax shs.200, and
the whole package shs.300.

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  Optional Product Pricing.
Companies will attempt to increase the amount customer spend once they start to buy.
Optional 'extras' increase the overall price of the product or service. For example airlines
will charge for optional extras such as guaranteeing a window seat or reserving a row of
seats next to each other.

 Captive Product Pricing

Where products have complements, companies will charge a premium price where the
consumer is captured. For example a razor manufacturer will charge a low price and
recoup its margin (and more) from the sale of the only design of blades which fit the
razor.

 Product Bundle Pricing.

Here sellers combine several products in the same package. This also serves to move old
stock. Videos and CDs are often sold using the bundle approach.

 Promotional Pricing.
Pricing to promote a product is a very common application. There are many examples of
promotional pricing including approaches such as BOGOF (Buy One Get One Free).

 Geographical Pricing.
Geographical pricing is evident where there are variations in price in different parts of the
world. For example rarity value, or where shipping costs increase price.

 Value Pricing.
This approach is used where external factors such as recession or increased competition
force companies to provide 'value' products and services to retain sales e.g. value meals at
McDonalds.

Unit Task 3 Explaining the factors that are considered in pricing

1. Your Costs
If your rate doesn’t include enough just to break-even, you’re heading for trouble. The best
thing to do is sum up all your costs and divide by the number of hours you think you can bill
a year. Whatever you do, DON’T think you can bill every hour. You must account for sick
days, holidays, hours working on the business, hours with no work and so on.

Also make sure you factor in all the hidden costs of your business like insurance, invoices
that never get paid for one reason or another, and everyone’s favourite – taxes.

2. Your Profit
Somewhat related to your costs, you should always consider how much money you are trying
to make above breaking even. This is business after all.

3. Market Demand
If what you do is in high demand, then you should be aiming to make your services more

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expensive. Conversely if there’s hardly any work around, you’ll need to cheapen up if you
hope to compete.

Signs that demand is high include too much work coming in, other freelancers being
overloaded and people telling you they’ve been struggling to find someone to do the job.
Signs that demand is low include finding yourself competing to win jobs, a shortage of work
and fellow freelancers reentering the workforce.

4. Industry Standards
It’s hard to know what others are charging, but try asking around. Find out what larger
businesses charge as well as other freelancers. The more you know about what others are
charging and what services they provide for the money, the better you’ll know how you fit
in to the market.

5. Skill level
Not every freelancer delivers the same goods and one would expect to pay accordingly.
When I was a freelancing newbie I charged a rate of $25 an hour for my design, when I
stopped freelancing recently my rate was $125 an hour. Same person, but at different times I
had a different skill level and hence was producing a different result. Whatever your rate,
expect it to be commensurate with your skill.

6. Experience
Although often bundled with skill, experience is a different factor altogether. You may have
two very talented photographers, but one with more experience might have better client
skills, be able to foresee problems (and thus save the client time and money), and intuitively
know what’s going to work for a certain audience and so on. Experience should affect how
much you charge.

7. Your Business Strategy

Your strategy or your angle will make a huge difference to how you price yourself. Think
about the difference between Revlon and Chanel, the two could make the same perfume but
you would never expect to pay the same for both. Figure out how you are pitching yourself
and use that to help determine if you are cheap’n'cheerful, high end or somewhere in
between.

8. Your Service
What you provide for your clients will also make a big difference to your price tag. For
example you might be a freelancer, who will do whatever it takes to get a job just right, or
perhaps you are on call 24-7, or perhaps you provide the minimum amount of communication
to cut costs. Whatever the case, adjusting your pricing to the type and level of service you
provide is a must.

9. Who is Your Client

Your price will often vary for different clients. This happens for a few reasons. Some clients
require more effort, some are riskier, some are repeat clients, some have jobs you are dying to

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do, some you wouldn’t want to go near with a stick. You should vary your price to account
for these sorts of factors.

21.3.08 PROMOTION

21.3.08T0Specific Objectives
By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) explain the meaning of promotion
b) explain elements of promotion

Unit Tasks

Unit Task 1 Meaning of promotion

Definition -
Promotion is communicating with the public in an attempt to influence them toward buying
your products and/or services.

Promotion differs from advertising in that it is the broader, all inclusive term. Advertising is
just one specific action you could take to promote your product or service. Promotion, as a
general term, includes all the ways available to make a product and/or service known to and
purchased by customers and clients.

Unit Task 2 Elements of promotion

Advertising
Any paid form of non-personal communication of ideas or products in the "prime media": i.e.
television, newspapers, magazines, billboard posters, radio, cinema etc. Advertising is
intended to persuade and to inform. The two basic aspects of advertising are the message
(what you want your communication to say) and the medium (how you get your message
across)

Personal Selling
Oral communication with potential buyers of a product with the intention of making a sale.
The personal selling may focus initially on developing a relationship with the potential buyer,
but will always ultimately end with an attempt to "close the sale".

Sales Promotion
Providing incentives to customers or to the distribution channel to stimulate demand for a
product.

Publicity
The communication of a product, brand or business by placing information about it in the
media without paying for the time or media space directly. otherwise known as "public
relations"

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21.3.09 DISTRIBUTION CHANNELS

21.3.09T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) explain the meaning of distribution
b) explain distribution channels
c) identify types of middlemen

Unit Tasks

Unit Task 1 Meaning of distribution

Definitions

Distribution channels - A channel of distribution comprises a set of institutions which

perform all of the activities utilised to move a product and its title from production to
consumption.

Unit Task 2 Explaining the channels of distribution

Channels of Distribution
A brief explanation of different channels of distribution is given below:

1. Manufacturer → Customer:
This is also known as direct selling because no middlemen are involved. A producer
may sell directly through his own retail stores, for example, Bata. This is the simplest
and the shortest channel. It is fast and economical. Small producers and producers of
perishable commodities also sell directly to the local consumers. Big firms adopt
direct selling in order to cut distribution cost and because they have sufficient
facilities to sell directly to the consumers. The producer or the entrepreneur himself
performs all the marketing activities.

2. Manufacturer → Retailer → Customer:

This is one stage distribution channel having one middleman, i.e., retailer. In this
channel, the producer sells to big retailers like departmental stores and chain stores
who in turn sell to customer. This channel is very popular in the distribution of
consumer durables such as refrigerators, T V sets, washing machines, typewriters, etc.
This channel of distribution is very popular these days because of emergence of
departmental stores, super markets and other big retail stores. The retailers purchase
in large quantities from the producer and perform certain marketing activities in order
to sell the product to the ultimate consumers.

3. Manufacturer → Wholesaler → Retailer → Customer:

This is the traditional channel of distribution. There are two middlemen in this
channel of distribution, namely, wholesaler and retailer. This channel is most suitable
for the products with widely scattered market. It is used in the distribution of
consumer products like groceries, drugs,
cosmetics, etc. It is quite suitable for small scale producers whose product line is
narrow
and who require the expert services and promotional support of wholesalers.

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Unit Task 3 Types of middlemen
 Brokers,
A broker is a party that mediates between a buyer and a seller. A broker who also acts as a
seller or as a buyer becomes a principal party to the deal. Distinguish agent: one who acts on
behalf of a principal. A "brokerage" or a "brokerage firm" is a business that acts as a broker.
A brokerage firm is a business that specializes in trading stocks.

 Wholesalers,
is a middleman that buys its merchandise from a third party supplier and resells the
merchandise to retail businesses or the end consumer. A wholesaler normally does not sell to
other wholesalers
an intermediary which buys products in bulk, usually from manufacturers, and resells them to
trade customers, usually small retailers.

 Retailers.
Retailing consists of the sale of goods or merchandise from a fixed location, such as a
department store, boutique or kiosk, or by mail, in small or individual lots for direct
consumption by the purchaser

21.3.10 QUALITIES OF A SALESMAN

21.3.10T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) Define the term salesmanship
b) identify personal qualities of a salesman
c) explain importance of having good knowledge of the product
d) explain importance of understanding psychology of customer

Unit Tasks

Unit Task 1 Definition of terms

Salesman - A man who is employed to sell merchandise in a store or in a designated territory

salesmanship - Practice of investigating and satisfying customer needs through a process

that is efficient, fair, sincere, mutually beneficial, and aimed at long-term productive
relationship.

Unit Task 1 Qualities of a salesman

1. Physical qualities: A good salesman should be good looking and must have an
alluring posture. He must be convincing by voice, thus requiring a caring and loving
voice. He shouldn't show a negative expression under any circumstance.
2. Mental/Psychological qualities: A good salesman must have a marvelous
personality. He should be sweet natured and must be patient. He should know to deal

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 with people of different age groups, classes and gender. In no condition should he lose
his temper at it may spoil the image of the company for which he is working.
3. Technical qualities: A good salesman should posses all the technical qualities, i.e., he
should have knowledge about the product he is selling in full. He should know as to
how it works, its usefulness and other specifications.
4. Knowledge about the firm: He should have complete knowledge about the firm he is
working for. He should know about the people behind the success of the firm and the
history of the same. He should not pursue his work with partial knowledge.
5. Communication skills: A good salesman requires fantabulous communication skills.
He should know diversified languages and must be confident and nit stammer while
speaking.

Unit Task 2 Explaining the importance of product knowledge

Definition
Product Knowledge - detailed knowledge of a product's features and benefits required by a
salesperson to persuade a prospect to purchase.

Importance
Knowledge is power and for retailers, product knowledge can mean more sales. It is difficult
to effectively sell to a consumer if we cannot show how a particular product will address a
shopper's needs. Below are some of the benefits of knowing the products you sell.

Strengthens Communication Skills

Having a thorough understanding of the products on the shelves can allow a retailer to
use different techniques and methods of presenting the product to customers. Stronger
communication skills will allow a salesperson to recognize and adapt a sales
presentation for the various types of customers.

Boosts Enthusiasm

Seeing someone completely enthusiastic about a product is one of the best selling
tools. As you generate excitement for the product, you remove any uncertainty the
product may not be the best solution for that customer. The easiest way to become
enthusiastic is to truly believe in the product.

Grows Confidence

If a customer isn't fully committed to completing a sale, the difference may simply be
the presence (or lack) of confidence a salesperson has towards the product. Becoming
educated in the product and its uses will help cement that confidence.

Assists in Overcoming Objections

Objections made by customers may be struck down with factual information

regarding the product. That information usually comes in the form of product

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 knowledge. Being well versed in not only your products, but similar products sold by
competitors, allows you to easily counter objections.

How to Gain Product Knowledge

 Marketing Literature
 Sales Reps
 Training Sessions
 Testimonials
 Role Playing
 Practical Use

It is important to understand how the product is made, the value of the product, how
the product should and can be used, and what products work well together.

What to Know About Your Products

 Pricing structure
 Styles, colors or models available
 History of the product
 Any special manufacturing process
 How to use the product
 Product distribution and delivery
 Servicing, warranty and repair information

It may take a while to easily articulate your product knowledge, especially with new
products, but over time you'll become comfortable and confident in providing the
correct information to shoppers. That confidence will pay off in improved sales
results.

Unit Task 3 Explaining the importance of understanding the psychology of the customer
The study of consumers helps firms and organizations improve their marketing strategies by
understanding issues such as how
 The psychology of how consumers think, feel, reason, and select between different
alternatives (e.g., brands, products);
 The psychology of how the consumer is influenced by his or her environment (e.g.,
culture, family, signs, media);
 The behavior of consumers while shopping or making other marketing decisions;
 Limitations in consumer knowledge or information processing abilities influence
decisions and marketing outcome;
 How consumer motivation and decision strategies differ between products that differ
in their level of importance or interest that they entail for the consumer
 How marketers and salesmen can adapt and improve their marketing campaigns and
marketing strategies to more effectively reach the consumer.

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21.3.11 FUNCTIONS OF SALES AND MARKETING DEPARTMENTS

21.3.11T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) distinguish between the sales and marketing departments
b) explain the functions of sales department
c) explain the functions of a marketing department

Unit Tasks
Unit Task 1 distinguishing between sales and marketing department
Unit Task 2 explaining the functions of sales department
Unit Task 3 explaining the functions of a marketing department

21.3.12 PROCESS OF SELLING

21.3.12T0Specific Objectives
By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a. explain the meaning of selling process
b. identify steps involved in the selling process

Unit Tasks

Unit Task 1 explaining the meaning of selling process

Definition
The selling process is a set of activities undertaken to successfully obtain an order and begin
building long-term customer relations.

Unit Task 2 identifying the steps involved in the selling process

 Prospecting customers pre-approach
 demonstration handling sales
 close of sale follow-up

21.3.13 EVALUATION OF SALES PERFORMANCE

21.3.13T0Specific Objectives
By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) explain the meaning of sales performance evaluation
b) identify methods used to measure performance of sales
c) distinguish between actual and budgeted sales
d) explain various decisions taken to correct sales variances

Unit Tasks

Unit Task 1 explaining the meaning of evaluation of sales

performance

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An objective evaluation can and should be a very effective tool for professional
development (self-driven or not). Every month or so, consider formally investing 30-60
minutes in yourself and step through the points below as a private check on your value and
progress as a sales professional.
Examine yourself as your manager might or ultimately will. Keep up the good, eliminate the
bad and remember to always be moving toward your professional goals. Make self-
evaluation a consistent part of your sales discipline and you are guaranteed to have better
results.
If your company hasn’t standardized its formal evaluation procedure, let the questions
below serve as a guideline for evaluating your sales team and coaching them to consistently,
improved performance.

The Sales Evaluation

Contribution
1. Sales revenue generated during the past [time period]
2. Number of units sold during the past [time period]
3. Number of new customers [brought in/ retained] during the past [time period]
4. Growth (percentage) of each figure above over the previously measured period

Activity
1. Number of outbound prospecting calls (dials or in-person) made during the past [time
period] for new business
2. Number of outbound prospecting calls (dials or in-person) made during the past [time
period] for business from existing customers
3. Number of initial sales discussions/ interviews given during the past [time period]
4. Number of presentations given during the past [time period]
5. Number of proposals generated and delivered during the past [time period]
6. Number of trade shows/ events (selling opportunities) attended during the past [time
period]
7. Growth (percentage) of each figure above over the previously measured period

Sales process skills

Rate the general skill level in each area of the sales process that applies, on your preferred
measurement basis (e.g., exceeds expectations, meets expectations, does not meet
expectations, numeric, alpha, etc.).
1. Prospecting
2. Interviewing
3. Needs analysis
4. Presentation
5. Negotiation
6. Closing
7. Service & follow-up skills

*note specific details where a rating is particularly high or low

Rate the skill level of each that applies, on your preferred measurement basis (e.g., exceeds
expectations, meets expectations, does not meet expectations, numeric, alpha, etc.)

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 1. Asking questions
2. Listening
3. Qualifying
4. Discovering primary issues of concern (hot buttons)
5. Building rapport
6. Establishing trust
7. Addressing objections
8. Planning action steps
9. Confirming understanding
10. Asking for referrals
11. Seeking additional selling opportunities
12. Evaluating responses & results
13. Affirming decisions
14. Developing credibility
15. Developing valuable relationships
16. Maintaining a positively expectant attitude
17. Managing selling time
18. Territory management
19. Sales tracking, reporting and general paper work

*note specific details where a rating is particularly high or low

General professional skills & characteristics
(use the following list as a thought prompt for general characteristics & skills evaluation)
1. Work ethic
2. Integrity
3. Flexibility
4. Decision making ability
5. Willingness to take risks
6. Communication (written and in-person)
7. Impact on others within the organization
8. Leadership

Product knowledge
1. Industry or professional books read during the past [time period]
2. Developmental audio or video material listened to or viewed during the past [time
period]
3. Classes or seminars attended during the past [time period]

Additional contribution
1. Product or service ideas submitted during the past [time period]
2. Improvements suggestions (solutions) made during the past [time period]
3. Company activities participated in outside the sales role during the past [time period]
(e.g. training others, strategy sessions, writing an internal newsletter, etc.)

General overview (given above data points)

1. Areas of strength over the past [time period]
2. Areas of significant improvement over the past [time period]
3. Areas needing improvement in the coming [time period]

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Suggested action steps
1. Specific result focus for the coming [time period]
2. Specific activity focus for the coming [time period]
3. Specific development activities for the coming [time period]
4. Other specific activities or areas for the coming [time period]

* If you’re formally evaluating a member of your sales team, either introduce or conclude
(whichever you prefer) each area of evaluation above with appropriate overview statements
that address and identify
 particular strengths in that area
 specific areas of significant improvement over the previous time period
 specific areas where improvement is needed

or include these statements toward the end of the evaluation, just before your suggested
action steps for the coming time period.
Where there is no specific strength, improvement or improvement needed, avoid forcing
verbiage and move on.
Unit Task 2 identifying the methods used to measure performance of sales

The Four Sets of Diagnostic Tools

To manage the current business, executives require four sets of diagnostic tools:
 foundation information;
 productivity information;
 competence information; and
 Resource-allocation information.
Measurements must be quantitative, systematic and proactive in order to support the
corporate culture and decision-making process.
Once managers know what information they need for their work and what information they
owe to others, they can develop methods to turn "the chaos of data into organized and
focused information".
Foundation Information
It refers to basic business documents such as cashflows, balance sheets, profit-loss
statements, sales, and other various conventional business ratios. Any abnormality in these
documents indicates a problem that need to be identified and treated.
Productivity Information
It looks at the productivity of key resources, including labour. You would also need
measures like "economic value-added analysis" to demonstrate that your business is earning
more than it capital costs, together with benchmarking to show that its performance is as
good as or better than the best competition.
Competence Information
Though it's not an easy task, try to define measurements, or if this is not possible -
assessments, for your core competences as well as your performance in the area of
innovation management. "Every organization, not only businesses, need one core

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 competence: innovation," asserts Peter Drucker. Ask yourself questions such as: "How
many of the truly important innovation opportunities did we miss? Why? Because we didn't
see them? Or because we saw them but dismissed them?"
Resource-Allocation Information
In addition to traditional measures of capital employment – return on investment, payback
period, cashflow, or discounted present value, to understand a proposed investment, ask the
two key questions:
 What will happen if the investment fails to produce the promised results? Would it
seriously hurt the company?
 If the investment is successful, especially more so than we expect, what will it commit
us to?
"The is no better way to improve an organization's performance than to measure the results
of capital spending against the promises and expectations that led to its authorizations".
Capital, however, is only one key resource of the organization. "The scarcest resources are
performing people." Place people, as purposefully and thoughtfully as capital, with
specific expectations as to what the appointee should achieve and with systematic appraisal
of the outcome.

Unit Task 3 distinguishing between actual sales and budgeted sales

actual sales

budgeted sales

A detailed schedule showing the expected sales for coming periods; these sales are typically
expressed in both dollars and units.

Unit Task 4 explaining various decisions taken to correct sales variances

Sales variance is the difference between actual sales and budget sales. It is used to measure
the performance of a sales function, and/or analyze business results to better understand
market conditions.

sales volume variance

difference between the actual number of units sold and the budgeted number, multiplied by
the budgeted selling price per unit; also called sales quantity variance.

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 22.3.0 HUMAN RELATIONS
25.3.1 INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN RELATIONS
SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES
By the end of this topic, the trainee should be able to:
a) Explain the meaning of human relations
b) Explain the importance of human relations
c) Describe the emergence of human relations
d) Explain the essentials of human relations

UNIT TASKS
UNIT TASK 1: Explaining the meaning of Human Relations
Human relations is an important element in any business enterprise. Organizations are social
systems and they combine both science and people (i.e. technology and humanity) and so it is
necessary to understand how they operate. Human behaviour is unpredictable since it arises
from deep–seated needs and value systems of individually different people. Although there
are many definitions of human relations, it applies broadly to the interaction of people in all
types of endeavours-business, government, social clubs, schools and homes. Human relations
can be said to be the study of behaviour of people mainly in workplaces where people are
banded together in some sort of formal structure to achieve an objective.
UNIT TASK 2: Explaining the importance of Human Relations
It is aimed at improving interpersonal relationships among employees. It is the understanding
and enhancement of how individuals work together to achieve success and fulfillment. Both
managers and employee requires human relations to help in producing better results of the
organization. Effective human relations will help an organization provide economic, social,
psychological rewards to employees. Management in particular will need human relations to
facilitate effective interaction with personnel, these skills include leadership, communication,
decision-making which are necessary for managerial success and therefore it is important at
all levels of and most important for middle managers.
UNIT TASK 3: Describing the emergence of human relations
The study of human relations started way back in the 1920’s and various studies examined
social relations, motivations, employee satisfaction on factory productivity. One of the key
researchers was George Mayo who stressed the following:
 Natural groups in which social aspects take precedence over functional organizational
structures
 Upward communication by which communication is two way from workers to CEO
as well as vice versa.
 Cohesive and good leadership is needed to communicate goals and to ensure effective
and coherent decision making.

There are many other researchers who also contributed to the study and development of
human relations as we know it today especially on motivation, leadership, job satisafaction
etc and some of the well known ones include: Abraham Maslow, Herzberg, McGregor,
Likert, Agrylis and many others.
UNIT TASK 4: Explaining the essentials of human relations
 Do not criticize/condemn or complain
 Control your anger
 Avoid using abusive language or expressions
 Give honest sincere appreciation
 Encourage people to talk about themselves
 Smile

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  Become genuinely interested in other people
 Call people by their names
 Talk in terms of other people interest
 Be a good listener
 Avoid backbiting during conversation
 Make other people feel important and do it sincerely

25.3.2. SOCIAL ORGANIZATIONS

SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES
By the end of this topic, the trainee should be able to:
UNIT TASKS
UNIT TASK 1: Explaining the meaning of. Social organizations
The people in a society are considered as a system organized by a characteristic pattern of
relationships. A society is an extended social group having a distinctive cultural and
economic organization.
UNIT TASK 2: Explaining the factors that determine social stratification
Social stratification refers to the condition of being arranged in social strata or classes within
a group. Usually individuals are grouped into classes based on their economic positions and
similar political and economic interests within the stratification system. The factors that
determine class vary widely from one society to another
Social stratification is determined largely by:
 occupation
 education and qualifications
 income, personal, household and per capita
 wealth or net worth, including the ownership of land, property, means of production,
et cetera
 Family background and aspirations. Although class is rarely hereditary in a strict
sense, it will often be affected by such factors as upbringing and the class of one's
parents. The child of high status professionals will grow up with the expectation that a
similar occupation is an attainable goal, whereas a child of lower status parents in a
run down neighborhood will often have much lower aspirations based upon what they
see around them. The degree to which, in a given society, an individual's, family's, or
group's social status can change throughout the course of their life through a system
of social hierarchy or stratification is referred to as Social Mobility. Subsequently, it is
also the degree to which that individual's or group's descendants move up and down
the class system. The degree to which an individual can move through their system
can be based on attributes and achievements or factors beyond their control.

Those who can attain a position of power in a society will often adopt distinctive lifestyles to
emphasize their prestige and to further rank themselves within the powerful class. Often
the adoption of these stylistic traits (which are often referred to as cultural capital) is as
important as one's wealth in determining class status, at least at the higher levels:
UNIT TASK 3: Explaining the meaning and characteristics of bureaucracy
Bureaucracy is the structure and set of regulations in place to control activity, usually in
large organizations and government. it is represented by standardized procedure (rule-
following) that dictates the execution of most or all processes within the body, formal
division of powers, hierarchy, and relationships.
Four structural concepts are central to any definition of bureaucracy:

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 1. a well-defined division of administrative labor among persons and offices,
2. a personnel system with consistent patterns of recruitment and stable linear careers,
3. a hierarchy among offices, such that the authority and status are differentially
distributed among actors, and
4. formal and informal networks that connect organizational actors to one another
through flows of information and patterns of cooperation.

Examples of everyday bureaucracies include governments, armed forces, corporations,

hospitals, courts, ministries and schools.
UNIT TASK 4: Discussing the principles of organization
Principles- is a fundamental truth

Organization -An organization is a social arrangement which pursues collective goals,

which controls its own performance, and which has a boundary separating it from its
environment. The word itself is derived from the Greek word ὄργανον (organon) meaning
tool. The term is used in both daily and scientific English in multiple ways.

An organization as a process is defined as the act of structuring or arranging the parts of the
organization ie work, people, and the systems.
Characteristics
Every organization is
1. composed of people
2. Has a distinct purpose-(objective or goal to achieve- a reason for existence.
3. Has a degree of formality i.e. has a definition, limitation of the behavior of its
members.
4. Has people who oversee the activities and operations of other people (management)
getting things done (work) through other people.

Major functions of management include:

Planning-predeterming the best way to reach an objective. It involves selecting the courses
of actions that an organization and every department will follow.
Organizing-is the process of establishing an intentional structure of roles for people in an
organization to fill.
Staffing-getting the right people to do specific jobs at all hierarchical levels (positions).
Leading and directing-telling people what to do and seeing that they do it to the best of their
abilities
Controlling-.measuring present performance against standards of performance.

UNIT TASK 5: Explaining the importance of social organization

A social organization is important because there is
 Unit of objectives-objectives are the ends towards which organizations and individual
activities are directed. An organization is effective if it faciklitates9allows) the
contribution of individuals in the attainment of organizational objectives.
 Unit of command-each individual should only be answerable to only one immediate
supervisor at a time.
 Chain of command-refers to the line along which authority and communication
flows from the top of the organization to all employees.

1182
  Span of control- the number o f subordinate reporting to any supervisor. There
is no definite number of people a supervisor can always effectively supervise but
this number will depend on the following factors;

-clarity of delegation of authority

-Subordinate training
-clarity of plans
-Rate of change
-Use of objective standards
-Amount of personal contact
-delegation

TRAINEE’S LEARNING RESOURCES

1 Management and Organizational Behavior, 5nd Edition by Mullins L (1999), London,

Financial times, Pitman Publishing

2. Internet

3. Management by Koontz O’Donnell (1988) , 8th Edition: New york, Mc Graw Hill
4. Essentials of Management (1974) by by Koontz O’Donnell New york, Mc G

25.3.3 MOBILIZATION AND EMPLOYEE MORALE.

SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES
By the end of this topic, the trainee should be able to:
a) Explain the meaning of. motivation
b) Explain the various theories of motivation
c) Explain application of theories of motivation in human relations
d) Explain causes of low morale
e) Explain measures of improving employees morale

UNIT TASKS
UNIT TASK 1: Explain the meaning of. Motivation
The study of motivation is basically concerned with why people behave in a certain way-
Why people do what they do. It is concerned with why people choose a particular course of
action, often over a long period and in the face of problems or difficulties. Motivation is the
desire to fulfil a given need. It can be defined as the degree to which an individual wants and
chooses to engage in certain specified behaviours. It can be described as the direction and
persistence of action.
The underlying concept of motivation is some driving force within individuals by which
they attempt to achieve some goal in order to fulfil some need or expectation. People’s
behaviour is determined by what motivates them. Their performance is a product of both
ability level and motivation.
Performance = function (Ability X Motivation)

UNIT TASK 2 explaining the various theories of motivation and their application in
human relations

1183
 THEORIES OF MOTIVATION
The major theories of motivation are: Maslow’s hierarchy of needs models, Fredrick
Herzberg two factor theory, Douglas Mcgregor’s theory X and Y, Mc Clellend need
achievement theory and Al diefers Erg theory.
(i). MASLOW’S HIERARCHY OF NEEDS MODELS
Abraham Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs is perhaps the best-known theory of motivation.
Developed in the 1950’s this is a motivation concept that has received wide recognition
because of its intuitive logic and ease of understanding. Maslow hypothesized that within
every human being there exists a hierarchy of five needs that can be arranged in order of
importance from the most basic. Although no need is ever fully gratified, a substantially
satisfied need no longer motivates,the individual is then motivated by the next higher level
of needs
The hierarchy ranges through five levels i.e. physiological, safety needs, love needs, esteem
needs and self –actualization.
a) Low Level Needs
1. Physiological needs.
Include most basic human needs for sustaining life, like food, drink, air, shelter &
clothing and other bodily requirements.
2. Safety needs.
Include the need for security and protection from physical and emotional harm, threat or
deprivation. The desire may be economic, physical or social safety e.g. employees may desire
economic security and good working relationships.
3. Social needs include need for affection, belongingness, acceptance, friendship and
association.

b) High Level Needs

4. Esteem needs.
Are high level needs and consists of both esteem for self and esteem by others. They include;
Achievement, self-confidence, self-respect, competence interdependence and freedom.
Satisfaction of these needs leads to feelings of worth, power, prestige, status, capability,
strength and feeling of being useful and necessary. Non-satisfaction may lead to feelings of
inferiority, weakness & helplessness.
5. Self-actualization.
Is about self-fulfillment. It’s the drive to become what one is capable of becoming. They
include the realization of one’s potential, self-development and creativity. It is a feeling of
accomplishment and attainment and being satisfied with one’s self.

1184
 Self-
Actualization

Esteem Needs

Social Needs

Safety Needs

Physiological Needs

PROPERTIES OF MASLOW’S THEORY

i. A need satisfied is no longer a strong motivator

ii. A need cannot be effective as a motivator until those before it in the hierarchy
have been satisfied
iii. If deprived of the source of satisfaction from a lower order need, it will again
become a motivator
iv. There is an innate desire to work up the hierarchy
v. Self-actualization is not like the other needs, the opportunities presented by it
cannot be exhausted.
vi. : Explain application of theories of motivation in human relations

APPLICATION OF MASLOWS THEORY

NEEDS LEVEL GENERAL REWARDS ORGANIZATIONAL FACTOR

1. Physiological Food, water, sex, sleep Pay, pleasant working condition,

health care
2. Safety Safety, security, stability, Safe working condition(uniforms
protection etc), staff transport, company
benefits, job security, pension
rights,
3. Social(Love) Love, affection, belongingness Cohesive work groups, friendly
supervision, professional
associations, sports club.
4 Esteem Self-esteem, self-respect, prestige, Social recognition, job title, high
status status job, feedback from the job
5. Sel- Growth, advancement, creativity Challenging job, opportunities for
actualization creativity, achievement at work,
advancement in the organization.
vii.
2. DOUGLAS MCGREGOR’S THEORY X AND THEORY Y

1185
 Douglas McGregor identified two extreme sets of assumptions made by managers about
employees. These two extreme attitudes or views he labelled Theory X and Theory Y. His
thesis was that in practice, most people would come somewhere between the two except in
certain circumstances.
Theory X Theory Y
 Employees dislike work and whenever  Employees can view work as being as natural
possible will avoid it. as rest.
 Since Employees dislike work, they must be  Men and women will exercise self-direction
coerced, controlled or threatened by and self-control if they are committed to the
punishment to achieve desired goals. objectives.
 Employees will shirk responsibilities and seek  The average person can learn to accept even
formal direction whenever possible. seek responsibility.

 Most workers place security above all other  The ability to make good decision is widely
factors associated with work and will display dispersed throughout the population and is not
little ambition. necessarily the sole province of managers

McGregor felt that theory X assumptions were used in most industrial organizations but were
inadequate for the full utilization of each worker’s potential. It advocates for external
motivation mainly through threat or punishment. Recent studies have shown that employees are
not necessarily motivated by money or threat of punishment.
Theory Y looks at employees as self-fulfilling and highly internally motivated. The heavy
emphasis on internal motivation implies that all employees will be motivated by the high order
needs i.e. self esteem and self actualization needs.(Maslow).
3. FREDERICK HERZBERG TWO-FACTOR THEORY
Fredrick Herzberg, a psychologist, hypothesized that an individual’s relation to his or her
work is a basic one and that his/her attitude to work can very well determine success or
failure. Hertzberg investigated the question “ What do people want from their jobs?”
Herzberg’s two-factor theory is also known as the hygiene theory. It is a theory of external
motivation because the manager controls the factors that produce job satisfaction or
dissatisfaction.
He found out that satisfaction was influenced by one set of factors while dissatisfaction was
influenced by another set. Factors influencing dissatisfaction he called disatisfiers – hygiene
or maintenance factors while those that affected satisfaction he called them satisfiers or
motivators.
Disatisfiers Satisfiers
 Company policy  Achievement
 Salary  Recognition
 Supervision  Responsibility
 Administration  The job itself
 Working conditions  Growth
 Status  Advancement
 Job security
 Relationship with supervisor

If the disatisfiers are present in high quality and quantity, people are simply not dissatisfied
and not necessarily satisfied. Thus, the presence of these factors does not motivate by
yielding satisfaction but the absence of these same factors caused people to be dissatisfied.
Hertzberg argued that the opposite of satisfaction is not dissatisfaction.

1186
Organizations that do not provide adequate hygiene factors tend to have high levels of
conflict, absenteeism and labour turnover, and generally low morale.

4. ALDIEFER’S ERG THEORY

Aldeifer reduced Maslow's five needs into three distinct needs namely
a) Existence- includes all the various forms of material and physiological desires like food
water pay and good working conditions.
b) Relatedness – involves relationships
c) Growth – are those needs that drive a person to have creative or productive influence on
him or herself or the environment.
He however did not see them as a hierarchy but instead finds that one class of needs may
remain strong whether or not another class has been satisfied.

5. Mc CLELLAND MOTIVATING NEEDS THEORY

Mc Clelland identified three motivating needs
(i) The Need for affiliation
People here seek to gain pleasure from groups within which they enjoy intimacy,
understanding and friendly interaction.
(ii)The need for power
Those with strong need for power want to exercise influence and control over others.
(iii) The need for Achievement
People with strong need for achievement have an intense desire for success and an equally
intense fear of failure.He measured the levels of these needs in various individuals and
discovered that the existence of one need did not mean that the other two did not exist rather
an individual could be strongly motivated by a combination of all three needs.

