See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/277327660

Managing Natural Disasters

Book · January 2010

CITATIONS READS
5 1,115

1 author:

Satish Modh
Somaiya Vidyavihar University
31 PUBLICATIONS 53 CITATIONS

SEE PROFILE

All content following this page was uploaded by Satish Modh on 30 May 2015.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

Managing Natural
Disasters
Hydrological, Marine and
Geological Disasters

Satish Modh
 Managing Natural Disasters

PREFACE

The impacts of natural disasters are becoming increasingly costly and devastating.
Experts believe that the statistics on disaster losses continue to rise worldwide due to a
combination of factors that include a rise in the number of hazardous events due to global
climate change or natural cyclical trends, and an increase in human exposure to such
disasters. Over the years, progress has been made in reducing hazard impacts through
better predictions, forecasts, and warnings, particularly for natural disasters such as
cyclones and floods.

A major area of interest in disaster management is that of disaster risk and

vulnerability assessment. Maps delineating disaster-prone areas are made to provide a more
comprehensive hazards assessment for a variety of natural phenomena, including cyclones,
floods, earthquakes, tsunamis, landslides, and drought. Better methodologies and models
are needed for conducting hazard vulnerability assessments that can incorporate highly
variable local conditions and characteristics. Other advances needed in risk and
vulnerability assessment include the ability to identify potential social, economic, and
environmental losses.

Application of new technologies such as computer-based geographic information

systems are being used to analyze hazards information and provide national risk
assessment data to state and local governments in a quick and easy manner. Increased
attention is being given to reducing disaster losses by engineering and structural
applications.

Land use planning is an effective method for mitigating the impacts of natural
hazards. As more information becomes available about the nature of the hazards, it is
possible to integrate more detailed hazards data into ongoing planning and decision-
making processes. Technology improvements such as the use of Geographic Information
Systems allow numerous factors, including natural disasters, to be considered in making
land use decisions. Even though more information is available, there are various economic
and political obstacles in implementing policies to prohibit, restrict, or even discourage
development and redevelopment in high risk areas.

In such a scenario higher education and research remain the most critical elements
in reducing the impacts of natural disasters. It is important to study the nature, scope and
the vulnerability to various disasters in order to prepare appropriate strategies for
improving emergency preparedness, strengthening the infrastructure, avoiding
development in hazardous locations, and reducing financial risk.
2
Satish Modh
 Managing Natural Disasters

Opportunities to improve hazard mitigation through education are plentiful.

Because numerous government and non-government organizations are focusing on disaster
loss reduction initiatives, there is a need to develop resources for delivering education at
the school and higher level. One of the barriers, however, is the availability of clear,
meaningful and less expensive text books on the subject. The concepts and terms
associated with disaster assessment and mitigation needs to be simplified and put into a
concrete, recognizable frame of reference for students. This book is the result of such an
effort to achieve this goal.

This book is about managing natural disasters. All the natural disasters are covered
under four sections. Section I deals with hydrological disasters (Flood, Dam Bursts,
Tsunami, El Nino, Ground Water Pollution) and Section II covers coastal and marine
disasters (Sea Level Rise, Coastal Zone Management, Marine Pollution). All wind and
water related disasters (Cyclones, Storms, Lightening, and Frost) have been covered in
Section III. Section IV deals with all geological disasters (Earthquake, Volcano,
Landslides, Glaciers, Land Degradation, Wildfires, Droughts, Famine, Desert, and
Desertification).

The book has been written according to the syllabus of some popular courses on
disaster management. I will be satisfied if this book is of any help to professionals, teachers
and students in understanding the subject.

Satish Modh

Mumbai

3
Satish Modh
 Managing Natural Disasters

CONTENTS

SECTION I: HYDROLOGICAL DISASTERS

CHAPTER 1: Flood Hazards and Flood Control

The Phenomenon, Flood Plains, Floodplain and a Floodway, Floodplains and the
Society, Causes of Floods, Floods and Forests, Floods and Droughts, Flood and Its Impact,
Impact Of Flood On Developing Countries, Mounting Flood Losses, Floods And
Vulnerable Urban Poor, Vulnerability Modification, Flood Protection Measures, River
Diversions, Embankments, The Indian Scenario, Special Flood Problems in India, Floods
in the Himalayas, River Basins in India, Flood Control Measures in India

CASE 1: Narmada Basin

CASE 2: Floods in the Yellow River: China's Sorrow

CASE 3: History of floods in Netherlands

CHAPTER 2: Flood Forecasting and Management

Floods and the Development Process, Risk Reduction in Flood Prone Areas, Flood
Management Measures, Mitigation Planning in a Flood Prone Area, Flood Forecasting,
Flash Flood Forecasting, Main-Stem Flood Forecasting, Flood Warning Systems,
Floodplain Management, Integrated Flood Management, Traditional Flood Management
Options, The Challenges of Flood Management, Risk Management, Flood Management
Policies in India, Implementation of IFMIS in India

CASE 4: History of flood management plans and policies for Bangladesh

CASE 5: Natural flood storage plan of Scotland

CHAPTER 3: Dams and Dam Bursts

Historical Aspects, Types of Dams, Dams and Recreational Activity, Growth of

Concerns With Environmental Management, Beneficial Environmental Impacts, Adverse
Environmental Impacts, Environmental Impact Assessment, Mitigating Adverse Effects on
The Environment, Political Involvement, Dams and Subsidizing Irrigation Water, Legal
Aspects, Construction of Large Dams, Problems With Large Dams, Issues Related With
Large Hydro Power Projects, Thirteen Ways Dams Damage Rivers, Landslide Dam
Failures, Dam Bursts, Causes of Dam Failures, A Brief History of Dam Failures, The
Demolition Option, Dam Safety

4
Satish Modh
 Managing Natural Disasters

CASE 6: Dam Construction in California: Trends Since 1850

CASE 7: An Example of Dam safety guideline

CHAPTER 4: Tsunami and El Nino

Tsunamis, What Does "Tsunami" Mean?, Tsunamis and Other Water Waves,
Historic Tsunami, Causes, Earthquake and Tsunamis, Effect of Landslides, Volcanic
Eruptions and Cosmic Collisions, Warnings and Prevention, El Nino, El Niño and the
Climate, Learning from the Past, Winds and Upwelling, El Niño Prediction

CASE 8: The 1982-83 El Niño

CHAPTER 5: Water and Ground Water Hazards

Water – The Reality, Sources of Fresh Water, Surface Water, Groundwater,

Aquifer, Groundwater Flow, Uses of Fresh Water, Threats to Fresh Water, Groundwater
Quality, Chemical Nature of Water, Parameters of Ground Water Quality, Acidity
Alkalinity and Salinity, Monitoring Groundwater Quality, Water Pollution, Contaminants,
How We Contaminate Groundwater, Classes of Water Pollutants, Trace Elements in
Water, Algal Nutrients and Eotrophication, Radionuclides in the Aquatic Environment,
Soaps, Detergents and detergent Builders, City Sewage and Industrial Waste, Agricultural
Contaminants, Surface-Water Irrigation, Use of Agricultural Chemicals, Urban And
Industrial Development, Modifications to River Valleys, Modifications to the Atmosphere,
Groundwater and Geology, Groundwater and Engineering, Safeguarding Our Groundwater
Supply, The Environmental Implications of Groundwater Overexploitation, Groundwater
Quality Problems in India, Water Pollution Regulation in India

