Zeal Education Society’s

ZEAL COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & RESEARCH, PUNE – 41

(An Autonomous Institute Affiliated to Savitribai Phule Pune University)
NAAC Accredited with A+ Grade / ISO 21001:2018

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

VISION AND MISSION

Institute:

To be a premier institute in technical education by imparting academic excellence,

Vision
research, social and entrepreneurial attitude.
1. To achieve academic excellence through innovative teaching and learning
process.
Mission 2. To imbibe the research culture for addressing industry and societal needs.
3. To inculcate social attitude through community engagement initiatives.
4. To provide conducive environment for building the entrepreneurial skills

Department:

To establish a distinguished department in electrical engineering by fostering

dynamic teaching-learning experiences, pioneering research, promoting social
Vision
responsibility, and nurturing entrepreneurial skills for societal impact and
technological innovation.
M1: To develop students into accomplished engineers through the imparting of
comprehensive knowledge in Electrical Engineering.
M2: To inculcate the research culture among the students.
Mission M3: To create an environment that nurtures the students with social responsibilities.
M4: To provide a conducive environment for leadership, employability &
entrepreneurship.

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 Zeal Education Society’s
ZEAL COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & RESEARCH, PUNE – 41
(An Autonomous Institute Affiliated to Savitribai Phule Pune University)
NAAC Accredited with A+ Grade / ISO 21001:2018

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

SYLLABUS

Program: B. Tech. (Electrical Engineering) Semester: I

Course: Engineering Physics Code: EEBS102
Teaching Scheme (Hrs/week) Evaluation Scheme (Marks)
Lecture Practical Tutorial Credit CIE ETE TW OR PR Total
02 02 - 03 40 60 25 - - 125
Prerequisites:
Fundamentals of Physics, basic of interference, polarization, de-Broglie hypothesis, semiconductor and
ultrasonic.
Course Objectives:
1. To make the students understand and study the basic principles of Physics.
2. To provide firm grounding to the students in the concept of physics to resolve many
engineering and technological problems.
3. To impart the knowledge of the fundamentals of physics to the students through hands on
experiments and extend it to relevant engineering applications.
Course Outcomes: At the end of the course, Student will be able to -
CO1 Explain basics of interference and polarization connected to engineering applications
CO2 Make use of Laser technology and Optical fiber in various disciplines.
CO3 Outline the fundamentals of Quantum Physics and relate it to engineering applications
CO4 Apply basics of semiconductors for solving the engineering problems.
CO5 Extend the understanding of Ultrasonic and NDT in engineering.
CO6 Interpret the use of nanoparticles and superconductors in the field of engineering.
Course Contents:
Duration
Unit Description
(Hrs.)
Wave optics:
Units and its Conversion-Length, Mass, Velocity, Acceleration Momentum,
Time, Temperature, Wavelength, Energy, Current, Voltage, Power, Intensity, 5
Amplitude, Frequency, Pressure, Resistance, compressibility, resistivity,
conductivity, Mobility, Angle.
1. Interference- Interference in thin film of uniform thickness and its conditions
(Simple Numerical), Engineering Applications – Ant-Reflection coating (ARC),
Polarization- Polarization and its types, Malus law and Brewster’s law (Simple
numerical), Double refraction, Huygens’s theory of double refraction,
Differentiate between positive & negative crystal, Engineering applications of
polarization: Liquid Crystal Display (LCD).
Laser and Optical Fiber:
2. Laser- Basic Principles of laser, Elements of Laser, Characteristics of laser, He-

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 Zeal Education Society’s
ZEAL COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & RESEARCH, PUNE – 41
(An Autonomous Institute Affiliated to Savitribai Phule Pune University)
NAAC Accredited with A+ Grade / ISO 21001:2018

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

Ne laser (Gas laser), Applications of laser – Medical, Industrial and Holography- 5
Recording.
Optical fibers- Propagation of Light-Acceptance angle, Acceptance cone,
Numerical Aperture, Fractional Refractive Index Change (Simple numerical).
Types of optical fibers, Advantages of optical fiber, Applications of optical fiber
in Medical, Communication, Entertainment, Data Security
Quantum Physics:
De Broglie hypothesis of matter waves, de Broglie wavelength for a particle 4
accelerated by Kinetic Energy (K.E) and a charged particle accelerated by
3. Potential difference (PD) “V”, (Simple Numerical), Properties of matter waves,
Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle for broader wave packet and narrow wave
packet. (Simple Numerical), Tunneling Effect, Engineering Applications-
Scanning Tunneling Microscope (STM), Introduction to Quantum Computing.
Semiconductor Physics:
Classification of solids on the basis of band theory, Fermi level for metal and
semiconductor, Position of Fermi level in extrinsic semiconductors (only
4. diagram), Solar cell: principle, working, IV-characteristics, Efficiency and fill
factor, Factors to improve efficiency of solar cell, Advantages and disadvantages
of solar cell, Hall effect: derivation for Hall voltage and Hall coefficient and its
applications (Simple Numerical). 5

Ultrasonic and Non-destructive Testing:

Ultrasonic- Definition and Properties of ultrasonic waves, piezoelectric effect
and inverse of piezoelectric effect, Generation of ultrasonic waves by inverse
5. (using transistor), Compressibility of liquid (Simple Numerical).
4
Non- Destructive Testing (NDT)- Definition and its objectives, Difference
between destructive testing and non- destructive testing, Application NDT as an
Ultrasonic flaw detection technique(Simple numerical)., Advantages of NDT.
Nanophysics and Superconductivity:
Introduction to nanophysics, Properties of nanoparticles (Optical, Electrical,
Mechanical), Applications of nanoparticles (Electronics, Automobile, Medical).
Superconductivity – Definition of Superconductivity on the basis of
6. Temperature dependence of resistivity, Properties of Superconductors - Meissner
effect, Critical magnetic field (Simple Numerical), , Type I and Type II 5
Superconductors, Engineering applications of superconductivity in
Superconducting Quantum Interface Device (SQUID) with its Principle-working
General applications of superconductors-Power transmission, Electronics,
Medical, principle of Maglev train.
TOTAL 28
List of Experiments:
A. Lab Experiments (Any Eight)
1. Experiment based on Newton’s rings (determination of wavelength of monochromatic light,
determine radius of curvature of Plano-convex lens).
2. Experiment based on polarization (To verify Law of Malus).
3. Determination of refractive index using Brewster’s law.
4. Experiment based on Double Refraction (Determination of refractive indices / Identification of