UNIT TASK 4 Explaining causes of low morale

Poor company policy
Low Salary and poor remuneration packages
Poor Supervision
Bad Administration
Poor Working conditions
Status
Lack of job security
Bad working relationship with supervisor and management
Rigidity and inflexibility
Lack of fringe benefits
Unit Task 5: Explain measures of improving employees morale
i) Effective recruitment, selection and socialization
ii) Training and development
iii) Job design and work environment
iv) Equitable personnel policies
v) Recognition and rewards
vi) Effective communication
vii) Participative styles of management
viii) Attempting to understand the individual perception of the situation.

1187
TRAINEE’S LEARNING RESOURCES

1 Management and Organizational Behaviour, 5nd Edition by Mullins L (1999), London,

Financial times, Pitman Publishing

2. Internet

3. Management by Koontz O’Donnell (1988) , 8th Edition: New york, Mc Graw Hill
4. Essentials of Management (1974) by by Koontz O’Donnell New york, Mc Graw Hill

25.3.4: PERSONALITY
By the end of this topic, the trainee should be able to:

a) Explain the meaning of personality

b) Discuss the factors that make individual different
c) Explain theories of personality
d) Explain the components of personality
e) Explain the origin and development of personality

UNIT TASKS
UNIT TASK 1: Explaining the meaning of personality
Personality can be defined as the individuals unique way of behaving and of seeing and
interpreting the actions of other people and things.
Personality can also be defined as an individuals characteristics and behaviours organized in
such a way as to reflect the unique adjustment the person makes to his or her own
environment.
It is believed that a person’s personality remains stable over time but their behavior will
vary from situation to situation. The consistent pattern that develops is what is referred to as
personality.
UNIT TASK 2: Discussing the factors that make individual different
There are many factors that make people different and these include:
 Hereditary/genetics-Certain traits and characteristics of people are inherited through
the genetic process. Characteristics which are said to be inherited in all people
include-physical structure, reflexes, innate drives, intelligent and temperament.

 Environment-while people are born with certain characteristics, they also acquire
certain traits through out their interaction with other people amd more broadly the
culture around them as they grow up. The Environment helps shape personality.

 Cultural and social factors-culture consists of beliefs, values and techniques for
dealing with the environment that are shared among contemporaries and transmitted
from one generation to the next. Some of its elements include peoples language,
skills, art, religion, laws and customs

 Socialization-the people or groups an individual is associated with also shape his/her

personality. A person acquires behavior patterns in rotation to others through a
process known as socialization which entails the conditioning of an individuals
behavior patterns in ways that are customary and acceptable to individuals.

1188
  Phychological/ biological sex differences- men and women usually follow different
occupational routes because they are said to match their sex type. It has been said that
there are differences between men and women in terms of visual-spatial abilities (eye-
arm coordination), mathematical ability,, aggressiveness and verbal abilities.

 Gender-there is an over ridding effect on social influences on a Child’s gender

consciousness.

 Role taking-role taking behavior generally refers to expectations or requirements of a

particular social situation.

 The situation-refers to unpredictable events which occur and have a significant

influence on future behavior.

 Attitudes-many women are not placed in challenging positions

UNIT TASK 3: explaining theories of personality

Theory: A theory is a model of reality that helps us to understand, explain, predict, and
control that reality. In the study of personality, these models are usually verbal.
The pioneering American psychologist, Gordon Allport (1937) described two major ways to
study personality, the nomothetic and the idiographic. Nomothetic psychology seeks general
laws that can be applied to many different people, such as the principle of self-actualization,
or the trait of extraversion. Idiographic psychology is an attempt to understand the unique
aspects of a particular individual.
The study of personality has a broad and varied history in psychology, with an abundance of
theoretical traditions. The major theories include dispositional (trait) perspective,
psychodynamic, humanistic, biological, behaviorist and social learning perspective. There is
no consensus on the definition of "personality" in psychology
As a general introduction to all of these theories and models, it's important to realise that no-
one fully knows the extent to which personality is determined by genetics and hereditary
factors, compared to the effects of up-bringing, culture, environment and experience. Nature
versus Nurture: no-one knows. Most studies seem to indicate that it's a bit of each, roughly
half and half, although obviously it varies person-to-person.
Given that perhaps half our personality is determined by influences acting upon us after we
are conceived and born, it's interesting and significant also that no-one actually knows the
extent to which personality changes over time.
Certainly childhood is highly influential in forming personality. Certainly major trauma at
any stage of life can change a person's personality quite fundamentally. Certainly many
people seem to mature emotionally with age and experience. But beyond these sort of
generalizations, it's difficult to be precise about how and when - and if - personality actually
changes.
So where do we draw the line and say a personality is fixed and firm? The answer in absolute
terms is that we can't.
We can however identify general personality styles, aptitudes, sensitivities, traits, etc., in
people and in ourselves, especially when we understand something of how to define and
measure types and styles. And this level of awareness is far better than having

1189
UNIT TASK 4: explaining the components of personality
There are three main components as follows: Perception, Learning and Attitudes as explained
here below.
A. PERCEPTION-this is defines as the process by which people select, organize, interpret
and assign meaning to external phenomenon. In other words, it is the process by which
people use to make sense of world around them. Research has shown that people may look at
the same thing, yet perceive it differently.

A number of Factors operate to shape and sometimes to distort perception. These factors can
reside in the perceiver, in the object or target being perceived or in the context of the situation
in which the perceiver is made.
I. Characteristics of the perceiver-characteristic of the perceiver which influence
selection are learning, motivation, and personality
II. Characteristics of the object-physical characteristics of the perceived object
influences the stimuli an individual will choose to notice. This would include things
such as size, intensity, contrast, and novelty. Dynamic properties include motion,
repetition and ordering.
III. Characteristics of the situation-three elements of any situation make a difference in
the phenomenon that a person selects to notice. These are social context,
organizational role and location of the incident.
IV.
B. LEARNING-This can be defines as any relatively permanent change in behavior that
occurs as a result of experience. Learning helps us adapt and master our environment. By
altering our behavior to changing conditions, we become better people. Learning is built on
the law of effect which states that, behavior is a function of its consequences.ie behavior that
is followed by a favourable consequence tends to be repeated and behavior followed by an un
favourable response is likely to be avoided.

The two theories used to explain learning are

1. Shaping-learning taking place in graduated steps
2. Modeling- learning that occurs by observing others and copying their behaviors.

Three components of personality as described by

Clinical psychologist Don Bannister thus an individual’s feelings, thoughts, and behaviors
are the result of the interaction of the id, the superego, and the ego. This creates conflict,
which creates anxiety, which leads to Defense Mechanisms.

Id
The Id contains our primitive drives and operates largely according to the pleasure
principle, whereby its two main goals are the seeking of pleasure and the avoidance of
pain.It has no real perception of reality and seeks to satisfy its needs through what Freud
called the primary processes that dominate the existence of infants, including hunger and
self-protection.The energy for the Id's actions come from libido, which is the energy
storehouse.The id has 2 major instincts:

 Eros: the life instinct that motivates people to focus on pleasure-seeking tendencies
(e.g., sexual urges).
 Thanatos: the death instinct that motivates people to use aggressive urges to destroy.

1190
Ego
Unlike the Id, the Ego is aware of reality and hence operates via the reality principle,
whereby it recognizes what is real and understands that behaviors have consequences. This
includes the effects of social rules that are necessary in order to live and socialize with
other people. It uses secondary processes (perception, recognition, judgment and memory)
that are developed during childhood.The dilemma of the Ego is that it has to somehow
balance the demands of the Id and Super ego with the constraints of reality.The Ego
controls higher mental processes such as reasoning and problem-solving, which it uses to
solve the Id-Super ego dilemma, creatively finding ways to safely satisfy the Id's basic urges
within the constraints of the Super ego.

Super ego
The Super ego contains our values and social morals, which often come from the rules of
right and wrong that we learned in childhood from our parents (this is Freud, remember)
and are contained in the conscience.The Super ego has a model of an ego ideal and which it
uses as a prototype against which to compare the ego (and towards which it encourages
the ego to move).The Super ego is a counterbalance to the Id, and seeks to inhibit the Id's
pleasure-seeking demands, particularly those for sex and aggression

C. ATTITUDES.

Attitudes are evaluative statements either favorable or unfavorable concerning objects, people
or events. This outlook is to a large extend predetermined by the environment in which they
been brought up and the influence to which s/he as been exposed to.
UNIT TASK 5: explaining the origin and development of personality
Personality-is a characteristic way of thinking, feeling, and behaving. Personality embraces
moods, attitudes, and opinions and is most clearly expressed in interactions with other people.
It includes behavioral characteristics, both inherent and acquired, that distinguish one person
from another and that can be observed in people’s relations to the environment and to the
social group.
The term personality has been defined in many ways, but as a psychological concept two
main meanings have evolved. The first pertains to the consistent differences that exist
between people: in this sense, the study of personality focuses on classifying and explaining
relatively stable ... (100 of 6535 words)
Personality can be defined as a dynamic and organized set of personal traits and patterns of
behavior. "Personality includes attitudes, modes of thought, feelings, impulses, strivings,
actions, responses to opportunity and stress and everyday modes of interacting with
others." Personality style is apparent "when these elements of personality are expressed in
a characteristically repeated and dynamic combination."[2]
According to Oldham and Morris, "Your personality style is your organizing principle. It
propels you on your life path. It represents the orderly arrangement of all your attributes,
thoughts, feelings, attitudes, behaviors, and coping mechanisms. It is the distinctive pattern

1191
of your psychological functioning—the way you think, feel, and behave—that makes you
definitely you."[3]
The origin of personality style is in some combination of genetic inheritance and
environmental influence.[1]
The concept of personality style is broader than and includes the concepts of "personality
traits", "personality type", and "temperament".[1]

TRAINEE’S LEARNING RESOURCES

1 Management and Organizational Behaviour, 5nd Edition by Mullins L (1999), London,

Financial times, Pitman Publishing

2. Internet

3. Management by Koontz O’Donnell (1988) , 8th Edition: New york, Mc Graw Hill

4. Essentials of Management (1974) by by Koontz O’Donnell New york, Mc Graw Hill

25.3.5: ATTITUDES
By the end of this topic, the trainee should be able to:

a) Explain the meaning of attitudes

b) Differentiate between attitudes, beliefs, values and personality
c) Explain theories of attitudes
d) Explain how attitudes are formed
e) Discus the effects of attitudes on behavior
f) Explain how changes of attitudes occur

UNIT TASKS
UNIT TASK 1: Explaining the meaning of attitudes
Attitudes are evaluative statements either favorable or unfavorable concerning objects, people
or events. This outlook is to a large extend predetermined by the environment in which they
been brought up and the influence to which s/he has been exposed to. Attitudes are generally
positive or negative views of a person, place, thing, or event.
UNIT TASK 2: Differentiating between attitudes, beliefs, values and personality
Attitudes- An attitude is a hypothetical construct that represents an individual's degree of
like or dislike for an item. Attitudes are judgments.

Beliefs- Beliefs are the assumptions we make about ourselves, about others in the world and
about how we expect things to be. It is a statement, assertion, or theory you accept as true. It
is also our basis for deciding, choosing, and acting

Values-Values are deeply held views that act as guiding principles for individuals and
organizations. When they are declared and followed they are the basis of trust. When they

1192
are left unstated they are inferred from observable behavior. When they are stated and not
followed trust is broken.
Personality- Personality can be defined as the individuals unique way of behaving and of
seeing and interpreting the actions of other people and things.
Personality can also be defined as an individual’s characteristics and behaviors organized in
such a way as to reflect the unique adjustment the person makes to his or her own
environment.

UNIT TASK 3: Explaining theories of attitudes

The "attitude" construct received its first serious attention from Darwin in 1872. Darwin
defined attitude as a motor concept, or the physical expression of an emotion. For early
psychologists, "attitude" was an emotion or thought with a motoric (behavioral)
component. In some cases, the motoric component was subvocal speech; in other cases,
gross behavior, such as postural change, was of interest. Beginning in the 1930's,
psychologists began to argue actively about what components should comprise the attitude
concept. Although there was agreement that all attitudes contain an evaluative component,
theorists disagreed about whether beliefs (cognitions) and behaviors should be included as
part of the attitude concept. The prevailing view among cognitive social psychologists was
that "attitude" has both affective and belief components and that attitudes and behavior
should be consistent; i.e., people with positive attitudes should behave positively toward
the attitude object.
LaPiere (1934) reported that hotel managers' attitudes toward Chinese guests did not
predict their responses to a Chinese couple who asked for a room. LaPiere's work was
criticized on numerous grounds (e. g., the person who filled out the questionnaire may not
have been the same person who later admitted the Chinese to the hotel), but many other
researchers reported similar findings: attitudes did not predict behavior even when
measured under optimal conditions, (Wicker, 1969).
In 1975, Fishbein and Ajzen published Belief, Attitude, Intention and Behavior: An
Introduction to Theory and Research, laying out the theory of reasoned action which they
claimed would improve our ability to predict behavior. In published reports, the variables
specified by the theory generally did account for more of the variance in behavior than had
previous attitude/behavior measures. However, it soon became clear that some important
limitations on the theory's domain were required, that additional variables would need to
be included, and that the theory was perhaps better understood as a taxonomy, as opposed
to an explanatory system. Ajzen (1987) has published an updated version of the theory of
reasoned action called the theory of planned behavior. Although the theory of planned
behavior has undergone relatively few empirical tests, it seems unlikely that it will fare
significantly better than Fishbein and Ajzen's earlier work. Although Fishbein's model
remains popular with some market researchers, the prevailing theory among psychologists
is Fazio's (1986) attitude accessibility model.

Cognitive dissonance theory (developed by Leon Festinger)

This theory seeks to explain the linkage between attitudes and behavior. Dissonance means
un inconsistency. Cognitive dissonance refers to any incompatibility that an individual might
perceive between two or more of his attitudes or between his or her behaviuor and attitudes.

1193
The most famous case in the early study of cognitive dissonance was described by Leon
Festinger and others in the book When Prophecy Fails. The authors infiltrated a group that
was expecting the imminent end of the world on a certain date. When that prediction failed,
the movement did not disintegrate, but grew instead, as members vied to prove their
orthodoxy by recruiting converts (see further discussion below).
Smoking is often postulated as an example of cognitive dissonance because it is widely
accepted that cigarettes can cause lung cancer, yet virtually everyone wants to live a long
and healthy life. In terms of the theory, the desire to live a long life is dissonant with the
activity of doing something that will most likely shorten one's life. The tension produced by
these contradictory ideas can be reduced by quitting smoking, denying the evidence of lung
cancer, or justifying one's smoking. For example, smokers could rationalize their behavior by
concluding that only a few smokers become ill, that it only happens to very heavy smokers,
or that if smoking does not kill them, something else will. [5] While chemical addiction may
operate in addition to cognitive dissonance for existing smokers, new smokers may exhibit a
simpler case of the latter
UNIT TASK 4: Explaining how attitudes are formed
Unlike personality, attitudes are expected to change as a function of experience. Tesser
(1993) has argued that hereditary variables may affect attitudes - but believes that they may
do so indirectly. For example, consistency theories, which imply that we must be consistent
in our beliefs and values. The most famous example of such a theory is Dissonance-reduction
theory, associated with Leon Festinger, although there are others, such as the balance theory.
Cognitive dissonance is an uncomfortable feeling caused by holding two contradictory ideas
simultaneously. The theory of cognitive dissonance proposes that people have a motivational
drive to reduce dissonance by changing their attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors, or by justifying
or rationalizing them. It is one of the most influential and extensively studied theories in
social psychology. Dissonance occurs when a person perceives a logical inconsistency in their
beliefs, when one idea implies the opposite of another. The dissonance might be experienced
as guilt, anger, frustration, or even embarrassment

UNIT TASK 5: discussing the effects of attitudes on behavior

People hold complex relationships between attitudes and behavior that are further
complicated by the social factors influencing both. Behaviors usually, but not always, reflect
established beliefs and attitudes. Ideally, positive attitudes manifest well-adjusted behaviors.
However, in some cases healthy attitudes may result in harmful behavior. For example,
someone may remain in an abusive and potentially deadly domestic situation because they
hold negative attitudes towards divorce.

Behavior can be influenced by a number of factors beyond attitude, including preconceptions

about self and others, monetary factors, social influences (what peers and community
members are saying and doing), and convenience. Someone may have strong convictions
about improving the public school system in their town, but if it means a hefty increase to
their property taxes, they may vote against any improvements due to the potential for
monetary loss. Or, they may simply not vote at all because their polling place is too far from
their home, or the weather is bad on election day.
UNIT TASK 6: Explaining how changes of attitudes occur
Attitudes toward the behavior or changes are made up of beliefs about engaging in the
behavior and the associated evaluation of that belief. For example, consider the purchase of a
car, X. In tests of the model, subjects are asked to list their beliefs associated with buying the

1194
car. These beliefs are consequences of the action. One belief might be: "Buying car X will
cost me $300 a month." Another belief might be "Buying car X will make me more attractive
to the opposite sex." Each belief is then rated for the likelihood that engaging in the behavior
will produce that consequence. The likelihood ratings are an index of belief strength. After
subjects rate the probability of each belief's being true, they evaluate how good or bad this
aspect is. A car payment of $300 might be rated as quite bad, while being attractive to the
opposite sex might be quite good. These ratings (both belief strength and evaluations) are
quantified on -3 to +3 or 1 to 7 scales. The belief strength and evaluation ratings are
multiplied together for each belief and summed across beliefs to give a measure of attitude
toward the behavior.
It is important for employers to be interested in employees’ attitudes because attitudes give
warnings of potential problems and they also influence behavior in the work place. Many
factors affect an individual’s attitude towards work or life and it is the responsibility of the
management to implement the means of improving and maintaining a favorable attitude This
objective is however complicated by different workers and groups of workers being
motivated by various factors. Managers must possess positive attitudes if they want their
employee to do the same. Satisfied and committed employees have lower level of turnover
and absenteeism.
Attitudes and motivation and behavior are interlinked. A well motivated person will have a
good attitude and therefore will have a good behavior.

TRAINEE’S LEARNING RESOURCES

1 Management and Organizational Behaviour, 5nd Edition by Mullins L (1999), London,

Financial times, Pitman Publishing

2. Internet

3. Management by Koontz O’Donnell (1988) , 8th Edition: New york, Mc Graw Hill
4. Essentials of Management (1974) by by Koontz O’Donnell New york, Mc Graw Hill

22.3.06 FRUSTRATION

22.3.06T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) explain the meaning of frustration
b) identify the causes of employee frustration
c) discuss various reactions to frustrations by employees
discuss possible solutions to frustrations

22.3.06T1 Meaning of frustrations

Frustration can be defined as a form of a feeling of disappointment, exasperation, or
weariness caused by goals being thwarted or desires unsatisfied it is a common emotional
response to opposition. Related to anger and disappointment, it arises from the perceived
resistance to the fulfillment of individual will. The greater the obstruction, and the greater
the will, the more the frustration is likely to be
22.3.06T2 Causes of employee frustrations

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The typical workplace has its ups and downs in terms of employee frustrations and there are
many reasons why employees will be frustrated some of these reasons include;

 An excessive workload
 Concerns about management’s ability to lead the company forward successfully
 Lack of direction from management.
 Anxiety about the future, particular longer-term job, income and retirement security
 Lack of challenge in their work, with boredom intensifying existing frustration about
workload
 Insufficient recognition for the level of contribution and effort provided, and concerns
that pay isn’t commensurate with performance.
 Constant change that is not well-communicated.
 Poor communication overall.
 Anxiety about the future: job security, retirement income

22.3.06T3 Reactions to frustration

In many instances we may feel that our options for true fulfillment at work are limited and
our agreements generally take us into the following three patterns of coping with the
dissatisfaction and frustrations:
Change the System.
When we care very much about what we are doing there is a passion to have it done
well. The organization, or the systems in an organization do not always seem to support
what we think are improvements. When our desired changes are not implemented we are
often frustrated. Our challenge then becomes to change the people who are invested in
the status quo. If this does not seem to help most people resort the next option.
Give Up the Fight for Change.
When ideas do not move forward into action, they die. If we become tired of the battle for
change we are tempted to drop the fight. We give up caring because caring about it just
becomes too painful. If we find ourselves saying “It doesn’t matter” or “I don’t really
care”, this usually isn’t exactly true. Often we do care, it is just too painful to let ourselves
feel the frustration and so we cover it up and push it away with these words. The solution
appears to do the minimum that is required and take your place in the system.
Quit or Leave.
This may entail going into your own business, finding another job, career, or for the
spiritually inclined, leaving all your belongings behind and entering some spiritual
congregation that gives you a sense of belonging and a hope This causes an amount of
disruption to one’s life and lifestyle is not that appealing.

22.3.06T4 Possible solutions to frustration

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 Knowing about causes of employee frustration enables you to take action to prevent or
eliminate employee negativity. Here are several examples.

 If you lose an employee and divide the work across several remaining employees, you
foster employee negativity unless employees have the end in sight – a new employee
with an expected arrival date.

 Companies that experience a business downturn will experience negativity.

Employees are concerned about both management and their future with the company.
Insecure employees are negative and looking for the worst to happen. Following a
period of financial woes, management has to work hard to regain employee trust.

 An employee who applies for a promotional opportunity and does not get the job can
be extremely negative, especially if promotional opportunities are perceived as
limited. You must take great care to make sure your promotion system is fair and that
employees know exactly what they need to do to get ready for the next opportunity.

 Employees love recognition for their work. They also like to see salary increases for
contributing employees. One of the most significant causes of employee negativity
occurs when employees believe poor contributors received raises – especially when
their own raise was below their expectations.

Practice

22.3.06P Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) identify the various causes of employee frustration
b) brainstorm how employees react to frustration
c) brainstorm on possible solutions to frustration
There are many other forms of employee negativity and
frustrations .brainstorm on them and come up with solutions to the causes and
how as an employer you should deal with them.

Content
22.3.06P1 Case studies involving causes of frustration
22.3.06P2 Group discussion on reactions to frustrations
22.3.06P2 Group discussion on possible solutions to frustration

22.3.07 GROUP DEVELOPMENT

22.3.07T Specific Objectives
By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) explain the meaning and importance of groups

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 b) explain the types of groups
c) identify the factors that influence group formation
d) explain the stages in group formation
e) explain reasons for joining groups

22.3.07T1 Meaning and importance of groups

Group work as shown involve coming together ,working together, achieving together and for
a common cause Good teamwork is about working together as a team make changes, to
achieve, to overcome obstacles, solve problems and to implement improvements.
Teamwork gives that feeling of belonging. Where more than one person is w orking for
a common cause it gives a better forum to improve as we get different perception through
diversity. This is another huge advantage of a well-developed team.
Individual differences are identified and valued. You know who can help with each issue,
and you feel comfortable in making the approach for assistance.
Everyone likes being on a winning team. The great benefit of good teamwork is that this
team will definitely achieve more than they would if the teamwork was absent. Equally, they
all feel involved in the team's successes; the whole office feels the pride in the achievement
of one individual team member. This, in turn, draws down recognition from outside the
office - with management, clients etc.
22.3.07T2 Types of groups

Today we find all kinds of groups, or teams as they are now commonly referred to today, in
society, and they generally fall into one of two primary groups: permanent teams and
temporary teams. Here are some of the common types:

1. Task Force - a temporary team assembled to investigate a specific issue or problem.

2. Problem Solving Team - a temporary team assembled to solve a specific problem.

3. Product Design Team - a temporary team assembled to design a new product or service.

4. Committee - a temporary or permanent group of people assembled to act upon some

matter.

5. Work Group - a permanent group of workers who receive direction from a designated
leader.

6. Work Team (also called Self-Directed Work Team or Self-Managed Work Team) - an
ongoing group of workers who share a common mission who collectively manage their own
affairs within predetermined boundaries.

7. Quality Circle (today also under various other names) - a group of workers from the same
functional area who meet regularly to uncover and solve work-related problems and seek
work improvement opportunities.

The name of the group or team type is less important than the purpose for which it exists.
These names simply give us a common language to help us define team types.

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22.3.07T3 Factors that influence group formation

22.3.07T4 Stages in-group formation

Tuckman's Small Group Development Theory
Forming In the forming stage, Group members learn about each other and the task at hand.
This is simply the bringing together of a group of individuals. At this stage, members are:
 moderately eager
 have generally positive expectations
 have some anxiety about why they are there and what it all means
 have some anxiety about other members such as who they are and what they
are like

During orientation, the work output is generally low as members are focused on defining the
goals and task, how to approach it, and what skills are needed. The length of this stage will
depend on how clearly the task is defined. Groups with simple tasks will move through
orientation quickly, but groups with complex goals and tasks may spend much longer in this
stage.

This is an important stage because it serves to clarify the team's mission and bond team
members. Teams that pay attention to building the relationships as well as focusing on the
task tend to do better than those that skip over relationship building. Teams, after all, are
made up of people who must work cooperatively for a successful outcome.

Storming As group members become more comfortable with each other, they will engage
each other in arguments and vie for status in the group. It is also called the Dissatisfaction
stage

This stage is characterized by: argument conflict a dip in morale

It results from differences between initial expectations and the reality of the situation as
perceived by the members. Members may have varying opinions of what the group was to do
and how to accomplish it. Members are also beginning to confront the differences in their
personalities and values, a condition that is present anytime strangers meet. Members may
feel anger or frustration with the task or with other members or may even resent the presence
of formal leadership.

Generally, the dissatisfaction stage is relatively short. Some groups, however, may become
stuck in this stage and continue to be both demoralized and relatively unproductive. In the
worst cases, some groups never emerge from this stage and, if possible, disband in
frustration.

It is also the Resolution stage. During the norming stage, group members establish implicit
or explicit rules about how they will achieve their goal. They address the types of
communication that will or will not help with the task.

This stage in the group's development involves the:

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  resolving of issues
 setting up group processes
 setting of group policies, procedures, and values
 increasing production

Members are now resolving differences and clarifying the mission and roles. Members are
less dissatisfied as in the previous stage because they are now learning more about each other
and how they will work together. They are making progress toward their goals. They are
developing tools to help them work well together such as a problem solving process, a code
of conduct, a set of team values, and measurement indicators.

Member attitudes are characterized by decreasing animosities toward other members; feelings
of cohesion, mutual respect, harmony, and trust; and a feeling of pleasure in accomplishing
tasks. The work is characterized by slowly increasing production as skills develop. The group
is developing into a team.

Norming (Performing). In the performing stage, groups reach a conclusion and implement
the conclusion. It is also referred to as the Production stage. The team is accomplishing
work effectively. Production is high and the climate is positive. Member attitudes are
characterized by positive feelings and eagerness to be part of the team. Members are
confident about the outcome, enjoy open communication, exhibit high energy, and
disagreement is welcome and handled without emotional conflict.

Although work is being accomplished through all the stages, this stage reflects the work
being accomplished most effectively.
Adjourning (Termination) As the group project ends, the group disbands in the
adjournment phase. In the case of temporary teams such as task forces, design teams, and
problem solving teams, a fifth stage reflects the ending of the process. Depending on the
team's success in accomplishing its task and how strongly the members have bonded, this
stage may reflect either a sense of loss or relief. When a team ends, time should be

spent addressing how it should be done to properly recognize the team's accomplishments.

22.3.07T5 Reasons for joining groups

22.3.07P Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) identify the various types of groups that exist in an organisation
b) brainstorm on the factors that influence group formation
c) draw a flow chart on the stages in group formation
d) brainstorm on why people join groups

22.3.07P1Case studies involving various groups

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Form study groups and see whether the ssteps explained above apply6b tgbo your groups.
As you ponder the problems your team may be experiencing, consider what stage of
development the team may be in. It may help you in working toward a solution.

22.3.07P2 Group discussions on factors that influence group formation

Work out and describe the choice of the group you are in . What factors led to its
formation?
22.3.07P3Group discussions on the stages in-group formation
22.3.07P4 Group discussion on why people join groups

22.3.08 LEADERSHIP
22.3.08T Specific Objectives
By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) explain the meaning of leadership
b) describe theories of leadership
c) identify leadership theories
d) discuss qualities of a good leader

22.3.08T1 Meaning of leadership

Leadership is defined in so many different ways that it is hard to come up with a single
working definition. But broadly speaking, leadership is a process in which a leader attempts
to influence his or her followers to establish and accomplish a goal or goals. In order to
accomplish the goal, the leader exercises his or her power to influence people. That power is
exercised in earlier stages by motivating followers to get the job done and in later stages by
rewarding or punishing those who do or do not perform to the level of expectation.
Leadership is a continuous process, with the accomplishment of one goal becoming the
beginning of a new goal. The proper reward by the leader is of utmost importance in order to
continually motivate followers in the process.
22.3.08T2Theories of leadership
Interest in leadership increased during the early part of the twentieth century. Early leadership
theories focused on what qualities distinguished between leaders and followers, while
subsequent theories looked at other variables such as situational factors and skill level. While
many different leadership theories have emerged, most can be classified as one of eight major
types:
1. “Great Man” Theories:
Great Man theories assume that the capacity for leadership is inherent – that great leaders are
born, not made. These theories often portray great leaders as heroic, mythic, and destined to
rise to leadership when needed. The term “Great Man” was used because, at the time,
leadership was thought of primarily as a male quality, especially in terms of military
leadership.

2. Trait Theories:

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Similar in some ways to “Great Man” theories, trait theory assumes that people inherit
certain qualities and traits that make them better suited to leadership. Trait theories often
identify particular personality or behavioral characteristics shared by leaders. But if particular
traits are key features of leadership, how do we explain people who possess those qualities
but are not leaders? This question is one of the difficulties in using trait theories to explain
leadership.

3. Contingency Theories:

Contingency theories of leadership focus on particular variables related to the environment

that might determine which particular style of leadership is best suited for the situation.
According to this theory, no leadership style is best in all situations. Success depends upon a
number of variables, including the leadership style, qualities of the followers, and aspects of
the situation.

4. Situational Theories:

Situational theories propose that leaders choose the best course of action based upon
situational variable. Different styles of leadership may be more appropriate for certain types
of decision-making.

5. Behavioral Theories:

Behavioral theories of leadership are based upon the belief that great leaders are made, not
born. Rooted in behaviorism, this leadership theory focuses on the actions of leaders, not on
mental qualities or internal states. According to this theory, people can learn to become
leaders through teaching and observation.

6. Participative Theories:

Participative leadership theories suggest that the ideal leadership style is one that takes the
input of others into account. These leaders encourage participation and contributions from
group members and help group members feel more relevant and committed to the decision-
making process. In participative theories, however, the leader retains the right to allow the
input of others.

7. Management Theories:

Management theories (also known as “Transactional theories”) focus on the role of

supervision, organization, and group performance. These theories base leadership on a system
of reward and punishment. Managerial theories are often used in business; when employees
are successful, they are rewarded; when they fail, they are reprimanded or punished.

8. Relationship Theories:

Relationship theories (also known as “Transformational theories”) focus upon the

connections formed between leaders and followers. These leaders motivate and inspire people
by helping group members see the importance and higher good of the task. Transformational

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leaders are focused on the performance of group members, but also want each person to
fulfill his or her potential. These leaders often have high ethical and moral standards.

22.3.08T3 Leadership styles

Leadership[ has been studied for quite along time for a long time there came to be accepted
in what is called the three classical leadership styles these are

 The Laissez Faire Leadership Style

 The Autocratic Leadership Style

 The Participative Leadership Style

The Laissez Faire Leadership Style

The style is largely a "hands off" view that tends to minimize the amount of direction and
face time required. Works well if you have highly trained and highly motivated direct reports.

The Autocratic Leadership Style

The autocratic style has its advocates, but it is falling out of favor in many countries. Some
people have argued that the style is popular with today's CEO's, who have much in common
with feudal lords in Medieval Europe.

The Participative Leadership Style

It's hard to order and demand someone to be creative, perform as a team, solve complex
problems, improve quality, and provide outstanding customer service. The style presents a
happy medium between over controlling (micromanaging) and not being engaged and tends
to be seen in organizations that must innovate to prosper.

Other types of leadership will include;

Bureaucratic Leadership Style

Bureaucratic leadership is where the manager manages “by the book¨ everything must be
done according to procedure or policy. If it isn’t covered by the book, the manager refers to
the next level above him or her. This manager is really more of a police officer than a leader.
He or she enforces the rules.
Varying Leadership Style
While the proper leadership style depends on the situation, there are three other factors
that also influence which leadership style to use.
1. The manager’s personal background. What personality, knowledge, values, ethics, and
experiences does the manager have. What does he or she think will work?
2. The employees being supervised. Employees are individuals with different personalities
and backgrounds. The leadership style managers use will vary depending upon the
individual employee and what he or she will respond best to.