SECTION II: COASTAL AND MARINE DISASTERS

CHAPTER 6: Coastal Zones and Sea Level Rise

Ocean and Coasts, Conditions and Trends, Coastal and Marine Degradation,
Coastal Erosion and Beach Protection, How is Erosion Caused? Sea-level rise, Wave
Erosion, Sediment deficiencies, Sea Level Rise Projections Under Global Warming,
Causes of Sea Level Rise, Hazards of Sea Level Rise, Five Major Impacts of Rising Sea
Level, Sandy Beaches and Sea Level Rise, Bruun’s rule, Measuring and Modeling Sea
Level Changes, Impacts on South-Asian Region, Land and Coastline Features of the SAS
region, Catastrophic Consequences, Ocean Circulation and Monsoon, Northeast Monsoon,
South-West Summer Monsoon, Tropical Cyclones and Storm Surges, Impacts on Delta
Areas, Erosion Due to Tidal Storms, Shoreline Stabilization

CASE 9: Coastal Zones: Chinese Experience

CHAPTER 7: Coastal Zone Management

5
Satish Modh
 Managing Natural Disasters

Coastal Wetlands, Changes in The Coastal Zone 1970-1990, Coastal Floods, River
and Coastal Floods, Sea Level Rise as a Coastal Problem, Coastal Hazard Management,
Preventing Coastal Habitat Destruction, Integrated Coastal Zone Management,
Sustainability Perspectives in Global Warming and its Policy Responses in the Coastal
Zones, The Concept of Sustainability, Cost Benefit Versus the Precautionary Approach,
Speculations on Weak and Strong Sustainability, Intragenerational and Intergenerational
Equity, Rate of Time Discount, Speculation of the Sustainability Inheritance Asset
Portfolio, Very Weak Sustainability (Solow Sustainability), Weak Sustainability (Modified
Solow- Sustainability), Strong Sustainability (Ecological Economics Approach), Very
Strong Sustainability (Stationary State Sustainability), A Systems and Co-Evolutionary
Perspective for Sustainability, Environmental Resource Valuation, Comparisons

CASE 10: Coastal Zone Management in the State of Maryland

CHAPTER 8: Marine Pollution

Marine Pollution due to Human Activity, Sources of Marine Pollution, Oil Spills,
Behaviour of Oil Spills, Physical Properties of Oil, The Fate of Spilled Oil, Effects of Oil
on Plants and Animals, Sensitivity of Aquatic Habitats, Sensitivity of Birds and Mammals,
Methods of Cleaning an Oil Spill, Types of Substances Used, In-Situ Burning, Measure to
Prevent Accidental Spills, Hazard Identification, Vulnerability Analysis, Risk Assessment,
Coastal Debris and Cleanup, Sources of Marine Debris, Debris Hazardous for Marine
Animals, Preventing Marine Pollution

CHAPTER 9: Conventions to Prevent Marine Pollution

Protection of the Marine Environment, Regulating Marine Pollution, The

International dimension, The National dimension, International Maritime Organization
(IMO), Functions of IMO, The Impact of IMO's Work, IMO: Future Actions, The Law of
the Sea Convention, State Sovereignty on the Seas, Discussion on Some Important
Features, Global Programme of Action for the Protection of the Marine Environment from
Land-Based Activities, Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment from
Land-Based Activities, Preventing Waste Disposal at Sea, London Dumping Convention,
Regulating Vessel Based Pollution, OILPOL 1954, Torrey Canyon disaster, MARPOL
73/78, 1992 “Double hull” amendments, The Merchant Shipping (Prevention of Oil
Pollution) Regulations 1996, Intervention Convention (1969), Oslo Convention (1972),
Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment of the North-East Atlantic
(OSPAR), Decline of International Salvage Resources, Convention on Civil Liberty for Oil
Pollution Damage (1969), Fund Convention (1971), The Protocol of 1976, The Protocol of
1984, The Protocol of 1992, The 2000 Amendments, The 2003 Protocol (supplementary
fund), US Pollution act, 1990, Status of Marine Pollution in India, Organisation and
Infrastructure for Combating Oil Pollution in the Seas Around India

CASE 11: Control of Marine Pollution by ships in Indian waters

CASE 12: The New USSR Legislation on Pollution Prevention

6
Satish Modh
 Managing Natural Disasters

CHAPTER 10: Techniques of Marine Pollution Control

Water Pollution in Marine Environments, Water Pollution in Estuaries, Techniques

for Reducing Pollution in Wastewater Discharges, Contemporary Methods of Wastewater
Treatment, Industrial Wastewater Treatment, Treatment Methods, Thermal Pollution,
Sediment Quality Criteria, Need for Sediment Quality Guidelines, Polychlorinated
Biphenyls (PCB's), Environmentally Induced Immunomodulation, Monitoring Effects of
Sea Pollution on the Health of Aquatic Ecosystems, Fish Specimen, Macrophage
Responses, Collection of Kidney Macrophages, Collection of Peritoneal Macrophages (M),
Chemotaxis Assay, Phagocytosis Assay, Pinocytosis Assay, Melanin Granule
Accumulation, Chemiluminescence Assay, Uncertainty Consideration, Equilibrium
Partitioning Approach

CASE 13: Sediment Quality Guidelines in USA

SECTION III: WIND AND WATER DRIVEN DISASTER

CHAPTER 11: Tropical Cyclones

Nature of Tropical Cyclones, Structural Features of a Severe Tropical Cyclone,

Spatial Dispersion of the Hazard Potential, Intensity, Frequency, Geographical
Distribution, Cyclone Hazard Assessment, Tropical Cyclones and their Warning Systems,
Paleotempestology, Forecasting, Cyclone Mitigation in the Coastal and Island Regions of
India, Cyclone Mitigation Strategies, Tropical Cyclonic Hazard: South China Sea, Risk of
Building Damage, Cyclone Resistant Design of Buildings, American Society of Civil
Engineers' Guidelines for Buildings

CASE 14: Cyclone Disaster Mitigation in Bangladesh

CHAPTER 12: Storms, Hurricanes, Lightning and Frost Disasters

Thunderstorms, Life Cycle, Classification, Summer and Winter Storms, Hurricanes,

Tornadoes, Lightning, Lightening Safety, Frost Hazards, Frost Hazards in Agriculture,
Frost Hazards on Highways, Black Ice