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 Zeal Education Society’s
ZEAL COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & RESEARCH, PUNE – 41
(An Autonomous Institute Affiliated to Savitribai Phule Pune University)
NAAC Accredited with A+ Grade / ISO 21001:2018

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

types of crystal).
5. Experiment based on Laser (Determination of thickness of wire / Number of lines on grating
surface).
6. Determination of Planck’s constant using available experimental setup.
7. To study IV characteristics of Solar Cell and determine parameters (fill factor and efficiency).
8. To determine Hall coefficient and charge carrier density.
9. Determination of velocity of ultrasonic waves and compressibility of given liquid by using
Ultrasonic Interferometer.
10. An experiment based on optical fiber. (To determine the numerical aperture acceptance angel
acceptance cone of optical fiber of laser diode.
11. Experiment based on semiconductor (To determine the temperature dependence characteristics
of semiconductor.
12. To determine the unknown wavelength by using plane diffraction grating.
B. Study visit to research laboratory/ facility and submit report (Compulsory).
Text Books:
1. M. N. Avadhanulu and P.G. Kshirsagar, “Engineering Physics”, S. Chand Publications.
2. S. O. Pillai, “Solid State Physics”, New age International Publications.
3. J. J. Sakurai, “Modern Quantum Mechanics”, Pearson Publication.
4. V K Mehta and Rohit Mehta, “Basic Electrical Engineering”, S Chand Publications.
5. Robert L. Jaffe and Washington Tayler, “The Physics of Energy”, Cambridge University
Press".
Reference Books:
1. H.D.Young and R.A.Freedman, “University Physics”, Pearson Publication.
2. Resnick and Halliday, “Principles of Physics”, John Wiley and Sons.
3. Jenkins and White, “Optics”, Tata McGraw Hill.
4. Noson S. Yanofsky and Mirco A. Mannucci, “Quantum computing for computer scientists”,
Cambridge University Press
E-Resources:
MOOC / NPTEL/YouTube Links:
a) NPTEL lecture based on interference of polarized light by IIT Roorkee -
https://youtu.be/e-4QK_JVsdU?si=gWIBt41dDgeABO8Y
b) NPTEL lecture based on Introduction of Polarization by IIT Roorkee -
https://youtu.be/fIVlzKB4bBQ?si=meWFP5matsopCABi
c) NPTEL lecture based on Malus Law by IIT Roorkee
https://youtu.be/iFG82I3nFA0?si=JCln6fJqGNw6ix5U
d) NPTEL lecture based on Double Refraction by IIT Roorkee -
https://youtu.be/Pt5wvYyguq0?si=4mowxORZQXGXNxMW
e) NPTEL lecture based on Semiconductor Physics by IIT Roorkee
https://youtu.be/q7VIITSysMs?si=62lAMoJ2tMHKRiDH
f) NPTEL lecture based on Introduction to superconductivity
https://youtu.be/hGPA1g8fKug?si=FdYfJju6bf6u2zRe

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 Zeal Education Society’s
ZEAL COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & RESEARCH, PUNE – 41
(An Autonomous Institute Affiliated to Savitribai Phule Pune University)
NAAC Accredited with A+ Grade / ISO 21001:2018

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

g) NPTEL lecture based on Meissner Effect-
https://youtu.be/EkNnxBakJMs?si=qRnSvPlD2NTe4rf-
Virtual Labs:
1. Virtual Labs, Amrita University- https://vlab.amrita.edu/?sub=1&brch=195

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 Zeal Education Society’s
ZEAL COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & RESEARCH, PUNE – 41
(An Autonomous Institute Affiliated to Savitribai Phule Pune University)
NAAC Accredited with A+ Grade / ISO 21001:2018

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

DO’s AND DON’Ts

Do’s:

• Be familiar with your lab assignment before you come to lab. Follow all written and verbal
instructions carefully.
• Please follow instructions precisely as instructed by your supervisor.
• Always perform the experiment or work precisely as directed by teacher/instructor.
• Don’t forget to bring calculator, graph sheet and other accessories when you come to lab.
• Before performing experiment read instrument manual carefully.

Dont’s:
• In the absence of instructor, no student shall be allowed to work in the laboratory.
• Absolutely no running, practical jokes or horseplay is allowed in the laboratories.
• The use of personal audio or video equipment is prohibited in the laboratory.
• The performance of unauthorized experiments is strictly forbidden.
• Do not play with valves, screws and nuts of any apparatus.
• Shoes must cover the entire foot. Open toed shoes and sandals are inappropriate footwearin
laboratories.
• Don’t use mobile phones during lab hours.

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 Zeal Education Society’s
ZEAL COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & RESEARCH, PUNE – 41
(An Autonomous Institute Affiliated to Savitribai Phule Pune University)
NAAC Accredited with A+ Grade / ISO 21001:2018

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

INDEX
Sr. Page Date Sign
Title
No. No.
Experiment based on Newton’s rings (determination of
1. wavelength of monochromatic light, determine radius of
curvature of Plano-convex lens).
2. Experiment based on polarization (To verify Law of Malus).
3. Determination of refractive index using Brewster’s law.
Experiment based on Laser (Determination of thickness of wire
4.
/ Number of lines on grating surface).
To determine the unknown wavelength by using plane
5.
diffraction grating.
To study IV characteristics of Solar Cell and determine
6.
parameters (fill factor and efficiency).
7. To determine Hall coefficient and charge carrier density.
Determination of velocity of ultrasonic waves and
8. compressibility of given liquid by using Ultrasonic
Interferometer.
An experiment based on optical fiber. (To determine the
9. numerical aperture acceptance angel acceptance cone of optical
fiber of laser diode.
Determination of Planck’s constant using available
10.
experimental setup.
Study visit to research laboratory/ facility and submit report
11.
(Compulsory).
CERTIFICATE

This is to certified that Mr. /Miss. _______________________________________________________

of class ____________________ Division ______ Roll no. _______________ has completed

Experiments/practical work satisfactorily in the subject of ______________________________________

during the Semester - ______ of the academic year _________________.