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3. The company. The traditions, values, philosophy, and concerns of the company will
influence how a manager acts.
In a nut shell there more or less varying leadership styles but will more or less have some or a
combination of these Four basic leadership styles:
 Autocratic
 Bureaucratic
 Laissez-faire Democratic

22.3.08T4 Qualities of a good leader

Good leaders exhibit some basic characteristics that are universally acceptable here are just a
few of them;
-A good leader has an exemplary character, he inspires others by his example and makes it
other to follow him
-A good leader is enthusiastic about their work or cause and also about their role as leader.
He is passionate about his cause and that of the institution he works for, and therefore makes
it easier for others to follow his example. People will respond more openly to a person of
passion and dedication. Leaders need to be able to be a source of inspiration, and be a
motivator towards the required action or cause.
-A good leader is confident, both in his abilities and that of those behind him and thus is able
to rally them behind him towards the desired goals.
-A leader also needs to function in an orderly and purposeful manner in situations of
uncertainty. When situations are volatile people look up to him for stability therefore if he is
not stable people start losing confidence and organisations may collapse.
-Good leaders are tolerant of ambiguity and remain calm, composed and steadfast to the main
purpose
-A good leader as well as keeping the main goal in focus is able to think analytically. Not
only does a good leader view a situation as a whole, but is able to break it down into sub parts
for closer inspection
-A good leader is committed to excellence. The good leader not only maintains high
standards but makes sure all works towards the attainment of those goals.Good leaders know
they don't know everything. The leader knows that he does not have all the answers and is
ready to consult before he makes that all too important decision.

- Good leaders are open to change. Of allthings that are constant change is the most constant
change , A good leader therefore knows that for him to remain relevant he/she must keep on
re-0inventing himself so that he changes with time.

22.3.08P Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) analyse theories of leadership
b) carry out a case study on different styles of leadership
c) analyse the qualities of a good leader

22.3.08P1Group discussion on the theories of leadership

There are very many leadership theories that have been advanced in the recent past Discuss
them and show their weaknesses/ Strengths
22.3.08P2Case studies involving the different styles of leadership
Pick out any of the leaders that you know whether in an organisation or in the political field
and discuss what kind of leadership style he/she exhibits.
22.3.08P3Group discussion on qualities of a good leader

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What kind of leadership style would you like to have in your leader?

22.3.09 STRESS
22.3.09T Specific Objectives
By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) explain the meaning of stress
b) discuss possible causes of stress
c) explain the consequences of stress
d) explain appropriate measures for managing stress

22.3.09T1 Meaning of stress

Stress is a normal physical response to events that make you feel threatened or upset your
balance in some way. When you sense danger – whether it’s real or imagined – the body's
defenses kick into high gear in a rapid, automatic process known as the “fight-or-flight”
reaction, or the stress response.
The stress response is the body’s way of protecting you. When working properly, it helps
you stay focused, energetic, and alert. In emergency situations, stress can save your life –
giving you extra strength to defend yourself, for example, or spurring you to slam on the
brakes to avoid an accident.
The stress response also helps you rise to meet challenges. Stress is what keeps you on your
toes during a presentation at work, sharpens your concentration when you’re attempting
the game-winning free throw, or drives you to study for an exam when you'd rather be
watching TV.
But beyond a certain point, stress stops being helpful and starts causing major damage to
your health, your mood, your productivity, your relationships, and your quality of life.
Stress 2

Stress can also be defined as a feeling that's created when we react to particular events. It's
the body's way of rising to a challenge and preparing to meet a tough situation with focus,
strength, stamina, and heightened alertness.

The events that provoke stress are called stressors, and they cover a whole range of situations
— everything from outright physical danger to making a class presentation or taking a
semester's worth of your toughest subject.

The human body responds to stressors by activating the nervous system and specific
hormones. The hypothalamus signals the adrenal glands to produce more of the hormones
adrenaline and cortisol and release them into the bloodstream. These hormones speed up
heart rate, breathing rate, blood pressure, and metabolism. Blood vessels open wider to let
more blood flow to large muscle groups, putting our muscles on alert. Pupils dilate to
improve vision. The liver releases some of its stored glucose to increase the body's energy.
And sweat is produced to cool the body. All of these physical changes prepare a person to
react quickly and effectively to handle the pressure of the moment.

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This natural reaction is known as the stress response. Working properly, the body's stress
response enhances a person's ability to perform well under pressure. But the stress response
can also cause problems when it overreacts or fails to turn off and reset itself properly.

Good Stress and Bad Stress

The stress response (also called the fight or flight response) is critical during emergency
situations, such as when a driver has to slam on the brakes to avoid an accident. It can also be
activated in a milder form at a time when the pressure's on but there's no actual danger — like
stepping up to take the foul shot that could win the game, getting ready to go to a big dance,
or sitting down for a final exam. A little of this stress can help keep you on your toes, ready
to rise to a challenge. And the nervous system quickly returns to its normal state, standing by
to respond again when needed.

But stress doesn't always happen in response to things that are immediate or that are over
quickly. Ongoing or long-term events, like coping with a divorce or moving to a new
neighborhood or school, can cause stress, too.

Long-term stressful situations can produce a lasting, low-level stress that's hard on people.
The nervous system senses continued pressure and may remain slightly activated and
continue to pump out extra stress hormones over an extended period. This can wear out the
body's reserves, leave a person feeling depleted or overwhelmed, weaken the body's immune
system, and cause other problems.

22.3.09T2 Causes of stress

1. Finances
Most studies agree that finances are a leading cause of stress. In an online poll conducted in
2005 by LifeCare, Inc. in the US, 23 percent of respondents named finances as the leading
cause of stress in their lives. Financial stress has led the list in many modern polls.
Some who name finances as the leading cause of stress cite major purchases they have to
make, such as a home or car. Others are stressed by a loss of income, or mounting credit
card debt. For some, financial stress will eventuate in bankruptcy. For the elderly or those
about to leave salaried employment , Retirement is a major cause of stress
2. Work
Closely tied to finances as a cause of stress is work. Our jobs or careers seem to cause
constant stress. Work makers us worry by getting and keeping adequate employment. We
worry about new types of work or new responsibilities. We struggle to climb a career ladder,
overwhelmed by the demands. Work conditions may change, or we may have interpersonal
trouble at work. Students, especially teenagers and college age students, cite school work as
a cause of stress. Sometimes, work stress is brought on by others. Sometimes, we bring it on
ourselves.
3. Family

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Family, wonderful though each member may be, is also a leading cause of stress. Arguments
erupt with a spouse or other family member. Parents divorce. Children marry. The ebb and
flow of family life is filled with stress. A child moves out - an aging parent moves in.
Family health is also a leading cause of stress. A sick family member, a serious injury,
pregnancy, miscarriage, or abortion all cause stress. Family changes of other kinds bring
stress, too. Adoption, relocation, and job changes for just one family member can cause
stress for all.
4. Personal Concerns
Personal concerns that are only indirectly created by others are another top cause of stress.
Lack of control tops the list of personal concerns. Every human has a deep-seated desire for
control over his or her own life. When control is weak or missing in a given area, we
experience stress. To many people, a lack of control over their own time is a leading cause
of stress. We want to determine when we do tasks around the home, or at work. You would
like to control your time, rather than let others' demands control it, but that is not always
possible.
5. Personal Health and Safety
Most people find that personal health is a leading cause of stress. For some, the stress is
linked to obesity, and a desire to lose weight. For others, the stress is a personal habit that
affects health and must be changed. For example, smoking, abuse of alcohol or other drugs.
Illness or injury, whether less or more serious, can be a leading cause of stress for many
people. Incontinence can be an ongoing concern. Personal health is more or less stressful
according to the degree of seriousness and our personal outlook on health.
Personal safety is also a leading cause of stress. Women, more than men, tend to stress
about their own and others' safety. Adults tend to stress more than young people, who may
act invincible. Crime is a factor, as is

6. Personal Relationships
Whether it is a friendship, dating, separation, marriage, divorce, or re-marriage, a
relationship can be a leading cause of stress for many. We all want love, and that is
potentially available in relationships, but getting from A to B can be very stressful. Some
resort to online relationships that are easier to handle. Others withdraw and become
recluses. Either way, the demands on time, finances, and emotions can cause ongoing
stress.
7. Death
Probably the most wrenching cause of stress is the death of a loved one or close friend.
Even the death of a pet can be stressful. Children are always a source of stress for parents,
but when a child dies, the stress is overwhelming. The same is true when a lifetime spouse
passes on.
Win or Lose
Causes of stress change as we age. The stressed child who threw tantrums becomes a young
student, stressed by the school bully. The young student becomes a teenager, stressed by
acne, hormones, and dating. The teenager becomes a young adult trying to handle the

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stresses of leaving home, adjusting to college life, and managing finances. Life progresses to
first jobs, marriage, children, and so on.
All these can be summarized as follows;
Common external causes of stress
 Major life changes
 Work
 Relationship difficulties Financial problems
 Being too busy

 Children and family

Common internal causes of stress

 Inability to accept uncertainty

 Pessimism
 Negative self-talk
 Unrealistic expectations
 Perfectionism

 Lack of assertiveness

22.3.09T3 Consequences of stress

If your methods of coping with stress are not contributing to your greater emotional and
physical health, it is time to find healthier ones. There are many healthy ways to manage
and cope with stress, but they all require change. You can either change the situation or
change your reaction. When deciding which option to choose, it is helpful to think of the
four As: avoid, alter, adapt, or accept.
Since everyone has a unique response to stress, there is no “one size fits all” solution to
managing it. No single method works for everyone or in every situation, so experiment with
different techniques and strategies. Focus on what makes you feel calm and in control.
22.3.09T4 Possible measures to stress management
It may seem that there’s nothing you can do about your stress level. The bills aren’t going
to stop coming, there will never be more hours in the day for all your errands, and your career
or family responsibilities will always be demanding. But you have a lot more control than
you might think. In fact, the simple realization that you’re in control of your life is the
foundation of stress management.
Managing stress is all about taking charge: taking charge of your thoughts, your emotions,
your schedule, your environment, and the way you deal with problems. The ultimate goal is
a balanced life, with time for work, relationships, relaxation, and fun – plus the resilience to
hold up under pressure and meet challenges head on.
Identify the sources of stress in your life
Stress management starts with identifying the sources of stress in your life. This isn’t as
easy as it sounds. Your true sources of stress aren’t always obvious, and it’s all too easy to
overlook your own stress-inducing thoughts, feelings, and behaviors. Sure, you may know

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that you’re constantly worried about work deadlines. But maybe it’s your procrastination,
rather than the actual job demands, that leads to deadline stress.
To identify your true sources of stress, look closely at your habits, attitude, and excuses:
 Do you explain away stress as temporary (“I just have a million things going on right
now”) even though you can’t remember the last time you took a breather?
 Do you define stress as an integral part of your work or home life (“Things are
always crazy around here”) or as a part of your personality (“I have a lot of nervous
energy, that’s all”).
 Do you blame your stress on other people or outside events, or view it as entirely
normal and unexceptional?

Until you accept responsibility for the role you play in creating or maintaining it, your stress
level will remain outside your control.

Start a stress journal

A stress journal can help you identify the regular stressors in your life and the way you deal
with them. Each time you feel stressed; keep track of it in your journal. As you keep a daily
log, you will begin to see patterns and common themes. Write down:
 What caused your stress (make a guess if you’re unsure)
 How you felt, both physically and emotionally.
 How you acted in response.
 What you did to make yourself feel better.

Look at how you currently cope with stress

Think about the ways you currently manage and cope with stress in your life. Your stress
journal can help you identify them. Are your coping strategies healthy or unhealthy, helpful
or unproductive? Unfortunately, many people cope with stress in ways that compound the
problem.

Unhealthy ways of coping with stress

These coping strategies may temporarily reduce stress, but they cause more damage in the
long run:
 Smoking  Using pills or drugs to relax
 Drinking too much  Sleeping too much
 Overeating or under eating  Procrastinating
 Zoning out for hours in front of the TV  Filling up every minute of the day to
or computer avoid facing problems

 Withdrawing from friends, family, and  Taking out your stress on others
activities (lashing out, angry outbursts, physical
violence)

Dealing with Stressful Situations:

Change the situation:

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  Avoid the stressor.
 Alter the stressor.

Change your reaction:

 Adapt to the stressor.

Accept the stressor.

Stress management strategies
Avoid unnecessary stress
Not all stress can be avoided, and it’s not healthy to avoid a situation that needs to be
addressed. You may be surprised, however, by the number of stressors in your life that you
can eliminate.
 Learn how to say “no” – Know your limits and stick to them. Whether in your
personal or professional life, refuse to accept added responsibilities when you’re
close to reaching them. Taking on more than you can handle is a surefire recipe for
stress.
 Avoid people who stress you out – If someone consistently causes stress in your life
and you can’t turn the relationship around, limit the amount of time you spend with
that person or end the relationship entirely.
 Take control of your environment – If the evening news makes you anxious, turn
the TV off. If traffic’s got you tense, take a longer but less-traveled route. If going to
the market is an unpleasant chore, do your grocery shopping online.
 Avoid hot-button topics – If you get upset over religion or politics, cross them off
your conversation list. If you repeatedly argue about the same subject with the same
people, stop bringing it up or excuse yourself when it’s the topic of discussion.
 Pare down your to-do list – Analyze your schedule, responsibilities, and daily tasks.
If you’ve got too much on your plate, distinguish between the “shoulds” and the
“musts.” Drop tasks that aren’t truly necessary to the bottom of the list or eliminate
them entirely.

Alter the situation

If you can’t avoid a stressful situation, try to alter it. Figure out what you can do to change
things so the problem doesn’t present itself in the future. Often, this involves changing the
way you communicate and operate in your daily life.
 Express your feelings instead of bottling them up. If something or someone is
bothering you, communicate your concerns in an open and respectful way. If you
don’t voice your feelings, resentment will build and the situation will likely remain
the same.
 Be willing to compromise. When you ask someone to change their behavior, be
willing to do the same. If you both are willing to bend at least a little, you’ll have a
good chance of finding a happy middle ground.
 Be more assertive. Don’t take a backseat in your own life. Deal with problems head
on, doing your best to anticipate and prevent them. If you’ve got an exam to study
for and your chatty roommate just got home, say up front that you only have five
minutes to talk.

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  Manage your time better. Poor time management can cause a lot of stress. When
you’re stretched too thin and running behind, it’s hard to stay calm and focused. But
if you plan ahead and make sure you don’t overextend yourself, you can alter the
amount of stress you’re under.

Adapt to the stressor

If you can’t change the stressor, change yourself. You can adapt to stressful situations and
regain your sense of control by changing your expectations and attitude.
 Reframe problems. Try to view stressful situations from a more positive perspective.
Rather than fuming about a traffic jam, look at it as an opportunity to pause and
regroup, listen to your favorite radio station, or enjoy some alone time.
 Look at the big picture. Take perspective of the stressful situation. Ask yourself how
important it will be in the long run. Will it matter in a month? A year? Is it really
worth getting upset over? If the answer is no, focus your time and energy elsewhere.
 Adjust your standards. Perfectionism is a major source of avoidable stress. Stop
setting yourself up for failure by demanding perfection. Set reasonable standards for
yourself and others, and learn to be okay with “good enough.”
 Focus on the positive. When stress is getting you down, take a moment to reflect on
all the things you appreciate in your life, including your own positive qualities and
gifts. This simple strategy can help you keep things in perspective.

Adjusting Your Attitude

How you think can have a profound affect on your emotional and physical well-being. Each
time you think a negative thought about yourself, your body reacts as if it were in the throes
of a tension-filled situation. If you see good things about yourself, you are more likely to feel
good; the reverse is also true. Eliminate words such as "always," "never," "should," and
"must." These are telltale marks of self-defeating thoughts.
Accept the things you can’t change
Some sources of stress are unavoidable. You can’t prevent or change stressors such as the
death of a loved one, a serious illness, or a national recession. In such cases, the best way to
cope with stress is to accept things as they are. Acceptance may be difficult, but in the long
run, it’s easier than railing against a situation you can’t change.
 Don’t try to control the uncontrollable. Many things in life are beyond our control—
particularly the behavior of other people. Rather than stressing out over them, focus
on the things you can control such as the way you choose to react to problems.
 Look for the upside. As the saying goes, “What doesn’t kill us makes us stronger.”
When facing major challenges, try to look at them as opportunities for personal
growth. If your own poor choices contributed to a stressful situation, reflect on them
and learn from your mistakes.
 Share your feelings. Talk to a trusted friend or make an appointment with a therapist.
Expressing what you’re going through can be very cathartic, even if there’s nothing
you can do to alter the stressful situation.
 Learn to forgive. Accept the fact that we live in an imperfect world and that people
make mistakes. Let go of anger and resentments. Free yourself from negative energy
by forgiving and moving on.

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Make time for fun and relaxation
Beyond a take-charge approach and a positive attitude, you can reduce stress in your life by
nurturing yourself. If you regularly make time for fun and relaxation, you’ll be in a better
place to handle life’s stressors when they inevitably come.

Healthy ways to relax and recharge

 Go for a walk.  Savor a warm cup of coffee or tea.
 Spend time in nature.  Play with a pet.
 Call a good friend.  Work in your garden.
 Sweat out tension with a good  Get a massage.
workout.  Curl up with a good book.
 Write in your journal.  Listen to music.
 Take a long bath.
 Watch a comedy
 Light scented candles
Don’t get so caught up in the hustle and bustle of life that you forget to take care of your
own needs. Nurturing yourself is a necessity, not a luxury.
 Set aside relaxation time. Include rest and relaxation in your daily schedule. Don’t
allow other obligations to encroach. This is your time to take a break from all
responsibilities and recharge your batteries.
 Connect with others. Spend time with positive people who enhance your life. A
strong support system will buffer you from the negative effects of stress.
 Do something you enjoy every day. Make time for leisure activities that bring you
joy, whether it be stargazing, playing the piano, or working on your bike.
 Keep your sense of humor. This includes the ability to laugh at yourself. The act of
laughing helps your body fight stress in a number of ways.

Learn the relaxation response

You can control your stress levels with relaxation techniques that evoke the body’s
relaxation response, a state of restfulness that is the opposite of the stress response.
Regularly practicing these techniques will build your physical and emotional resilience, heal
your body, and boost your overall feelings of joy and equanimity.
Adopt a healthy lifestyle
You can increase your resistance to stress by strengthening your physical health.
 Exercise regularly. Physical activity plays a key role in reducing and preventing the
effects of stress. Make time for at least 30 minutes of exercise, three times per week.
Nothing beats aerobic exercise for releasing pent-up stress and tension.
 Eat a healthy diet. Well-nourished bodies are better prepared to cope with stress, so
be mindful of what you eat. Start your day right with breakfast, and keep your energy
up and your mind clear with balanced, nutritious meals throughout the day.
 Reduce caffeine and sugar. The temporary "highs" caffeine and sugar provide often
end in with a crash in mood and energy. By reducing the amount of coffee, soft
drinks, chocolate, and sugar snacks in your diet, you’ll feel more relaxed and you’ll
sleep better.

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  Avoid alcohol, cigarettes, and drugs. Self-medicating with alcohol or drugs may
provide an easy escape from stress, but the relief is only temporary. Don’t avoid or
mask the issue at hand; deal with problems head on and with a clear mind.
 Get enough sleep. Adequate sleep fuels your mind, as well as your body. Feeling
tired will increase your stress because it may cause you to think irrationally.

22.3.09T3 The consequences of stress

There are two types of stress: physical and mental. If we don't learn to avoid dangerous
physical stress - accidents or severe chills, for example - sooner or later we'll no longer
survive.

However, mental stress is often impossible to avoid in our complex world, where we face job
loss, divorce or serious family problems. The consequences of such stress can have serious
implications for our health.

 High Blood Pressure: Stress contributes to most high blood pressure and is the sole
cause of 40% of hypertension cases.

 Elevated Cholesterol and Blood Fats: This occurs most frequently in people who
must deal with stress regularly, and it increases their risk of heart disease.
 Adult-Onset Diabetes or High Blood Sugar: This frequently appears in the mid-
40's, sometimes as a delayed response even after the cause has gone.
 Obesity: Many people eat as an outlet for stress. Very few people under stress will
lose weight because they don't eat.
 Poor Fitness: People seldom do the best thing for stress: exercise. In contract, they
usually become lethargic, as if they're waiting for something good to happen.
 Inflammatory Illness: Frequent headaches are common among people with arthritis,
Crohn's disease, irritable bowel syndrome, colitis and even lupus or multiple sclerosis.
I seldom find a person with these illnesses who does not say that stress is a big factor.
 Low Resistance: Stress usually means greater vulnerability to the common viruses
that cause colds and flu. This is because stress causes some blood proteins to decline.
 Serious Illness: People under stress who contract a serious illness - cancer, kidney
disease or stomach problems, to name just a few - usually don't recover or respond as
well to treatment compared to those who are relatively stress free.

Is There One Answer?

There's an answer to external stress: "Avoid it in all forms." In reality, though, that isn't
feasible. So, the second best answer is "run it off" or "talk it out."

The best way to dissipate stress that can't be worked out by calmly and rationally talking
through the situation is through exercise. This relieves tension, burns off extra blood fat and
sugar, provides an outlet for elevated blood pressure and burns off adrenaline that causes a
heightened metabolic rate.

Practice
22.3.09P0Specific Objectives

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 By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) carry out a case study on the possible causes of stress
b) brainstorm on the consequences of stress
c) brainstorm possible ways of managing stress

22.3.09P1Case studies involving causes of stress

Visit a rehabilitation centre and find out the causes of people who are in those institutions due
to stress and present your findings in groups.
22.3.09P2consequences of stress
Are there other stressors that you are familiar with? Discuss them in groups and give a short
presentation.
22.3.09P3Group discussions on the possible solutions to stress management
In groups, Pick up several cases that you consider stressful and find out their causes,
consequences and come up with possible solutions to stress management

22.3.10 CONFLICT
22.3.10T Specific Objectives
By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) explain the meaning of conflict
b) explain the causes of conflicts in an organisation
c) explain the consequences of conflicts in an organisation
d) explain the measures of reducing conflicts in an organisation

22.3.10T1 Meaning of conflict

Conflict can be defined as a mental struggle: a psychological state

resulting from the often unconscious opposition between simultaneous
but incompatible desires, needs, drives, or impulses. In organisations the
struggle takes form by the perceived opposition either actual or perceived
interests between people working in the same organisation. It takes many
forms either from those in authority and those affected by the decisions,
pay disputes, work distribution, inter-departmental rivalry, etc. There are
many ways in which people deal with conflicts. These could be through.

 Competing
 Accommodating
 Avoiding
 Compromising
 Collaborating

Each style is a way to meet one's needs in a dispute but may impact other people in different
ways. Can you think of different ways or how people use these styles?

22.3.10T2 Causes of conflicts in an organization

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Lack of information. Even in today’s technologically enabled age it is surprising how
much we are lacking in information.

Skill deficits. Most of us are not effective in negotiation, interpersonal communication, and
collaborative problem solving skills. Without these skills, employees’ ability to navigate
conflict before it becomes destructive is difficult.

Ineffective organisational systems. Some organisations do not have the requisite systems
that facilitate conflict resolutions and they can aggravate rather than solve conflicts.

Misuse of Alternative Dispute Resolution (ADR). While the increasing commitment to

Alternative Dispute Resolution (ADR) in organizations is a positive step, it’s often use too
late in a conflict, confuses mediation and arbitration, or imposes a process unhelpfully on an
unwitting or ill-informed employee. Effective conflict resolution systems, even in very small
organisations, create opportunities for conflict to be identified and addressed early and
constructively. Effective processes should emphasize talking things out effectively early in
the dispute, the use of mediation before grievances or litigation harden positions further,
conflict resolution coaching for and by educated managers, and training that supports real
behavior change.

22.3.10T3 Consequences of conflicts in an organization

It can be argued that not all conflict is bad chiefly because it is though difficulties, conflict
that we become more adept at solving problems and at times it seems that those problems
that seemed initially difficult help us to perform better in our lines of work. Depending on
what type of conflict it is, conflict can be good or bad. We have the positive conflict. That is,
that which facilitates positive outcomes. While negative conflict is that which derails or
hiders those outcomes
Beneficial Consequences
- Motivate individuals to do better and to work harder. One‘s talents and abilities come
to the forefront in a conflict situation.
- Satisfy certain psychological needs like dominance, aggression, esteem and ego, and
thereby provide an opportunity for the constructive use and release of aggressive urges.
- Provide creative and innovative ideas. For example employee benefits of the preset day
are an outcome of the union –management conflicts over the past decades.
- Add variety to one’s organizational life, otherwise work life would be dull and
‘boring.
- Facilitate an understanding of the problem, people and interrelationships between
people, better coordination among individuals & departments, in addition to
strengthening intra-group relationships, etc.

Negative effects of conflicts

(Kirchoff and Adams, 1982).identifies several destructive effects of conflicts, they include:

 impediments to smooth working,

 diminishing output

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  obstructions in the decision making process
 formation of competing affiliations within the organization.

The overall result of such negative effects is to reduce employees' commitment to

organizational goals and organizational efficiency

22.3.10T4 Measures of reducing conflicts in an organisation

Conflicts are inevitable in any organization some level conflict can be useful in generating
better ideas and methods, inspiring concern and ingenuity, and stimulating the emergence
of long-suppressed problems.

Tosi, Rizzo, and Carroll establishes several ways of dealing with conflicts namely;
- establishing super-ordinate goals,
- reducing vagueness,
- minimizing authority- and domain-related disputes,
- improving policies, procedures and rules,
- re-apportioning existing resources or adding new,
- altering communications,
- movement of personnel, and
- changing reward systems.
· Special roles and structure. A manager has to
- initiate structural changes needed, including re-location or merging of specialized units,
- shoulder liaison functions, and
- act as an integrator to resolve conflicts.
A person with problem-solving skills and respected by the conflicting parties can be
designated to de-fuse conflicts.
Confrontation techniques. Confrontation techniques aim at finding a mutually acceptable and
enduring solution through collaboration and compromise. It is done in the hope that
conflicting parties are ready to face each other amicably, and entails intercession, bargaining,
negotiation, mediation, attribution and application of the integrative decision method, which
is a collaborative style based on the premise that there is a solution which can be accepted by
both parties. It involves a process of defining the problem, searching for alternatives and their
evaluation, and deciding by consensus.
Conflict management strategies should aim at keeping conflict at a level at which different
ideas and viewpoints are fully voiced but unproductive conflicts are deterred. Stimulation of
conflict situations is appropriate if the research manager identifies conditions of 'group-
think.' Group-think is a situation where conflict rarely occurs because of high group
cohesion, which results in poor decision and inadequate performance. Group-think prevails
when there are lot of 'yes men' in a group, with the result that there is no serious appraisal
of the situation and new ideas are not suggested. Group members attach greater
importance to popularity, tranquility and peace in the group rather than to technical ability
and proficiency. Members are disinclined to verbalize their unbiased views in order to avoid
hurting the feelings of other members of the group. Decisions are accepted as they are,

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adversely affecting organizational productivity. A manager can choose several remedies to
avoid group-think (Irving, 1971).
A conflict situation can be induced by supporting individualistic thinking or favouring
individual competition. Individualistic thinking can be initiated in the group by including
some group members who can freely express their views, which can encourage and prod
others to do the same. Competition between individuals can be enhanced by acknowledging
and rewarding the better performers. Conflict situations can also be introduced by making
some organizational changes, such as transferring some group members, redefining roles,
and helping the emergence of new leadership. A manager can also create a conflict situation
by delivering shocks, such as by reducing some existing perks of the members of the
organization. After stimulating the conflict situation, a manager should:
 identify the likely source of the conflict situation
 calibrate the productiveness of the situation, and
 neutralize the unproductive conflict situation.
Basic problems in inter-group behaviour are conflict of goals and communication failures, A
basic tactic in resolving conflicts, therefore, is to find goals upon which scientists or groups
can agree, and to ensure proper communication and interaction. Some conflicts arise
because of simple misconceptions, which can be overcome by improved communication.
A manager should manage conflicts effectively rather than suppress or avoid them. To
manage them, a manager needs to ask 'What?' and 'Why?' - and not 'Who?' - to get at the
root of a problem. In the process of resolving conflicts, many problems can be identified and
solved by removing obstacles and creating a new environment of individual growth. If
conflicts are not managed properly, they can be damaging, as they waste a lot of energy and
time, and invoke tension, which reduces the productivity and creativity of those involved.

Practice
22.3.10P Specific Objectives
By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) carry out a case study on the causes of conflicts in an organisation
b) brainstorm on the consequences of conflicts
c) stimulate on possible solutions to conflicts

Content
22.3.10P1 Case studies involving causes of conflicts in an organisation
22.3.10P2 Group discussion on consequences of conflicts
22.3.10P3 Group discussion on possible s solutions to conflicts

22.3.11 EMPLOYEE PARTICIPATION IN MANAGEMENT

22.3.11T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) explain the meaning of employee participation in management
b) explain the benefits of employee participation in management
c) identify challenges of employee participation in management

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 d) explain how management can facilitate employee participation in management
e) explain the limitations of employee participation in management

Content
22.3.11T1 Meaning of employee participation in management
22.3.11T2 Benefits of employee participation in management
22.3.11T3 Challenges of employee participation in management
22.3.11T4 How management can facilitate employee participation in management

22.3.11T5 Limitations of employee participation in management

Practice

22.3.11P Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to carry out a case
study on the importance of employee participation in management.

Content
22.3.11P1 Case studies on employee participation in management

22.3.12 EMERGING TRENDS

22.3.12T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) identify the emerging trends in human relations
b) explain the challenges of emerging trends
c) explain how to cope with challenges of emerging trends

22.3.12T1 Emerging trends

The current human resources in a fast changing world where there is less emphasis on
low skills jobs knowledge and more emphasis on highly skilled personnel means that
more and more people skills are needed and that personnel needs to be valued as
resources rather than anything else . Many companies are nowadays placing a very high
premium on their work forces so as to reach their potential for healthier financial growth.

Human resource outsourcing is a new concept that is also placing a strain on the
traditional HRM office. In the new world order employees are becoming highly mobile
throughout the world and companies are called upon to keep their work force as more
openings keep on emerging such that those that treat their manpower badly risks losing
their best personnel to those with best practices .Retention of their competent people who
might end up being mopped by companies elsewhere is of great concern to companies
today. This therefore calls upon for an enabling culture that takes into consideration
human needs in an organisation through various forms of motivation.

With the increase of global job mobility, recruiting competent people is also increasingly
becoming difficult, especially in India. Therefore by creating an enabling culture,
organizations are also required to work out a retention strategy for the existing skilled
manpower.

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22.3.12T2 Challenges
From the trends identified above it is apparent that for organizations top succeed the
organisations have to contend with;
 A very limited personnel in the HRM department

 Companies outsourcing and therefore not needing the traditional methods of HRM

 Personnel that is more focused both in work as well as in family and social life,
therefore calling for a balance in these areas.

 An increasing volatile working environment that is highly dynamic with different

people from different culture religion etc.

 Ethical issues that are becoming increasingly under scrutiny from the rest of the world

 Globalisation

22.3.12T3 Coping with challenges in emerging trends

Selection of employees. Right from the recruitment stage companies needs to get the right
candidates suited for their needs.

Training and development this will entail equipping the personnel with the requisite nerds in
the organisation so that the employees blend in with the work culture and the goals of the
organisations.

Compensation systems should support the overall strategic intent of the organization but
should be customized for local conditions.

Practice
22.3.12P Specific Objective
By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) analyse the emerging trends in human relations
b) brainstorm on how to cope with challenges of emerging trend

Content
22.3.12P1 Emerging trends
22.3.12P2 Coping with challenges in emerging trends

Suggested Teaching/Learning Activities

- Field trips
- Group discussions
- Guest speakers
- Individual and group presentations
- Role playing

Suggested Teaching/Learning Resources

- Overhead projectors
- Resource persons

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- Textbooks, magazines and newspapers
- Boards and charts

Suggested Evaluation Methods

- Tests
- Term papers
- Projects
- Questions and answers

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 23.3.0 RESEARCH METHODS

TOPIC THREE- RESEARCH METHODS

Specific objectives
By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
1. Identify a representative sample of a specified population.
2. Develop instruments for data collection.
3. Collect data from the field.

TASK UNITS

TASK 1: Identifying representative sample of a specified population.

Sampling involves the process of selecting a number of individual for a study in such a way
that the individual selected represents the large group from, which they were selected.
Some terms to use are cited below;

Sampling criteria
a. Population refers to an entire group of individuals or subjects in a research who meet
b. Sample refers to part of population that has been procedurally selected
c. Representativeness refers to the extent to which the sample and population are alike.
There are reasons why we deal with samples and not populations. Pellegrino (1979) identifies
them as;

a. Cost: It is expensive to deal with samples compared to populations. This is especially so

when project are funded.

b. Time: Most projects have a lifecycle in which they have to be completed. Sampling
enables speedier processing of data and presentation of results.

c. Detailed information: Sampling can secure more information during the research than
when dealing with population.

d. Accuracy: Sampling enables accuracy with known precision, which may be specified in
advance and calculated from the sample itself.

e. Destruction: It is the ideal method when the research involves destruction of elements or
subjects e.g. light bulbs, seashells etc.

SAMPLING METHODS
Sampling Technique is the description of strategies that the researcher will use to select
representative elements/subjects forms the population. These are methods used in selecting a
sample from a population.
There are two broad categories of sampling methods.
a. Probability sampling
b. Non-probability sampling

PROBABILITY SAMPLING

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This is selection of subject from population using random selection. Each element/subject in
a population is given an equal chance of being selected. Probability sampling techniques
includes;

SIMPLE RANDOM SAMPLING (SRS)

This type of sampling is also known as “chance sampling”. Each an every item in
population is given an equal chance of inclusion in the sample. Depending on size, various
types of SRS’s include;
a. Tossing a coin – when population has 2 members
b. Tossing a dice – when population less six members
c. Lottery/raffle or folding papers – for a larger population to select a given number.
d. Use of random number table – for a very large population
e. Computer programmes – select using specified computer programme e.g. statistical
programme for social sciences (SPSS)
The disadvantage of this technique is that it can be time consuming and also impossible to
obtain
a list of every person eligible to be part of the population under study.