SECTION IV: GEOLOGICAL DISASTERS

CHAPTER 13: Earthquake

Tectonic Conditions, Development of the Theory, Neotectonic Conditions,

Description of Phenomenon, Naturally Occurring Earthquakes, Ground Motion, Ground-
Motion Amplification, Ground Behaviour, Landslides, Debris Flow, Earth Flow, “Quick”
Clays, Liquefaction, Characterizing Site Ground Motions, Perception and Prediction of
Earthquake, Animal Behavior, Prediction of Large Earthquakes, Earthquake Scales,
Magnitude and Intensity, Seismic Intensity Scales, Magnitude Scales, Moment Magnitude
Scale, The Modified Mercalli Scale (MM) of 1931, The Medvedev-Sponheuer-Karnik
7
Satish Modh
 Managing Natural Disasters

Scale (MSK) of 1964, Earthquake Recurrence, Paleoseismology, Seismic Hazard,

Catastrophic Loss, Earthquake Damage and Destruction, Earthquakes in Urban Areas,
Seismic Analyses, Geological and Geographical Analysis, Soil Structure Interaction, The
Behaviour of Foundations, The Response of Steel Framed Structures, The Behaviour of
Secondary Structures and Appendages, Structural Concepts in Seismic Upgrade Design,
Time History Analysis, Building With Ve Damper, Financial Risk, Seismotectonic Studies,
Seismotectonics of the Indian Ocean Region, Zoning of Himalayan Region, India:
Earthquake Mitigation and Management, Eastern Mediterranean – Ground Motions, Egypt,
Cameroon, Hayward Fault – California, Niigata Earthquake, Japan

CASE 15: Albania: Hazard assessment at national level

CASE 16: Cyprus: Bentonitic Clay deposits and landslides

CASE 17: USA: Determination of the Risks with Buildings

CHAPTER 14: Volcanism

Description of Phenomenon, Effects of Volcano Hazards, Location of Hazards

Posed by Volcanoes, How do Volcanoes Form?, Why do Volcanoes Erupt in Different
Ways?, Types of Volcanic Hazards, Volcanic Earthquakes, Directed Blast, Tephra,
Volcanic Gases, Lava Flows, Debris Avalanches, Landslides and Tsunamis, Pyroclastic
Surges, Pyroclastic Flows, Lahars, Hazards Prevention, Monitoring and Warning, Taking a
Volcano's Pulse, Lahar-Detection System, Using Satellite Images of Volcano Monitoring,
Eruption Warning and Real-Time Notifications, The Concept of Risk and Volcanic
Hazard, Mitigation, Global Experiences, Colombia Volcanoes and Volcanics, Volcanoes of
Indonesia, Role of PHIVOLCS in Geologic Hazard Prediction and Mitigation

CASE 18: Volcanoes in Ecuador - Threat or Spectacle?

CHAPTER 15: Mass-movement Hazards

Landslides, Detection of Slope Movement, Landslide Classification, Type of

Movement, Causes of Landslides, Rockfall, Mudflows, Landslide Hazard Potential Map
(LHPM), Landslide Susceptibility Map, Landslide Risk Map, Landslide Hazard Grading
(LHG), Final Land Slide Hazard Potential (FLHP), Zonation Mapping, Instrumentation
and Monitoring, The Use of GPS Technology in Landslide Mapping, Stabilisation,
Corrective Measures, Snow Avalanches, Glacier Hazards, Types of Glaciers, Reducing
Glacial Hazards

CASE 19: Landslide history in Cordillera Blanca, Peru

CHAPTER 16: Land Degradation and Land Use

Dimensions of Land Degradation, Definition, Land Degradation Processes, Risk of

Land Degradation, Outcomes of Land Degradation, Factors Effecting Land Degradation,
Indicators of Land Degradation, Soil Degradation, Indicators of Soil Loss, Rills, Gully,
8
Satish Modh
 Managing Natural Disasters

Pedestals, Armour Layer, Plant/Tree Root Exposure, Exposure of Below Ground Portions
of Fence Posts and Other Structures, Rock Exposure, Solution Notches, Tree Mound, Build
Up Against Barriers, Sediment in Drains, Enrichment Ratio, Soil Texture and Colour, Soil
and Plant Rooting Depth, Causes of Land Degradation, Vulnerability Analysis, Soil
Alteration, Impact of Climate Change, Changes in Land Cover, Forests, Wildfires,
Controlling Wildfire, Programmes for Developing Countries, Food and Agriculture
Organization of The United Nations, Wilderness, Grassland, Destruction of Grasslands,
Wetlands, Arid and Semi Arid Regions, Causes of Aridity, Arid Zone Soils and Importance
of Soil Properties, Land Use, Land and Society, Public Land, Public Land Use,
Settlements, Cultivation, Energy and Public Land Use, The Conflict of Land Use, Factors
affecting Land Users and Land Degradation, Consequences of Land Degradation for Land
Users, Economic Impact, Impact on Environment, Biodiversity and Food Security, Land
Management: Land Laws, and Policies, Identification, Assessment and Monitoring,
Mitigation Technologies and Implementation Programs, A Community-Based Strategy,
Planning And Management Of Land Resources, Integrated Approach to the Planning and
Management of Land Resources, Myths about Land Degradation, Meeting the Land
Degradation Challenge, International Efforts to Preserve Land Resources

CHAPTER 17: Droughts and Famines

Droughts, Definition, Distinction of Droughts (Quality and Time-Scale), Droughts

– Types, Meteorological Drought, Agricultural Drought, Hydrological Drought,
Socioeconomic Drought, Induced Droughts, Impacts of Drought, Droughts Vulnerability
Assessment, Drought Impact Assessment, Drought Mitigation, Mitigation Strategy, Risk
Management, Structural Measures, Non-Structural Measures, Droughts in India, The
Framework for Action, Drought Management, Structure for Drought Management in India,
Droughts in Russia, US Droughts, The Dust Bowl, Brazil: The Poor Pay for Disasters,
Incidence of Famine, Definitions, Causes of Famine, Entitlement Theory, The Role of
Conflict, Famine Early Warning Systems, Vulnerability and Coping Strategies, Food
Security, Measures to Maintain Food Security, Food Aid, Examples of Major Famines,
United Nations’ Roles

CASE 20: Famine: Early warning is not enough

CHAPTER 18: Deserts and Desertification

Deserts, Hot and Dry Desert, Semiarid Desert, Coastal Desert, Cold Desert,
Desertification, Extent and Magnitude, Process and Causes, Effects and Consequences,
Solutions and Remedies, United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (CCD),
Part I: Introduction, Part II: General Provisions, Part III: Action Programmes, Scientific
and Technical Cooperation and Supporting Measures, Part IV: Institutions, Part V:
Procedures, Part VI: Final Provisions;

CASE 21: The Sahalian Crisis

9
Satish Modh
 Managing Natural Disasters

List of Tables and Figures

Table 1.1: River Basins in India

Figure 2.1: Interaction between land and water

Figure 2.2: Integrated Flood Management Model

Table 2.1: Strategies and Options for Flood Management

Table 3.1: Comparison of the general characteristics of lakes and reservoirs on a

global scale

Figure 4.1: Volcanic eruptions inject tons of wash in the oceanic soil, generating
devastating waves

Figure 4.2: Generation of a tsunami

Figure 4.3: Schematic diagram of normal El Niño conditions in the Pacific Ocean

Figure 4.4: Temperature on the Equator at 110W

Figure 4.5: Southern Oscillation

Figure 4.6: Winds, Rainfall, and Upwelling

Figure 4.7: Global Effect of El-Nino

Figure 4.8: Numerical Prediction Models

Figure 4.9: Economic impacts attributed to the 1982-83 El Nino

Figure 5.1: Water Resources in the World

Figure 5.2: Groundwater flow

Table 5.1: Organic and Inorganic Water Pollutants

Table 5.2: Point and non-point sources of Contamination

Figure 6.1. Causes of coastal erosion - Sea-level rise, wave and current action, and
sediment deficiencies drive coastal erosion.