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 Zeal Education Society’s
ZEAL COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & RESEARCH, PUNE – 41
(An Autonomous Institute Affiliated to Savitribai Phule Pune University)
NAAC Accredited with A+ Grade / ISO 21001:2018

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

Course Faculty Head of Department

Experiment No.: 1
Newton’s Rings
Roll No.: ________ Batch: _________
Date of Performance: _______________
Date of Assessment: _________________

Particulars Marks

Regularity (05)

Practical Conduction (05)

Readings (05)

Calculations (05)

Understanding (Viva) (05)

Total (25)

Signature of Course Teacher

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 Zeal Education Society’s
ZEAL COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & RESEARCH, PUNE – 41
(An Autonomous Institute Affiliated to Savitribai Phule Pune University)
NAAC Accredited with A+ Grade / ISO 21001:2018

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

Experiment: 1

1. Aim: To determine the radius of curvature of a planoconvex lens by using Newton’s rings. (OR To
determine the wavelength of incident light)

2. Apparatus: A traveling microscope with long focus objective, Newton’s rings apparatus, sodium lamp,
magnifying glass, reading lamp etc.

3. Ray Diagram:

4. Formula:

Slope
R = where,
4
Dn2 - Dm2
Slope = n>m
(n-m)
R = radius of curvature of planoconvex lens

 = wavelength of sodium light (5893A0)

5.Procedure: -

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 Zeal Education Society’s
ZEAL COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & RESEARCH, PUNE – 41
(An Autonomous Institute Affiliated to Savitribai Phule Pune University)
NAAC Accredited with A+ Grade / ISO 21001:2018

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

1) Arrange the apparatus as shown in the Fig. Clean the lens and glass plate thoroughly and then
place the planoconvex lens on the glass plate. With its convex surface touching the plate, place
it below the microscope.
2) Allow the parallel light from sodium lamp to be incident on a glass plate, which is held at 45
degrees to the horizontal so that the reflected light falls upon the lens. Adjust the position of the
microscope so that the point of contact is just below the microscope objective. Focus the
microscope until the rings are distinctly visible and the center of ring system lies below the
point of intersection at the cross wires. Rotate the eyepiece so that one of the cross wires is
perpendicular to the horizontal scale.
3) Move the microscope across the field of vision and focus it on a distinct dark ring, say 20th dark
ring from the center on the left. Read the position of the microscope with the cross wire
tangential to the ring. Focus on successive dark rings in steps of 05 and note the corresponding
positions of the microscope. Continue this till you reach dark ring number 05. While focusing
take care that every time the cross wire remains tangential to the ring.
4) Move the microscope across the center until it is focused at the other end of the diameter of the
dark ring number 05. Read the position of the microscope and proceed onwards until you reach
20th dark ring on the right. From the set of readings, diameters Dn of the rings can be
determined.
5) Calculate Dn2 and plot a graph of Dn2 Versus ring number n. Calculate the slope of the straight
line and knowing the wavelength of sodium light, calculate the radius of curvature of the
planoconvex lens using the given formula.
6. Observations:

L.C. of traveling microscope = ………… mm.

7. Observation Table:

Observation No. of dark Microscope reading (cm) Diameter (cm)

No. rings (n)
Left (x1) Right (x2) Dn = x1 – x2 Dn2 (mm2)
(in mm)
(in mm)
(in mm)

1.

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ZEAL COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & RESEARCH, PUNE – 41
(An Autonomous Institute Affiliated to Savitribai Phule Pune University)
NAAC Accredited with A+ Grade / ISO 21001:2018

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.Nature of Graph:

9.Calculations:

Slope y 2 − y1
R = Slpoe =
4 x 2 − x1

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ZEAL COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & RESEARCH, PUNE – 41
(An Autonomous Institute Affiliated to Savitribai Phule Pune University)
NAAC Accredited with A+ Grade / ISO 21001:2018

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

10. Result :

Radius of curvature of the planoconvex lens is ………. cm.

11. Conclusion:

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ZEAL COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & RESEARCH, PUNE – 41
(An Autonomous Institute Affiliated to Savitribai Phule Pune University)
NAAC Accredited with A+ Grade / ISO 21001:2018

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

Experiment No.: 2
Diffraction Grating
Roll No.: ________ Batch: _________
Date of Performance: _______________
Date of Assessment: _________________

Particulars Marks

Regularity (05)

Practical Conduction (05)

Readings (05)

Calculations (05)

Understanding (Viva) (05)

Total (25)

F.Y. B. Tech – Engineering Physics Lab Manual

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 Zeal Education Society’s
ZEAL COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & RESEARCH, PUNE – 41
(An Autonomous Institute Affiliated to Savitribai Phule Pune University)
NAAC Accredited with A+ Grade / ISO 21001:2018

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

Signature of Course Teacher

Experiment: 2
1. Aim : To determine the wavelength of unknown light source using plane diffraction grating.

2. Apparatus : Spectrometer, source of light (mercury lamp), diffraction grating, magnifying

glasses, etc.

3.Ray Diagram: :

4.Formula :
(a + b) sin = n where, (a + b) = grating element

a = width of a slit
b = distance between two adjacent slits
n = order of the spectrum
exp −  std
% error = X 100
 std
where, exp = experimental value of wavelength

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 Zeal Education Society’s
ZEAL COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & RESEARCH, PUNE – 41
(An Autonomous Institute Affiliated to Savitribai Phule Pune University)
NAAC Accredited with A+ Grade / ISO 21001:2018

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

std = standard value of wavelength
5.Procedure :

1) Adjust the telescope and collimator for parallel rays by Schuster’s method.
2) Mount the diffraction grating on the prism table such that its plane is perpendicular to the prism
table.
3) Arrange the face of the grating so that it lies normal to the collimator.
4) Focus the vertical cross-wire of the eye-piece perfectly on the first (violet) line of the first order
spectrum of left side. This focusing must be perfect for accurate results.
5) Clamp the telescope and note its angular position using the angular scale through the
observation window. Use a reading lamp and magnifying glass to note the reading.
6) Similarly, take readings for the other lines of spectrum. These readings are 1.
7) Turn the telescope to the right side and take the readings for the first order spectrum on this
side. These readings are 2.
8) Calculate 2, , sin and therefore  for each colour by using the given formula.
9) Compare your results (experimentally calculated wavelengths) with standard values and
calculate how much the results deviated from standard ones by using the formula for
percentage error.