SYSTEMATIC RANDOM SAMPLING

This involves selecting of members at equal intervals. Every Kth case in the population is
selected for inclusion in the sample. This assumes the existence of a list of members (i.e. the
register of students or nominal roll). This then involves selecting members at equal interval
i.e. every 5th name in the list of every 10th name on the nominal roll. To obtain a truly,
random sample using this method, the list of all the members in the sampling frame must be
randomized.

STRATIFIED RANDOM SAMPLING

The goal of stratified sampling is to achieve desired representation from various subgroups in
the population. The assumption here is that the population is not homogeneous.
In stratified random sampling subjects are selected in such a way that the existing subgroups
in the population are more or less reproduced in the sample, this involves;
a. Identifying the population
b. Define the criterion for stratification
c. List population according to defined strata or subgroup
d. Determine the required sample size and appropriate representation in each stratum.
e. Select, using random numbers, appropriate sample.
The main disadvantage is that the researcher may be biased in selecting the strata in the
population.

CLUSTER SAMPLING

It is used when it is not possible to obtain a sampling frame because the population is either
very large or scattered over a large geographical area. Cluster sampling involves selection of
an intact group.
For example a tourism researcher may want to determine the type of tourists Kenya receives.
It could be time consuming to visit all the tourist circuits in Kenya. He/she may select three
circuits among the seven to represent the sample.

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It is evident from above example that in cluster sampling, it is the groups or clusters which re
randomly selected and not the individuals or cases. Cluster sampling involves the following
1. Identify the population
2. Define the cluster forming the population
3. Determine the required sample size
4. List the entire cluster in a random order
5. Using the tables of random number, select the required number of clusters according to
the sample size required.
This method may be economical on time and money, but sampling error might creep in.

AREA SAMPLING
This is an extension of cluster sampling. If clusters happen to be from geographical division.
Each one of the specified area produce sample.
For example, in the study of accommodation facilities, a researcher may deal with cost
circuit,
Southwestern circuit, Rift Valley circuit etc. Each is a distinct geographical area.

MULTI-STAGE SAMPLING
It is a further development of cluster sampling. There is sampling at various stages/or levels.
We may for example want to sample 5,000 domestic tourists; we first sample provinces,
district, division ward and household. Sampling is being done in stages it involves a
combination of stratified, cluster and systematic sampling.

MULTI-PHASE SAMPLING
This is sampling that is done in phases. For example you may want to identify and research
on domestic tourism in the first phase you sample those who travel, while in the second phase
you only deal with those identified and who travel. This is an example of double phase.

NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING
Also known as “Biased sampling” it is used when the researcher is not interested with
selecting a sample that is representative of the population. There is no equal chance of
selection of individuals to the sample.

The Methods includes;

PURPOSIVE SAMPLING
The researcher handpicks subjects to participate in the study based on identified variables
under consideration. It uses subjects who may have the required information. For example, in
the study of origin of tourists in Kenya, You may specify Germans or Italian if you feel they
have the required information.

CONVENIENT SAMPLING OR ACCIDENTAL SAMPLING

Also known as “volunteer sampling”. This is when population elements are selected based
on case of access and availability for example, drawing a sample of campus students by their
access to restaurant, church, playground library etc. The main feature of this method is that
subjects are easily and conveniently available and are also accessible.

QUOTA SAMPLING
It is similar to stratified random sampling. The objective is to include various groups or
quotas of population of study based on some criteria.

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It involves identifying subgroups in the population and their proportion and select from each
subgroup, but not at random to form a sample. The researcher purposively thus selects
subjects of it quotas identified.

SNOWBALL SAMPLING
This method use social network and the fact that friends tends to have similar characteristics.
In this method, initial subjects with desired characteristics are identified using purposive
sampling technique. The few subjects name others that they know have the required
characteristics until the researcher gets the number o cases he/she requires. It is a useful
method when the subjects are not known to researcher but can be identified by others. The
bias comes in when a researcher involves only those known and available

INTERNET SAMPLING
This uses the modern Internet technology and especially E-mail. It takes the form of
convenience sampling, because you have to have a sample that agrees.
The only major problem is that very few people are accessible to this technology. But then it
is worth noting it is an area which if well utilized can offer solutions in future as more people
embrace emerging technologies.

EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN
This is systematic manipulation of some characteristic and examination of the outcome. It
involves manipulation of independent variables to determine their effects on a dependent
variable. The purpose is to lest cause-effect relationships through manipulation of variables.

Setting for Experiments

a. Laboratory experiments – The investigator administers treatment that has been contrived
for the purpose of experiment.
b. Field experiment – conducted in “real world environment.
c. Demonstration experiment – these may be field or laboratory experiment but with one
group (the experimental) only.

TYPE OF EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS

One Short Case Study

In this case an experimental treatment is administered, and then a post-test is administered to
the effects of the treatment. Since there is no pre-test is difficult to determine if change found
is due to treatment alone or other factors.

One Group Pre-test – Post-test Design

Also known as Before-After test, this employs only one group, the experimental group, which
is pre-tested, exposed to stimulus and post-tested. The difference between the pre-test and
post-test score indicates the possible effects of independent variable on dependent variable.

Classical Experimental Design

Also known as, pre-test – post-test control group design, two groups of subjects is used one
group is called control group (no treatment is given) and the other is experimental group
(treatment is given). Both are pre-tested or post-tested. This is the most common form of
experiment.

After Only Experimental Design

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It is like classical experimental design, except neither experimental or control group is re-
tested.
It is suitable if a proper pre-test cannot be done.

Randomized Group Design

Here the design employs the experimental groups and one control group. This design is
similar to classic design, except that it includes two experimental groups.

Solomon Two-Control Group Design

This design employs one experimental group and two control groups. In principle one control
group and the experimental group are treated as in classical experimental design. The second
control group is not pre-tested, but is exposed to independent variable and post-tested.

Solomon Four-Group Design

It uses two experimental groups and two control group. One experimental and one control
group is treated as in classical experimental design. The second experimental group and
Second control group are not pre-tested but are exposed to the independent variable and are
post-tested.

Completely Randomized Design

Used when researcher is interested in investigating the effect of one independent variable. It
is usually assumed there is not existing extraneous factor that can affect outcome.

Randomized Block Design

It is an extension of the above. The difference is that in this one, the researcher has identified
a single extraneous factor that he/she thinks might affect the treatment.

Latin-square Design
This design is named after the layout design. It is a square. It attempts to control or block out
the effect of two extraneous factors. It is rather complex and expensive to execute.

Factorial Design
It can incorporate more than two types of variable. The researcher attempt to control and
determine the effects of many variable on an aspect. It is usually a very complex procedure
and expensive and also time-consuming.

Strengths of Experimental Design

Replication: Experiments are constructed in a manner that allows replication,

assuming that repeating the procedure will not lead to different results.

Prediction: Experiment allows prediction of a final/future occurrence.

Causality: Experiments possess all methodological parameters required to establish causes of
certain observations.

Precision: Experiments when well conducted can be precise.

Convenience: Due to use of samples is convenient to sue samples than population in

experiments.

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Weaknesses of Experimental Design

Control: It may be hard to control all aspects in experiments to exclude unwanted and
unintended influence outside the independent variable.

Representativeness: Samples are usually too small to produce representative findings.

Process: The research process is too technical and too artificial to allow generalization.
Ethics: There are cases in which condition dictate those ethical standards are not considered
and implemented.

TASK 2 -Developing instruments for data collection.

Purpose

The purpose of this collection of tips is to improve the ability of your assessment team to
create data-collection instruments and to collect data. It provides advice on the development
of instruments, data-collection methods and data analysis for group techniques,
questionnaires, and interviews – three common data-collection approaches. If considered at
the planning stage, these tips will help your team determine which type of data collection is
appropriate for addressing each key issue.

The following list provides an overview of the procedure:

 Define the purpose

 Develop the questions
 Develop a guide
 Arrange a schedule
 Set up the groups
 Conduct the sessions
 Record the data
 Analyze the data
 Present the findings

Develop the questions

Effective group questions are carefully defined:

 Are always open ended (none of these are to be yes-or-no questions);

 Are qualitative rather than quantitative in orientation (they ask about perceptions and
feelings, rather than about facts or numbers);
 Never ask “why” directly;
 Have many imbedded probes; and
 Allow for process concerns as well as content.

Develop a guide

Successful groups for data collection comprise people who

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  Share some common characteristic (such as being your client);
 Have diverse experiences (intact groups don’t work);
 Represent diverse perspectives; and
 Number between 6 and 12 people.

Arrange a schedule
 Allow 2 hours per group;
 Give no breaks; and
 Don’t fill time (session ends when you have extracted the data).

Questions to ask yourself

 What else do I need to ask to understand this person’s perspective?
 Am I hearing everything I need to understand?
 What does all this mean when seen collectively?
 How do I bring out real feelings?
 How much time is left?

Analyze the data

Steps
1. Type up significant commentary from the rough notes and record the speakers’
names if possible.
2. Cut and paste comments into themes (with a computer or scissors).
3. Order the comments within the themes into subthemes.
4. Arrange the themes in order of importance.
5. Edit the themes
o To eliminate redundancy;
o To ensure comments are not one person’s perspective only; and
o To create a balanced, accurate reflection of what was actually said.
6. Write a summary statement for each theme.
7. Select and edit actual quotations to illustrate each theme, but
o Avoid extreme views;
o Select statements that are typical;
o Correct grammar and language usage where required; and
o Conceal the identities of participants by removing names and identifying
details.

INTERVIEWS

Whether interviews are conducted face to face or over the telephone, following certain
procedures can help you to get the most out of them. These procedures are as follows:

 Determine the approach

 Determine general and specific research questions
 Draft the interview questions
 Pilot test the protocol
 Arrange a schedule of interviews [not discussed below]
 Prepare to record the responses

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  Conduct the interviews
 Analyze interview data

Determine the approach

Your first step in using interviews is to decide what approach to use:

 Key-informant interview – A key-informant interview is designed to collect data from

an individual who is unique by virtue of position or experience (for example, a
department head, who can represent a whole department).
 Normative interview – A normative interview is used to collect information from
large numbers of clients (for example, by interviewing typical, individual clients).

The type of interview will determine your plan:

 Interview guide – A general set of questions used in an elite interview; or

 Interview protocol – A highly structured instrument resembling a questionnaire. (The
interviewer often records the answers on the protocol.)

Determine general and specific research questions

 What do you need to find out?
 What information is it essential for you to obtain from the interview? (Remember, this
may be your only chance to get the information.)

Draft the interview questions

 Some questions may be open ended, that is,
o Ask for general information; or
o Don’t restrict the answer, for example, “How do you feel about . . . .”
 Some questions may be closed, that is,
o Ask for specific information; or
o Restrict interviewee to factual answers, yes-or-no responses, or a multiple
choice.

Sequence the questions

 Organize the questions in sections concerning major themes.

Consider your process needs

 Prepare suitable transitions from one topic to the next;
 Prepare probes and process questions; and
 Remind yourself to summarize.

Prepare introductory and concluding statements for the client

 Purpose of the interview, its duration, and its confidentiality;
 The value of the client’s contribution; and
 Follow-up.

Pilot test the protocol

It is important to do a trial run of any interview. This pilot test will help you to validate

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  The content of your questions;
 The flow of topics;
 The recording technique; and
 The timing.

If you are using other interviewers, you will need several training sessions to ensure that they
learn to use the protocol.

Revise your interview protocol or guide after you pilot test it with clients or train other
interviewers.

Telephone interviews
 Use these for normative interviews;
 Use these for elite interviews if you can’t meet in person;
 Arrange time in advance – state purpose, scope, and time required; and
 For a key-informant interview conducted by telephone, fax the main questions and
themes from the interview guide in advance.

Face-to-face interviews
 Give priority to this method for elite interviews;
 Arrange time and place;
 Ask that calls and other interruptions be held; and
 Meet where you can really discuss issues.

Arrange a schedule of interviews

Prepare to record the responses
 Decide on a general method for recording the interview: tape-recording, writing notes;
 Organize a protocol for written responses; and
 Plan to record verbal statements and to note nonverbal communication.

Conduct the interviews

It is important that you, as an interviewer, maintain control of the process as well as of the
content of the interview.

Control the content

 By planning; and
 By following the protocol or guide.

Control the process

 By starting on the right foot – a good introduction establishes a good tone, reviews
the overall agenda for the interview, and sets a time limit;
 By cutting off answers that go on too long;
 By keeping on track – leading client back to your protocol questions;
 By encouraging responses from more reserved interviewees
o Through the use of humour, and
o Through being willing to wait in silence; and
 By using effective communication techniques:
o Active listening;

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 o Openness and empathy;
o Paraphrasing; and
o Summarizing.

Analyze interview data

Normative interviews
 Quantitative responses can be recorded and statistically analyzed; and
 Qualitative responses can be analyzed for content.

Key-informant interviews

With key-informant interviews, you are trying to understand the answers to such questions as

 What are the key views of this group of clients?

 Which issues can we do something about?
 Which ones are beyond our control?
 Which views are shared by most members of this group?
 Which views differ?
 Why do some views differ? Is it the individual personality or the role, position, or
perspective of the person?

Some views may need to be weighted for importance; for example, some clients may be more
important than others, either because they are bigger clients or because their needs are more
vital. The bottom-line question is what our elite clients feel about our goods and services.
What does this tell us?

Tips on asking questions

Interviewers often get into trouble because they violate basic rules. The following problems
should be avoided:

TYPE EXAMPLE WHAT TO DO OR AVOID

Double-barreled Have you ever experienced burnout, Avoid double-barreled questions.

questions and what do you do to prevent it? Ask one question at a time. Do not
combine questions and expect an
answer.

Two-in-one What are the advantages and Do not combine opposite positions
questions disadvantages of working at this in one question. Separate out the
university? parts, and things will be much
clearer.

Restrictive Do you think that female The phraseology of this question

questions administrators are as good as male eliminates the possibility that
administrators? females might be better. Avoid
questions that inherently eliminate

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 some options.

Leading ABC Inc. wants departments to be Do not precede questions with a

questions close to their clients. What do you position statement. In this type of
think of my department's client question, the interviewer states a
relations? view or summarizes the position of
a current or recent event and then
asks for a response. This tends to
lead the respondent in a given
direction.

Loaded questions Would you favor or oppose murder Avoid questions that use loaded
by agreeing with a woman's free words and are emotionally charged.
choice concerning abortion?

QUESTIONNAIRES

The following procedures are recommended for a questionnaire survey:

 Determine the major questions

 Draft questionnaire items
 Design the questionnaire
 Pilot test the questionnaire
 Develop a data-collection strategy
 Develop a cover letter and send the questionnaire
 Monitor the response
 Analyze the survey data

Determine the major questions

You should begin by understanding the major questions or issues you wish to address. These
will generally be reflected in the questionnaire sections, as described below.

Types of questionnaire items

You must draft actual questionnaire items within each of the sections of your questionnaire. It
is difficult to vary the types of questions too often, so economize within each section by
asking similar types of questions.

You will need to master six types of questionnaire item before you invent your own.
Unproved alternatives are often confusing to the reader. So use unproved alternatives only
after you are fully familiar with the types of items described below.

Multiple-choice item

This type of question is useful for the introduction or background-information section.

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Fill-in-the-blank item

Use this form when the possibilities are too numerous to list using a multiple-choice item.
They work well in a mix with multiple-choice. So, they are also good in the introduction.

Rating-scale item

This type of item enables you to collect a lot of information efficiently. Rating-scale items are
good for rating your goods and services, other considerations, and so forth.

List item

This type of item provides a stronger form of feedback than a rating scale. It forces the client
to identify what he or she considers important and helps the researcher to avoid the problem
of people just agreeing because it is easy to check a box without feeling that it is important to
them.

What aspects of your training course did you like most? Please list three of them.

Comment-on item

This type of question is another way to gain an understanding of what your client considers
important. It is particularly useful for “mopping up” in the concluding section.

Please write any other comments about the work of school principal and suggestions for
training that you consider important:

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Likert-scale items

The Likert scale allows the respondent to agree or disagree with a series of statements. (Note,
these are statements, not questions.) The Likert scale is easy to use, if you know how, and
like other rating scales it is an efficient way to collect lots of information.

Now, you try a few. Write your own statements for dimensions of your work unit’s outputs.
Include items that are worded both positively and negatively.

1.
2.
3.

Design the questionnaire

As you write the items, you should begin considering an overall design for your
questionnaire. Follow these rules:

 Lay out items to avoid confusion;

 Use the formats shown in the examples;
 Don’t allow a question to cross over two pages;
 Instruct the respondent in what you want him or her to do for each type of question;
and
 Number the questions consecutively.

Use a booklet
 To make it professional and facilitate completion.

Have a title and introductory explanation

 To let your clients know what you are doing; and
 To help them fill out the questionnaire properly.

Arrange the questionnaire in sections, each with a title

 To help structure the respondent’s thinking; and
 To facilitate analysis.

Group similar types of items together

 Do this especially with rating-scale items; but
 Fill-in-the-blank and multiple-choice items can be mixed together.

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Use all available space
 Try to limit the length of the questionnaire to four pages; and
 Use space for comments to fill in pages.

Pilot test the questionnaire

Even the best questionnaire needs testing. You might understand everything in the
questionnaire, but your client may not. Here are some tips to help you test your questionnaire.

Show the questionnaire to critical colleagues

 Ask them to read it and to comment in the margins; and
 Revise the questionnaire.

Test the questionnaire with a few clients

 Assemble 5–6 clients;
 Ask them to complete the questionnaire in writing; and
 Discuss each question with the group.

In completing this step, ask such questions as

 Was the item clear, and could it be answered?
 Did the question hit the important aspect of the issue?
 What has been left out?
 Does the whole questionnaire enable your client to really express what he or she
thinks of your organization’s work?

Revise again

It sounds like a lot of work. It is! Creating a good questionnaire may take a week of full-time
work, even for a professional.

Develop a data-collection strategy

Now you have a questionnaire ready to go! You’ll need to work out a strategy for how and
where to send it. The first part of your strategy is to select a sample of people who fairly
represent all your clients. Prepare a list of your sample clients.

The second part of your strategy is to decide on the technology you will use to send out your
questionnaire.

Standard

Questionnaires can be printed, in your office or by a printer, and mailed to respondents.

Respondents fill them out and mail them back. Results are manually input into a database or
statistical program for analysis.

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Optical scanning

It is possible to print questionnaires so that they can be read by an optical scanner that picks
up the responses automatically. The questionnaires in Appendix 3 were designed to be used
in this way. (Note, pictographs can be used to illustrate points.)

Electronic questionnaires

The coming wave for internal client-needs assessments is the e-mail questionnaire. This is
designed on a computer and sent as a computer file to clients via e-mail. The client receives
the file, completes the questionnaire on his or her computer, and sends the file back to you by
e-mail.

Follow-up

You also need a follow-up strategy. This may include

 Tracking the number returned each day – e-mail lets you know who hasn’t yet
replied;
 Sending a reminder 2 weeks after first mailing; and
 Deciding on corrective action, if returns are poor.

When key people in each unit distribute and collect the questionnaire, pyramid networks are
great, but personal networks are the best of all for getting returns.

Develop a cover letter and send the questionnaire

Each client in your sample should receive

 A cover letter;
 A professionally developed questionnaire; and
 A self-addressed return envelope, unless you use e-mail.

Cover letter

Every successful questionnaire comes with a cover letter. The letter should contain six pieces
of information:

 The purpose of the questionnaire;

 Who is sending it;
 Why the respondent was selected;
 Where, how, and when to return the questionnaire;
 Whom to contact if there are further questions; and
 Whether and how the results will be shared.

Monitor the response

 Count on 4 to 6 weeks to get responses to your questionnaire;
 Use your follow-up strategy: send reminder letters or put your network into action;
and

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  Start your analysis when responses dry up.

Analyze the survey data

Questionnaire analysis generally means dealing with large numbers or with a variety of
numbers. This usually requires you to use statistical concepts and computers. Many simple
statistics programs are available to help you analyze data.

TASK 3-Developing instruments for data collection

Steps in developing a good data collection instruments
• Consider the sequence of the items
• Format the instrument, including any instructions
• Get feedback on the instrument
• Revise pilot test revise pilot test revise

Survey methods
• Face-to-face
• Telephone
• Written (mail, email, internet)

Important elements of surveys

• A statement to respondents about how information will be used and why it is valuable
• Clear instructions, including for any skip patterns
• Clean, appealing format
• Logical sequence of questions
• Consideration of how answers to previous items might affect later items

Qualities of a good survey item

• Clear
• Singular
• Neutral
• Balanced
• Appropriate language for the intended respondent
• Appropriately broad or narrow in scope

TASK 4: collecting data from the field.

Observational Field Research
Observational research findings are considered strong in validity because the researcher is
able to collect a depth of information about a particular behavior. However, there are
negative aspects. There are problems with reliability and generalizability. Reliability refers
the extent that observations can be replicated. Seeing behaviors occur over and over again
may be a time consuming task.
Generalizability, or external validity, is described as the extent that the study's findings
would also be true for other people, in other places, and at other times. In observational
research, findings may only reflect a unique population and therefore cannot be generalized
to others. There are also problems with researcher bias. Often it is assumed that the
researcher may "see what they want to see." Bias, however, can often be overcome with

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training or electronically recording observations. Hence, overall, observations are a valuable
tool for researchers.

Should you or shouldn't you collect your data through observation?

Consider the following Questions;
Is the topic sensitive?
Can you observe the Phenomena?
Do you have a lot of time?
Are you not sure what you’re looking for?

Types of Observations
• Direct (Reactive) Observation
In direct observations, people know that you are watching them. The only danger
is that they are reacting to you. Now here are two commonly used types of direct
observations; Continuous Monitoring, Time Allocation:

• Unobtrusive Observation:
Unobtrusive measures involves any method for studying behavior where
individuals do NOT know they are being observed (don't you hate to think that
this could have happened to you!). Issues involving informed consent and
invasion of privacy are paramount here. There are two types of unobtrusive
research measures you may decide to undertake in the field:
1. Behavior Trace studies:
2. Disguised Field Observations:

Before you start on a research project make sure you how you are going to interpret your
observations.
1. Descriptive:
Descriptive observational variables require no inference making on the part of the
researcher. You see something and write it down.
2. Inferential:
Inferential observational variables require the researcher to make inferences about
what is observed and the underlying emotion. For example, you may observe a girl
banging on her keyboard. From this observation you may assume (correctly) that she
is frustrated with the computer.
3. Evaluative:
Evaluative observational variables require the researcher to make an inference and a
judgment from the behavior. For example, you may question whether computers and
humans have a positive relationship. "Positive" is an evaluative judgment. You
observe the girl banging on her keyboard and conclude that humans and computers do
not have a positive relationship (you know you must replicate these findings!).

Unit task 4: Data Analysis and Presentation

Presenting the Data
In general, most evaluations conducted by local programs would lend themselves to
descriptive analysis of data. Descriptive analysis is a way of summarizing and
aggregating results from groups. If an evaluation has been conducted which employs

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a control group, or measures changes in program participants over time, then it
might be appropriate to employ inferential analysis in which a decision is made
about whether the particular results of the study are "real". More emphasis will be
placed on descriptive analysis in this fact sheet.
Verbal Description of Data
Many reports rely on narrative information to present most, if not all, of the
necessary information. Narrative information may be presented in three ways:
standard writing style; tables; and/or, figures, diagrams, maps, and charts.
Standard writing style, that is, the use of sentences and paragraphs, is often the best
way to present information, especially to audiences that are not accustomed to
working with charts, graphs, tables, numbers, etc. It is the only way to present
information such as examples and explanations. If standard writing style is used to
summarize the results of open ended questions ("What do you like most about the
program?"), it is often useful to give some indication of how often a particular
response was given.
Tables represent narrative or numerical information in tabular fashion. A table
arranges information in rows or columns, so that data elements may be referred to
easily. They provide a clear and succinct way to present data, and are often more
simple and understandable than standard writing style. They also facilitate the
interpretation of data.
Figures, diagrams, maps and charts present verbal information visually. They often
describe information more clearly than several paragraphs of description. Common
forms of figures are: flow charts; organization charts; GANT charts; and/or maps.
 Flow charts are particularly useful for presenting relationships and/or
describing the sequence of events and the location and result of decisions.
 Organization charts are useful for presenting the chain of responsibility in a
program.
 GANT charts list a set of tasks. They indicate the time each task is to be
performed and by whom.

Maps visually describe certain geographical areas. They are useful in describing
different conditions for individual geographical areas.
Numerical Description of Data
Data are not only described in narrative, they are often described numerically. Three
of the most basic types of summarization are:
 frequency distribution;
 percent; and
 average.

Each of these types of summarization may be presented as part of the text or

arranged in tables or figures (graphs). Inclusion as part of text ("The average age for
children served was 18 months") is an obvious way to report data.
Frequency distribution determines the number of units (e.g., people) which fall into
each of a series of specified categories. In order to do a frequency distribution one

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must have categories. Reporting on age, for example, requires that you group the
data first before constructing a frequency distribution (e.g., "birth to 2 years," or "3
to 5 years"). The evaluation might look to see how many parents were members of
particular racial or ethnic categories, how many were known to protective services,
or how many were referred from a range of referral sources.
Frequency distributions are not limited to descriptions of consumer characteristics.
Program activity can also be presented categorically. The frequency distributions can
be presented as tables or graphs (usually bar graphs). See figures 2 and 3 for
examples.
Figure 2: Family Type Table

Percent is another useful way of describing data. A frequency count can be

converted to percent by dividing the number of units for a particular category by the
total number of units and multiplying by 100. Percents are often more easily
understood than the corresponding frequency counts. Percents can be represented
in the same manner as frequency counts. In addition, a pie chart is useful in breaking
the total group of people into the percentage of the total represented by each
category. See Figure 4 for an example.
Figure 4: Crisis Nursery Percents

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 An average is a way of summarizing all of the information into one number. It can be
used with data which is non-categorical numerical data. You cannot have a
numerical average for gender or race, for example. Using a numerical average is very
powerful, but it can also be misleading. A few data points which are very different
from the others could substantially change the numerical average. For example, if
the ages of children you serve are generally between 1 and 3 years, but you get one
child who is 18, the average may be thrown off. Averages can be represented in
tables or graphs.
Unit task 5: Conclusion and Recommendation
Begin the final chapter with a few paragraphs summarizing what you did and found
(i.e., the conclusions from Chapter IV).

Discussion
Discuss the findings. Do your findings support existing theories? Explain why you
think you found what you did. Present plausible reasons why the results might have
turned out the way they did.

Recommendations
Present recommendations based on your findings. Avoid the temptation to present
recommendations based on your own beliefs or biases that are not specifically
supported by your data. Recommendations fall into two categories. The first is
recommendations to the study sponsor. What actions do you recommend they take
based upon the data. The second is recommendations to other researchers. There are
almost always ways that a study could be improved or refined. What would you
change if you were to do your study over again? These are the recommendations to
other researchers.

TRAINEE LEARNING RESOURCES

1. Fitz-Gibbons, Carol Tayler (1987). How to Analyse Data. Newbury Park, CA; Sage
Publication.
2. Morris, Lynn Lyons (1987). How to Communicate Evaluation Findings. Newbury Park,
CA; Sage Publication.
3. Babbie, E. (1992). The practice of social research. (6th ed.). Chapter 11. California:
Wadsworth.

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4. Bernard, R. (1994). Research methods in anthropology. (2nd ed.) Chapters 14-15.
California: AltaMira.
5. Gall, M., Borg., & Gall, J. (1996). Educational research. (6th ed.). Chapter 9. New
York: Longman.
6. Montgomery, B. & Duck, S. (1991). Studying interpersonal interaction. Chapter 11.
New York: Guilford.
7. Kothari C.R. 1990 Research Methodology: Methods and Techniques (2nd Ed)
Wishwa
8. Parkshan New Delhi 1999
9. Mugenda O. & Mugenda G, 1999 Research methods: Quantitative and Qualitative
approach

TRAINEE EVALUATION
1. Explain any three tourism research sampling techniques
2. Develop any two research instruments for data collection for an exit survey at an
airport.
3. illustrate any four techniques that you can employ in data analysis and presentation
4. explain how you can collect data from the field by observation methiods

EMERGING TRENDS IN RESEARCH PROJECT

Specific objectives
By the end of this topic the trainee should be able to:
a) Identify emerging trend in research project
b) Explaining the challenges of emerging trends in research project
c) Explain ways of adapting to the emerging trends in research project

UNIT TASKS
Unit Task 1: Identifying emerging trend in research project

Unit Task 2: Analyzing the challenges of emerging trends in research project

Unit Task 3: Synthesizing the ways of adapting to the emerging trends in research
project

TRAINEE’S LEARNING RESOURCES

1. Fitz-Gibbons, Carol Tayler (1987). How to Analyse Data. Newbury Park, CA; Sage
Publication.
2. Morris, Lynn Lyons (1987). How to Communicate Evaluation Findings. Newbury Park,
CA; Sage Publication.
3. Mugenda O. & Mugenda G, 1999 Research methods: Quantitative and Qualitative
approach
4. Act press, Nairobi
5. Oso W.Y & One. D 2005. A General Guide to Writing Research Proposal and Report:
A
6. Hand Book for Beginning Researchers Option Press and Publishers Kisumu Kenya.

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TRAINEE EVALUATION
1. Identifying any six emerging trend in research project
2. Explaining of any five challenges of emerging trends it in research project
3. Explain any five ways of adapting to the emerging trends in research project

1242
ELECTIVE MODULES FOR MODULE II AND III

1243
24.4.0 FOOD AND BEVERAGE PRODUCTION MANAGEMENT
24.4.01 Introduction
This module unit is intended to equip the trainee with knowledge, skills and
attitude to effectively perform supervisory or management duties in a food and
beverage production establishment.

The trainee will be involved in all aspects of food production. He/she will employ
both mental and physical abilities in conjunction with available resources so as to
acquire the desired skills.

24.4.02 General Objectives

At the end of this module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) understand the organisation of food and beverage production outlets
b) appreciate the use of equipment and tools for a variety of food and beverage
production outlets.
c) apply international food and beverage production manipulative skills
d) direct operations in any food outlet profitably
e) evaluate the existing methods of food and beverage production in relation to
meeting the expectations of the management
f) promote health and safety of the employees, guests and property
g) appreciate the need for quality food and beverage products in order to attract
and maintain guests
h) adopt emerging trends in food and beverage production

1244
24.4.01 INTRODUCTION TO THE
CATERING INDUSTRY

Theory

24.4.01T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) outline the history of the catering industry
b) identify types of catering operations
c) describe the development of hotels in Kenya
d) Classify types of catering outlets

Unit Tasks:

Task 1: history of the catering industry

The hospitality industry has emerged as the way hoteliers and caterers would like their
industry to be perceived. It conveys an image that reflects the tradition of service that goes
back over many centuries to the earliest days of inn-keeping.

The impetus to the growth of hotels and subsequently the modern hospitality industry was
provided by the railways. The profitable companies began to invest in large comfortable
hotels generally located near the main railway stations and by1902 there were 70 major hotels
owned and controlled by them.

Task 2: types of catering operations

(a)Commercial catering
i) Hotels and restaurants
 Wine bars
 Fast foods
 Takeaways
ii) Quick service
 Delicatessen
 Salad bars
iii) Private clubs
iv) Chain catering organizations
v) Licensed house(pub) catering
 Speciality restaurant
vi) County hotels
vii) Consortia
viii) Motels/travel lodges
ix) Guest houses
x) Youth hostels
xi) Airline services
xii) Prisons
xiii) Armed forces

(b) Welfare catering

i) Hospital catering

1245
 ii) School meal service

Task 3: The development of hotels in Kenya

The first hotel to be recorded in Kenya was built in Mombasa called ‘The grand Hotel’
located at the present site of the Manor Hotel.
In Nairobi the main contributory factor to development of hotels was the construction of the
railway line which reached ‘Nyarobe’ (Nairobi) at the turn of the 19th century. With the
onset of business activities in Nairobi, came the establishments of the first catering units.
These were mainly to cater for the railway personnel.

The first hotel to be constructed for this purpose was believed to have been built by a Mr.
Mac john on Victoria street (now Tom Mboya street). In 1902 alittle shop which was to
become the forerunner of ‘The Stanley’ hotel was constructed and managed by a lady
called Mrs. Mayence Bent.

Soon the railway employees built their own establishment – ‘The Railway Club’ which
catered for their interests. This was open to all Europeans, but not as popular as Mrs.
Mayence Bent’s hotel. The hotel soon flowed into the next building which was constructed
by a Mr. Dan Noble to serve as a proper hotel premises. This hotel building was to be known
as the first Stanley Hotel.

In 1904, a fire burned down Mrs. Mayence Bent’s hotel. It was re-constructed and acquired
the name ‘The New Stanley Hotel’. Mr. Ringer built another hotel in the same year called
the Norfolk. By 1906 four hotels were in existence and a flourishing business.

In 1927 Mr. Abraham Block bought the famous Norfolk hotel. In 1946/47 he bought The
New Stanley and also acquired out span hotel the world’s famous’ Treetops’. In1950 the
Block Hotels limited became a public company which followed massive expansion and today
The Block Hotels is one of the biggest chains of hotels.