Figure 6.2: Dune erosion due to storm surge

10
Satish Modh
 Managing Natural Disasters

Table 7.1: Coastal Hazards Characterization

Table 7.2: Sustainability Rules and Indicators

Figure 8.1: Sources of Oil Pollution

Table 8.1: Sources and Effects of Marine Pollution

Figure 9.1: Legislative Framework in India

Table 10.1: General classification of wastewater treatment operations and
processes

Table 10.2: Methods for removal of pollution constituents

Table 11.1: Type of Disturbance and Wind Speed

Table 11.2: Some of the world's deadliest cyclones in Indian Region Hazard Zones

Table 11.3: Bangladesh Cyclones

Figure 11.1: Section of a typical mature cyclone

Figure 11.2: Wind forces working on a building with external integrity

Figure 11.3: Wind forces working on a building where its external integrity is lost

Figure 13.1: Major Tectonic Plates of the World

Figure 13.2: Seismic Zone Map of India

Figure 13.3: Earth's lithosphere beneath the eastern Mediterranean

Figure 13.4: The Hayward fault

Figure 13.5: Predictive Intensity Map for the 1868 Hayward Fault Earthquake

Figure 14.1: Simplified schematic of acoustic-flow monitoring station

Figure 14.2: Select Major Volcanoes of Colombia

Figure 14.3: Volcanoes of Ecuador

Figure 14.4: Cotopaxi Ecuador

Figure 15.1: Topple

11
Satish Modh
 Managing Natural Disasters

Figure 15.2: Earth Slump and Translational Slide

Figure 15.3: Debris flow

Figure 15.4: Rockfall

Figure 15.5: - Monitoring scheme; reference station (R, K) in stable area; rover
station in the deformation area.

Figure 15.6: Dissection of a Typical Glacier

Figure 15.7: Laguna Parón after lowering of the water level

Table 15.1: Overview of methods used in measuring surface displacement and their
precision

Figure 16.1: Land Degradation and Soil Degradation

Figure 16.2: Sketch Showing Cross-Section of a Triangular shaped Rill

Figure 16.3: Sketch – Series of Parallel

Figure 16.4: Sketch of Soil Pedestal Capped by a Stone

Figure 16.5: Sketch of Armour Layer

Figure 16.6: Sketch of Tree Mound

Figure 16.7: Sketch of Build-up of Eroded Material Against a Barrier

Table 16.1: Typical Relative Measures of Soil Loss According to Land Use

Table 16.2: Accepted dimensions of soil particles

Table 16.3: Sensitivity and Resilience

Figure 17.1: US Drought - The Dust Bowl

Figure 17.2: Droughts in Brazil

Table 17.1: Drought Hazard Index Ranking

Table 17.2: Drought management procedures

Table 18.1: Ecosystems affected or threatened by desertification according to the

aridity index

12
Satish Modh
 Managing Natural Disasters

SECTION I
HYDROLOGICAL
DISASTERS

13
Satish Modh
 Managing Natural Disasters

CHAPTER 1
Flood Hazards and Flood Control
Hydrologic hazards are severe events caused by either excess or lack of water.
Floods are the most common hydrological disaster in India. Floods have caused lots of
harm in terms of lives lost, people affected, property damaged and frequency. This chapter
discusses the nature of flood plains, causes of floods and flood protection measures
including river diversions and embankments.

Floods are caused when water overflows its normal range because of an excessive
rise in the water level. The rise in water level can results from heavy rains, the rapid
thawing of snow or ice, when ocean waves come on shore, or when dams or levees break.

There are several types of flooding, with riverine flooding being the most common
phenomena. River flooding can be divided into slow rising, resulting from heavy rainfall or
rapid snowmelt, and the more abrupt flashfloods, caused primarily by intense
thunderstorms. Flashfloods are extreme and short-lived, and can result in heavy damage.
Given the proper conditions, every river has the potential to flood.

FLOOD PLAINS

A large percentage of the world population and tangible property is concentrated in

flood prone areas. These areas are comprised of flood plain land and thin coastal strips. The
flood plain is formed from sediment deposits or removal accompanying the natural,
intermittent overflow of the stream above its ordinary bed. The flood plain acts as a natural
reservoir and temporary channel for the excess water.

A streambed and the flood plain lands immediately adjacent to it are integral parts
of every natural watercourse. Flood occurs in flood plains due to prolonged rainfall, or due
to a storm, including thunderstorms, rapid melting of large amounts of snow, or rivers
which swell from excess precipitation upstream and cause widespread damage to areas
downstream, or less frequently the bursting of man-made dams or levees.

Coastal lands such as bars, ridges, and deltas that are formed by the coastal current
occupy a position relative to the sea that flood plains do to rivers.

Definitions

Floodplains are low-lying areas adjacent to rivers, lakes, and oceans that are
periodically inundated by floodwater. It includes the floodway, which consists of the
stream channel and adjacent areas and the flood fringe, which are areas covered by the
flood, but which do not experience a strong current.
14
Satish Modh
 Managing Natural Disasters

Flood-prone area is an area bordering a stream that will be covered by stream

waters at a flood stage of twice the maximum bankful depth.

Flood-prone width (WFP) is the stream width at which the discharge level is
defined as twice the maximum bankful depth.

Bankfull stage is delineated by the elevation point of incipient flooding, indicated

by deposits of sand or silt at the active scour mark, break in stream bank slope, perennial
vegetation limit, rock discoloration, and root hair exposure

Bankfull Depth is the average depth measured at bankfull discharge.

Bankfull Discharge is the dominant channel forming flow with a recurrence interval
seldom outside the 1 to 2 year range.

Bankfull Width is the channel width at bankful discharge.

Floodplain Delineation is the process of showing in a graphical form, usually on a

map or photo mosaic, areas which have been inundated by a specific flood or which can be
expected to be inundated by a predicted flood of specific magnitude.

Difference between a Floodplain and a Floodway

A floodplain is any land area susceptible to being inundated by water from any
source. A floodway is an area within the floodplain that includes the channel or other
watercourse and the portion of the adjacent lands that must be reserved in order to
discharge the base flood without cumulatively increasing water-surface elevation more
than a designated height (specifically, one foot above the “base flood elevation.”). The base
flood is the flood event considered to have a one percent chance of being equaled or
exceeded in any year.