7.Observations :
2.54
i) Grating element (a + b) = = ……..…cm ( 1inch= 2.54 cm)
15000
= ……… x 108 A0
ii) Least count of spectrometer = …………..
8.Observation Table:

Spectra exp
l lines Angular Positions 2 = 1 -
 = 2 / 2 std
2 Sin = (a + b) % error
Left 1 Right 2 (Deg min) A0
(Deg min)
(Deg min ) (Deg min) sin A0

Green 5460

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ZEAL COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & RESEARCH, PUNE – 41
(An Autonomous Institute Affiliated to Savitribai Phule Pune University)
NAAC Accredited with A+ Grade / ISO 21001:2018

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

Yellow 5790

Red 6390

Note: - Angle  should be taken with + sign (-ve sign ignored) but in case of % error

sign should be kept unchanged

9.Calculation:

Calculation of different colors Calculation of errors different colors wavelength

wavelength in Angstrom unit

(1) wavelength of Green color Error for Green color

(2) wavelength of Yellow color Error for Yellow color

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 Zeal Education Society’s
ZEAL COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & RESEARCH, PUNE – 41
(An Autonomous Institute Affiliated to Savitribai Phule Pune University)
NAAC Accredited with A+ Grade / ISO 21001:2018

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

(3) wavelength of Red color Error for Red color

10.Results :

1) Wavelength of Green colour = ……….. A0

2) Wavelength of Yellow colour = ……….. A0
3) Wavelength of Red colour = ……….. A0

11. Conclusion:

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 Zeal Education Society’s
ZEAL COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & RESEARCH, PUNE – 41
(An Autonomous Institute Affiliated to Savitribai Phule Pune University)
NAAC Accredited with A+ Grade / ISO 21001:2018

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

Experiment No.: 3
Law of Malu’s
Roll No.: ________ Batch: _________
Date of Performance: _______________
Date of Assessment: _________________

Particulars Marks

Regularity (05)

Practical Conduction (05)

Readings (05)

Calculations (05)

Understanding (Viva) (05)

Total (25)

F.Y. B. Tech – Engineering Physics Lab Manual

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 Zeal Education Society’s
ZEAL COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & RESEARCH, PUNE – 41
(An Autonomous Institute Affiliated to Savitribai Phule Pune University)
NAAC Accredited with A+ Grade / ISO 21001:2018

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

Signature of Course Teacher

Experiment: 3
1. Aim :To verify cosine square law of Malu’s for plane polarized light using photo-voltaic cell.

2. Apparatus: Photo-voltaic cell, moving coil galvanometer, lamp and scale arrangement, source of light,
convex lens and two Polaroids.

3.Diagram :

Experimental arrangement

4.Formula :

I = I0 . cos2

Where, I0=Intensity of plane polarized light incident on the analyzer

 = Angle between planes of transmission of polariser and analyzer

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ZEAL COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & RESEARCH, PUNE – 41
(An Autonomous Institute Affiliated to Savitribai Phule Pune University)
NAAC Accredited with A+ Grade / ISO 21001:2018

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

I = Intensity of the emergent light

5.Procedure :

1) Adjust all the apparatus as shown in the experimental arrangement (see the figure) and keep
all the source, convex lens, polariser P, analyzer A and window of photo-voltaic cell at same
height.

2) Adjust lamp and scale arrangement in such a way that the spot of light would be at zero of the
scale.

3) Then open window of photo-voltaic cell and for any position of polariser P, rotate analyzer A
till to get maximum deflection in the galvanometer.

4) Then record the position of analyzer on the circular scale and at the same time, the
corresponding galvanometer deflection should be recorded. This position of analyzer may
correspond to  = 00.

5) Rotate analyzer through a small angle say 100, and note steady galvanometer deflection on
the scale.

6) Repeat experiment by rotating analyzer through 100 each time and note the corresponding
deflection till it becomes practically zero.

θ =900 , Iθ= 0, minimum intensity For the verification of this law, the light from the analyzer is made to

enter in a photo-voltaic cell. The current output of photo-voltaic cell is connected to moving coil

alvanometer. The deflection of galvanometer is θ directly proportional to the intensity of light falling on

photo - voltaic cell. According to cosine law I0 cos2 θ, it should be a straight line, thus verifying cosine

law. Procedure: 1. Adjust all the apparatus as shown in the experimental arrangement [see the figure] and

keep the source, polarizer P, analyzer A and window of photovoltaic cell at same height. 2. Open the

window of photo-voltaic cell and for any position of polarizer P, rotate analyzer A till you get maximum

deflection. 3. Then record the position of analyzer on the circular scale and at the same time, the

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 Zeal Education Society’s
ZEAL COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & RESEARCH, PUNE – 41
(An Autonomous Institute Affiliated to Savitribai Phule Pune University)
NAAC Accredited with A+ Grade / ISO 21001:2018

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

corresponding galvanometer deflection should be recorded. This position of analyzer may correspond to

θ = 00 . 4. Rotate analyzer through a small angle say 100 , and note steady galvanometer deflection on

the scale.

Repeat experiment by rotating analyzer through 100 each time and note the corresponding deflection till it

becomes practically zero.

6.Observation Table:

Sr. No. Angle Current (I) Cosθ Cos2θ

through in
which (micrometer)
analyzer is
rotated

1 00

2 100
200
3
300
4
400
5
500
6
600
7
700
8
800
9
900
10

7.Graph : Draw a graph between cos2 on x-axis and 1/R on y-axis.

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ZEAL COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & RESEARCH, PUNE – 41
(An Autonomous Institute Affiliated to Savitribai Phule Pune University)
NAAC Accredited with A+ Grade / ISO 21001:2018

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

The graph verifies the cosine square law (Malus Law).

8.Result: ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

9.Conclusion

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ZEAL COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & RESEARCH, PUNE – 41
(An Autonomous Institute Affiliated to Savitribai Phule Pune University)
NAAC Accredited with A+ Grade / ISO 21001:2018

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

Experiment No.: 4
Brewster’s Law
Roll No.: ________ Batch: _________
Date of Performance: _______________
Date of Assessment: _________________

Particulars Marks

Regularity (05)

Practical Conduction (05)

Readings (05)

Calculations (05)

Understanding (Viva) (05)

Total (25)

Signature of Course Teacher

F.Y. B. Tech – Engineering Physics Lab Manual

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 Zeal Education Society’s
ZEAL COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & RESEARCH, PUNE – 41
(An Autonomous Institute Affiliated to Savitribai Phule Pune University)
NAAC Accredited with A+ Grade / ISO 21001:2018

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

Experiment: 4
1.Aim :To determine Brewster’s angle for a glass surface and hence to determine refractive index of
glass.

2.Apparatus : Spectrometer, monochromatic source of light, glass prism and polarized attachment
to telescope objective.