Task 4: Classification of catering outlets

Classification Scheme
 AA classification system – use of stars
 Tourist Boards classification system
 Classification by type

LEARNING RESOURCES
 Text books
 Internet
 Magazines

EVALUATION
1. Identify types of catering operations
2. Giving examples in each case, classify catering outlets using the three classification
schemes

1246
24.4.02 KITCHEN ORGANIZATION

Theory

24.4.02T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) describe the personnel structure in the kitchen
b) discuss professional ethics of the kitchen staff
c) explain the interdepartmental relationship
d) explain work schedules used in the kitchen
e) describe the records maintained in the kitchen department
f) prepare and maintain duty rotas, work schedules, and staff records used in the
kitchen

Unit Tasks
Task 1:Organisational structure in
the kitchen
 Factors affecting number of staff required
- output
- type of menu required
- labour – serving equipment available
- use of pre-prepared foods
- efficiency of work flow
 Personnel and their duties
- Chef de Cuisine (Head Chef): Responsible for:
o Menu planning
o Costings
o Control of material; portions, wastage, security etc
o Staff; rotas, engaging induction etc.
o Purchasing and maintenance of equipment and utensils
o Staff welfare
- Sous Chef (Second Chef)
o Assistant kitchen manager
o May be assigned a particular area of responsibility
o Assists with the running of the kitchen
- Che de Partie (Section
Chef)
In charge of the section. There are various section chefs as described
below:
o Chef saucier (sauce
cook) – responsible for cooking all meat, poultry, game, offal dishes
and their garnishes and sauces

1247
 o Chef garde manger (larder cook) – responsible for the preparation of
all hot and cold sweets including cakes, pastries and all iced
confectionary
o Chef poissonnier (fish cook) – responsible for cooking all fish except
for plain grilled and deep fried fish which are done by the rotisseur
o Chef rotisseur (roast cook) – responsible for roasting, grilling and
deep frying.
o Chef potager (soup cook) – responsible for all soups, egg and
farinaceous dishes
o Chef entremmettier (vegetable cook) – responsible for cooking all
vegetables including potatoes, with exception of deep fried items.
Also supplies other parties with vegetable garnishes
o Chef tournant (relief chef) – takes over from other section chefs on
their days off.
- Other chefs
o Chef de nuit (night
chef) – responsible for the whole kitchen through out the night to deal
with any orders that may reach the kitchen via room service
o Chef communard (staff cook) – responsible for the preparation of staff
meals with the exception of management and certain senior staff.
o Breakfast chef – responsible for preparing breakfast
- Commis chef (assistant chef) – assistant cooks known as commis. The
most senior commis in the section is referred to as first commis, next,
second commis etc.
- Aboyeur (kitchen announcer) – calls out the food orders when they arrive
at the hot plat. Also assists the chef de cuisine and sours chefs with
aspects of administration
- Ancilliary staff
o Kitchen porters (kps) – responsible for the general cleaning of the
kitchen and for carrying things.

o Plongeur (pot washer) – in large establishments – responsible for

washing up plates, crokery, glass and silver service equipment.
o General assistants or kitchen hands – extra helpers employed mainly
in large establishments as a backup. They are unskilled
o Still room supervisors
o Store keepers – responsible for the store room.

Head Chef

Still Room
Kitchen Porter/Plongeur

Second Chef
(Sauce Chef)

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Larder/Breakfast/ Fish roast cook Vegetable
soup Pastry cook
staff cook
cook

1st Commis chef Commis chef

Commis chef 1st Commis chef

Trainee
Trainee
(Apprentice)
(Apprentice)

1249
Apprentice is a trainee e.g. students on attachment

Task 2: Professional ethics of the kitchen staff

 Personal qualities of the chef
- Reliability
- Commitment
- Communication
- Self control
- Artistic flair
- Honesty
- Skilled
- Knowledgeable
- Attention to detail
- Sobriety
- Meticulousness
- Self organisation
 Should have a food handlers certificate
 Should not be suffering from any infectious disease/cuts, wounds etc
 Should be well groomed

Task 3:Interdepartmental relationships with other departments of the hotel include:

 Housekeeping
 Purchasing/stores
 Front office
 Marketing and sales
 Accounting
 Security
 Housekeeping
- Supplies cleaning materials
 Stores
- In-charge of purchasing of
commodities required for production
- Receiving, storing, issuing
 Front office
- Receives guests
- Registers the guests
- Bookings
 Marketing and sales
- Markets the hotel products
 Accounting
- Receives daily sales
- Provide petty cash
- Calculate profits

1250
 Security
- Provides to both guests and visitors

Task 4: Works Schedules

Scheduling refers to listing the actual work to be undertaken by particular members of
staff during a particular period of the days

Reasons:
 Make the best use of staff
 Ensure coverage of work
 Ensure fair allocation of work
 Saves time and energy
 Employees work becomes easy because they know exactly what they are required
to do and when
 Minimizes complaints that other employees are not doing their share

Methods of scheduling work

 Multi-skilling; when staff have more than one skill, they can switch from one kind
of task to the other.
 Use of part time, causal and overtime
- Part time staff increase productivity by cutting down some aspects of labour
costs like pension, meals, medical cover etc.
- Casuals are called in during the busy periods and days
- Overtime payment for all time staff improves productivity by motivating them
 Flexible working – a system of no fixed hours
- Staff report to work when most needed
- Employees work extra hours on busy days and less on quiet days
- Staff are allowed to choose hours and shifts
- Staggered scheduling
e.g. work in shifts depending on work flow i.e rush time and show time or
peak and off peak hours
 Use of technology
- Use of labour scuring equipment
that can improve productivity because one member of staff can do more
work when assisted by a machine.

Task 5: Records used in the kitchen

 Requisition book
 Order book
 Stock sheets
 Standard specification sheet
 Requisition sheets
 Price lists
 Duty rotas
 Food production checklist

LEARNING RESOURCES

1251
 Text books
 Internet
 Resource persons
 Charts
 duty rota
 work schedules
 staff records

EVALUATION
Evaluation questions
1) Discuss the reasons for organizing a kitchen
2) Discuss the factors that affect the kitchen design
3) Discuss the roles of the kitchen staff in an establishment that your have
worked

24.4.03 RECIPES

Theory

24.4.03T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) define the term recipe
b) discuss factors to consider when compiling recipes
c) convert basic recipes to the required yields
d) cost recipe

Unit Tasks:
Task 1: definition of the term recipe
 This is a precise written formula for preparation and cooking of a menu item
 A recipe is a set of instructions that show how to prepare or make something,
especially a culinary dish.
 A set of directions with a list of ingredients for making or preparing
something, especially food.
 A list of materials and directions for preparing a dish or drink; any procedure
for accomplishing something.

Task 2: factors to consider when compiling recipes

 The number of people to be catered for
 Style of service
 Type of establishment
 The preferences of the clientele
 The type of menu
 Time available for preparation and production
 The skills of the personnel in the establishment
 Availability of ingredients
 Cost of ingredients

Task 3: conversion of basic recipes to the required yields

1252
  The following guidelines apply:
 Establish the yields the basic recipe at hand caters for e.g 8 portions
 Establish the yields one intends to produce e.g. 40 portions
 Divide the intended portions by the portions provided for by the basic recipe at
hand e.g. 40/8 = 5
 Multiply the number obtained by the amount of each ingredient provided e.g.
if the basic recipe for beef for 8 portions is 1Kg, multiply this by 5 i.e 1x5 to
get 5Kg as the amount required to produce 40 portions

Task 4: costing recipes

 The cost of any individual dish may be established by adding together the cost
of all ingredients and dividing by the number of portions.

 The cost of the meal may be established by adding up the total cost of all
dishes in the menu and dividing by the number of portions.

 Unit of purchase refers to the amount that can be obtained when shopping

COSTING SHEET

Dish & Ingredients Quantity Unit of Cost per Cost Total Total
yield Require Purchas Unit of Cost of Cost of
d e Amont Dish Meal
Used
Steak & Topside 800g Kg: Kshs 200 160.00
Kidney beef 400g Kg: Kshs 240 96.00
Pie Ox kidney 200g Kg: Kshs 100 20.00
(10 pax) Onion 1 tspn Bunch: Kshs 10 10.00
Parsley 7 ml Litre: Kshs 65 0.50
Soy sauce 1 lt Litre: Kshs 120 120.00
Demi-glace 750g Kg: Kshs 100 75.00
Tomato
paste 481.50
Parsley Potatoes 11/2 kg Kg Kshs 50 150.00
potatoes Parsley 2 Bunch Kshs 10 20.00
(10 pax) Salt bunches Kg Kshs 50 0.50
I0 g 170.50
Steamed Spinach 3 Bunch Kshs 10 30.00
Spinach Salt bunches Kg Kshs 50 0.25
(10 pax) 5g 30.25
682.25 818.70
NB: Assumption for the costing sheet is profit margin is 20% of the total amount used
in production of the meal. Therefore price per portion = 818.70/10 = 81.87 ~ Kshs 82

LEARNING RESOURCES
 Text books
 Internet
 Resource persons
 Charts
1253
 Kitchen equipment
 Service equipment
 Costing sheets
 Calculators
 Sample recipes

EVALUATION
1. Convert basic recipes into standard recipes of 20 portions
2. Prepare a costing sheet for a three course meal for 20 people

24.4.04 MENU PLANNING

Theory

24.4.04T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) define terms used in menu planning
b) describe types of menus
c) explain factors to consider when planning different menus
d) cost and price a given menu
e) prepare a time plan for the production and presentation of a given menu

Unit Tasks:

Task 1: terms used in menu planning

Menu is a list of dishes to be served in a given meal.

Task 2: types of menus

9. Table d’hôte
A set menu forming a complete meal at a set price A choice of dishes may be offered
at all courses. Choice and number of courses is limited to two, three or four.

10. A La Carte
Menu with all the dishes individually priced.
Customers compile their own menu from the list.
The meal is cooked to order.
The customer should be prepared to wait for this service.

11. Party/function Menus

Menu for banquets or functions of all kinds.
All guests start the meal at the same time.
Seasonable foods must be available if the menus are printed well in advance to avoid
embarrassments.

4. Ethnic/Specialty menus
Can be al carte or table d’hôte specializing in the food or religion of the country or in
a specialized food itself e.g.

1254
a) Ethnic: - Chinese, Indian, Kosher, Kenyan, African etc
b) Specialty: - steak, fish, pasta, vegetarian etc
Kitchen staff must know how to obtain and use the ingredients.
The ambience (mood) of the restaurant must reflect the menu.

5. Hospital menus/Institutional menus.

It’s a form of a menu given to the patient. The day before service the patient ticks
his/her preferences.
A dietician is usually involved with menu compilation to ensure nothing is given to
the patients that would be detrimental to their health.
The patient’s meals are usually 2-3 courses.

6. Menu for people at work

Menus served to people at the work place.
They vary in standard and extent from one employer to another depending on the
company policy.
They are usually served in staff canteens or cafeteria.
Some companies charge for the meals and some ask for a token sum and offer meals
at a subsidized price/rate.
The menu offers 2 or 3 course meal with a selection of items.

7. Traditional menus/Ethnic menus

Traditional recipes form a sound foundation of knowledge for the chef/caterer.
However fashions in food change and customers look for new dishes, different
combinations of food, fresh ideas on menu etc
Some of the most successful menus contain a sensible balance of traditional and
contemporary dishes.

8. Menu for children

They emphasize on healthy eating and a balanced diet in schools.
Schools with children from different cultural and religious backgrounds should have
appropriate items available o the menu.
Most establishments provide special children’s menus which concentrate on favorite
foods.

Task 3: factors to consider when planning different menus

Several factors direct what kind of menu to make
1. Nutrition requirements
- Proteins
- Starches
- Vitamins
- Fats
- Mineral salts

2. Health consideration
- Sickness
- Deficiencies like scurvy, diabetes, kwashiorkor

1255
3. Availability of foodstuffs
- Seasonal foods like
- Fruits
- Vegetables
4. Number of courses
- Appetizer
- Main dish
- Dessert
5. Sequence of courses

6. Nutritional balance
- Proteins
- Vitamins
- Minerals
- Water
- Roughage – acts as a “broom” along the digestive system.
- Fats and oils

7. Occasions
- Funerals - Festivities like
- Wedding - Christmas
- Birthday - Ramadhan
- Graduation Ceremony - Easter holiday
- National holiday celebration
-

Task 4: cost and price a given menu

When costing include the following
 Cost of individual ingredients in a recipe
 Cost of each recipe
 Total cost of each dish
 Total cost of the whole meal
 Profit margin and price per portion

Task 5: prepare a time plan for the production and presentation of a given menu
A production time plan should include the following
 Menu
 Food order list
 Costing
 Timed order of work
 Presentation and garnishing

LEARNING RESOURCES

1256
 Text books
 Resource persons
 Internet
 Recipe cards
 Price lists
 Menus
 Time plan
 Magazines

EVALUATION

1. Prepare a time plan for the preparation, production and presentation of a three
course meal for 40 technical training officers who are attending the launch of
the modular system curriculum. Include a choice in each course

24.4.05 KITCHEN SUPERVISION

Theory

24.4.05T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) explain the elements of supervision
b) discuss functions and the responsibility supervisor
c) discuss the challenges of kitchen supervision

Unit Tasks:

24.4.5 Kitchen Supervision

Task 1: Elements of supervision
 Forecasting - working a head to foresee possible and probable outcomes
and to allow for them e.g. a forthcoming function.
 Planning – how many meals to prepare, how much to have in stock, how
many staff will be needed, which staff and when etc. This allows for
necessary action to be taken.
 Organizing – ensuring that what is wanted is where it is wanted, when it is
wanted in the right amount and at the right place.
 Commanding – supervisor gives instructions to staff on how, what, when,
where. That is giving orders and maintaining a degree of discipline.
 Coordinating – the skill required to get staff to co-operate and work
together. Supervisor has to listen to staff, deal with their queries solve
problems and be helpful.
 Controlling – controlling people and products, preventing pilfering,
improving performance, checking that staff arrive on time, do not leave
before time etc.
 Involves inspecting and tact

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 Task 2: Responsibilities of a supervisor
 Delegation – giving a certain amount of responsibility to other staff
 Motivation – supervisor needs to know what gives staff satisfaction from
the work they do.
 Welfare – includes good working conditions, freedom from fear of being
sacked, discrimination, job security
 Understanding – supervisor needs to try and understand people, to
anticipate problems and build up a ream spirit to overcome the problems.
Entails being fair and giving staff encouragement.
 Communication – supervisor must be able to communicate effectively it
to convey orders, instructions information. Manual skills requires the
supervisor to posses the right attitude

Task 3: Challenges of kitchen supervisor

 Unwillingness to accept change

 Working long hours
 Difficult to keep staff motivated
 Dealing with different personalities
 Dealing with staff personal problems (welfare)
 Working with people who have un-equal qualification – understanding
one another may be difficult

LEARNING RESOURCES
 Text books
 Resource persons
 Internet
 Magazines
 Journals
 Kitchen

EVALUATION
1 Discuss the elements of supervision
2. Discuss ways of motivating staff
3. Discuss the qualities of a good supervisor
4. As an employee discuss how you would like to be supervised

24.4.06 PRODUCTION EVALUATION

24.4.06T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) describe production checklist
b) describe product analysis
c) prepare a production checklist
d) analyse production system

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Unit Tasks: NOTE TASK 1& 2 HANDWRITTEN
Task 1: production checklist
Task 2: product analysis

Task 3: prepare a production checklist

Task 4: analyze production system

LEARNING RESOURCES
 Textbooks
 Resource persons
 Internet
 Recipe cards
 Price lists
 Menus
 Production checklist

EVALUATION
1. Evaluate the dishes prepared during the practical using the production
checklist
2 Analyse the day’s production

24.4.07 EGGS

24.4.07T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) identify the grades of eggs
b) draw and label the structure of an egg
c) state the factors to consider when selecting eggs
d) explain the correct storage of eggs
e) explain the uses of eggs in cookery
f) supervise the preparation, production and presentation methods of egg
dishes
g) evaluate egg dishes
h) evaluate the egg dishes

Unit Tasks:

Task 1: Grades of eggs

 Grade A – naturally clean, fresh eggs internally perfect with intact shells
and an air cell not exceeding 6 mm (1/4”) in depth
 Grade B – eggs which have been down graded because they have been
cleaned or preserved or because they are internally imperfect, cracked or

1259
 have an air cell exceeding 6 mm (1/4”) but not more than 9 mm (3/4”) in
depth
 Grade C – are eggs which are fit for breaking for manufacturing purposes
but cannot be sold in their shells to the public

Task 2: Structure of eggs

Structure of eggs – cooking explained 147 or google or principles of catering

Task 3: Factors to consider when selecting eggs

 Check that the eggs are not broken or cracked
 It is advisable to purchase eggs where there is a fast turnover
 Shell should be clean, undamaged and slightly rough
 White a large proportion of thick white to thin white
 Yolk – firm, round/domed shaped, good yellow colour
 Smell – pleasant – bad eggs smell of hydrogen supplied

Task 4: Storage of eggs

 Eggs should be stored in a cool dry place, preferably under refrigeration
 Store away from possible contaminants such as raw meat
 Stock should be rotated – first in first out
 Hands should be washed before and after handling eggs
 Cracked eggs should not be used
 Store eggs with their blunt end that is the one with the air space facing
upwards
 Egg dishes should be consumed as soon as possible after preparation, if
not for immediate use, keep in refrigeration

Task 5:Uses of eggs in cookery

 Hors-d’oeuvre
 Soups
 Egg dishes
 Sauces
 Meat and poultry
 Meat and poultry
 Pasta
 Salads
 Sweets and pastries
 Savouries
 Enriching
 Thickening
 Colouring
 Binding
 Clarifying
 Aerating
 Garnishing
 Main meals

Task 6: Preparation, production and presentation

 Beating
 Whisk

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  Frying
 Boiling – hard boiled and soft boiled
 Poaching
 In cocotte
 Scrambled
 French fried
 Omelette

Task 7: presentation of egg dishes

 the dish should look attractive
 well garnished
 the correct temperature
 food should be served on clean dishes
 edges of the dishes should be free from smudges

Task 8: evaluate the egg dishes

LEARNING RESOURCES
 Text books
 Resource persons
 Internet
 Food materials
 Recipe cards
 Price lists
 Menus
 Kitchen equipment

EVALUATION
1. Explain the uses of eggs in cooking and diets
2. Explain the preparation, production and presentation of meats and meat
products
3. Prepare, produce and present egg dishes
4. Store eggs appropriately.

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24.4.08 MEAT AND MEAT PRODUCTS

24.4.08T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) identify various types of meat and meat products
b) draw and label the structure of meat
c) state the factors to be considered in selecting different types of meat
and meat products
d) explain the correct storage of meat and meat products
e) supervise preparation, production and presentation of meat dishes and
meat products

Unit Tasks:

Task 1: Types of meat and meat products

Terms used for meat from different animals
ANIMAL TERM OF MEAT
MEAT PRODUCT
1. Cow/bull Beef Sausage,
Calf -cow Veal bacon, canned
beef
Gelatin
2. Goat Goat meat
3. sheep mutton
4. Poultry Chicken Sausage,
- Chicken Duck eggs, canned
- Duck Goose chicken
Turkey
- Goose
- Turkey
5. Pigs Pork Sausages,
bacon .canned
pork, ham,
brawn

Task 2: The structure of meat

See cooking explained 3rd edition pgs 126-127 for diagrams and content

Task 3: Factors to be considered in selecting different types of meat and meat

products
 Freshness – without unpleasant odour and the fluid should be watery not
sticky
 Colour (dictated by the source of meat e.g. beef should be bright red)
 Buy from a clean well ventilated shop
 It should not have excessive fat and bone

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  Texture should be firm and elastic
 The dish to be prepared
 The method of cooking
 Ascertain if it has been inspected by a reputable meat inspector

Task 4: Storage of meat and meat products

Handling
 Always buy from a butchery which is clean and well ventilated
 All meat handlers should maintain high level of personal hygiene.
 All meat handlers should require a medical certificate
 All meat should be inspected by a qualified meat inspector and certified by
stamping the meat.
 Different types of meat should be handled separately e.g. a chopping board for
each type of meat. Chicken chopping board, Beef chopping board, fish chopping
board
 Use meat products as soon as they thaw or removed from the refrigerator to
prevent contamination
Storage
 Hung fresh meat to allow it to become tender
 Store meat under cool temperatures of 1°c.
 Suspend meat on hooks
 Store each type of meat separately
 Store meat products as per the recommended temperature e.g. freezing -18°c,
Refrigeration/chilling 2 to 4°c

Task 5: supervision of preparation, production and presentation of meat dishes and

meat products
Preparation
 Trimming  Singeing
 Cutting  Sealing
 Deboning  Barding
 Marinating  Carving
 Larding  Tenderising
 Trussing


Production
 Boiling  Frying
 Stewing  Baking
 Roasting  Braising
 Grilling
Suggested recipes
Grilled pork chops, mutton curry, roast lamb, beef, goulash, braised beef, kofta curry,
mince stew, Irish stew, carbonnade, stroganoff, beef olives.

Presentation

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  Clean serving equipment
 Appropriate serving equipment
 Food should not overflow
 Use appropriate garnishes
 Serve food at their correct temperatures
 Portion sizes should be correct
 Serve with suitable accompaniments

LEARNING RESOURCES
 Text books
 Food commodities
 Equipment and tools
 Charts on food commodities

EVALUATION
1. Identify and classify various types of meats and meat products used in cooking
and diets.
2. Explain the uses of meats and meat products in cooking and diets
3. Explain the production methods of meats and meat products
4. Explain the various methods of storing different meats and meat products.
5. Store various meats and meat products appropriately.

24.4.09 POULTRY

Theory

24.4.09T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) identify various types of poultry
b) draw and label the cuts of poultry
c) state the factors to consider when selecting types of poultry
d) explain the storage of poultry
e) supervise the preparation and production and presentation of poultry

Unit Tasks:

Task 1: Types of poultry

POULTRY TERM OF POULTRY

POULTRY PRODUCT

- Chicken Chicken Sausage, eggs,

canned
- Duck Duck chicken
- Goose Goose

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 - Turkey Turkey
- Quail Quail

Types of chicken
Table on weight and portions of fowls in practical cookery pg. 297
 Spring chickens/poussin - 4-6 weeks old used for roasting and grilling
 Broiler chickens - 3-4 months old used for roasting, grilling, casserole
 Medium roasting chicken – fully grown, tender prime birds used for roasting,
grilling, sauté, casserole, supreme and pies
 Large roasting or boiling chicken used for roasting, boiling, casserole.
 Capons – specially bred, fattened cock birds used for roasting
 Old hens – used for stocks and soups

Task 2: The cuts of poultry

Figure and names of cuts of chicken fig. in practical cookery pg. 299 fig. 9.34`

Task 3: Factors to consider when selecting types of poultry

 Plump breast, pliable breast bone at the vent end and firm flesh
 Skin white and unbroken with no bruising. Broiler chickens have a faint bluish tint
 Pleasant fresh smell
 Spurs showing no signs of development
 Tight, fine and even scales on legs
 Sticky skin with a bluish-grey tinge and an unpleasant smell indicate the bird in
deteriorating in quality
 Method of cooking to be used
 Occasion
 Clientele’s preferences

Task 4: Storage of poultry

 Chilled birds should be stored between 30C and 50C
 Oven ready birds are eviscerated and should be stored in a refrigerator
 Frozen birds must be kept in deep freeze until required but must be completely
thawed, preferably in a refrigerator before being cooked to reduce the risk of
food poisoning
 Frozen chicken should be checked that :
o The packaging is undamaged
o There are no signs of freezer burns, which are indicated by white
patches on skin

Task 5: supervision of preparation, production and presentation of poultry

Preparation
The following preparation methods can be used however it depends on the type of
dish to be prepared

 Skinning  Hanging
 Gutting  Trimming
 Slaughtering  Cutting
 Plucking  Deboning
 Tenderising  Marinating
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  Larding  Sealing
 Trussing  Barding
 Singeing  Carving

Production
The following cooking methods can be used however it depends on the type of dish to
be prepared
 Boiling
 Stewing
 Roasting
 Grilling
 Frying
 Baking
 Braising
Suggested recipes
Chicken curry, stew, roast, grilled, Maryland, fricassee, Tandoori, tikka, Ala-king

Presentation
The following are guidelines on presentation
 Clean serving equipment
 Appropriate serving equipment
 Food should not overflow
 Use appropriate garnishes
 Serve food at their correct temperatures
 Portion sizes should be correct
 Serve with suitable accompaniments

LEARNING RESOURCES
 Text books
 Food commodities
 Kitchen equipment
 Charts on food commodities
 Recipes

EVALUATION
1. Identify and classify various types of poultry.
2. Explain the preparation, production and presentation methods of various
poultry.
3. Explain the various methods of handling and storing different poultry.
4. Store various poultry appropriately.

24.4.10 GAME

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 Theory

24.4.10T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able:
a) identify types of game
b) state the factors to consider when selecting types of game
c) describe the storage of game
d) supervise the preparation, production and presentation of game dishes

Unit Tasks:

Task 1: types of game

Feathered game – pheasants, partridges, wild duck, grouse, guinea fowl e.t.c
Furred game – hares, rabbits, antelope, deer, antelope e.t.c

Task 2: factors to consider when selecting types of game

 Freshness – without unpleasant odour and the fluid should be watery not
sticky
 Colour (dictated by the source of meat)
 Buy from a clean well ventilated shop
 It should not have excessive fat and bone
 Ascertain that it has been inspected by a reputable meat inspector
 The age of the animal
Additionally:
Feathered game
 Plump well fleshed breast with a pliable breastbone
 Minimal bruising
 Smooth legs
 Not excessive bleeding
 A gamey smell that is not unpleasant
Furred game
 Claws should be long and sharp
 The tips of the ears should tear easily
 The flesh should be plump, well fleshed, free from excessive bleeding and
bruising
 The lower jaw bones

Venison
 Flesh should be reddish brown in colour free from any signs of blood clots,
excessive bleeding and bruising
 Should be young up to 4 years in age – older animals will only provide dry,
tough flesh
 Have a gamey smell without being unpleasant

Task 3: storage of game

Handling
 All meat should be inspected by a qualified meat inspector and certified by
stamping the meat.

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 Different types of meat should be handled separately e.g. a chopping board for
each type of meat.
Storage
 Hung fresh meat to allow it to become tender
 Store meat under cool temperatures of 1°c.
 Suspend meat on hooks
 Store each type of meat separately
 Store meat products as per the recommended temperature e.g. freezing -18°c,
Refrigeration/chilling 2 to 4°c

Task 4: supervision of preparation, production and presentation of game dishes.

Preparation
The following preparation methods can be used however it depends on the type of
dish to be prepared

 Skinning  Trimming  Trussing

 Gutting  Cutting  Singeing
 Slaughtering  Deboning  Sealing
 Tenderising  Marinating  Barding
 Hanging  Larding  Carving

Production
The following cooking methods can be used however it depends on the type of dish to
be prepared

 Boiling
 Stewing
 Roasting
 Grilling
 Frying
 Braising

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Presentation
The following are guidelines for presentation
 Clean serving equipment
 Appropriate serving equipment
 Food should not overflow
 Use appropriate garnishes
 Serve food at their correct temperatures
 Portion sizes should be correct
 Serve with suitable accompaniments

LEARNING RESOURCES
 Text books
 Food commodities
 Kitchen equipment
 Charts on food commodities
 Recipes

EVALUATION
1. Identify and classify various types of game used in cooking and diets.
2. Explain the preparation, production and presentation of various game
3. Explain the various methods of handling and storing different games.
4. Store various game meats appropriately.

24.4.11 FISH AND SEAFOODS

24.4.11T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) classify fish and seafood
b) draw and label the structure of fish
c) state the factors to consider when selecting fish and seafoods
d) describe the correct storage of fish and seafood
e) supervise the preparation, production and presentation of fish and
seafood dishes

Unit Tasks: NOTE TASK 1 -4 and EVALUATION HANDWRITTEN

Task 1: classification of fish and seafood

Task 2: the structure of fish

Task 3: factors to consider when selecting fish and seafood
Task 4: storage of fish and seafood

Task 5: supervision of preparation, production and presentation of fish and seafood

dishes
Preparation
The following preparation methods can be used however it depends on the type of
dish to be prepared

 Scaling
 Trimming
 Cutting
 Filleting
 Marinating
 Larding
 Sealing

Production
The following cooking methods can be used however it depends on the type of dish to
be prepared

 Boiling
 Stewing
 Roasting
 Grilling
 Frying
 Braising

Suggested recipes
Stewed whole fish, fish in batter, pan
fried, fish in breadcrumbs, fish cakes,
kebabs, fish fingers, and fish meuniere.

Presentation
The following are guidelines for
presentation
 Clean serving equipment
 Appropriate serving equipment
 Food should not overflow
 Use appropriate garnishes
 Serve food at their correct
temperatures
 Portion sizes should be correct
 Serve with suitable
accompaniments

LEARNING RESOURCES
 Text books
 Resource persons
 Internet
 Food materials
 Recipe cards
 Price lists
 Menus
 Kitchen equipment
EVALUATION
1. explain three classes of fish
2. discuss points to observe when buying whole fish
3. describe the production procedure of a named fish dish

24.4.12 PULSES

Theory

24.4.12T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) define the terms
b) identify the types of pulse
c) explain the use of pulses in cookery
d) identify factors to be considered when selecting pulses
e) describe the storage of pulses
f) supervise the preparation, production and presentation of dishes made from pulses
g) evaluate dishes made from pulses

Unit Tasks:

Task 1: Definition of terms

 Pulses are dried seeds of legume plants. They include beans, peas, Soya beans, cow peas,
black peas, green grams, pigeon peas
 Nuts are any seeds within hard shells and edible kernels; they include ground (peanuts),
cashew nuts, macadamia nuts and almonds

Task 2: Types of pulse

 Fresh
 Frozen
 Canned
 Dried

Task 3: Use of pulses in cookery

 As a main dish
 In the preparation of meat substitutes
 To expand meat dishes
 To enrich other foods e.g. added into cereals in the preparation of flour
 In the preparation of salads and soups

Task 4: factors to be considered when selecting pulses

 Clean and free from soil and stones
 Free from signs of pests and diseases
 Well shaped, firm and not damaged by harvesting equipment, and weather
 Time available for preparation
 Availability

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  Season

Task 5: storage of pulses

 Keep pulses and nuts in clean containers in well ventilated store.
 Store the pulses and nuts when well dry.
 Ensure all pulses and nuts are completely dry before storage
 Always use old stock first before the new stock (new harvest)
 Pulses should be treated before storage. Ensure the treated pulses are thoroughly cleaned
before use
 Sacks for storing pulses and nuts should be placed on a rack to prevent moisture and attack by
rodents.
 The store should be well lit to ensure easy visibility.
 Take note of the expiry dates of all products of pulses and nuts

Task 6: preparation, production and presentation of pulses dishes
Preparation
 Sorting
 Soaking
Production
The following cooking methods can be used however it depends on the type of dish to be
prepared
 Boiling
 Stewing

Suggested recipes
Lentil soup, bean goulash, dengu curry lasagne.

Presentation
The following are guidelines for presentation
 Clean serving equipment
 Appropriate serving equipment
 Food should not overflow
 Use appropriate garnishes
 Serve food at their correct temperatures
 Portion sizes should be correct
 Serve with suitable accompaniments

LEARNING RESOURCES
 Text books
 Resource persons
 Internet
 Food materials
 Recipe cards
 Price lists

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 Menus
 Kitchen equipment

EVALUATION
1) Identify the different types of pulses
2) Describe the different preparation methods of pulses
3) Explain the importance of proper storage of pulses
4) Write recipes for various pulse dishes

24.4.13 CEREALS AND CEREAL PRODUCTS

Theory

24.4.13T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) define the terms
b) identify types of cereals
c) draw and label the structure of cereals
d) explain the uses of cereals in cookery
e) identify factors to consider when selecting cereals
f) describe the correct storage of cereals
g) describe the preparation, production and presentation of cereal dishes

Unit Tasks:
Task 1: Definition of terms
This are seeds of cultivated grasses and are used as sraple foods in the diet of most
people.

Task 2: Types of cereals

Wheat, oats, rice, barley, maize, sorghum, millet, rye
Types of flour made from wheat
White flour - is milled and sieved to remove the outer skin and the germ
Whole meal – The whole grain is ground into flour
Germ flour – mixture of 75% white flour and 25% cooked germ. The germ is cooked
to reduce rancidity
Starch reduced flour – most of the starch is removed, leaving mainly gluten and
proteins
Cereal products
 Wheat products: pasta, semolina, gnocchi, breakfast cereals
 Rice products: rice flour, rice paper, breakfast cereals
 Oat products: rolled oats, ground oatmeal, breakfast cereals
 Maize products: cornflour, custard powder, blancmange powder, breakfast cereals
 Barley products: pearl barley, malt extract and malt flour, beer, breakfast cereals
 Rye products: rye flour, breakfast cereals

Task 3: The structure of cereals

Check KIE book 3 pg 89; or cooking explained pg 62 (structure of wheat grain)

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Task 4: Uses of cereals in cookery
 As main ingredient for starch dishes
 As a main meal e.g breakfast cereals
 As a cereal product e.g wheat flour. Cornflour, maize flour

Task 5: Factors to consider when selecting cereals

 Clean and free from soil and stones
 Free from signs of pests and diseases
 Well shaped, firm and not damaged by harvesting equipment, and weather
 Time available for preparation
 Availability
 Season
 Personal preferences

Task 6: Storage of cereals

 Should be completely dry to avoid aflatoxin poisoning
 Grain store should be well ventilated and dry to avoid the accumulation of moisture ,
which can lead to development of mould
 Should be well preserved using, using recommended preservatives.
 The grain store should be free from pests such as weevils and rats
 Storage containers should be placed on racks to avoid ants and dampness
 Toxic chemicals such as herbicides, pesticides, should not be stored in a food store to
avoid food contamination
 The stock should be checked to ensure it is in good condition
 The old stock should be used before the new one

Task 7: Preparation, production and presentation of cereal dishes

Preparation
The following preparation methods can be used however it depends on the type of dish to be
prepared

 Winnowing
 Sorting
 Soaking
 Kneading
 Sieving
 Folding in
 Blending
 Browning

Production
The following cooking methods can be used however it depends on the type of dish to be
prepared
 Boiling
 Steaming
 Baking
 Roasting

Suggested recipes
Rice dishes, pasta.