Floodplains are formed in two ways:

 By erosion; and

 By aggradations.

An erosional floodplain is created as a stream cuts deeper into its channel and
laterally into its banks. A stream with a steep gradient will tend to down cut faster than it
causes lateral erosion, resulting in a deep, narrow channel with little or no floodplain at all.
As the stream approaches its base level, lateral erosion increases, creating an extremely
broad floodplain, as in the case of the Himalayan Rivers. There, the boundary between
river and floodplain is not clear.

An aggradational floodplain is created when a stream lays down thick layers of

sediment. This happens when the stream's gradient becomes very slight and its velocity
decreases, forcing it to drop sediment brought from higher regions nearer its source.
15
Satish Modh
 Managing Natural Disasters

Consequently the lower portion of the river valley becomes filled with alluvium. In times
of flood, the rush of water in the high regions tears off and carries down a greater quantity
of sediment resulting in the creation of a flat terrain as well as aggradations.

Aggradational floodplains are more common than erosional ones. Any obstruction
across a river's course, such as a band of hard rock, may form a floodplain behind it.
Indeed, anything that checks a river's course and causes it to drop its load will tend to form
a floodplain. Aggradational floodplains are most commonly found near the mouths of large
rivers, such as the Brahmaputra, the Nile, the Ganges and the Mississippi, where there are
occasional floods and the river usually carries a large amount of sediment.

Floodplains generally contain unconsolidated sediments, often extending below the

bed of the stream. These are accumulations of sand, gravel, loam, silt, and/or clay, and are
often important aquifers, the water being drawn from them being pre-filtered compared to
the water in the stream. Geologically ancient floodplains are often represented in the
landscape by stream terraces. These are old floodplains that remain relatively high above
the present floodplain and indicate former courses of a stream.

Floodplains can support particularly rich ecosystems, both in quantity and diversity.
They are a category of riparian zones or systems. A floodplain can contain 100 or even
1000 times as many species as a river. Wetting of the floodplain soil releases an immediate
surge of nutrients: those left over from the last flood, and those that result from the rapid
decomposition of organic matter that has accumulated since then. The production of
nutrients peaks and falls away quickly; however the surge of new growth endures for some
time. This makes floodplains particularly valuable for agriculture.

Markedly different species grow in floodplains than grow outside of floodplains.

For instance, riparian trees (that grow in floodplains) tend to be very tolerant of root
disturbance and tend to be very quick-growing, compared to non-riparian trees.

Floodplains and the society

Historically, many towns, homes and other buildings have been built on floodplains
where they are highly susceptible to flooding, for several reasons:

 This is where water is most available;

 Floodplain land is usually the most fertile for farming;

 Rivers represent cheap sources of transportation, and are often where railroads
are located; and

 Flat land is easier to develop than hilly land

Typically, a river uses some portion of its flood plain about once in 2 to 3 years. At
average intervals of, say, 25, 50, or 100 years, the river may inundate its entire flood plain

16
Satish Modh
 Managing Natural Disasters

to a considerable depth. Although records of floods permit estimation of frequency of

flooding, it is not possible to forecast the year a flood will occur on any given watercourse.

Flood hazard lands are not restricted to broad alluvial plains. Passive, usually dry,
streambeds in arid regions become, on cloudburst occasions, conveyors of flows capable of
inflicting major flood damages. Manmade development may so encroach upon a natural
watercourse as to retard its capacity to pass flood flows. Silt deposits in the stream channel
may have a similar effect. Flood heights are raised, velocities are increased, and additional
areas are subjected to damage.

In some tropical floodplain areas such as the Niger Inland Delta of Mali, annual
flooding events are a natural part of the local ecology and rural economy. But in
Bangladesh, which occupies the Ganges Belt, the advantages provided by the richness of
the alluvial soil of floodplains are severely offset by frequent floods brought on by
cyclones and annual monsoon rains, which cause severe economic disruption and loss of
human life in this densely-populated region.

FLOODS AND FORESTS

The role of forests in sustaining water supplies, in protecting the soils of important
watersheds and in minimising the effects of catastrophic floods and landslides has long
been discussed and debated. The conventional wisdom is that forests act as giant ‘sponges’,
soaking up water during heavy rainfall and releasing freshwater slowly when it is most
needed, during the dry months of the year.

According to a theory, the complex of forest soil, roots and litter acts as a giant
sponge, soaking up water during rainy spells and releasing it evenly during dry periods,
when the water is most needed. Although the theory came under criticism as early as the
1920s, it continues to appeal to many people (foresters and non-foresters alike). In many
countries, it is firmly embedded in national forest policies and programmes. The question
is how much of the sponge theory is fact and how much is fiction? There is a need to assess
our current knowledge of the relationship between forests and water, and reconsider
conventional responses to one of the most serious disaster threats in the Asia-Pacific region
— i.e., large-scale floods

Sound science provides little evidence to support anecdotal reports of forest

harvesting or rural land-use practices leading to lower basin catastrophic floods. When it
comes to prevention of major floods, the ‘sponge theory’ is a historical erratum — a fiction
often inappropriately used to justify soil and water conservation measures, forest
management controls and logging bans.

The reality could be far more complex. Although forested watersheds are
exceptionally stable hydrological systems, the complexity of environmental factors should
cause us to refrain from overselling the virtues of forests and from relying on simple
solutions (e.g., removing people currently living in mountainous watersheds, imposing
logging bans, or implementing massive reforestation programmes).
17
Satish Modh
 Managing Natural Disasters

FLOODS AND DROUGHTS

Hydrologic hazards are severe events caused by either excess or lack of water:
floods and drought respectively. Floods are the most common natural disaster, and floods
are a serious environmental hazard in India in terms of lives lost, people affected, property
damaged and frequency. On the other hand, the economic and social costs of droughts can
also be large, and may exceed those due to floods.

Drought is a condition of abnormal dry weather resulting in a serious water

shortage, with consequences on crops, humans and livestock. They are caused by
anomalous weather patterns when shifts in the jet stream block storm systems from
reaching an area. As a result, large high-pressure cells may dominate a region for a
prolonged period, thus reducing precipitation.

This natural hazard differs from others in several ways. First, there is no universally
accepted definition of drought. Second, drought onset and recovery are usually slow. Third,
droughts also can cover a much larger area and last many times longer than most other
natural hazards. Fourth, they are part of the natural variability. Due to these differences
many countries have neglected to include this hazard in their disaster management plans.

Draughts may cause extensive environmental problems through increased

degradation and erosion of soil, destruction of the ecological habitats and deterioration of
lakes. It is important to note that with climate warming more frequent drought is a likely
consequence.

Droughts and floods are both big concerns for humans, as one of the main effects
of both is death. It is a delicate balance though, because both also have good effects along
with the bad. Floods are bad for obvious reasons. People drown, property is damaged.
People can exacerbate the problem when they build on flood plains, and then they don't
have any chance to protect their houses if a flood comes. Many cultures have figured out
ways to make floods to their advantage. In Egypt, the people have been using the annual
flooding of the Nile to irrigate their crops, and the silt that is washed in keeps the soil rich
in nutrients.