3.Diagram :

4.Formula :

According to Brewster’s law

 = tan P
where  = Refractive index of the material of prism P = Angle of polarization

5.Observation :

Least count of vernier = ……… sec

6.Observation Table :

Sr. Verni Telescope reading for Telescope reading for Differen Mean Mea
No er of

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. used complete extinction of direct image ce colum n
n
reflection image (a – b) Ө

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7)

Main Vernier Total Main Vernie Total

scale scale readi scale r scale reading
reading reading ng (a) reading reading (b) deg
deg

1 V1

V1

2 V1

V1

3 V1

V1

7.Calculations :

i) Polarizing angle, P = (90 -  /2)

ii) R.I.  = tan P

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8.Procedure :

1) First of all by removing the Polaroid attachment from the telescope, adjust spectrometer
for experiment.
2) Place the prism on the prism table and mount the Polaroid attachment on the telescope
objective.
3) Turn the telescope in such a way that the light reflected from one of the polished face of
the prism is received in the telescope.
4) Then adjust telescope to obtain the reflected light on the cross wire.
5) Then rotate Polaroid slowly through one complete cycle and observe the variation of
intensity of reflected light. The intensity may or may not be zero

in a particular position of Polaroid. Let the intensity is not zero in one

complete rotation of Polaroid.

6) Repeat step (4) and (5) to a number of times by increasing the angle of incidence – till
reflected light shows zero intensity.
7) Record the position of the telescope and note readings of two verniers.

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8) Then remove prism from the prim-table and turn telescope to get direct image of the
slit.
9) Adjust the image of slit on the cross wire of the telescope and note readings of two
verniers.
10) Determine the difference of the positions of telescope (i.e. angle )
11) Repeat experiment 3 to 4 times and find mean .

9.Result :

1) Polarizing angle, P = ……..

2) R.I. for material of the prism,  = ……..

10.Precautions :

1) Prism surface must be very clean.

2) Near polarizing angle, the angle of incidence should vary slowly and carefully.
3) The test for complete extinction of reflected light should be done carefully
11.Theory :
When a beam of ordinary light is incident at particular angle about 57 0 on a glass plate, the
reflected light is plane polarized. Plane polarized light means that the light vector in the reflected light is
vibrating transversely to the direction of transmission, in a fixed plane through this direction. At angles
other than 570, the reflected beam is not completely plane polarized. It will consist vibrations parallel to
the plane of the incidence as well as those perpendicular to the plane of incidence and falls to zero at angle
p (polarizing angle, about 570).

Brewster observed that for a particular angle of incidence, known as angle of polarization, the
reflected light is completely polarized in the plane of incidence, i.e. having plane of vibration
perpendicular to the plane of incidence.

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Brewster proved that the tangent of the angle of polarization (P) is numerically equal to the
refractive index () of the medium, i.e.  = tan P. This is known as Brewster’s law. He also proved that
the reflected and refracted rays are perpendicular to each other.
***

Experiment No.: 5
Laser
Roll No.: ________ Batch: _________
Date of Performance: _______________
Date of Assessment: _________________

Particulars Marks

Regularity (05)

Practical Conduction (05)

Readings (05)

Calculations (05)

Understanding (Viva) (05)

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Experiment:5
1.Aim : To find number of lines/cm of given grating using laser source

2.Apparatus : Laser Source, Grating Element, Scale and Screen, etc

3.Formula : (a+b) sin = nλ

n
(a + b ) =
sin 

where, (a+b) =grating element (no of lines/cm)

a = width of a slit

b = distance between two adjacent slits

n = order of the spectrum

4.Diagram :

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5.Observation table :

1) Wave length of laser source  = 6328  = 6328  10 8 cm

2) Distance between Grating and Screen D= ---------------- cm

3) Distance between First Order Diffracted Images d1 = --------------cm

4) Distance between Second Order Diffracted Images d2 = --------------cm

6.Calculations :

a. Calculation of  form figure

θ1 For first o der n=1 Θ2 For first order n=2

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1= tan
-1
( )
d1 /2
D 2= tan -1 ( d 2 /2
D )

Number of lines for first order n=1 Number of lines for second order n=2
sin 1 sin  2
1 / (a + b ) = per cm 1 / (a + b ) = per
1    10 −8 2    10 −8

7.Result :

1
1) No. of lines/cm of given grating for first order per cm = = ------------------------------
a+b

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1
2) No. of lines/cm of given grating for second order per cm = = ------------------------------
a+b

8.Conclusion

Experiment No.: 6

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Study of Numerical Aperture (Optical

Fibre)
Roll No.: ________ Batch: _________
Date of Performance: _______________
Date of Assessment: _________________

Particulars Marks

Regularity (05)

Practical Conduction (05)

Readings (05)

Calculations (05)

Understanding (Viva) (05)

Total (25)

Signature of Course Teacher

Experiment:7

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1.Aim :To measure a numerical aperture (NA) of fibre optic cable.

2.Apparatus:-diode laser source(SFH756), Fiber optic cable, Numerical aperture experimental set, 5V
adapter for laser source.

3.Schematic Diagram :

4.Procedure:
1. Insert a fiber optic cable in a SFH750 source carefully.
2. Insert other end of fiber optic cable in female connector placed on screen and insert it carefully.
3. Connect 5V adaptor source in a circuit by 230V/50Hz AC.
4. Adjust the distance between measurement screen and fiber optic screen.
5. Now switch On the laser source SFH750 by switch ON adaptor.
6. By adjusting a distance between two screens a fine spot of laser will appears on measurement
screen.
7. Now adjust the certain distance between measurement screen & fiber optic screen to see a find
spot and measure its diameter.
8. Take number of readings by varying the distance.
9. Fill the observation table. Calculate the numerical aperture of optical fiber

5.Observation Table:
Sr. No. Distance between measurement Diameter of spot in mm Numerical
screen & fiber optic screen (L) Aperture

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(Acceptance Cone)(D) NA = (D/2L)

6.Calculations:-

Numerical aperture of optical fiber is given as,

NA :- D / 2L

Where :

D is the acceptance cone or diameter of laser beam spot on screen

L is the distance between measurement screen & fiber optic screen

7.Conclusion :-

It has been observed that as diameter of cone decreases the numerical aperture also gets decreases
as the light gathering capacity is the function of cone diameter.

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Experiment No.: 7
Planck’s constant by LED
Roll No.: ________ Batch: _________
Date of Performance: _______________
Date of Assessment: _________________

Particulars Marks

Regularity (05)

Practical Conduction (05)

Readings (05)

Calculations (05)

Understanding (Viva) (05)

Total (25)

Signature of Course Teacher

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Experiment : 7

1.Aim : To determine the Planck’s constant (h) by LED.