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Presentation
The following are guidelines for presentation
 Clean serving equipment
 Appropriate serving equipment
 Food should not overflow
 Use appropriate garnishes
 Serve food at their correct temperatures
 Portion sizes should be correct
 Serve with suitable accompaniments

LEARNING RESOURCES
 Text books
 Resource persons
 Internet
 Recipe cards
 Price lists
 Menus
 Kitchen equipment
 Food commodities

EVALUATION
1. Explain the value of cereals in the diet
2. List the commonly used cereals in food production
3. Discuss factors to consider when selecting cereals

24.4.14 MILK AND MILK PRODUCTS

Theory

24.4.14T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) identify the types of milk and milk products
b) explain the uses of milk and milk in food production
c) identify factors to consider when selecting milk and milk products
d) explain the storage of milk and milk products
e) describe the preparation and production and presentation of milk dishes

Unit Tasks:
Task 1: Types of milk and milk heat treatment
 Pasteurized milk – is heated to a temperature of at least 71.70C (161)F) for 15
seconds and then cooled quickly to less than 100C (500F)
 UHT (ultra – heat-treated milk. Milk is homogenized and then heated to a
temperature of at least 1350C for 1 second, then packed under sterile conditions.
 Sterilized milk – milk is pre-heated to 500C, separated and standardized to produce
whole, semi-skimmed or skimmed milk. Filled bottles are then passed through a

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 steam pressure chamber at a temperature 1100C and 1300C for 10-30 minutes then
cooled in a cold water tank.
 Homogenized milk – milk is forced through a fine aperture which breaks up the fat
globules to an even nice so that they stay evenly distributed throughout the milk and
therefore do not form a cream line.
 Whole mile (blue cap) – comes as pasteurized or pasteurized homogenized and has a
fat content of an average 3.9%
 Semi – skimmed milk (green – cap or light blue) – comes as pasteurized and has a
fat content of between 1.5 and 1.8%
 Skimmed milk – comes as pasteurized and UHT and contains just 0.1% fat
 Evaporated milk – a concentrated sterilized product with a final concentration about
twice that of the original milk
 Condensed milk – concentrated in the same way as evaporated milk but with addition
of sugar. It is not sterilized but is preserved by the high concentration of sugar it
contains.
 Dried milk – milk produced by the evaporation of water from the milk by heat or
other means to produce solids containing 5% or less moisture
 Soya milk – can be offered as an alternative for people with an intolerance to cows
milk or strict vegetarians
 Goats milk – nutritionally similar to cows milk and can be useful for people with a
lactose intolerance
 Rice milk – an alternative to dairy milk for vegans and those with an intolerance to
lactose. It is heat stable which makes it a good replacement for cows in corking.
 Coconut mil – high in saturated fat but low in calories – it can be served as a drink
but is more often used for cooking e.g. as a marinade and rice dishes.

Types of milk
 Cream - clotted cream
- Double cream
- Whipping cream
- Sterilized cream
- Single cream
- Half cream
 Yoghurt
- low fat
o plain
o natural fruit
- very low fat
- whole milk/creamy
 Cheese
- Cheddar
- Cottage cheese
- Cream cheese
- Processed cheese
- Low fat cheeses
- Mozzarella
- Home – produced cheeses
 Butter
- Clarified butter e.g. ghee and concentrated butter
- Unsalted and salted

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Task 2: Uses of milk and milk products in food production
 Uses of milk
- Drinks – in hot chocolate, coffee, milk shake
 Soups – e.g. cream of chicken soup tomato soup
 Sauces – in bread sauce, custard
 Batters e.g. pancakes, Yorkshire pudding
 Egg custard – type mixtures e.g. bread and butter pudding
 Milk puddings e.g. rice pudding, milk jelly
 Baked goods e.g. bread, scones, cakes
 Glaze – for brushing cover the surface of scones to give a smooth, shiny surface
 Uses of yoghurt – in food preparation
- Drinks
- Desserts
- Salad dressings, dips and sauces
- A substitute for cream or cream fillings
- Toppings
- Garnish for soups
 Uses of cream
- beverages e.g. coffee
- Soups
- Sauces
- Salad dressing
- As a topping e.g. in fruit salad, sponge cakes
 Uses of cheese in cookery
- Snacks e.g. sandwiches, roast
- Sauces
- Toppings e.g. pizza
- Dips and spreads
- Biscuits e.g. cheese straws
- Soufflés
- Flans
- Fondues
- Cheese cakes

 Uses of butter in food production

- For spreading
- As a base for making soups, sauces, compound batters
- For making cakes and pastries, butter icings and frostings
- For shallow frying foods
- As a glaze on cooked foods
- In sandwiches it acts as a protective layer, preventing moist foods from
penetrating the bread
- Also gives the finished product a delicious flavour

Task 3: Factors to consider when selecting milk and milk products

 Milk
- Buy from a reliable supplier
- Milk containers should be clean
- Milk type purchase should meet customer satisfaction

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 - Temperature should be appropriate e.g. fresh, chilled, dried
- Should not have an unpleasant smell
- Colour should be appropriate (off – white) – depends on the type purchased
 Cream
- Depends on its use
- Buy cream from the chill cabinet only
- Half cream helps to lower the intake of fat
 Cheese
- The skin or rind of cheese should not show spots of mildew, as this is a sign of
damp storage
- Cheese when cut should not give off an over strong smell or any indication of
amounts
- Hard, semi-hard and blue vein cheese when cut should not be dry
- Soft cheese when cut should not appear runny, but should have a delicate
creamy consistency
- Choose cheeses that have a lower fat content
- Use a strong flavoured cheese, such as mature cheese or parmesan, but use in
small amounts
- If strong flavours are preferred it is advisable to buy mature varieties
- Processed cheese is useful for sauces, burger toppings and sandwiches
- Cream cheese is useful for making cheese cakes
 Yoghurt
- Should have been stored in a chilled cabinet. Do not buy it if the cap is blown
or domed in the centre
- Plain yoghurt is very versatile – low fat yoghurts are ideal in the context of
the healthful diet
- If yoghurt is not for immediate use, choose yoghurt that has been heat melted
after fermentation
- Large pots of multi packs of yoghurt are more economical
- Flavorings can be added to natural yoghurt
 Butter
- Flavour should be rich, creamy and mellow
- Colour of butter varies from delicate pale yellow to a rich, bright colour
- Texture should be smooth and creamy and remains firm when chilled.

Task 4: Storage of milk and milk products

 Guidelines for keeping milk fresh
- Keep milk from different deliveries separately
- Milk keeps better if it is kept in its original container
- Milk must be stored in the refrigerators
- Milk should be kept covered as it easily absorbs smells from other foods such
as onion and fish
- Fresh milk should be ordered daily
- Tinned milk should be stored in cool, dry ventilated room
- Dried milk is packaged in air tight tins and should be kept in a dry store
- Sterilized milk will keep for 2 -3 months if unopened but once opened must be
treated in the same way as pasteurized milk
- UHT will keep un-refrigerated for several months. Before using, always
check the date stamp which expires 6 months after processing. Once opened it
must be refrigerated and will keep for 4 -5 days

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  Storage of cream
- Fresh cream should be stored in the container in which it is delivered
- Fresh cream must be stored in the refrigerator until required
- Cream should be kept covered as it easily absorbs smells from other foods
such as onion and fish
- Fresh cram should be ordered daily
- Tinned cream should only be thawed as required and not refrozen.
- Artificial cream should be kept in the refrigerator
 Storage of cheese
- All cheese should be kept in a cool, dry, well ventilated stored
- While cheeses should be turned occasionally if being kept for any length of
time
- Keep away from other foods which may be spoilt by the smell
 Storage of yoghurt
- Non heat related yoghurt can be stored for about 10 days
- If yoghurt is kept longer than the recommended storage time the bacteria
multiply enough to increase the acid level and flavour of yoghurt is impaired
- If yoghurt has been treated after fermentation it will last longer
 Storage of butter
- Should be kept refrigerated – below 50C (410F) for optimum quality
- If kept at room temperature it deteriorates and exposure to light causes
varicidity
- Should be kept covered in a cool dark place away from strong flavours or
smells which could taint its delicate taste

LEARNING RESOURCES
 Text book
 Food commodities
 Kitchen equipment
 Food charts

EVALUATION
1. Differentiate the following milk products:-
a) Cream and yoghurt
b) Cheese and butter
2. Explain the uses of cheese in cookery
3. Discuss the importance of proper storage of milk

24.4.15 VEGETABLES

Theory

24.4.15T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) define term
b) classify vegetables

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 c) explain the uses of vegetables on cookery
d) identify factors to consider in selecting vegetables
e) explain the storage of vegetables
f) describe preparation, production and presentation of vegetable dishes

Unit Tasks:

Task 1: Definition of terms

The term vegetable includes any edible part of any plant.

Task 2: Classification of vegetables

9. Roots  Carrots
 Beetroots
 Onions
 Radishes
 Garlic
 Ginger
10. Tubers  Arrow roots
 Cassava
 Sweet potatoes
 Yams
11. Pods and seeds  Green peas
 French beans
12. Fruit vegetables  Tomatoes
 Cucumber
 Green pepper
(capsicum)
 Hot paper
 Baby marrow
 Pumpkins

13. Flower fruits  Cauliflower

 Broccoli
14. Leafy vegetables  Kales
 Spinach
 Cabbages
 Lettuce
 Amaranthus (Terere)
 Nightshade (Managu)
15. Stems and shoots  Leeks
 Celery

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  Asparagus
 Bean sprouts
16. Fungi  Mushrooms

Task 3: uses of vegetables on cookery

a. Used for soups and accompaniments for meat dishes
b. For pickling
c. As hors d’oeuvre
d. For salad ingredients
e. For garnishing eggs, fish, poultry, rice, pasta e.t.c.
f. As a hot vegetable to accompany starch dishes
g. Flavouring savoury dishes
h. To decorate cold buffet items
i. Flavouring for stews, braises, chutney, ketchup e.t.c

Task 4: Factors to consider in selecting vegetables

 Clean and free from soil and stones
 Well shaped, firm and not damaged by harvesting equipment.
 Free from signs of damage, frost pests and disease
 Green vegetables should have crisp fresh leaves with a bright colour.
 Root vegetables should have unblemished skins free from spongy discolored patches
 Legumes should be firm crisp and not too big, pods should not be too full or the vegetable
may be coarse textured.

Task 5: Storage of vegetables

 Store in a cool dry, well ventilated place
 For potatoes store in darkened bins or on slanted racks
 The refrigerator is a facility that is used for storing foods requiring consistent not too cold
temperatures 4-6°c up to 0°c such as vegetables
 Stems, leaves, flowers, roots and seeds should be stored in a refrigerator, covered in a
bowl or pan or in a polythene paper to prevent them from weathering
 Fresh vegetables may be stored in a vegetable rack away from bright light. . Usually green
vegetables in refrigerator should not be stored in a dark area to prevent leaves turning
yellow.
Task 6: Preparation, production and presentation of vegetables
Methods of preparing vegetables
 Cutting
 Chopping
 Shredding
 Slicing
 Blanching
 Refreshing
 Dicing
 Grating

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Methods of producing vegetables
 Steaming
 Braising
 Stewing
 Baking
 Frying
 Sautéing
 Stir-frying
 Boiling
Methods of presenting vegetables
The following are guidelines for presentation of vegetables dishes
 Clean serving equipment
 Appropriate serving equipment
 Food should not overflow
 Use appropriate garnishes
 Serve food at their correct temperatures
 Portion sizes should be correct
 Serve with suitable accompaniments

LEARNING RESOURCES
 Text books
 Magazines
 Food commodities
 Kitchen equipment
 Food charts
 Internet

EVALUATION
1. discuss the role of vegetables in the diet
2. identify types of vegetables
3. explain six methods used in preparing vegetables

24.4.16 FRUITS

Theory

24.4.16 Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) define term
b) classify fruits
c) explain the uses of fruits in cookery
d) identify factors to consider when selecting fruits
e) explain the storage of fruits
f) describe preparation, production and presentation of fruits dishes

Unit Tasks:
Task 1: Definition of terms

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Fruit is the edible seed bearing portion of some cultivated or wild shrub, trees and plants. Fruits
can be eaten raw and served at the beginning and the end of a meal.

Task 2: Classification of fruits

CLASS EXAMPLE
6. Stone fruits  Avocado
Have a hard un edible  Plums
kennel inside the fruit  Peaches
 Cherrie
 Apricots
 Mangoes
 Grapes
7. Soft fruits fleshy  Strawberries
 Blackberries
 Pawpaw
 Ripe bananas
 Water melons
 Sweet melons
8. Citrus fruits  Oranges
 Lemons
 Lime
 Tangerine
9. Tropical  Passion fruits
 Yellow passion
 Guavas
 Tree tomato fruit
 Bananas
 pawpaw
10. Hard fruits  Apples
 Pears

Task 3: Uses of fruits in cookery

Raw fruits - much of the fruits we eat are raw. Raw fruits are an important source of vitamin C
and dietary fibre and should be included frequently in the diet as a dessert, salad or a snack

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Cooked fruits – some varieties of fruits are unpalatable if eaten raw. These varieties are always
cooked e.g. gooseberries, rhubarb. Others are cooked in making of pies, puddings, jams and
jellies

Task 4: Factors to consider when selecting fruits

 Buy fruits in season
 Choose good quality fruit
 They should appear fresh and firm to the touch
 Should be clean free from disease or pest damage and un-bruised.
 They should be free from moulds, shriveling or wilting

Task 5: Storage of fruits

 Fresh fruits should be stored in a refrigerator. Other fruits may be stored in a cool
ventilated place

 Store fruits at 10°c and bananas at above 13°c to prevent them from blackening (turning
black)

Task 6: preparation, production and presentation of fruits dishes

Methods of preparing fruits
 Cutting
 Slicing
 Dicing
 Peeling
 Coring
Methods of producing fruit dishes
Fruits can be eaten:-
 Raw-salads, juices, snacks, garnishes, cocktails, platters.
 Cooked – jams, jellies, fritters, puddings, pastries, pies, cakes, syrups.

Methods of presenting fruit dishes

 Clean serving equipment
 Appropriate serving equipment
 Fruit should not overflow
 Use appropriate garnishes
 Serve fruit dishes at their correct temperatures
 Portion sizes should be correct
 Serve with suitable accompaniments

LEARNING RESOURCES
 Text books
 Internet
 Magazines
 Food charts
 Food commodities
 Kitchen equipment
 Recipes

EVALUATION

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1. Classify fruits
2. Discuss the uses of fruits in food production
3. Discuss the storage of fruits

24.4.17 FATS AND OILS handwritten

Theory

24.4.17T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) define term
b) explain the sources of fats and oils
c) factors to consider in selection of fats and oils.
d) explain the uses of fats and oils.
e) explain the storage of fats and oils.

Unit Tasks:

Task 1:
Task 2:
Task 3:
Task 4:
LEARNING RESOURCES
 Text books
 Internet
 Magazines
 Food charts
 Food commodities
 Kitchen equipment
 Recipes

EVALUATION
Hand written

24.4.18 CONVENIENCE FOODS handwritten

Theory

24.4.18T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) define convenience foods
b) classify convenience foods
c) explain the uses of convenience foods
d) explain factors to consider in selection of convenience foods

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 e) explain storage of convenience foods.

Unit Tasks:

Task 1:
Task 2:
Task 3:
Task 4:

LEARNING RESOURCES
 Text books
 Internet
 Magazines
 Food charts
 Food commodities
 Kitchen equipment

EVALUATION

24.4.19 RECHAUFEE’ DISHES .., handwritten

Theory

24.4.19T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) define the term rechauffe
b) describe the preparation, production and presentation of rechauffe dishes

Unit Tasks:

Task 1:
Task 2:

Suggested recipes
Shepherds pie, fish cakes,

LEARNING RESOURCES
 Text books
 Internet
 Magazines
 Food charts
 Food commodities

1286
 Kitchen equipment

EVALUATION
Hand written

24.4.20 CATERING SYSTEMS-------------------handwritten

Theory

24.4.20T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) describe the term catering system.
b) describe types of catering systems.
c) explain factors to consider when selecting a catering system.

Unit Tasks:

Task 1:
Task 2:
Task 3:

LEARNING RESOURCES
 Text books
 Internet
 Magazines

EVALUATION
Hand written

24.4.21 LOCAL DISHES

Theory

24.4.21T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) describe type of local dishes
b) explain methods of preparation, production and presentation local dishes

Unit Tasks:

Task 1: Types of local dishes

Kenyan local cuisine includes

Riftvalley (Kalenjin, Maasai, Turkana, Samburu)

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Central (Kikuyu)
Coast (Taita Mijikenda, Swahili, )
Western (Luhya)
Eastern (Meru Akamba Embu)
Nyanza (Kisii, Luo)

Task 2: preparation, production and presentation local dishes

Preparation
 Slicing
 Dicing
 Chipping
 Cutting
 Marinating
 Carving
 Tenderising
 Shredding
 Blanching
 Refreshing

Production

 Boiling
 Stewing
 Roasting
 Grilling
 Frying
 Baking
 Braising
 Steaming
 Sautéing
 Stir-frying
 Steaming

Presentation
 Clean serving equipment
 Appropriate serving equipment
 Food should not overflow
 Use appropriate garnishes
 Serve food at their correct temperatures
 Portion sizes should be correct
 Serve with suitable accompaniments

LEARNING RESOURCES
 Text books
 Internet
 Magazines
 Food charts

1288
 Food commodities
 Kitchen equipment

EVALUATION
1. Discuss the different types of local dishes
2. Plan, prepare, produce and present a three course meal for forty Luhya ladies attending a
bridal shower for your sister.

24.4.22 INTERNATIONAL DISHES

Theory

24.4.22T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to
a) describe types of international dish
b) explain preparation production and presentation of international dishes

Unit Tasks:

Task 1: types of international dish

Caribbean cookery
An abundance of exotic fruits and vegetables, fresh fish and shell fish, pork, poultry are mainly
used in the Caribbean. Pulses and cereals are cooked all combined and seasoned to emphasize on
aroma.

Chinese cookery
The main styles of cookery in china are canton, Peking shanghai and Szechwan.
In canton style rice is mainly used sweet and sour dishes are flavoured and a lot of dishes are
cooked by steaming
Peking cookery features noodles steamed dumplings and pancake dishes, more foods are deep-
fried.
Shanghai cookery uses more of flour and oil, greater use of garlic ginger and other spices.
Noodles are used instead of rice.
Szechwan cookery has more use of hot spices and chilies

Greek cookery
It uses well flavoured herbs and spices. Foods are stewed, grilled or roasted. Olive oil yoghurt
and lemon juice are used to enhance the products. Fish is greatly used in different varieties. Lamb
veal and poultry are also popular.

Indian cookery
Tandoori cookery is very popular. Vegetables herbs and spices are widely used these include red
chilies curry leaves cloves garlic ginger etc.

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Japanese cookery
They include rice sushi, deep fried dishes, and barbecued chicken skewers. The sushi cooking is
very popular where raw fish shell fish raw vegetables and vinegar.

Other international dishes include Mexican, Spanish, American, African, Indonesian, Middle
Eastern, Israel, and Thai

Task 2: preparation production and presentation of international dishes

Preparation

Slicing
 Dicing  Tenderising
 Chipping  Shredding
 Cutting  Blanching
 Marinating  Refreshing
 Carving

Production
 Boiling  Baking
 Stewing  Braising
 Roasting  Sautéing
 Grilling  Stir-frying
 Frying  Steaming

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Presentation
 Clean serving equipment
 Appropriate serving equipment
 Food should not overflow
 Use appropriate garnishes
 Serve food at their correct temperatures
 Portion sizes should be correct
 Serve with suitable accompaniments

LEARNING RESOURCES
 Text books
 Internet
 Magazines
 Food charts
 Food commodities
 Kitchen equipment

EVALUATION
1. discuss the different types of international dishes
2. Plan, prepare, produce and present a three course meal for forty Nigerian foot balers
attending a football tournament in Kenya.

24.4.23 FUNCTION CATERING----------handwritten

Theory

24.4.23T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) define function catering
b) explain types of function catering
c) describe the process of planning for functions
d) cost meals for functions
e) discuss the organisation of production for functions
f) discuss the importance of evaluating functions

Unit Tasks:

Task 1:
Task 2:
Task 3:
Task 4:

LEARNING RESOURCES
 Text books
 Internet
 Magazines
 Food charts
 Food commodities
 Kitchen equipment
 Recipes

EVALUATION

24.4.24 EMERGING TRENDS

Theory

24.4.24T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) identify emerging trends in food production management.
b) describe the challenges of emerging trends in food production.
c) explain the coping mechanism of the emerging trends

Unit Tasks:

Task 1:
Task 2:
Task 3:
Task 4:
LEARNING RESOURCES
 Text books
 Internet

EVALUATION

REFERENCES
i. St. Andrews Church Woman’s Guild (1994) The Kenya Cookery Book and
Household Guide. Nairobi: Kenway Publications

ii. Coller M. & Sussams C. (1990) Success in Principles of Catering. London: John
Murray

iii. Taylor E.& Taylor J. (1990) Mastering Catering Theory. London: Macmillan Press

iv. Davies J. & Hammond B. (1988) Cooking Explained. London: Longman Limited

v. Foskett D., Ceserani V. & Kinton R. (2004) Practical Cookery 10th Edition. London:
Book Power

vi. Foskett D., Ceserani V. & Kinton R. (2003) The Theory of Catering 10th Edition .
London: Book Power

vii. Clarke D. & Herbert E. (1992) Food Facts. London: Thomas Nelson and Sons
Limited
viii. Ministry of Education – Kenya Institute of Education (1989) Secondary
Homescience Form 4 Pupil’s Book. Nairobi : Kenya Literature Bureau

ix. Ministry of Education – Kenya Institute of Education (1989) Secondary

Homescience Form 3 Pupil’s Book. Nairobi : Kenya Literature Bureau
25.4.0 FOOD AND BEVERAGE SERVICE AND SALES MANAGEMENT

25.4.1 Introduction
This Module unit is designed to equip the trainee with knowledge, skills and
attitude required to perform the duties of a Supervisor in Catering and
Accommodation Establishment.

25.4.2 General Objectives

By the end of this course, the trainee should be able to:
a) supervise and guide personnel in service and sales in catering
establishment
b) appreciate the need of having knowledge of human relations skills
c) apply management techniques when performing supervisory duties
d) acquire research techniques and apply them when carrying out research
work to improve service delivery in his/her work.
25.4.01 SUPERVISORY ASPECTS OF FOOD AND BEVERAGE SERVICE AND
SALES

25.4.01 Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to
a) explain the organizational structure of food and beverage staff
b) explain the importance of staff training
c) explain the importance of customer relations
d) discuss measures of performance of food and beverage staff
e) explain revenue control in food and beverage service
f) explain legal aspects in food and beverage service

Unit Tasks

Unit task 1 Organizational Structure of food and beverage staff

F figure(Insert organization structure) shows a typical restaurant staff structure. Positions
commonly found are:
 Food and Beverage Manager.
In a large organization, a Food and beverage manager is usually responsible for the success
of the food and beverage operations. He or she will be responsible for such matters as compiling the
menus (in consultation with kitchen staff) to make sure that the required profit margins are
achieved. Purchasing food and beverage items and deciding portion size and
staff recruitment and training .
 Restaurant Manager.
In operations where there are several bars and restaurants, such as large hotels, each restaurant may
have its own manager responsible to the Food and Beverage Manager. He or she will be responsible
for the work of staff within that restaurant and for seeing that the policies of the Food and Beverage
Manager are carried out. Either the Restaurant Manager or the Head Waiter will be responsible for
staff duty rosters.
 Head Waiter
Responsible for all the service staff in the restaurant and for seeing all the preparation, service and
clearing work is efficiently carried out. In smaller establishments he/she may also be responsible for
taking reservations and for greeting and seating guests. In larger establishments there may be a
special Reception Head Waiter with these duties.
 Station Head Waiter
Is responsible for the service of a station or group of tables. He/she takes the orders and carries out
the service at the tables of the station.
 Waiter
Preparation and maintenance of work area
Maintaining good customer and staff relations
Making recommendations and assisting guests in making selections
Order taking and recording
Service and clearing of food and beverages
 Trainee Waiter/ Commis
Clears sideboards
Fetches and carries
 Wine Waiter/ Sommelier
Responsible for the service of all alcoholic drinks to the tables
 Lounge Waiter
Responsible for service of food and beverage in the lounge
 Floor Waiter
Responsible for complete service to rooms or suites

Unit task 2 Importance of staff training

 Optimum Utilization of Human Resources - Training and Development helps in optimizing

the utilization of human resource that further helps the employee to achieve the
organizational goals as well as their individual goals.

• Development of Human Resources - Training and Development helps to provide an

opportunity and broad structure for the development of human resources' technical and
behavioral skills in an organization. It also helps the employees in attaining personal growth.

• Development of skills of employees - Training and Development helps in increasing the

job knowledge and skills of employees at each level. It helps to expand the horizons of

 human intellect and an overall personality of the employees.

• Productivity - Training and Development helps in increasing the productivity of the

employees that helps the organization further to achieve its long-term goal.

• Team spirit - Training and Development helps in inculcating the sense of team work, team
spirit, and inter-team collaborations. It helps in inculcating the zeal to learn within the
employees.

• Organization Culture - Training and Development helps to develop and improve the
organizational health culture and effectiveness. It helps in creating the learning culture
within the organization.

• Organization Climate - Training and Development helps building the positive perception
and feeling about the organization. The employees get these feelings from leaders,
subordinates, and peers.

• Quality - Training and Development helps in improving upon the quality of work and
work-life.

• Healthy work-environment - Training and Development helps in creating the healthy

working environment. It helps to build good employee, relationship so that individual goals
aligns with organizational goal.

• Health and Safety - Training and Development helps in improving the health and safety of
the organization thus preventing obsolescence.

• Morale - Training and Development helps in improving the morale of the work force.
 • Image - Training and Development helps in creating a better corporate image.

• Profitability - Training and Development leads to improved profitability and more positive
attitudes towards profit orientation.

• Training and Development aids in organizational development i.e. Organization gets more
effective decision making and problem solving. It helps in understanding and carrying out
organisational policies

• Training and Development helps in developing leadership skills, motivation, loyalty, better
attitudes, and other aspects that successful workers and managers usually display.
 Training and Development demonstrates a commitment to keeping employees on the
cutting edge of knowledge and practice.

Unit task 3 Importance of customer relations

Unit task 4 Measures of performance

Unit task 5 Revenue control in food and

beverage service

Unit task 6 Legal aspects in food and

beverage service

There are wide variety of legal requirements for food and beverage operations. These ranges from
company law to the licensing regulations or employment law.

Licensing
Licensed premises must, in order alcoholic liquor obtain a liquor license. The annual liquor is held
once in an year by the liquor licensing board. The premises must be ‘fit’, i.e. meet the
requirements of the local authority, Police and fire authority. Furthermore good order must be
maintained, i.e.
 No drunkenness
 No violence
 No riotous conduct
  No prostitute
 No gaming (Unless also licensed)

Young Persons
It’s an offence to serve a persons under 18 in a licensed bar knowingly or un-knowingly. Its also an
offence to allow persons under 18 to consume alcoholic beverages. Similarly it’s an offence for
persons under 18 to purchase or attempt to purchase, or consume alcoholic beverages in a bar.

Sale of Goods and Trade Description

The sale of goods Act applies to the sale of goods by description. It clarifies that there is a implicit
contract when the caterer accepts the order of a customer. According to the Act the customer can
refuse to pay or demand replacement if:

 The goods supplied do not correspond with the description, e.g. roast chicken which is in
fact poached and quickly grilled
 A displayed item is not what it seems, e.g. a sweet trolley where the cream, which
reasonably one would expect to be fresh, is in fact artificial. (Its makes no difference if the
customer has partly or entirely consumed the purchase)
 Its in edible

The Trade Description Act makes it a criminal offence to misdescsribe goods or services. Care
must be therefore taken when:
 Wording menus and wine list
 Describing menu and beverage items to customers
 Describing conditions e.g. cover and service charges or extras
 Describing the service provision

A persons charged under the Act will have to prove that reasonable precaution were taken to ensure
description would not be misleading. However the Act also provides that defense of a charge would
be if the description was:
 Result of pure mistake
 Result of information from another person
 Fault of someone else
 Result of accident or other cause beyond control of person concerned
 The person charged could not reasonably know the description was misleading

Discrimination
Discrimination on grounds of colour, race, creed or sex are outlawed. There must not be:
 Direct discrimination: e.g. refusing service to customers of particular, colour, race, creed or
sex
 Indirect discrimination: e.g. denying consumer services by imposition of unjustifiable
conditions or requirements which have colour, race, creed or sex implications.
 Discrimination through victimization: (a) e.g. refusal of provision: refusal of admission on
basis of ethnic origins or sex: (b) e.g. omission of provision: providing services to ethnic
customers that are markedly inferior to those available to the public in general or which may only
be available at a price premium.

Health and Safety

There is a common law duty to care for all law full visitors. Essentially safety a civil duty and
negligence is a criminal offence. The implication for staff are that they should:
  Understand the food hygiene regulations and their responsibility to act within the bounds of
these regulations
 Notify management of any major illnesses
 Perform duties in a hygienic manner and keep within food hygiene regulations
 Familiarize with all escape routes and fire exits in the building
 Take reasonable care for health and safety of themselves and others
 Report to duty manager any hazards which may cause injury or ill-health to customers or
staff

25.4.02 BEVERAGE KNOWLEDGE

25.4.02T Specific Objectives:

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
 explain the origin of different beverages
 classify the beverages
 explain beverage terminologies
 explain appropriate care and storage of beverages
 describe the types of wine and beverage lists
 outline the service procedures of beverages
 compile beverage lists
 design wine and drink lists
 match wine to food.

25.4.02 C Unit Tasks

Unit task 1 Origin of beverages

Tea
While everyone knows where tea originated, no one knows when the now worldwide custom of tea
infusion began. Its origin is concealed in the shimmering mists of exotic legends of which the
following is but one.
One of the Emperors of China, who lived 5,000 years ago, was an excellent ruler and always
delighted in setting his subjects good examples. One of these was that he always boiled his
drinking water. One day a few leaves from the branches which were burning under the pot of
boiling water fell into it, giving it a delightful scent and flavor and making the water a drink indeed
fit for an emperor. The branches were those of the wild tea plant.
Apart from such charming fantasies however, what is certain about tea drinking is that it was
widely practiced in China a early as the 6th Century. In fact the first history of tea, the "Cha Ching",
was written by a China-man around 800 AD and in it is recorded the fact that in 793 AD the
drinking of tea had become so widespread that a tax was levied on it.
The new drink spread to China's neighbor Japan, very quickly, the earliest record of tea drinking in
that country was in 729 AD when the Emperor Shomu invited 100 Buddhist monks to take tea in
his palace.
From that time on a most elaborate ritual grew up round the making of tea. It is called Cha-no-yu
and is a long and intricate ceremony in which the hostess, the guests, all the tea-making utensils
and even the room in which the tea is taken play set parts. Nowadays tea is made and drunk
according to Western standards but the old ceremony is still taught and widely practiced.
By the time that the first European explorers returned from the Far East, tea had long been the
national drink of both China and Japan but it was not until the end of the 16th century that the
English first heard of it.
Shortly afterwards, in 1610, the first consignment of tea reached Holland from whence the first
imports came to England.
Tea was first sold in the coffee houses that had sprung up all over the country but such was its
almost immediate popularity, not only as a drink but as a medicine that was reputed to have
almost magical healing properties, that it soon ousted coffee from general favor and by 1750 had
become the principal beverage of all classes.
One of the main reasons for this was Britain's supremacy of the seas so making it easy for regular
cargoes of tea to be brought from China.
On the Continent, however, the main trade routes to the East were through the Mediterranean
and overland so that coffee, which lay so much nearer to hand, was easier to import. The result
has been that apart from Britain and Holland, both great maritime nations, coffee has remained
the chief beverage on the continent.
In Russia, too, tea drinking became a national habit as their traders had direct access to China.
It may seem remarkable but it is nevertheless true that the habit of tea drinking in Britain led to
three very important consequences.
When tea was first imported from China the necessary utensils in which to infuse it and also those
from which it was drunk were imported with the tea itself, but later, various firms began to design
and make teapots and cups and saucers with the result that British pottery and earthenware
industries received a tremendous impetus.
Before the year 1700 earthenware teapots and cups were being made in Staffordshire followed,
early in the 18th century, by the famous Staffordshire glazed teapots. Fifty years later the world
famous firm of Wedgewood was supplying most of the country with tea sets, while the colorful
and exquisite porcelain of Worcester, Derby, Chelsea and Bow graced the tea tables of the rich.
The second of the consequences inspired one of the most picturesque chapters in maritime
history.
In 1833 the East India Company's monopoly of the tea trade, which it had held for many years, was
abolished. As a result, merchants began to look for faster transport than had been provided by the
heavy, slow East India-men. Thus was born the more beautiful and graceful of all the world's ships,
the tea clippers. The first was the "Rainbow", launched in 1845 in New York, which did the return
journey from New York to China in less time than the old ships had sailed one way. This was
followed in quick succession by many other famous clippers such as the British "Lightning", which
reached an average speed of 18 knots for 24 hours, an all-time record for sailing ships, and the still
famous "Cutty Sark".
The third - and more tragic - consequence was the loss of America.
Tea drinking had been brought to the New World by the British and Dutch colonists and was as
popular there as it was at home.
It was in 1765 that the British Parliament began to tax the American colonies without the consent
of their Assemblies and tea was one of the commodities which was taxed. The colonists refused to
pay it and in December 1773, to demonstrate their determination to resist these taxes, they raided
three tea ships that were in the harbor and threw overboard £10,000 worth of tea. This was the
celebrated and now historical "Boston Tea Party" which was the spark that set off the American
War of Independence and so lost America to the British Empire.
In 1823 wild tea was discovered in Assam. It was cultivated and with such good effect that in 1839
the first shipment of Indian tea was brought to London.
In the meantime, Ceylon, which was dependent almost entirely upon its flourishing coffee trade,
fell a victim to the dreaded coffee blight and in 10 years the coffee industry was entirely wiped out.
The planters then turned to tea and in a very few years their tea production was rivaling that of
India.
By the end of the century the export of tea from these two new sources was far greater than that
of China.
Today India and (Ceylon) Sri Lanka exports millions of pounds of tea annually. The tea plant, which
has so changed the drinking habits of the world, is a hardy evergreen called Camellia Sinensis and
would, if left in its natural state, grow about thirty feet high.
Three types of tea are made, although they all come from the same plant, the difference being in
the way the leaves are processed.
The three varieties are called Black Tea, Green Tea and Oolong.