CAUSES OF FLOODS

Some of the causes of floods are:

 Tropical Storms: Tropical storms are one of the most common causes of floods -
heavy rains that come with tropical storms. Such storms form over the warm waters
of the tropics, so they are full of moisture. When the right conditions form, bringing
these giant storms toward land, many inches of rain usually fall. The heavy
precipitation is too much for the streams and rivers to handle, causing water to
overflow and produce inland floods.

18
Satish Modh
 Managing Natural Disasters

 Seasonal Flooding: During Monsoon heavy rains cause floods in various parts of
Indian Peninsula. Other seasonal weather conditions may also cause floods e.g.
cyclones, ice melting in Himalayas or landslides in floodplains due to rains.

 Coastal Flooding: The earth has seven oceans that cover almost three-fourths of its
surface. Naturally, wind and other events caused ocean water to sometimes
overflow. When this happens, flooding on the shores occurs. Ocean storms can
dump lots of water on a coast, raising the sea level in that area. These are known as
storm surges, and cause coastal flooding. Coastal flooding usually occurs as a result
of severe storms, either tropical or winter storms. Ocean waves intensify on the
open ocean, and these storms make surface water much choppier and fierce than
normal. Raging winds can create huge waves that crash on unprotected beaches.

 Tsunamis: Coastal flooding can also be caused by long, low sea waves caused by
volcanoes, landslides, earthquakes, or explosions. These waves are tsunamis. These
giant tidal waves are difficult to detect on the open sea, so seismologists must keep
track of seafloor movements that warn of possible tsunamis. These waves are
extremely dangerous because of their high speeds. Deeper water means faster-
traveling waves. When the sea floor is several miles below, waves can travel more
than 600 miles an hour. As they near shallow water, they slow down, but build in
height. Some tsunamis can be 50 to 100 feet high when they hit shore.

FLOOD AND ITS IMPACT

Human activities have deeply affected floodplains and the nature of flooding.
Activities such as drainage of wetlands and land clearance for farming; upstream
development that replaces natural vegetation with paved asphalt; and construction of
channels, levees, reservoirs change the flood cycle and often result in increased runoff,
destruction of riparian habitat, and increased water pollution--all of which can be
considered destructive to the natural environment

Studies of flood plain use show that some flood plain encroachment is undertaken
in ignorance of the hazard that some occurs in anticipation of further protection by the
government, and that some takes place because it is profitable for private owners even
though it imposes heavy burdens on society.

Even if full information on flood hazard were available to all owners of flood plain
there still would be conscious decisions to build in areas where protection has not been
feasible, for the private owner may not perceive the hazard in the same way as the
hydrologist and he does not expect to bear all the costs of his use of hazardous property.

However, the alternatives apparent to the general public remain either building new
protection works or suffering larger losses. What, then, are the socio-economic issues in
regard to floods? This complex question can only be answered if following questions are
answered first. Briefly, these are:

19
Satish Modh
 Managing Natural Disasters

 What are the benefits of floods and floodplain occupancy? There are no reliable
data on which to weigh the losses described above against the benefits which are
reaped by use of areas subject to flood damage during non-flood periods.

 Who are the winners and losers? For every flood disaster that occurs, there are
victims (those who lose their property and possibly lives) and there are victors
(those who benefit from economic gains in recovery and reconstruction, for
example).

 What are the indirect, potentially catastrophic, impacts of future floods? Can they
be anticipated? For example, does the location of hazardous materials facilities
adjacent to populated areas mean there is a growing likelihood of disasters with
very serious ramifications, beyond that which has been experienced in the past?

 What are the social implications of technological advances? For example, does
increased technological sophistication imply that weather forecasting of flood
events will improve? Further, does more accurate forecasting mean that flood
losses will be reduced?

In addition to economic and social damage, floods may have severe environmental
consequences, for example when drinking water caption facilities or waste water treatment
plants are inundated or when factories holding large quantities of toxic chemicals are
affected. Floodwater can cause oil spills, sewage discharges and other environmental
problems. Consideration of the negative impacts of floods on the environment more often
appraise the detrimental aspects of human attempts to manage flood prone areas which, in
turn, disrupt the natural flood cycle.

Annual flood damages in India are in hundreds of crores of rupee. With economic
progress and increased economic activity there is a steadily increasing trend in losses due
to floods. This damage occurs in the following areas:

 Property

 Crops, and

 Loss of Production

In general the monetary damages due to floods exhibit a rising trend. The major
factors responsible for the increase in the monetary value of flood damages have been a
rise in the price level, increasing human intervention into flood plains. While taking the
development activities like expansion of rail and road network, establishment of irrigation
systems, embankments, industrial estates and residential complexes etc. undertaken in the
country since independence, adequate provisions of draining the flood water were not
considered. Thus, these developmental activities have adversely affected the drainage of
the surrounding areas leading to frequent problems of drainage congestion. Some parts of

20
Satish Modh
 Managing Natural Disasters

our country are experiencing the frequent flooding due to the drainage congestion which
results in considerable damages of lives and properties.

Mounting Flood Losses

Lands subject to floods are the setting for much urban growth in India and for a
substantial part of the country’s agricultural production. When floods strike river banks, the
life of cities is disrupted, their productive capacity is impaired, strategic transportation lines
are cut, property and crops are destroyed, and soils are eroded.

Despite substantial efforts, flood losses are mounting and uneconomic uses of the
Nation's flood plains are inadvertently encouraged. The country is faced with a continuing
sequence of losses, protection, and more losses. While flood protection of existing property
should receive public support, supplemental measures should assure that future
developments in the flood plains yield benefits in excess of their costs to the Nation.

Use of flood plains involving periodic damage from floods is not, in itself, a sign of
unwarranted or inefficient development. It may well be that the advantages of flood plain
location outweigh the intermittent cost of damage from floods. Further, there are some
kinds of activity which can only be conducted near a watercourse.

Principles of national economic efficiency require, however, that the benefits of

flood plain occupancy exceed all associated costs, not merely those borne by the individual
or enterprise which so locates. Total associated, or full social, costs of floods include:

 Immediate expenses of development,

 Damages to be endured by the occupant or the expense of protective

measures undertaken to reduce the frequency and extent of flood damage,

 Damages forced on others as a result of encroachment, and public costs

involved in disaster relief and rehabilitation.

Flood plain occupation in which benefits do not exceed the estimated total costs, or
which yields lower returns than other uses such as recreation and wildlife conservation, is
undesirable, because it causes an eventual net loss to society. Any public policy which
encourages sub marginal development adds to those losses.

Impact of flood on developing countries

The adverse impacts of floods and droughts include loss of life and property; mass
migration of people and animals; environmental degradation; and shortage of food, energy,
water and other basic needs. The degree of vulnerability to such natural disasters has been
highest in developing countries, where, often it is the poor who suffer the most as sheer
necessity forces them to occupy the most vulnerable areas.