2Apparatus:- 0-3 V Power Supply, Digital milliammeter, Digital voltmeter, a 1 K resistor

and 4 different known wavelength LED’s (Light-Emitting Diodes).

3.Figure:

4. Theory:-

Planck’s constant (h), a physical constant was introduced by German physicist named Max Planck
in 1900. The significance of Planck’s constant is that ‘quanta’ (small packets of energy) can be determined
by frequency of radiation and Planck’s constant. It describes the behavior of particle and waves at atomic
level as well as the particle nature of light.
An LED is a two terminal semiconductor light source. In the unbiased condition a potential barrier is
developed across the p-n junction of the LED. When we connect the LED to an external voltage in the
forward biased direction, the height of potential barrier across the p-n junction is reduced. At a particular
voltage the height of potential barrier becomes very low and the LED starts glowing, i.e., in the forward
biased condition electrons crossing the junction are excited, and when they return to their normal state,
energy is emitted. This particular voltage is called theknee voltage or the threshold voltage. Once the knee
voltage is reached, the current may increase but the voltage does not change.
The light energy emitted during forward biasing is given as ,

------------------------------------------------------------------------(1)
Where c -velocity of light.
h -Planck’s constant.
λ -wavelength of light.
If V is the forward voltage applied across the LED when it begins to emit light (the knee voltage), the
energy given to electrons crossing the junction is,

(2)

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Equating (1) and (2), we get

(3)
The knee voltage V can be measured for LED’s with different values of λ (wavelength of light).

(4)
Now from equation (4), we see that the slope s of a graph of V on the vertical axis vs. 1/λ on the
horizontal axis is

(5)
To determine Planck’s constant h, we take the slope s from our graph and calculate

using the known value

Alternatively, we can write equation (3) as

Calculate h for each LED, and take the average of our results.

LED colour Typical wavelength, λ (cm) Activation voltage, Va (V)

Red 623 1.78

Orange/Yellow 586 1.90

Green 567 2.00

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LED colour Typical wavelength, λ (cm) Activation voltage, Va (V)

Blue 567 2.47

5.Procedure:-

1.Connections are made as shown in circuit diagram.

2.Adjust the rheostat value till the LED starts glowing.
3.Corresponding voltage across the LED is measured using a voltmeter, which is the knee voltage.
4.Repeat by changing the LED and note down the corresponding knee voltage.
5.Using the formula given find the value of the Planck's constant.
6.Observations Table:-

7.Calculation:

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8.Results:-

Planck’s constant = ------------------------------- Js.

Wavelength of LED = --------------------------- nm.

10.Conclusion:

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Experiment No.: 8
Ultrasonic Interferometer
Roll No.: ________ Batch: _________
Date of Performance: _______________
Date of Assessment: _________________

Particulars Marks

Regularity (05)

Practical Conduction (05)

Readings (05)

Calculations (05)

Understanding (Viva) (05)

Total (25)

Signature of Course Teacher

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Experiment: 8

1.Aim :To determine the speed of ultrasonic waves in a given liquid medium and hence determine its
Compressibility using ultrasonic interferometer.

2.Apparatus : Ultrasonic interferometer, liquid (distilled water), high frequency generator, Co-axial
shielded
cable to connect high frequency generator to the measuring cell of the interferometer.
3.Schematic Diagram:

4.Formula

Compressibility of a liquid = = 1/(v2) and v = f.

where,  = compressibility of a liquid

 = density of liquid
v = speed of ultrasonic waves in medium
f = frequency of wave
d
 = wavelength of wave = 2
n
d = distance of the reflector plate from the quartz crystal plate

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n = number of deflections in the ammeter when the reflector plate moves
through the distance d
5.Procedure :
1) Insert the cell in the circular base socket and clamp it with the help of the screw provided on
one of its sides.
2) Unscrew the curled cap of the cell and lift it away from the double wall. Pour the liquid in the
screw on the cap. The scale should be in front of observer.
3) Connect the high frequency generator to the measuring cell using the cable provided.
4) For the initial adjustment, two knobs are provided on the high frequency generator, one is
marked (Adj) and the other is marked (Gain).
5) Switch on high frequency generator and wait for 15 sec to warm it up. Initially, the needle of
the ammeter goes to maximum, indicating that the ultrasonic waves are produced.
6) Adjust the needle to the neutral position (at 50 A) using adj knob. Keep the sensitivity (using
the gain knob) such that the needle goes to 60 A.
7) Keep the micrometer on exactly 10 mm.
8) Keep the micrometer screw moving slowly so that the reflector plate is moved upwards.
n
Carefully observe the ammeter scale. Whenever the condition d = is satisfied, the current
2
will peak and the ammeter will show maximum deflection of the needle. Immediately stop at
this stage and note the reading on the scale. This is the first reading.
9) Continue rotating the micrometer screw. Every time the instrument satisfies the above
condition, the ammeter needle will show maximum deflection. Continue rotating the screw
while counting the number n of deflections. Stop immediately after the chosen value of n and
note down the micrometer reading.
10) Calculate the speed of ultrasonic waves using the given formula.
6.Observations :

1) Liquid used = Distilled water

2) Density of liquid = 1000 kg/m3
3) Frequency applied =2MHz = 2 x 106 Hz
4) Least count of micrometer = ……………….cm

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7.Observation Table :
Observation No. of Micrometer Micrometer d = d1 – d2 2d v=f.
=
No. deflections reading reading n
(n) d1 (mm) d2 (mm) (mm) (mm) (m / s)
1. 0-05
2. 05-10
3. 10-15
4. 15-20
5. 20-25
6. 20-30

8.Calculation:

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9.Result:
The speed of ultrasonic waves in the given liquid is ………… m/s.
10. Conclusion:
11.Theory :
An ultrasonic interferometer offers a direct method of determining the speed of ultrasonic wave
in liquids. The measurement is based on accurate determination of the wavelength in the given medium.
Ultrasonic waves of known frequency are produced by a quartz crystal, which is fixed at the bottom of the
cell. These waves are reflected by a movable metallic plate, which is kept parallel to the quartz crystal. If
the separation between these two plates is exactly a whole multiple of the wavelength, standing waves are
formed in the medium. This creates an electrical reaction in the generator, which drives the quartz crystal.
As a result, the anode current of the generator becomes maximum. If the distance is increased or

decreased by or a multiple of it, the anode current becomes maximum. The velocity of ultrasonic wave
2
can be calculated from the knowledge of the wavelength.