Coffee

A cup of coffee
Coffee is a brewed beverage prepared from roasted seeds, commonly called coffee beans, of the
coffee plant. They are seeds of "coffee cherries" that grow on trees in over 70 countries. Green
coffee is one of the most traded commodities in the world, often described as being second only to
crude oil[1] although this often repeated "fact" should be subjected to more careful scrutiny.[2]
Due to its caffeine content, coffee can have a stimulating effect in humans. Today, coffee is one of
the most popular beverages worldwide.[3]
It is thought that the energizing effect of the coffee bean plant was first recognized in Yemen in
Arabia and the south west of Ethiopia, and the cultivation of coffee expanded in the Arab world.[4]
The earliest credible evidence of coffee drinking appears in the middle of the fifteenth century, in
the Sufi monasteries of the Yemen in southern Arabia.[4] From the Muslim world, coffee spread to
Italy, then to the rest of Europe, to Indonesia, and to the Americas.[5]
Coffee berries, which contain the coffee bean, are produced by several species of small evergreen
bush of the genus Coffea. The two most commonly grown species are Coffea canephora (also
known as Coffea robusta) and Coffea arabica; less popular species are liberica, excelsa, stenophylla,
mauritiana, racemosa. These are cultivated primarily in Latin America, Southeast Asia, and Africa.
Once ripe, coffee berries are picked, processed, and dried. The seeds are then roasted, undergoing
several physical and chemical changes. They are roasted to varying degrees, depending on the
desired flavour. They are then ground and brewed to create coffee. Coffee can be prepared and
presented in a variety of ways.
Coffee has played an important role in many societies throughout history. In Africa and Yemen, it
was used in religious ceremonies. As a result, the Ethiopian Church banned its secular consumption
until the reign of Emperor Menelik II of Ethiopia.[6] It was banned in Ottoman Turkey in the 17th
century for political reasons,[7] and was associated with rebellious political activities in Europe
Preparation
Main article: Coffee preparation

Espresso brewing, with dark reddish-brown crema

Coffee beans must be ground and brewed in order to create a beverage. All methods of preparing
coffee require the beans to be ground and mixed with hot water for long enough to extract the
flavor, but without boiling for more than an instant; boiling develops an unpleasant "cooked"
flavor. Finally the spent grounds are removed from the liquid, and the liquid is drunk. There are
many variations in the fineness of grind, the ways in which the water extracts the flavor, additional
flavorings (sugar, milk, spices), and the removal of the spent grounds.
The criteria for choosing a method include flavor and economy. Extracting as much as possible
from the beans (for economy) tends to impair flavor[citation needed].
The roasted coffee beans may be ground at a roastery, in a grocery store, or in the home. Most
coffee is roasted and ground at a roastery and sold in packaged form, though roasted coffee beans
can be ground at home, and it is possible, though complex, to roast raw beans.
Coffee beans may be ground in several ways. A burr mill uses revolving elements to shear the
bean; an electric grinder smashes the beans with blunt blades moving at high speed; and a mortar
and pestle crushes the beans. For most brewing methods, a burr mill is deemed superior because
the grind is more even and the grind size can be adjusted.
The type of grind is often named after the brewing method for which it is generally used. Turkish
grind is the finest grind, while coffee percolator or French press are the coarsest grinds. The most
common grinds are between the extremes; a medium grind is used in most common home coffee-
brewing machines.[62]
Coffee may be brewed by several methods: boiled, steeped, or pressured.
Brewing coffee by boiling was the earliest method, and Turkish coffee is an example of this
method.[63] It is prepared by grinding or pounding the beans to a fine powder, then adding it to
water and bringing it to the boil for no more than an instant in a pot called a cezve or, in Greek, a
bríki. This produces a strong coffee with a layer of foam on the surface and sediment (which is not
meant for drinking) settling on the bottom of the cup.[63]
Coffee percolators and automatic coffeemakers brew coffee by gravity. In an automatic
coffeemaker hot water drips onto coffee grounds held in a coffee filter made of paper, plastic, or
perforated metal, allowing the water to seep through the ground coffee while extracting its oils
and essences. The liquid drips through the coffee and the filter into a carafe or pot, and the spent
grounds are retained in the filter.[64] (The Chemex coffeemaker operates under a similar principle
but uses only an hourglass shaped flask.) In a percolator, boiling water is forced into a chamber
above a filter by steam pressure created by boiling. The water then seeps through the grounds,
and the process is repeated until terminated by removing from the heat, by an internal timer,[64]
or by a thermostat that turns off the heater when the entire pot reaches a certain temperature.
This thermostat also serves to keep the coffee warm (it turns on when the pot cools), but requires
the removal of the basket holding the grounds after the initial brewing to avoid additional brewing
as the pot reheats. Repeated boiling spoils the flavor of coffee.
Coffee may be brewed by steeping in a device such as a French press (also known as a cafetière or
coffee press). Ground coffee and hot water are combined in a cylindrical vessel and left to brew for
a few minutes. A circular filter which fits tightly in the cylinder fixed to a plunger is then pushed
down from the top to force the grounds to the bottom. Because the coffee grounds are in direct
contact with the water, all the coffee oils remain in the beverage, making it stronger and leaving
more sediment than in coffee made by an automatic coffee machine.[65] The coffee is poured
from the container; the filter retains the grounds at the bottom.
The espresso method forces hot (but not boiling) pressurized water through ground coffee. As a
result of brewing under high pressure (ideally between 9–10 atm), the espresso beverage is more
concentrated (as much as 10 to 15 times the amount of coffee to water as gravity-brewing
methods can produce) and has a more complex physical and chemical constitution. A well-
prepared espresso has a reddish-brown foam called crema that floats on the surface.[62] The drink
"Americano" is popularly thought to have been named after American soldiers in WW II who found
the Italian way of drinking espresso too strong; baristas would cut the espresso with hot water for
them.

Presentation can be an integral part of coffeehouse service, as illustrated by the common fern
design layered into this latte.
Coffee may also be brewed in cold water by steeping coarsely-ground beans in cold water for
several hours, then filtering[citation needed].
Presentation

French petit noir

A coffee cake.
Once brewed, coffee may be presented in a variety of ways. Drip-brewed, percolated, or French-
pressed/cafetière coffee may be served with no additives or sugar (colloquially known as black) or
with milk, cream, or both. When served cold, it is called iced coffee.
Espresso-based coffee has a wide variety of possible presentations. In its most basic form, it is
served alone as a shot or in the more watered-down style café américano—a shot or two of
espresso with hot water added[66] (reversing the process by adding espresso to hot water
preserves the crema, and is known as a long black). Milk can be added in various forms to
espresso: steamed milk makes a cafè latte,[67] equal parts steamed milk and milk froth make a
cappuccino,[66] and a dollop of hot foamed milk on top creates a caffè macchiato.[68] The use of
steamed milk to form patterns such as hearts or maple leaves is referred to as latte art.
A number of products are sold for the convenience of consumers who do not want to prepare
their own coffee. Instant coffee is dried into soluble powder or freeze-dried into granules that can
be quickly dissolved in hot water.[69] Canned coffee has been popular in Asian countries for many
years, particularly in China, Japan, and South Korea. Vending machines typically sell varieties of
flavored canned coffee, much like brewed or percolated coffee, available both hot and cold.
Japanese convenience stores and groceries also have a wide availability of bottled coffee drinks,
which are typically lightly sweetened and preblended with milk. Bottled coffee drinks are also
consumed in the United States.[70] Liquid coffee concentrates are sometimes used in large
institutional situations where coffee needs to be produced for thousands of people at the same
time. It is described as having a flavor about as good as low-grade robusta coffee, and costs about
10¢ a cup to produce. The machines used can process up to 500 cups an hour, or 1,000 if the water
is preheated.[71]

Unit task 2 Classification of beverages

Definition: A drink, or beverage, is a liquid which is specifically prepared for human consumption.
In addition to filling a basic human need, beverages form part of the culture of human society. The
beverages are classified as follows:

1. Alcoholic beverages
An alcoholic beverage is a drink that contains ethanol, commonly known as alcohol
Alcoholic beverages are divided into three general classes: beers, wines, and spirits.
 Beer has been a part of human culture for 8000 years.. Beer is the world's oldest and most
widely consumed alcoholic beverage and the third most popular drink overall after water
and tea. It is produced by the brewing and fermentation of starches, mainly derived from
cereal grains barley, millet bananas, sugar cane, wheat, maize, rice are widely used. Most
beer is flavoured with hops, which add bitterness and act as a natural preservative, though
other flavourings such as herbs or fruit may occasionally be included.
 Wine is an alcoholic beverage typically made of fermented fruit juice. Examples of fruits
used to make wine include grapes, pawpaw, apples. The natural chemical balance of grapes
is such that they can ferment without the addition of sugars, acids, enzymes or other
nutrients. Wine is produced by fermenting crushed grapes using various types of yeast.
Yeast consumes the sugars found in the grapes and converts them into alcohol. Different
varieties of grapes and strains of yeasts are used depending on the type of wine being
produced.
 Although other fruits such as apples and berries can also be fermented, the resultant wines
are normally named after the fruit from which they are produced (for example, apple wine
or elderberry wine) and are generically known as fruit wine or country wine (not to be
confused with the French term vin de pays). Others, such as barley wine and rice wine (i.e.,
sake), are made from starch-based materials and resemble beer and spirit more than wine,
while ginger wine is fortified with brandy. In these cases, the use of the term "wine" is a
reference to the higher alcohol content, rather than production process. [4] The commercial
use of the English word "wine" (and its equivalent in other languages) is protected by law in
many jurisdictions.[5]

 Spirit
It’s a A distilled beverage, liquor, or spirit is a drinkable liquid containing ethanol that is
produced by means of distilling fermented grain, fruit, or vegetables.[1]This excludes undistilled
fermented beverages such as beer and wine, and often the term hard liquor is used to contrast
distilled beverages from (implicitly weaker) undistilled ones.
Beer and wine are limited to a maximum alcohol content of about 15% ABV, as most yeasts cannot
reproduce when the concentration of alcohol is above this level; consequently, fermentation
ceases at that point.
The term spirit refers to a distilled beverage that contains no added sugar and has at least 20%
ABV. Popular spirits include brandy, fruit brandy (aka eau-de-vie / Schnaps), gin, rum, tequila,
vodka, and whisky.
Distilled beverages that are bottled with added sugar and added flavorings, such as Grand Marnier,
Frangelico, and American schnapps, are liqueurs. In common usage, the distinction between spirits
and liqueurs is widely unknown or ignored; consequently all alcoholic beverages other than beer
and wine are generally referred to simply as spirits.
Fortified wines are created by adding a distilled beverage (often brandy) to a win

2. Non-alcoholic beverages

A non-alcoholic beverage is a beverage that contains no alcohol. Non-alcoholic mixed drinks

(including punches, "virgin cocktails", or "mocktails") are often consumed by children, people
whose religion restricts alcohol consumption, recovering alcoholics, and anyone wishing to enjoy
flavorful drinks without alcohol. They are often available as alternative beverages in contexts (such
as bars) where the norm is to drink alcoholic beverages.
Examples include Shirley Temples, Virgin Marys, and virgin-style Piña Coladas. Non-alcoholic
beverages contain no more than .5 percent alcohol by volume. The category includes drinks that
traditionally have no trace of alcohol such as sodas, juices, and sparkling ciders. It also includes
drinks that have undergone an alcohol removal process such as non-alcoholic beers and
dealcoholized wines. Non-alcoholic beer can contain a small amount of alcohol (the exact
percentage varies by country), so purchasers of non-alcoholic beer in some US states must be at
least 21.

Soft drinks
The name "soft drink" specifies a lack of alcohol by way of contrast to the term "hard drink" and
the term "drink", the latter of which is nominally neutral but often carries connotations of alcoholic
content. Beverages like colas, sparkling water, iced tea, lemonade, squash, and fruit punch are
among the most common types of soft drinks, while hot chocolate, hot tea, coffee, milk, tap water,
alcohol, and milkshakes do not fall into this classification. Many carbonated soft drinks are
optionally available in versions sweetened with sugars or with non-caloric sweeteners.
Hot Beverages
Hot beverages include the following:
o Coffee-based beverages
 Cappuccino
 Coffee
 Espresso
 Café au lait
 Frappé
 Flavored coffees (mocha etc.)
 Latte
o Hot chocolate
o Hot cider
 Mulled cider
o Glühwein
o Tea-based beverages
 Flavored teas (chai etc.)
 Green tea
 Pearl milk tea
 Tea
o Herbal teas
 Yerba Mate
o Roasted grain beverages
 Sanka
Cocktails
A cocktail is a style of mixed drink. Originally a mixture of distilled spirits, sugar, water, and bitters,
the word has gradually come to mean almost any mixed drink containing alcohol.[2]
A cocktail today usually contains one or more types of liquor and one or more mixers, such as
bitters, fruit juice, fruit, soda, ice, sugar, honey, milk, cream, or herbs.[3]
They are usually a mixture of one or more ingredients

Fresh fruit can be

used to make
cocktails with other
ingredients like
Fortified wines
Eggs
Cream
Grape fruit cocktail
Ingredients

i) 3 pieces fully ripe grape fruits

ii) 1 piece ripe orange
iii) 3 pieces cocktail cherries

Method
i) Wash and prepare the grape fruit and oranges
ii) Extract the juices using juice extractor
iii) Chill and mix in cocktail glasses
iv) Serve the glass on the side dish/plate lined with paper napkin

Others
Masala buttermilk.
Some substances may be called either food or drink, and accordingly may be eaten with a spoon or
drunk, depending upon their thickness and solid ingredients.
 Buttermilk
 Soup
 Yogurt
Unit task 3 Beverage terminologies
 Aperitifs
It’s a pre-dinner drink taken to stimulate the appetite. Most aperitifs are dry to taste because
dry beverages stimulate the appetite, while sweet drinks tend to dull appetite. In spite of this
some guests may prefer sweet drinks such as a sweet sherry before a meal.
A good waiter will never make a guest uncomfortable because of the drink they chose no matter
how in appropriate it is. Popular aperitifs include:
 Dry champagne
 Pre-diner cocktails
 Dry sherry
  Dry Vermouth
 A proprietary aperitif e.g. Campari
 Table wines
Table wine is a wine term which is used in two different meanings in different countries: to
signify a wine style and as a quality level within wine classification.
These include red, white and rose wines and are referred to still wines as they lack carbonation.
These wines are further classified into dry and sweet wines. Dry will mean that there is little or
no sugar content
 Dessert wines
Dessert wines are rich and sweet. They are designed to be consumed with sweet food items.
 Fortified wines
These are wines fortified by addition of alcohol either during or after fermentation. This
increases the alcohol content from 15 to 21 %. Examples are sherry, port, Madeira and Marsala.
This wines are drank before or after a meal
 Champagne and spackling wines
Sparkling wines get their sparkle or effervescence from carbon dioxide. Carbon dioxide is
produced naturally in the process of fermentation and can be retained to produce a sparkling
wine.
 Spirits
Spirits are distilled alcoholic beverages. Distillation is the process of converting liquid into
vapour by heating and then condensing the vapour back to liquid form. Almost any fruit or
vegetable can be crushed to liquid, fermented and then distilled to make a spirit. Examples of
spirits are: whiskies, gin, rum, vodka and brandy.
 Beers

 Liqueurs
 Cocktails
 Aerated waters

Unit task 4 Service procedures of different beverages

After the food order has been taken the wine list is presented to the host so that He/She may order
wine for the party to accompany the meal the have ordered. The sommelier of the wine
waiter should be able to advice and suggest wines from the wine list. It should be
remembered that all red wines are served at room temperatures, white and rose wines
chilled and sparkling wines well chilled.
Serving Temperatures
 For red wines: 15.5 – 18o C ( 60 -65 oF)
 Some young red wines also may be drunk cool at about 12.5 – 15.5o C ( 55 -60 oF)
 White wines: 10 – 12.5o C (50 -55 oF)
 Dessert wines, champagne and other sparkling white wines: 4.5 -10o C (40 – 50 oF)

Glasses for wines

The following wines may be served in the types of glasses indicated below
 Champagne and other sparkling wines:
- Flute
 German and Alsace wines: German wine glasses
 White wines: Medium - size wine glass
 Rose wines: Flute
 Red wines: Large wine glass
Scan from food and beerage service by Lillicrap 6th edition Page 230 and page 180: serving food
and drink; table and function by Ann Gureid
 White wines
i) Obtain the wine from the dispense bar check that the order is collect and the wine is
properly temperatured and clear
ii) Take to the table in a ice bucket
iii) Present the bottle to the host showing the label
iv) Ensure the collect glasses are place on the table for the wine to be served
v) See that a clean serviette is tied to the handle of the ice bucket
vi) Cut the foil, remove and wipe the top of the cork with the serviette
vii) Remove the cork in the accepted fashion. Smell the cork in case the wine ‘Corked’.
Place the cork in the ice bucket
viii) If the wine concerned is a chateau-bottled wine, then the cork would generally be
placed on the side plate at the head of the host cover. The cork should have the name
of the chateau concerned and the year of the wine printed on it.
ix) Wipe the inside of the neck of the bottle with serviette
x) Wipe the bottle dry
xi) Hold the bottle for pouring in a fashion that the label may be seen. Use the waiters
clothe folded, to catch any drips.
xii) Give a taste to the host, pouring from the right. He/She should acknowledge that the
wine is suitable - collect taste, bouquet and temperature.
xiii) Serve ladies first, then gentlemen and the host last. Always commencing from the
host right.
xiv) Fill each glass two thirds full. This leaves room for an appreciation of the bouquet.
xv) Replace the remaining wine in the wine bucket and refill the glasses when necessary.
xvi) If a fresh bottle is required, then fresh glasses should be placed upon the table
xvii) On finishing pouring a glass of wine, twist the neck of the bottle and raise it
at the same time. This prevents any drips from falling on the table clothe.
 Red Wine
The cork should be removed from the bottle of red wine as early as possible so that the wine
may attain room temperature naturally. If the red wine to be opened is young the bottle may
stand on an under plate or coaster on the table and be opened from this position, the basic
procedure being similar to opening a bottle of white wine. There is no technical reason why the
red should be served in the bottle in a wine basket or wine cradle.

If the wine is of age and or is likely to have heavy sediments, then the wine should be decanted.
It should be placed in a wine basket and first presented to the customer. Placing the bottle in a
wine basket keeps the bottle relatively and ensures that sediments are not shaken up. The
procedure of serving red wine is the same as that of the whine wine.

It should then be opened in the basket and poured in one operation into a clean decanter.

Procedure for decanting wine

i) Handle the bottle carefully or use a candle or decanting basket to prevent disturbing
the sediments.
ii) Present the bottle to the customer to confirm that the wine is correct
iii) Obtain a clean, dry decanter at room temperature,
iv) Warm the decanter if you need to raise the temperature of the wine.
 v) If you are use a straining funnel, place it inside the neck of the decanter and, if
necessary, line it clean, dry muslin.
vi) Open the bottle following the procedure for still wines.
vii) Take care not to turn of jerk the bottle.
viii) Use a candle or other light as a background to highlight the level of wine in the
bottle.
ix) Raise the bottle slowly and pour the wine gently holding the bottle against the wine so
that you can see inside.
x) As soon as the sediments, which appears as dark cloud
in the wine get near to the shoulder of the bottle slow
down and stop pouring to prevent the sediments
entering the decanted wine.

Scan from Serving food and drink: Table and function Page 200

 Sparkling Wine

The wine should be served well chilled in order to obtain the full effect of secondary
fermentation in the bottle, namely effervesce and bouquet. The sparkle in the wine is caused by
carbon dioxide gas which is trapped in the bottle and dissolved in the wine. Care should be taken
when opening sparkling wines

Procedures
i) After presenting the bottle to the host it should be placed in a wine cooler. Tear a way
the foil cover to reveal the wire muzzle covering the cork.
ii) Hold the bottle at an angle between 30 and 40o from the upright. Point the cork away
from your body and away from the table area, other members of staff or windows.
iii) Keep your hand over the cork, carefully untwist the wire muzzle. Slide your thumb
under the wires and lift off the muzzle any carp over the cork. Once the muzzle is
removed, you should not take your hand off the cork.
iv) Holding the cork with your left hand, wrap the bottle with a service clothe
v) Keeping your left hand on the cork, gently turn the bottle not the cork
vi) As the cork eases out, release it slowly until it gently pops out.

NB: Make sure that you have a glass close by in case the wine begins to fizz out. Serve immediately
by pouring into the customers’ glasses. With each glass wait until the froth subsides then fill each
glass about two thirds full. Seal an unfinished bottle with a stopper.

Scan from Serving food and drink: Table and function Page 199

 Service of Beer
Beer should be served at a temperature of 12.5 – 15.5 (oC (55 -60 oF) with lagers generally
cooler than other beers at 8.0 -10.5 oC (48 -51 oF). Many different varieties of bottled beers are
also served chilled. Also draught beer on its own route from the keg/cask to the pump often
 passes through a chilling unit. Draught beers should have a small head on them and the bar
person should ensure that He/She serves the correct quantity of beer with a small head and not a
large head to make up the quantity required. One may note the good condition of the beer if the
head or froth clings to the inside of the glass. All glasses should be spotlessly clean with no
finger marks, grease or lipstick on them. Otherwise the beer will go flat very quickly. Extra care
must be taken when pouring beer in hot weather as this causes the beer to work much more. The
neck of the bottle should not be placed in the beer when pouring, especially when two bottles are
being held and poured from the same hand. Where bottled beers have sediments, when pouring a
little beer must be left at the base of the bottle holding the sediments back.

Have an illustration here

Procedure or serving Beer

i) Carry a cold beer glass an opener a bottle of beer to the table on a service tray
ii) Hold the tray behind the head of the guest to be served
iii) Pick up the glass at its base and place it on the guest’s right
iv) Place the tray on the table and open the beer holding with the right hand and with the
label clearly showing to the guest
v) Check for flatness and chipping of the bottle
vi) Pour the beer into the glass on the table so that the flow is directed to the inside
opposite edge of the glass. Pour slowly so that a head can form.
vii) Continue pouring until the glass is full with a well rounded head.
viii) If the bottle still contain some beer, place it on the table to the right of the glass, with
the label facing the guest.

Types of beer glasses

 Half pint/pint tankards for the draught beer
 Pint tumblers for draught beer
 Tumblers for any bottled beer
 34.08 cl (12 fluid oz) short stemmed beers for Bass/ Worthington/Guinness
 Lager glass for lager
 22.7.2, 28.4.0, 34.80 cl (8,10,12flz) Paris goblets for brown/pale/strong ales

Scan beer glasses introduction to F&B service by Graham Brown PG 129

Service of Liqueurs
Liqueurs are generally offered from a liqueur trolley. The wine butler should present the trolley
immediately the sweet course is finished to ensure that any liqueur required will be on the table
by the time coffee is served. The wine butler must have good knowledge of liqueurs, their bases
and flavours, and their correct mode of service. Traditionally all liqueurs were served in an
Elgin-shaped liqueurs glass but many alternatives are now used.
If a guest asks for a liqueur to be served frappe, then its served on crushed ice. A larger will
then have to be used. The glass should be two thirds filled with crushed ice and then the measure
of liqueur poured over. Two short drinking straw should be place into the glass and then served,
e.g. Crème de Menthe frappe.
If a liqueur is requested with crème, them the crème is slowly poured over the back of a teas
spoon to settle on the top of selected liqueur, without mixing with it. And no circumstances
should the liqueur and cream be mixed together, e.g. Tia Maria with cream.

Basic Equipment Required in Liqueur Trolley

 Assorted liqueurs
 Assorted glasses
- Liqueur/brandy/port
 Draining stand: 25 and 50 ml measures
 Service salver
 Jug of double cream
 Teaspoon
 Drinking straws
 Cigars
 Matches
 Cigar cutter
 Wine list and check pad
Other items served from liqueur trolley may be brandy and port. For service brandy requires a
25 ml measure and port a 50 ml measure

Service of cocktails
Cocktails should always served well chilled in an appropriately sized glass with the correct
garnish, straw, umbrella according to the policy of the establishment. Many cocktails are served
in the traditional V-Shaped cocktail glass but if to be consumed as a long drink, then a larger
glass such as a slim jim should be better suited. The key consideration here should be the total
presentation of the cocktail as seen visually by the customer.

Service On Non Alcoholic Beverages

Water
i) Water goblets should be kept on the right at the tip of the large knife
ii) Water is served from the right after the guest has taken his seat
iii) Water is served from a jug with a folded waiter clothe under it to prevent it from
spilling on to the table
iv) Water should be filled ¾ below the rim of the glass
v) Water should always be chilled, unless the guest asks for water at normal temperature
vi) The water jug should be covered with a folded waiter clothe when kept out of the side
board

Refreshing Drinks
i) Aerated drinks like coca cola, lemonades and others are served in high-ball glasses
ii) Tall drinks e.g. shakes, floats and house cocktails are served in Tom Collins
iii) Certain tall drinks require long spoons which must be presented on quarter plates with
a doily paper on it
Coffee and Tea
The exact procedure for servicing coffee and tea at table will vary depending on the
venue, the style of service and equipment available
The preparatory steps for coffee and tea service are the same
Procedure
i) Take the order
ii) Place the accompanying items (Sugar, Milk and if required cream and lemon) An
under liner may be used to present these items. Make sure the sugar bowl has clean
spoon with it.
iii) Place a cup and saucer and a teaspoon from each guest right. If coffee or tea are being
served with cheese or dessert or afternoon, the cup and saucer are placed to the right
of the cover
 iv) If tea or coffee are being served at the end of a meal after the table has been cleaned
the cup and saucer should be placed near the centre of the cover
v) The handle of he cup should be to its right and the teaspoon should be placed at a 45o
angle on the saucer just behind the handle
Teas
The ritual for serving tea allows the guests to pour for themselves
Present the teapot and its accompanying hot water port on an under plate with a tea-
strainer and a small napkin
A strainer unnecessary if tea bags have been used. If teabags have been used they should
be served with tea bag strings and labels hanging out so that the customer can see the type
of tea being used. Napkin is used to assist the guests to hold the hot pots while pouring
Place the under plate to the right of the guest of the guest with the with the handles of tea
pot and hot water pot directed to the guests

Coffee
Coffee is served from the right of the guest. If the coffee pot has a short spout, pick the
cup and bring it up to the pot to fill it. If the pot has a long spout, pour the coffee straight
into the cup on the table. In formal silver service present the coffee pot and milk jug on an
under liner and then pour coffee and milk for the guests. Coffee and tea can both be
prepared and served from gueridon. If specialty coffees and teas are served the gueridon
enables you to make the most of their presentation liqueur coffee are particularly suited to
preparation on the gueridon

Hot Chocolate
This is usually served in cups prepared in the still area. The cups are served from the
guests right.

Unit task 5 Care and storage of beverages

Beer
Faults in beer can usually be contributed to poor cellar management
Cloudy beer
This may be due too a low temperature in the cellar or more often, may result from the beer pipes
not having been cleaned properly

Flat beer
This may result when a wrong spile has been used – a hard spile builds up pressure, a soft spile
releases pressure. When the cellar temperature is too low, beer often becomes dull and lifeless. Dirty
glasses and those that have been refilled for a customer who has been eating food, will also cause
beer to go flat.

Sour
This may result in
 The beer being left on ullage for too long .
 Sourness may also be caused by adding stale beer to a new cask.
 By beer coming in contact with old deposits of yeast which have become lodged in the pipeline
from the cellar

Beer Storage and equipment

Beer engines
These are pumps pulled by hand using a handle in the bar. They must be cleaned weekly when the
pipe-line are cleaned and must be stripped down and inspected on a monthly basis. New washers
may be needed, etc. Some engines work by carbon dioxide top pressure, which applies force
downwards on to the beer in the cask and drives a measured amount up into the bar when a button is
pressed

Dip-sticks
These are used to determine how much beer is left in the cask. The dip-stick is placed into the cask
through the shive.

Electrical impelled pumps

Electrical impelled pumps, situated in the cellar, dispense an accurate amount of beer into the glass
in the bar when the bartender presses the button.

Filters
Filters must only be used in the cellar to return sound beer to the cask – for instance, beer which
has been drawn out of the popes before pipe-cleaning started. Filters must be kept clean and used
with clean filter papers
To filter beer is not in itself illegal, but to return to cask any over-spill or ‘slops’ is an offence. To
mix or dilute beer in the cask, or to adulterate any produce for sale, is also an offence
Pipe Cleaning
These are used to clean pressurized container pipe-lines. With the gas turned off, the assembly head
should be taken form the keg and locked onto the two-gallon cleaning bottle containing cleaning
fluid. The CO2 should be turned on and the pipes filled with the fluid. Afyer about one hour the
process should be repeated using clean water. Automatic beer-line cleaning equipment is also now
popular.

Scotches
Triangular blocks of wood which are used to prevent a beer cask from rolling from side to side.

Shives and spiles

Shives are round pieces of hard wood which are placed in the bung-hole of the beer cask just before
it is sent out of the brewery after filling. The shive has a small hole in the centre which does not go
completely through the wood. When the cask is vented, the hole is completed by punching ot the
thin centre section with a wooden mallet. The hole will permit gas to escape from the cask. Spiles
are used in the hole to allow or prevent the CO2 gas fromescaping. They are small pegs made of
different types of wood. The hard-wood spile, when placed in the shive, does not allow any gas to
escape. Instead, pressure builds up in the cask and the beer regains its conditional (frothy head). The
softer porus spile is made from bamboo and when placed in the shive, it allows the gas to escape
and so prevents the beer from being too gassy and difficult to serve.

Stillions
Cask in use (on ullage) will be supported on stillions (or thrawls). A stillion is the wooden rack or
brick platform upon which the casks are placed for service. Keg pressurized beer containers are
usually situated together in one area of the cellar along with the necessary CO2 gas cylinders or
bracketed to the wall.

Factors determining good cellar management

i) Good ventilation
ii) Cleanliness
iii) Even temperature of 13 -15 oC
iv) Strong draughts and wide ranges of temperatures should be avoided
v) On delivery, all casks should be placed immediately upon the stillions
vi) Casks remaining on the floor should be bung uppermost to better withstand the pressure
vii) Spilling should take place to reduce excess pressure in the cask
viii) Tappings should be carried out 24 hours before a cask is required
ix) Pipes and engines should be cleaned at regular intervals
x) All beer lines should be cleaned weekly with diluted pipe-clening fluid and other cellar floor
washed down weekly with weak solution of chloride and lime (mild bleach)
xi) Beer left in piped after closing time should be drawn off
xii) Returned beer should be taken that the cellar is not overstocked
xiii) Care should be taken that the cellar is not overstocked
xiv) All spiles removed during the service should be replaced after closing time
xv) All cellar equipment should be kept scrupulously clean
xvi) Any ullage should be returned to the brewery as soon as possible
xvii) Re-ordering should be carried out on one set day every week after stocking the bottle stocks
of beers, wines, minerals, etc. strict rotation of stock must be exercised, with new crates placed
at the rear and old stock pulled out front for first issue (FIFO).