21
Satish Modh
 Managing Natural Disasters

The world’s population had reached 6 billion in 2000. Projections for 2025 and
2050 show a world population of 8 billion and 9.3 billion people respectively. Most of
them will live in Asia. This expected growth, in combination with the expected increases in
the standard of living in many countries will require a significant increase in food
production. On the other hand loss of agricultural land and reduction in crop yields are
caused by erosion, desertification, urbanisation and industrialisation, water logging,
salinization, environmental concerns, or degeneration of existing flood control, drainage
and irrigation schemes. Urbanization and industrialization, for example, result in a loss of
some 13 million ha cultivated land annually. Most of the extra food (about 90% over the
next 25 years), is expected to come from the present 1,500 million ha cropland of the
world. In addition it is expected that about 10% from the required increase will have to
come from newly reclaimed lands.

All the countries in South East Asia have a monsoon climate and a large portion of
precipitation results in unused runoff during the relatively short wet season. The percentage
of water use varies greatly among the different countries, from 1% to 30%. More than 70%
of water use in the region is devoted to agricultural purposes, mainly Rice. Domestic and
municipal water use is in the range of 10 - 20%, while the industrial water use is about
10%. Wet season rainfall is generally adequate for Rice cultivation. Cropping is often not
possible in the dry season without irrigation. These conditions indicate the need for the
region as a whole to increase investments in water saving, to secure dry season supplies
and to reduce damage due to floods and inundation in the wet season, combined with
improved management practices.

FLOODS AND VULNERABLE URBAN POOR

Urbanisation aggravates flooding by restricting where flood waters can go,

covering large parts of the ground with roofs, roads and pavements, obstructing sections of
natural channels and building drains that ensure that water moves to rivers faster than it did
under natural conditions. As more people crowd into cities, so the effects intensify. As a
result, even quite moderate storms produce high flows in rivers because there are more
hard surfaces and drains.

Types of flooding in urban areas

Within urban areas, four major types of flooding can be recognised:

 Localised flooding occurs many times a year in slum areas because there are
few drains, most of the ground is highly compacted and pathways between
dwellings become streams after heavy rain. Such drains and culverts are often
blocked by waste and debris.

 Small streams in urban areas rise quickly after heavy rain, but often pass
through small culverts under roads. Although adequate when designed,
changes in the urban area and in storm intensity now produce higher flows that

22
Satish Modh
 Managing Natural Disasters

exceed capacity. Channels may also have so much debris in them that they are
effectively smaller than they were two decades ago.

 Major rivers flowing through urban areas are affected by land use changes
and engineering works upstream. Dams can trap sediment, causing rivers to
erode their banks downstream. Dam operation may lead to high flows when
stored water is released suddenly. Often, urban growth has expanded over
some of the floodplain, making parts of the city below flood level and
reducing the area into which floods can naturally overflow. Levees have been
raised artificially, but with the risk that they may be breached and cause
devastating urban flooding.

 In lowland and coastal cities, wet season flooding may affect some areas for
two or more months, because rain and river water combine to raise the levels
of water in swamps that would have naturally been inundated at certain times
of the year. Dumping of waste beneath dwellings in these areas tends to help
raise levels further. Storm waves can also bring flooding to such areas.

All four types of flooding affect the urban poor particularly severely.

Responsibilities for action on the four types of urban flooding

The principle of local, regional or national action at the appropriate scale applies to
managing urban flooding. Applying this principle of management as close to communities
as possible, the management of localised flooding due to inadequate drainage should be
undertaken by local self governments themselves. This is where local voluntary groups,
assisted by national or international NGOs and with support from both local government
and national disaster reduction organisations, could be highly effective.

Local communities are stakeholders in the good drainage and rapid water removal
from their own areas. They would benefit from their own actions in improving and
maintaining drainage channels, preventing the blocking of waterways and culverts by
waste, the installation of roof rainwater collection tanks for their own use, and avoidance of
construction on drainage lines.

Where towns and cities get flooded by major rivers overtopping their banks, flood
protection has to be seen in the context of the entire river basin, which may include more
than one state. Where a river basin lies within a single nation state, integrated river basin
management principles should be applied by an agency cutting across ministries concerned
with both rural and urban interests to ensure that activities in upstream areas do not worsen
the flood situation for towns and cities downstream.

For large, international rivers, river basin commissions are required to manage the
water resources of the entire basin for the benefit of all communities in the different nations
occupying the basin. Such management would include measures to mitigate flooding.

23
Satish Modh
 Managing Natural Disasters

Individual urban authorities may campaign for, or act to build, extra flood protection
embankments.

However such works only serve to direct the floodwaters elsewhere. The natural
floodplain should be retained to hold floodwaters and should not be built upon. Cities faced
with coastal flooding from the sea, or by a combination of high tides and high river flows
from inland, have to integrate both river basin and coastal zone management, ensuring that
the natural wetlands can continue to function as flood storage areas as far as possible.
Where settlements already exist, filling of those areas to prevent flooding may be desirable,
but the implications for adjacent areas need to be considered.

Priority actions include:

 Making sure the growing human challenge of urban flooding is addressed in

all national and international development policies, planning and actions by
governments, UN systems, and NGOs.

 Investing in proper and safe infrastructure, such as drainage, as locally

appropriate.

 Ensuring that poor people participate in all decision-making processes equally

with experts in flood reduction policies.

 All possible measures should be taken to ensure that poor people’s right to
adequate and disaster-safe housing is realised and their tenure is secured.

 Making sure that critical services such as health, water and sanitation are
disaster prepared, which means they are able to provide adequate services
during floods.

 Implementing the Hyogo Framework of Action, agreed at the World

Conference on Disaster Reduction in 2005, at all levels of urban planning and
service delivery.

VULNERABILITY MODIFICATION

The “vulnerability” of potential victims of flood losses is a function of their ability

to mobilize the assets available to them to meet the challenge posed by the flood risk
versus the extent of the challenge. More generally, the capacity of the society to maintain
or improve its quality of life in the face of such external disturbances may be enhanced
either by reducing the extent of the challenge presented by the disturbance or by enhancing
their capacity to cope with the disturbance.

River ecosystem restoration is usually based on re-establishing an equilibrium

channel form, with the channel modified to convey the statistical bankfull discharge
without quite overtopping. The rationale for bankfull-based strategies has stemmed from
24
Satish Modh
 Managing Natural Disasters

geomorphic studies which observed that bankfull flow exhibited a frequency that, over the
long-term, transported the greatest total load of sediment, making it the `dominant' or
`channel- forming' flow. Such ideas have become pervasive in the popular perception of
river geomorphology.

In this highly dynamic geomorphic context, the management of flood risk might be
achieved most cost-effectively using a strategy of `vulnerability modification' which
includes: Land acquisition, Setback levees, Easements, and Zoning.

Vulnerability modification is being considered as better strategy than the near-

universal strategy of `event modification' which includes: Bank-edge levees, Bank
protection, and Channelization.

Event modification often results in significant impairment of riverine ecosystems.