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Experiment No.: 9
Hall Effect
Roll No.: ________ Batch: _________
Date of Performance: _______________
Date of Assessment: _________________

Particulars Marks

Regularity (05)

Practical Conduction (05)

Readings (05)

Calculations (05)

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Total (25)

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Experiment:9

1.Aim :To study the Hall Effect and determine Hall coefficient, carrier density and mobility of given
semiconductor material.

2.Apparatus : Search coil, calibrated flux meter, millivolt meter battery, rectangular slab of
semiconductor crystal, ammeter, connecting wires etc.

3.Diagram :

Fig. Hall Effect Set-Up

Fig. Circuit Diagram

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4.Formulae :

𝑉𝐻 𝑤
𝑅𝐻 = 104 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 3 /𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑜𝑚𝑏
𝐼𝑥 𝐵𝑧

Where, RH = Hall Coefficient

VH = Hall voltage measured in volts

Ix = Current measured in amperes

W = Width of the crystal/slab in meters

Bz = Applied magnetic field in Gauss

Carrier density (no. of charge carriers per unit volume), “n” is,

1
𝑛=− 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 −3
𝑅𝐻 𝑒

Where, e = 1.6x10-19 coulomb

Hall angle,

𝑉𝐻 𝐿
𝜙= 𝑟𝑎𝑑.
𝑉𝑥 𝑡

Where, L and t are the length and breadth of the crystal in meters.

Mobility,

𝜙 𝑚2
𝑚𝜇 = 𝑟𝑎𝑑. .
𝐵𝑧 𝑤𝑒𝑏𝑒𝑟

5.Procedure :

Precaution for Probe Handling:

The sensing element used in the probe is extremely thin & fragile & can easily be damaged
permanently. Special care should be taken while handling probe. To expose the sensor unscrew the

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transparent cap on the probe. Always restore the cap when the probe is not use. In bigger gaps, the cap
need not be removed. While taking measurement in narrow gaps, care must be taken to see that probe does
not brush against the gap sides.

General Procedure Before Starting the Instrument :

1) Connect electromagnet wires Red & Black front panel of Instrument mark as +ve and –ve.
2) Connect probe into probe socket front panel of Instrument.
3) Keep all knobs i.e. P1, P2, P3 to min. position.
4) Know switch ON the instrument i.e. 230v/50Hz input.
5) Keep the Hall Probe much away from the electromagnet & adjust zero for min. probe current
reading.
6) Insert the probe into probe holder & keep the probe exactly in center of two pole pieces.
Procedure for probe current Vs. Hall Voltage (@ constant magnetizing current) :

1) Keep the S1 switch on front panel to upward position i.e. on magnetizing current record the
magnetizing current on digital panel meter i.e. on left side of instrument.
2) Record the magnetizing current.
3) Keep S1 switch downward position i.e. on probe current position i.e. probe (I) & record the
min valve of probe current.
4) Keep probe current at minimum position and adjust zero by potentiometer P3 until the DPM2
shows zero reading.
5) Keep the Hall Probe exactly in center of pole pieces of electromagnet & record the Hall
Voltage (mv) for minimum value probe current.
6) Now vary the probe current and record Hall output voltage on DPM2. Magnetizing current
constant.
7) Keeping magnetizing current for different current constant & plot probe current Vs. Hall O/P
voltage.
Procedure for magnetizing current Vs. Hall Voltage (@ constant probe current) :

1) Keep the S1 down ward position adjust pot P2 for probe current constant, keep the probe
current at any desired value & adjust zero, precaution to be taken that probe should be kept
much away from the electromagnet.

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2) Now put S1 switch upward that is on magnetizing current & set the current for minimum value
record on DPM1
3) Insert the probe into probe holder & keep the probe exactly in centre of pole pieces of
electromagnet.
4) Vary the magnetizing current & record Hall O/P voltage on DPM2
5) Further varying the probe current plot magnetizing current Vs Hall O/P voltage graph.
6.Observation Table :

(a) Probe Current Vs. Hall Voltage ( Magnetizing current = ):

Sr. No. Probe Current, I (mA) Hall Voltage, VH (V)

(b) Magnetizing Current Vs. Hall Voltage ( Probe current = ):

Sr. No. Magnetizing Current, I (mA) Hall Voltage, VH (V)

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7.Graph :

8.Calculations :

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9.Results :

Hall Coefficient, RH = met3/coul

No. Of charge carriers, n =

Hall angle, φ = rad

Mobility mμ = rad. Met2/weber

10.Conclusion :

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ZEAL COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & RESEARCH, PUNE – 41
(An Autonomous Institute Affiliated to Savitribai Phule Pune University)
NAAC Accredited with A+ Grade / ISO 21001:2018

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

11.Theory :

The Hall effect is the production of a voltage difference i.e. the Hall voltage across an electrical
conductor, transverse to an electric current in the conductor and a magnetic field perpendicular to the
current. It was discovered by Edwin Hall in 1879.

The Hall coefficient is defined as the ratio of the induced electric field to the product of the current
density and the applied magnetic field. It is a characteristic of the material from which the conductor is
made, since its value depends on the type, number and properties of the charge carriers that constitute the
current. A charge carrier is a free particle carrying an electric charge, especially the particles that carry
electric currents in electrical conductors.

If a conductor carrying a current is immersed in a magnetic field, the charge carriers in the
conductor may experience an additional force due to this magnetic field. The charge carriers are deflected
to the side of the conductor as a result of this force, creating a potential difference across the conductor at
right angles to the current flow. This process is known as the Hall Effect.

In this situation, the electrons are forced downward by the action of the magnetic field. This causes
the top of the conductor to become positive with respect to the bottom. This causes a downward directed
electric field to develop in the conductor. This field produces an upward force on the electrons.
Equilibrium is reached when the electric force is equal to the magnetic force. This condition is satisfied
when

The induced electric field produces a potential difference across the conductor at a right angle to the
direction of current flow. Its magnitude is

VH = 𝐄𝐰 = 𝛎𝐁𝐰

Where, w is the width of the conductor. This implies that the Hall voltage is proportional to both
the electron drift velocity and the applied field. Note also that in this instance that the Hall-induced
potential decreases from top to bottom. Suppose instead that the charges carrying the current had been
positive. In this case, the charges average drift velocity would be in the same direction as the current; the
magnetic force on them would again force them in the downward direction. In this case, the Hall potential

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 Zeal Education Society’s
ZEAL COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & RESEARCH, PUNE – 41
(An Autonomous Institute Affiliated to Savitribai Phule Pune University)
NAAC Accredited with A+ Grade / ISO 21001:2018

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

then increases from top to bottom. The sign of the Hall voltage can therefore be used to determine the sign
of the charge carriers in a conductor.