Storage of wines

Wine should be stored in a cellar which is:

i) Free from vibrations, excessive dampness, draughts and unwanted odours
ii) Very clean
iii) Well ventilated
iv) With only subdued lighting
v) A constant cool temperature of 12.5 oC (55 oF) help wine develop gradually
Table wines should be stored on their sides in bins so that the wine remains in contact with the cork.
This keeps the cork expanded and prevents air from entering the wine thus turning it into vinegar.
 White, spackling and rose wines are kept in the coolest part of the cellar and in bins nearest the
ground to allow warm air rise away.
 Red wines are best stored in the upper bins. Commercial establishment usually have special
refrigerators or cooling cabinets for keeping their sparkling, white and rose wines at serving
temperatures

Other Drinks
Spirits, liqueurs, juices and minerals waters are stored upright in their containers, as are fortified
wines. The exceptions are port-style wines which are destined for lying down.

Foreign bodies
Foreign bodies or extraneous matter may be the result of production slip-ups
Unit task 6 Wine and beverage lists
Types of wines and drinks lists
(a) Bar and cocktail lists
These may range from a basic standard list offering the common everyday aperitifs such as sherries,
vermouths, bitters, and selection of spirits with mixes, beers and soft drinks together with a limited
range of cocktails to a very comprehensive list offering a good choice in all areas.
The actual format and content would be determined of operation and clientèle you wish to attract.

Dependent on this, the emphasis may be in certain areas such as:

  Cocktails: traditional or fashionable
 Malt Whiskies
 Beers
 New World wines
 Non-alcoholic drinks

Unit task 7 Matching wine to food

A few general pointers are set out below that may be followed when advising the customer on
which beverage to choose to accompany a meal. However, it must be stressed that customers should
at all times be given complete freedom in their selection of wines.
1. Aperitif are alcoholic beverages that are drunk before the meals. If wine will be consumed
with the meal, then the Aperitif selected should be a 'grape' (Wine – based ) rather a 'grain'
(Spirits – based) Aperitif, since the later can spoil or dull palate.
The aperitif is usually a wine base beverage. It is meant to stimulate the appetite and therefore
should not be sweet. Dry and medium dry Sherries, dry vermouth and Sercial or Vedelho Madeira
are good examples of Aperitifs
2. The starter courses are best accompanied by a dry white or dry rose wine
3. National dishes should be complemented by national wines of that country. For instance
Italian red wine should be served with pasta.
4. Fish and shell fish dishes are best suited to well chilled dry white wines
5. Red meats such as beef and lambs blend and harmonize well with red wine
6. While meats such as veal and pork are acceptable with medium white wines
7. Game dishes require heavier and more robust red wines to complement the flavour of these
dishes
8. Sweet and desserts are served at the end of the meal and here its acceptable to offer well
chilled sweet white wines. These wines harmonise best with dishes containing fruit.
9. The majority of cheeses blend well with port and other dry robust red wines. Port is the
traditional wine harmonizing best with Stilton cheese.
10. The grain and fruit best brandies and liqueurs best harmonizes will with coffee .
A few general guidelines will ensure the most appropriate wine are selected to accompany a meal.

 Champagne and sparkling complement most foods

 Serve red with red meat and whine wine with white meat
 If unsure, often a rose will suffice
 Serve white wine before red wine
 Serve dry wine before sweet wine
 Serve a 'good” before a 'great' one.
 Commence with a grape aperitif rather than a grain aperitif prior to the meal.
 Make sure your wine is at the correct temperature

25.4.03 FOOD AND BEVERAGE SERVICE PROCEDURES

25.4.03T Specific Objectives:

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to
d) carry out mis-en-scene and mis-en-place
e) carry out the details of briefing sessions
f) identify tools used in selling food and beverage
 g) take food and beverage orders
h) serve food and beverage using the correct sequence
i) bill served food and beverage
j) practice skills when serving food and beverage
k) perform post-service tasks
l) carry out supervisory tasks

25.4.03 C Unit Tasks

The trainee should have the ability to:
i) carry out mis-en-scene and mis-en-place
ii) carry out the details of briefing sessions
iii) identify tools used in selling food and beverage
iv) take food and beverage orders
v) serve food and beverage using the correct sequence
vi) bill served food and beverage
vii) apply the right skills when serving food and beverage
viii) perform post-service tasks
ix) carry out supervisory tasks

Content
Unit task 1 Carrying out mis-en-scene and
mis-en-place
Unit task 2 Carry out briefing sessions
Unit task 3 Food and beverage selling tools

Unit task 4 Taking food and beverage orders

Presenting the menu
, After showing customers to the table the waiter or the restaurant manager may present the
menus or the menu may already be on the table.
Sometimes the menu or the specials of the day are displayed on a board in this case point the
board out to customers.
In some pretentious restaurants, the host is given a menu with prices, while the host's guests have
un-priced menus.
Draw customers' attention to the menu, explain how it works. Is it A la carte - individually priced or
is it all at a set price, mention any information not in the menu, e.g. what the dish and soup of the
day is, or any dishes which are unavailable.
Describe dishes or special offers you have been asked to promote.
Advising on customers' choice
You should be ready to tell customers about:
· any items not available
· specialities of the day and special promotions, as briefed by your supervisor/manager/the
chef
· for each dish the main ingredients and summary of how it is made
· dishes that take a long time to prepare, and those which might suit someone in a hurry
· dishes available for vegetarians and those on special diets (e.g. no dairy products) or with
allergies to certain foods (e.g. celiacs or nuts)
· what variations to dishes are possible, e.g. baked potato, not chips, with any main course
 price of dishes not on menu.
Taking the order
The aims are the same - whether you are using a hand-held terminal linked to a computer, a
simple order pad, or relying entirely on your memory.
1 To find out what the customers require to eat and drink.
2 To pass this information on to those responsible for preparing the food and drink
(computerised systems print the order out in the kitchen and dispense bar).
- To calculate the amount which customers have to pay. If payment has been made in
advance, or the meal is part of a package (e.g. hotel prices which include breakfast
and/or dinner), this information helps check for discrepancies between meals served
and meals paid for.
Copies of orders may also be used to:
· compare the amount of food purchased with the number of meals served
· monitor popularity of different items
· account for or marry up to customer orders with the amount of cash taken.
Some restaurants operate a system where all orders are taken by the restaurant manager, head
waiter or waitress. In some establishments the customers may write their own order down and
present it to the staff.
Preprinted order forms with dish/item names, and hand-held computer terminals are no common
methods for taking orders. Tick or type in the code allocated to the dish or press the
preprogrammed key. Some systems will give you a prompt for with additional selling opportunities
'Ice cream?' (with apple pie) or reminders 'How done?' (for steak).
Customer skills when taking orders
1 If the customers are not ready to order, offer to return to the table.
2 Face the customers as they make their choice. Look at them when they speak.
3 Show respect for the customers and try to project your wish to help them enjoy their
meal. This may mean a strictly upright posture and 'Thank you, ma'am', or sitting at the
table with a customer dining alone, or kneeling on the floor beside a group of customers. It
may mean being jovial and chatty, or quiet and respectful.
4 Decide whose order you should take first. It is usual to take women's orders before men's,
and the host last. Asking who's ready to order is another possibility, customers sometimes
take turns to order or one will order for the rest of the party.
5 Be patient when customers are indecisive or change their minds. Offer some suggestions,
or try to gently guide them to a decision.
6 Prompt for further requirements. 'Would you like a side salad?' Done well, this will boost
sales and increase customer satisfaction.
7 Don't promise what can't be delivered: 'That should be no problem, but I'll just check
with the chef.'
Read back the order to check you have each detail correct. Mistakes annoy customers and cause
trouble with the kitchen.

 Ensure the guests are ready to order.

 Take the order of the guests on the right of the host right but the guest's left.
Work anti-clockwise around the table, finishing with the host's order.
 Take the order up to and including the main course.
 Note any special requirements e.g special dietary needs or service requirement eg
quick service.
  Repeat the order to the guest to ensure that the order is correct.
 Transfer the order to the kitchen docket (using either a manual or computer system)
including the special instructions.
 Record the sale for billing purposes, following the house control system.
 Place the order with the kitchen.

Unit task 5 Sequence of serving food and beverage.

A written checklist of service ensures that there is consistency of service offered and acts as a guide.
Those procedures vary in diffferent establishments but they are the generally acepted procedures for
restaurant table service.
 Greet and seat the guests.
 Open the napkins.
 Offer iced water.
 Take orders for aperitifs.
 Serve the bread and butter.
 Offer the menu , suggest specials and inform the guest of variations to the menu.
 Allow time for the guests to make their choices.
 Take the food order up to and including the main course.
 Offer the wine list.
 Transfer the food order to the kitchen and cashier dockets and place the order with the
kitchen.
 Take the wine order.
 Serve the wine.
 Correct the covers, up to and including the main course.
 Serve the first course.
 Clear the first course.
 Top up wines and open fresh bottles as ordered.
 Serve additional starter courses.
 Clear the course preceding the main course.
 Call away the main course.
 Serve the salad.
 Serve the main course.
 En-quire (after the guests have had the opportunity to taste the food) whether the meals are
satisfactory.
 Clear the main course.
 Clear the side plates, salad plates and butter dishes.
 Check and if necessay change ash trays.
 Brush/crumb down.
 Offer hot or cold towells.
 Offer the wine list for the selection of dessert wines.
 Offer the menu for dessert, suggesting specials and inform guests of varriations on the menu.
 Take dessert or cheese order.
 Transfer the dessert order to the kitchen and cashier dockets and place the order with the
kitchen.
 Correct the covers.
 Serve the desert wine or other selected beverages.
 Serve the desert or cheese course.
 Take the order for coffee/tea.
 Transfer the coffee/tea order to the cashier docket.
 Take the after dinner drinks order.
  Correct the cover.
 Serve the after dinner drinks.
 Serve the coffee/tea.
 Serve petits fours.
 Prepare the bill.
 Offer additional coffee/tea.
 Present the bill when it is requested.
 Accept payment and tender change.
 Offer additional coffee/tea.
 See the guests out of the restaurant.

Unit task 6 Billing served food and beverage

Unit task 7 Practicing interpersonal skills
when serving food and beverage.

Unit task 8 Performing post-service tasks.

Unit task9 Performing supervisory tasks

Suggested Teaching/Learning Resources

- Internet
- Textbook
- Wine and drink list
- Beverage lists
- Big ‘5’
- Materials and Equipment
- Resource person
- Reports

Suggested Teaching/Learning Activities

- Group discussions
- Research work
- Observation
- Demonstrations
- Field trips
- Role playing
- Compiling beverage list
- Writing reports

Suggested Evaluation Methods

- Tests
- Assignments
- Reports

25.4.04 THE BAR

25.4.04T Specific Objectives
By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to
h) define terms
i) identify types of bars and bar lay-outs
j) explain factors to consider when setting up a bar
k) set up a bar
l) carry out bar service
m) carry out post service tasks

25.4.04C Unit Tasks

Unit task1 Definition of terms

Unit task 2 Types of bars and bar lay-outs
Unit task3 Factors to consider when setting up a bar
Unit task4 set up a bar
Unit task 5 carry out bar service
Unit task 6 carry out post service tasks

25.4.05 SPECIALIZED FORMS OF SERVICE

25.4.05T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
 definition of terms
 describe specialized forms of service
 carry out bookings of specialized forms of service
 carry out mis-en-scene and mis-en-place of specialized forms of food and beverage
service
 carryout out post service tasks
 discuss challenges of specialized forms of service

25.4.05 C Unit Tasks

Unit task 1 Meaning of specialized service

Unit task2Specialized forms of service

a. Floor/Room service
Floor or room service varies from basic 'in room' tea and coffee making facilities, as well as mini-
bars, to vending machines on floors, or to the service of a variety of meals in rooms. In five-star
hotels 24-hour room service is expected.

FULL & PARTIAL ROOM SERVICE

Service may be operated from a floor pantry. An alternative system is where all food and beverages
come from a central kitchen and are sent to the appropriate floor by lift and then taken to the rooms
possibly in a hot trolley.
Floor service staff must have considerable experience as they have to deal with the service of all
types of meals and beverages.
Floor service staff work on a shift system as the service has to be provided 24 hours a day. The
guests may call for service by pressing a button which lights up a series of coloured light5s in the
corridor or pantry. The customer may telephone directly to the floor pantry or reception or
restaurant or dining room. A food or wine check must be made out for all request from the guest. In
the event of a special luncheon or dinner parties a bill must be made out and presented to the host
who will sign to show that the services listed have been received. All checks once signed by the
guest should be passed immediately to the reception or control so that the services rendered may be
charged to the account.
The pantry holds equipment required for the preparation and service of any meal. This include:
 sink unit
 hotplate
 refrigerator
 lift to central kitchen
 salamander
 open gas range
 small still set or other coffee making machine
 cutting boards
 knives
 storage space shelves and cupboards for china
 china
 silverplate, hollow-ware
 cutlery, flatware
 glassware
 cruets, worchester sauce, sugar, etc
 linen
 gueridon trolley
 chafing lamps and suzzette pans
 wine service equipment, wine buckets, stands baskets, etc
Sufficient equipment must be available to enable efficient service to be given at all times and a high
standard maintained.
The service staff carry out all their own pre-service preparation (mise-en-place) before the service of
a meal. This includes the checking and refilling of cruets and their accompaniments, laying up of
tables, washing and polishing of glasses, cleaning of trays and so on. A strict control of all
equipment is essential and to this end it should be noted that some establishments provide a different
style and design of china, etc, for the service of meals on the floors.
Finally, it is sufficient to say that the floor service staff should ensure that all rooms are cleared as
soon as meals are finished so as not to be in the way when rooms are being cleaned.

Breakfast only service

in some hotels only breakfast service is available, which is provided by the housekeeping staff. An
example of a breakfast menu is shown below

Insert image fromFood and beverage service by Lilicrap Pg 328

this menu also acts as an order which, when completed is hang on the outside of the guest bedroom.
The bottom portion of the card is detachable and sent to the billing office for charging the guests
account. The remaining portion goes to the floor service pantry or central kitchen. Trays are then
made up and delivered to the room within the appropriate time range.

Laying-up of a breakfast tray is almost the same as a full English or Continental breakfast in the
restaurant with a few exceptions which are :
 A tray cloth replaces the table cloth
  Underplates are usually left out because of lack of space and to reduce weight
 There will be no ashtray or table number on the tray
Before taking the tray to the room or apartment it is important to check that nothing is missing and
that the hot food is hot. The beverage and toast should be the last in the tray for this reason.
Insert image fromFood and beverage service by Lilicrap Pg 329
Positioning of items on the tray is important. The items should be placed so that everything may be
easily reached as it helps balance the tray. Any bottled sauce should be laid flat to avoid accidents
when carrying. On arriving on apartment door the staff should knock loudly, wait for a reply and
then enter. Place the tray on the bedside table. After about 45 minutes the staff should return to the
room, follow the same procedure and ask if it is convenient to clear. When breakfast service is
finished all equipment must be washed up and foodstuffs ie milk, butter, rolls and preserves should
be returned to the still room or place in the refrigerator or store cupboard for reuse.
Standard stock for facilities for making tea and coffee are:
 teacup and saucer
 teaspoon (one per person)
 tea/coffee pot (or both)
 kettle (self switching)
 selection of tea, coffee, sugar, chocolate, creamer, non-sugar sweetener and biscuits.
The stock should be replaced each day by the room attendants.

b. Lounge service
Ranges from the service of continental breakfast, morning coffee, luncheon snacks, afternoon tea,
dinner or late evening snacks as well as alcoholic beverages.

ORGANISATION
In first class establishments, lounge staff may possibly from their own service pantry. However, in
most instances, the lounge staff work and liaise with the still-room or one of the dispense bars for
the service of all types of beverages required.
The staff may have a small service cupboard which hold the following items:
1. Small linen stock
2. Salvers
3. Ashtrays
4. Assorted glasses
5. Cups, saucers and teaspoons for the service of hot beverages
6. Dry goods: coffee, sugar and sugar
7. Check pads, bill pads, stock sheets for alcoholic drinks
8. Basic alcoholic drink stock for use when guests must be served in the lounge because
bars are closed to include:
-spirits -brandies -mineral water
-aperitifs -liqueurs -soft drinks
-wines
9. Cocktail snacks:
-cocktail onions -salted peanuts -gherkins
-cocktail cherries -olives -cheese sticks etc
10. Other beverages:
-horlicks -bovril -cocoa
-ovaltine -tisanes -chocolate
The lounge staff must be prepared for the service of the following in the lounge:
 Morning coffee
 Aperitifs and cocktails before the luncheon
  Coffee, liqueurs and brandy after luncheon
 Afternoon tea
 Aperitifs and cocktails before dinner
 Coffee, liqueurs and brandy after dinner
 Coffee, liqueurs and brandy after dinner
 Service of late night beverages, both alcoholic and non-alcoholic
 Other snacks throughout the day depending on the type of establishment
A tight control must be kept on all items served. It is normal for a chance guest to pay cash for a
service rendered, but a resident may not wish to pay cash and the lounge staff must then ensure that
the guest signs the check to confirm the services received.
The check must have the appropriate room number against it. The amount outstanding should then
be charged to the guest's account which will be paid when he/she leaves the establishment at the end
of the visit.
All checking should be in triplicate with one copy to the supply section, a second to the cashier for
billing and the third remains with the waiter for reference during service.
Stocking should be held at regular intervals with the occasional spot checks on certain items. Stock
sheets should be completed daily.
Lounge staff commence preparation in the morning ensuring the lounge is clean and keep it
presentable at all times.
For some service in the lounge, e.g. afternoon tea, a buffet may be set up to display the range of
foods on offer. Alternatively, a gueridon may be used to offer a selection of foods to customers
seated within the lounge areas.

c. Hospital Tray service

The development of the hospital catering service goes back to the National Health Act 1947.
Before this time all hospitals were dependent on income from patients’ fees, private donations,
proceeds from garden parties etc.
Owing to this, the service of food and drink varied considerably from one hospital to another and
generally went bad to worse.
Very little consideration was being given to such things as providing an attractively served meal,
correct nutritional value, supplying a wide variety of food, or serving hot and freshly cooked food.
The long term effect of the 1947 Act was that considerable change gradually took place.
This meant that all meals should reach the patient quickly, look attractive and have the correct
nutritional value.
To this end, the American Ganymede system was introduced in 1964.

THE PATIENT
When in hospital, likes and dislikes become more important to the patient.
This is an important factor that the catering officer must not overlook.
Patients may be said to fall into six categories:
1. Medical: usually in hospital for a long time
2. Surgical: only stay in hospital for a short time
3. Geriatric: older people who require hospital treatment and may have
special needs
4. Orthopedic: these patients are not normally physically ill but may often be
unable to move without help
5. Maternity
6. Pediatric: children
MEAL TIMES
The timing of patients’ meals generally follows the same pattern:
Breakfast 7.30 – 8.00 am
Lunch 12 noon
Tea 3.00 – 3.30 pm
Supper 6.00 – 6.30 pm
Later hot drink Anytime between 8.00 and 10.00 pm

TRAY SERVICE
The Ganymede system is now one of a number of commercially available tray service methods used
in hospital catering.
Individual patient trays are made up on a conveyor system according to the patient’s pre-ordered
requirements.
Differing methods are used to keep the food hot or cold, ranging from the heated or chilled pellet
method to specifically insulated trays.
Trays once completed are transported to the wards in ambient cabinets.
Beverages are added at ward sites before presentation to the patient.
The advantages of this system are that:
 The patients receive their meal presented appetizingly on the plate and piping hot
 Labor and administration costs can be reduced
 Time originally spent in the ward ‘plating up’ meals may now be put to better use by
completing other duties
 The patient is able to select the meal required from a given menu
The menu, on which there is a choice, is given to each patient the day before. They then mark off
their requirements for lunch, dinner and breakfast for the following day by putting an 'X' in the
appropriate box.
These menus are then collected and sent to the catering manager. All order cards are then collated
and a production schedule is drawn up.
At service time, depending on the type of dish, extra portions are available in case they required.
The patient may also mark on the card if he/she requires large or small portions.
The private patient's choice of menu is larger and more varied than the main wards, and here the
service is similar to hotel room service.
Microwave ovens are also used in hospitals to provide quick re-heating facilities for food at certain
periods of the day and night.
It can be seen that the systems are devised to boost the morale of the patient by continually
presenting him/her with well cooked food, attractively plated-up and piping hot.
At the same time over the period of a week or a forth-night, the patient ha a wide and varied
selection of dishes from which to choose.

Airline Tray service

The first catering seen on planes could best be described as a packed lunch of assorted sandwiches
plus a flask of tea.
Then it was a case of ‘take it or leave’.
Airlines now have a catering commissary.
A commissary is a term used to cover the:
- Catering
-Cabin requirements
-Bonded stores
-Cleaning and other passenger requirements.
Where short distances and flight times are involved, only snack-type meals, or sandwiches, and
beverages are offered.
Where long distances are involved, then the airline staff have time to give an extensive service of
food and beverages.
For the economy and tourist flights all meals must be of the same size, with all portions identical.
The meals are arranged in individual portion containers, sealed, chilled and then stored until
required.
For the first-class passenger, who receive a food and beverage service equivalent to that of a first-
class hotel or restaurant, there should be little portion control.
The service must be aisle, and served with the appropriate garnish and vegetables.
This, combined with the use of fine bone china glassware, and silver plated tableware, creates an
atmosphere of content and well-being whilst the meal is being served.
The economy or tourist class meal is often served on a plastic or melamine tray using disposable
place mats, cutlery, tableware, glasses for drinks and serviettes.
Great use is made here of pre-portioned foods such as salt, peppers, mustards, sugars, cream,
cheeses, dry biscuits and preserves.

d. Rail service
Food and beverage operations on trains are conventional restaurant kiosks.
On sleepers, a limited type of room service is provided. However, these services are provided on the
move away from the home base and suppliers.
The problems of rail catering are therefore similar in organization to off-premises catering.
Rail catering is moving towards the operation of a tray system similar to airlines.
The food and drink is served on trays to passengers at any seat, i.e. not within a restaurant car where
tables are laid as in a restaurant.

e. Home Delivery
More recently home delivery has become part of the profit sector. Services range from Indian and
Chinese takeaway deliveries, to restaurants providing full meals (hot, or cold for customers to re-
heat).
Methods of delivery, which endeavor to ensure preservation of the product in the heat retention
presentation packages, vary.
The most sophisticated are the Meals on Wheels services. This is because of the nature of the
customer demand being met (the elderly) where consideration for nutritional value is uppermost.
The most simple, but nevertheless effective, is the pizza home delivery system which utilizes thick
cardboard with internal corrugations to provide a form of insulation to keep the pizza hot.
The time required for heat retention is limited by the extent of the delivery area.
Unit task 3 Challenges of specialized forms of service

25.4.06 FUNCTION CATERING

25.4.06T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
 define terms
 identify types of function catering
 discuss factors to consider in function preparation
  describe duties and responsibilities of function catering staff
 discuss function administration procedure
 plan, organize and execute various catering functions
 discuss post service tasks
 discuss challenges in function catering

25.4.06 C Unit Tasks

Unit task 1 Definition of terms

 Service of food and beverages at a specific time and place, to a given number of people, to
an agreed menu and price.
 Outdoor catering is a specialized form of function catering and may be organized in several
ways.
Unit task 2 Types of functions
11. There are two types of functions
 Formal meals/Banquets e.g. Luncheons, dinners, wedding breakfasts etc
 Buffet receptions e.g. Wedding receptions, cocktail parties, buffet teas, anniversary
parties, dances, conferences etc
 A further

Unit task 3 Concept of function catering

Unit task 3 Factors to consider in function
Unit task 4 Duties and responsibilities
function catering staffing
Unit task 5 Function administration
procedures
Unit task 6 Post-service Tasks
Unit task 7 Challenges in function catering

25.4.07 SALES PROMOTION

25.4.07T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) define terms
b) explain the importance of sales promotion
c) advertise foods and beverages
d) merchandize food and beverages
e) demonstrate skills of personal of food and beverages
f) discuss challenges experienced in sales promotion

25.4.07 C Unit Tasks

Unit task 1 Definition of terms

-Sales promotion
 - It is a form of temporary incentive highlighting aspects of a product that are not
inherent in it.
Is a day-to-day operation relating to discount offers, price reductions, and special offers,
such as a free bottle of wine with every meal for two. They are designed to appeal to a
certain section of the market for example weekends, evenings, food festivals etc.

-Merchandising
Merchandising is the art of displaying products attractively to promote sales.
It is appoint of sale promotion of their facilities using non-personal media.

-Personal selling
Is oral communication with potential buyers of a product with the intention of making a
sale. It is done through contacts with local organizations, committees or directly to the
clients usually by senior restaurant staff.
Is also a paid form of promoting a facility on a personal basis.

-Advertisement
Form of communication used to influence individuals to purchase products or services. It
communicates a message that includes the name of the product or service and how that
product or service could potentially benefit the consumer. It attempts to persuade
potential customers to purchase or consume a particular brand of product or service.

It is a paid form of non personal presentation and promotion of ideas, goods or services
by an identified sponsor sales promotion used to convey messages which will influence
consumer attitudes and behavior favorable to the seller.

Unit task 2 Importance of sales promotion

- Is to increase sales during off-peak periods by attracting new customers
- Gain publicity in local press and on local radio
- Stimulate and keep the interest of regular customers

Unit task 3 Aspects of sales promotion

- advertising
The major forms of advertising that may be employed by food service facilities include
the following
1. Direct mail. This involves communicating by post to specified customers. These may
be new and potential customers, or to past or well established customers. It involves
direct mailing of personalized letters, brochures, pamphlets and leaflets.
2. Press advertising. Advertising in national or local newspapers, magazines, guides etc.
3. Broadcasting. In radio, television, cinema etc
4. Signs and posts. Signs and posters advertising a catering facility may be positioned
along streets in towns and cities.
5. Miscellaneous advertising media. These include other forms of advertising media that
may be used in addition to major channels discussed above. For example, door-to-
door leaflet distribution, leisure centre entrance tickets, theatre programmes, shop
windows etc

Merchandising
  Floor stands or bulletin boards for example in a reception or waiting area advertise
special events forthcoming attractions etc. Arriving guests will read the notices on
these stands.
 Posters. Posters have a wider circulation than the previously described floor stands.
They may be displayed in reception areas, elevators, cloakrooms, in the restaurant or
in ant strategic position where people can read.
 Wall displays
 Tent cards. These are often placed on restaurant dining tables to promote special
events, attractions etc.
 Clip-on Menu clip-on is most commonly used in restaurants to advertise specialty
items. They may also be used on wine lists to promote a particular wine.
 Children’s menus. Children’s menus and portion sizes are particularly applicable to
those catering operations who attract family custom, for example resort hotels, fast-
food units, medium-priced restaurants etc.
 Visual food and beverage display. Visual selling in a catering operation can be
enhanced by the use of several techniques: Displays, Trolleys, Gueridon cookery

- personal selling
One of the main characteristics of service industries is the increased contact time
between service staff and customers, and the attitudes and behavior of an operation’s
service employees are important parts of the total product the customer is buying.
The objectives, requirements and techniques of personal selling need to be fully
integrated into the overall marketing policy of the organization.
The fact that an establishment may have a sales department does not relieve the
catering department of its sales functions and responsibilities.
When customers enter a restaurant, their first personal contact with the restaurant staff
is usually the waiter who shows them to their table.
When the waiter comes to take customers’ orders, there is another chance for the
employee to promote the menu, restaurant’s specialty, a side salad, additional
vegetables, wine to accompany the meal, rather than simply being an order-taker.
Training service staff can help increase their awareness of the different ways in
which they personally can contribute to an operation’s sale.
These training programmes can include basic sales functions of the waiter e.g. asking
customers if they would like a drink when they arrive at the restaurant to more in
depth sensitivity training.
These will include being taught selling phrases and responses that may be used when
taking a customer’s order.
The ‘personal touch’ plays a more important role in the total service product.

25.4.07T 4 Challenges in sales promotion

 Increased competition and unethical practices adopted by some of the companies.
 Low level understanding of customer knowledge
 Dissimilar customer perception
 Quality of sales representatives
 Recruitment process of sales promotion representatives
 High training and re-training costs of sales promotion personnel
 Busy sales promotion personnel giving less time to sales calls
 Poor territory knowledge in terms of business value at the level of sales promotion
representatives
 Unknown value of revenue from each sales personnel
  Sales forecasting from field sales level to actual level
 Absence of analysis on the amount of time invested on profitable and not-so
profitable customers and lack of time-share planning towards developing
customer base for future and untapped markets

25.4.08 EMERGING TRENDS

25.4.08T Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
i) identify emerging trends in food and beverage service and sale management
j) discuss the challenges posed by emerging trends in food and beverage service and
sales management
k) discuss ways of managing challenges posed by emerging trends

25.4.08 C Unit Tasks

The trainee should have the ability to:
 identify emerging trends in food and beverage service and sales management
 manage the challenges posed by the emerging trends

Unit task 1 Identification of emerging trends

in food and beverage service and
sales management
Unit task 2 Challenges
Unit task 3 Managing challenges
Appendix I: Housekeeping Tools and Equipment (Class of 20)

1 Mops 3x20
2 Mops buckets 3x20
3 Buckets 2x20
4 Basins 3x20
5 Waste paper baskets 1x20
6 Dust bins 5
7 Dust pans 1x20
8 Dust pans brushes 1x20
9 Brooms 1x20
10 Deck brushes 1x20
11 Cobweb brushes 1x20
12 Hand brushes 1x20
13 Soft brushes 1x20
14 Squeegees 1x20
15 Vacuum cleaner 5
16 Carpet sweepers 5
17 Floor scrubbers 3
18 Floor polishers 3
19 Beds 8
20 Trolleys 20
21 Yellow dusters 5
22 Cleaning cloths 40
23 Rags 20
24 Abrasive pads 12
25 Ladders 3
Appendix II: Kitchen Equipment and tools
1 Cooker +Oven 10
2 Refrigerator 1
3 Freezer 1
4 Work Units 10
5 Bain Marie 1
6 Weighing scale 4
7 Stock pot 2
8 Sauce pan with lid 20 Appendix III: Laundry Tools and
9 Frying pan 10 Equipment (Class of 20)
10 Sieve 10
111 Colanderbaskets
Laundry 5 2
12 Conical sieve 1
13
2 Laundry brush
Rolling pins
5 10
143 Basins
Rolling boards 20 10
154 Buckets
Genera; utility knives 20 10
165 Laundry
Measuringsinks
cups (set) 5 10
176 Hand irons spoons (set)
Measuring 3 10
18 Measuring jugs 10
7 Calendars 1
19 Pastry brush 10
208 Tumble dryer
Icing set 1 10
219 Washing
Assortedmachines
baking tins (set) 2 10
2210 Steam presses
Mixing bowls (anorted rizen-3) 2 10
2311 Wooden spoons
Boiler 1 10
2412 Cooking sticks
Hangers 30 10
25 Graters 10
26
13 Linen shelves
Whisks (anorted rizen-3)
1 Unit 10
2714 Linen Cupboard
Perforated spoons 1 Unit 10
28 Fish slice 10
29 Frying baskets 2
30 Fryer 1
31 Steamer 1
32 Trays 10
33 Blender 2
34 Hand mixes 2
35 Pastry cutters (anorted risen and designs) 2 sets
36 Dustbin with liners 10
37 Squeegee 4
38 Mop buckets 5
39 Moppers 10
40 Broom (sweeping) 10
41 Scrubbing broom 10
42 Fire extinguisher 1
43 Fire blanket 1
44 Store-equipment 1
45 Store-ingredient 1
46 Roosting fork 10
47 Spider 10
48 Commercial weighing scale 1
Appendix iv: Restraurant

1 Refrigerator 1
2 Warmer 1
3 Sideboard 5
4 Salver 10
5 Water dispenser 1
6 Water Jugs 10
7 Dinner plates 50
8 Dining tables (4-seater) 10
9 Soup plates 50
10 Under plates (soap) 50
11 Fruit bowls 50
12 Side plates 50
13 Joint Knives 50
14 Joint forks 50
15 Soup spoons 50
16 Dessert fork 50
17 Dessert spoon 50
18 Fish knife 50
19 Fish fork 50
20 Butter knife 50
21 Butter pats 10
22 Cruet set 10
23 Flower vase 10
24 Table napkins 50
25 Table cloth 20
26 Slip cloth 20
27 Buffet cloth 5
28 Buffet skirting 5
29 Trays 10
30 Tumbler 50
31 Glassware (Assorted) 50
32 Tea cup with saucer 50
33 Coffee cup with saucer 50
34 Tea spoon 60
35 Sugar basin 10
36 Tea pot 10
37 Milk jug 10
38 Coffee pot 10
39 Cream jug 10
40 Dance boat 20
41 Toast rack 10
42 Tea strainer with slop basin 10
43 Under plates 20
44 Soup tureen 10
45 Soap ladle 10
46 Fruit basket 10
 47 Service spoon 10
48 Service fork 10
49 Bar tongs 10
50 Ice basket 2
51 Wine basket 10
52 Tot measure 2
53 Boston shaker 1
54 Mixing glass 2
55 Bar spoon 2
56 Beer mugs (anorted) 20
57 Wine glasses (anorted) 20
58 Liqueurs glasses (anorted) 20
59 Spirit glasses (anorted) 20
60 Cocktail glasses (anorted) 20
61 Decants 10
62 Wine stands 2
63 Cutting board and kite (set) 2
64 Flask (hot water) 3
65 Still room with facilities 1
66 Hand wash basin 1
67 Hand dryer 1
68 Chafing dishes 5
69 Service spoons (anorted) 5

Ref
Food and Beverage Service 4th Edition
Dennis R Lillicrap, John A Cousins 1994