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 Zeal Education Society’s
ZEAL COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & RESEARCH, PUNE – 41
(An Autonomous Institute Affiliated to Savitribai Phule Pune University)
NAAC Accredited with A+ Grade / ISO 21001:2018

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

Experiment No.: 10
Solar cell characteristics
Roll No.: ________ Batch: _________
Date of Performance: _______________
Date of Assessment: _________________

Particulars Marks

Regularity (05)

Practical Conduction (05)

Readings (05)

Calculations (05)

Understanding (Viva) (05)

Total (25)

Signature of Course Teacher

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 Zeal Education Society’s
ZEAL COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & RESEARCH, PUNE – 41
(An Autonomous Institute Affiliated to Savitribai Phule Pune University)
NAAC Accredited with A+ Grade / ISO 21001:2018

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

Experiment:10

1.Aim : To obtain I-V characteristics and determine fill factor of the given solar cell.

2.Apparatus :Solar cell, variable load, digital multimeter, micrometer, etc.

3.ircuit Diagram :

4.Formulae :

Wattage of bulb
Incident power, Pin = x Surfacea area of solar cell
4 R 2

I m x Vm
Fill factor, FF =
I sc x Voc

I m x Vm
Efficiency, = x 100 %
Pin

Where, R = Distance between bulb and solar cell

Im = Current corresponding to maximum power point

Vm = Voltage corresponding to maximum power point

Isc = Short circuit current

Voc = Open circuit voltage

1
Series Resistance, Rs = of the graph I Vs. V
slope

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 Zeal Education Society’s
ZEAL COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & RESEARCH, PUNE – 41
(An Autonomous Institute Affiliated to Savitribai Phule Pune University)
NAAC Accredited with A+ Grade / ISO 21001:2018

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

Parallel Resistance, R p = slope of the graph V Vs. I

5.Procedure :

1) Connect the circuit, as shown in circuit diagram and get it checked.

2) Keep maximum load and measure corresponding voltage and current.
3) Start reducing the load and measure corresponding voltage and current. Take enough readings
for graph.
4) Minimize the load and measure the corresponding voltage and current.
5) Plot a graph of I Vs. V. Find Im, Vm and Isc and Voc from graph.
6) Use the given formula to estimate the incident power. Calculate fill factor and efficiency for the
given solar cell.
7) From the graph, note readings (V, I) and (V, I), as shown in the figure.
8) Plot the graphs of I Vs. V and V Vs I. Calculate the series and parallel resistance using the
given formulae.
6.Observation Table :

Sr. No. Voltage Current Sr. No. Voltage Current

(mV) (A) (mV) (A)

7.Graph :

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 Zeal Education Society’s
ZEAL COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & RESEARCH, PUNE – 41
(An Autonomous Institute Affiliated to Savitribai Phule Pune University)
NAAC Accredited with A+ Grade / ISO 21001:2018

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

8.Observations from Graph :

1) Open circuit voltage (Voc) = ……………. mV

2) Short circuit current (Isc) ...= …………….. A
3) Current corresponding to maximum power (Im) = ……………… A
4) Voltage corresponding to maximum power (Vm) = ……………… mV
Sr. No. I (A) V (mV) V (mV) I (A)

Graphs :

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 Zeal Education Society’s
ZEAL COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & RESEARCH, PUNE – 41
(An Autonomous Institute Affiliated to Savitribai Phule Pune University)
NAAC Accredited with A+ Grade / ISO 21001:2018

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

9.Calculations :

Wattage of bulb
1) Incident power, Pin = x Surfacea area of solar cell
4 R 2

Pin = ……………… watt

I m x Vm
2) Fill factor, FF =
I sc x Voc

FF = ……………

I m x Vm
3) Efficiency, = x 100 %
Pin

 = ……………… %
1
4) Series Resistance, Rs = of the graph I Vs. V
slope

= …………….. 

5) Parallel Resistance, R p = slope of the graph V Vs. I

= ………………. 

F.Y. B. Tech – Engineering Physics Lab Manual

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 Zeal Education Society’s
ZEAL COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & RESEARCH, PUNE – 41
(An Autonomous Institute Affiliated to Savitribai Phule Pune University)
NAAC Accredited with A+ Grade / ISO 21001:2018

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

10. Theory :

Solar cell is a P-N junction, which produces a voltage when visible light falls on it. Consider a P-N
junction made up of silicon (Si) having a forbidden band gap of 1.1 eV. If the light from sun or some other
visible radiation source is incident upon it, the incident photons having energies greater than 1.1 eV move
the electrons from valence band to conduction band. This results production of excess electrons in the
conduction band and excess holes in valence band. Suppose that the sunlight is incident on the P-type
region of the P-N junction. The incident light produces electron hole pairs in P-region. The extra holes
produced in P region are insignificant as compared tot the large number of holes already presents in it.
Some electrons immediately combine with holes and get neutralized while others shift to the junction
boundary.

In P-N junction there exists an electric field directed from N region to P region due tot the
development of barrier potential. This electric field makes electrons move from P to N region. Hence an
extra negative charge builds up in N-region and extra positive charge in P-region as positive terminal of a
battery. The voltage formed is about 0.6 V. If a load resistance RL is connected across the two terminals,
electric current flows through RL. Such a current continues to flow as long as light is incident on the
junction. A similar process occurs when light is incident on N-region. Current produced depends upon the
number of charge carriers produced and therefore on intensity of incident light.

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 Zeal Education Society’s
ZEAL COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & RESEARCH, PUNE – 41
(An Autonomous Institute Affiliated to Savitribai Phule Pune University)
NAAC Accredited with A+ Grade / ISO 21001:2018

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

For any power source, the inherent series and parallel resistance are the critical parameters. The
equivalent circuit of the solar cell is as shown in the figure below.

Solar energy is a renewable source of energy. Solar cells are used s chargers for batteries used in
satellites and earth communication equipment, etc. A solar power system can operate for 24 hours by
recharging the batteries during daytime and has applications in earth stations, space probes, etc. Use of
solar energy is free from any kind of thermal, chemical and radioactive pollution.

11.Results :

Fill factor of the solar cell = …………..

1) Efficiency of the solar cell = ………….. %

2) Series resistance, Rs = ………….. 
3) Parallel resistance, Rp = ………….. 

12.Conclusion:

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