Vulnerability modification also has the potential to provide wide-ranging opportunities for
river-floodplain ecosystem restoration including the recovery of species imperiled by
regional losses in riparian habitat and, overall, seems especially well- suited to river
management in large, semi-arid river systems.

FLOOD PROTECTION MEASURES

The configuration of a flood plain has a bearing on the economic and engineering
feasibility of flood protection works. The layout of many areas render it impossible to
provide adequate flood protection through physical works such as dams, levees, channel
improvements, and upstream land-treatment measures.

Even a perfectly designed engineering project on streambank or coast may be

subject to damage from a flood exceeding the expected maximum. For these reasons, so
long as flood plains are occupied, the Nation will be faced with problems of flood
damages.

Flood protection or, more properly, minimizing flood damage, occurs in a dynamic
setting. The more significant steps are needed in urban areas or in the urbanized of rural
areas. It is misleading to think that an area is ever completely protected. Nor is it true that
the damage potential and the benefits from protection remain unchanged. The situation
remains dynamic due to following:

a. New construction occurs within areas which have not been protected. Many small
towns, suburban areas, and farmlands are in this category.

b. Flood-prone lands adjoining protected areas are built up.

c. Similarly, along rivers where some portion of the flood plain has been provided
protection by embankments or reservoirs, adjacent but vulnerable lower lying lands
are developed

25
Satish Modh
 Managing Natural Disasters

Objectives of the flood Protection measures are to protect the safety of the people
living in floodplains and minimize human and material losses for the people and the
government. Management of flood protection and slowing can be done by following
methods:

1. Dike protection: The dike protection must be regularly carried out as the most
essential and important measure among the system of flood prevention and combat
measures. When big floods occur, the dike protection must be organized in a
constant and enduring manner with maximum efforts.

2. Regulation of water levels of reservoirs to relieve floods: During the flood

season, levels of dams and reservoirs must be regulated to relieve floods for lowland
regions. The flood relief for lowland regions must ensure the absolute safety of these
dams and reservoirs built on rivers according to their approved operation
procedures.

3. Emergency flood alarms: Whenever the water level in the rivers reaches dangerous
levels, and continues to rise quickly, the emergency flood alarm should be activated.

4. Use of flood-slowing areas: To take initiative in coping with big floods and
flooding contingencies that may occur, flood-slowing areas can be identified to slow
down the flood flow.

5. Flood Diversion and River Linking: Certain rivers can be interlinked for flood
diversion and flood slowing purposes. Indian plans to divert vast quantities of water
from major rivers, including the Ganges and Brahmaputra, are aimed at diverting the
flood flow and slowing down the impact of flood on people living on the bank of
these rivers.

RIVER DIVERSIONS

River Diversions attempt to replicate the natural processes that build healthy
wetlands while limiting potential damage to the people and economy.

The ambitious Indian plans to link major rivers flowing from the Himalayas and
divert them south to drought-prone areas are still on the drawing board. The Indian
government is preparing to seek international funds for its giant river-linking project,
intended to divert water from the north of the country to drought-prone southern and
eastern states. Up to one third of the flow of the Brahmaputra and other rivers could be
diverted to southern Indian rivers to provide 173bn cubic metres of water a year, supplying
millions of people in Uttar Pradesh and Karnataka states with more reliable drinking and
irrigation water.

It involves building hundreds of reservoirs and digging more than 600 miles of
canals. Preliminary estimates by environment groups suggest that more than 3,000 square
miles of land could be flooded and 3 million people forced off their land. India's national
26
Satish Modh
 Managing Natural Disasters

water development agency, which is backing the scheme, has said it will divert enough
water to irrigate 135,000 square miles of farmland and produce 34,000 megawatts of
hydroelectricity. However, much of the electricity would be needed to pump the water
around.

Flow Diversion Structures

Diversion structures route runoff in excess of base flow to storage facilities during
wet periods, for later use during dry periods. Flood diversion structures, such as dikes, are
also useful methods for mitigating the adverse effect of torrential rains and at the same time
capturing the excess water for later use. The following types of structures have been used
to divert flood water for water supply augmentation purposes.

 Transverse Dikes: transverse dikes are built in sections along a river to store
excessive runoff. These dikes can be built using material dredged from the river or
transported from adjacent lands. The dike material, usually clay or silt, must be
highly compacted and in many cases it is advisable to place riprap on the dike to
increase its strength and protect it from erosion.

 Homemade Diversion Structures (toroba): Toroba are homemade diversion

structures built of wooden poles, taken from trees such as the curari and cuji in
Venezuela, vegetation residues, and logs. The wooden poles are 50 and 130 cm in
length and are placed at intervals of 50 cm to 70 cm to define a wall of debris that
will divert the runoff. This technique may also increase infiltration to the
groundwater.

 Water Traps: Water traps are used to control the deleterious effects of runoff in a
river basin and to facilitate water storage and the recharge of aquifers. They are built
like an earth dam, usually 1 m to 3 m high, using local materials. The walls are
compacted in 20 cm layers using the same equipment as is used to build a dam. The
edges are trapezoidal with an embankment slope of 2.5:1 at high water and 2:1 at
low water. The bottom width of the water trap is 2.5 m. They are normally located
across a river bed, segmenting the channel into compartments. Water traps are
usually designed to handle runoff produced during a l-in-5 0-year rainfall. The
volume of runoff captured depends upon the catchment area and the intensity of the
rainfall.

Extent of Use

Transverse dikes have been used on rivers in the State of Sao Paulo and in the Serra
do Mar region, Brazil. Water traps have been used in arid and semi-arid regions,
particularly in the Province of Mendoza, Argentina. They have been very useful in
reducing sedimentation and limiting the risk of flooding. Toroba are used in the State of
Falcon, Venezuela. This technique has limited utility, but can be helpful in rural areas that
lack technical resources.

27
Satish Modh
 Managing Natural Disasters

Effectiveness of the Technology

Diversion structures are very effective in reducing sediment erosion, retaining

runoff, and encouraging groundwater infiltration. Water traps have been successfully used
for more than 25 years in Argentina. They have been very useful in controlling
sedimentation, and reducing the risk of flooding, within river basins.

Suitability

Diversion structures are suitable for use in river basins where sufficient volumes of
water can be diverted and stored for later use. Areas like Serra do Mar in southeastern
Brazil, Falcon State in Venezuela, or the San Juan River basin in Argentina are typical
areas well suited for the application of this technology.

Advantages

 Diversion structures enable the use of water that normally would run off.

 Diversion structures provide some in-stream control of erosion and

sedimentation.

 Diverted water may serve as a source for groundwater recharge.

 Water velocities in river channels are reduced.

 Soil fertility is improved by retaining water on the land surface and reducing
soil loss.

 Retention of runoff may contribute to biodiversity and ecosystem restoration by

reducing erosion and retaining water on the land surface.

Disadvantages

 Construction of diversion structures may disrupt vegetation.

 Structures may be breached by storms that exceed the design flows/capacities.

 Structures may adversely affect aquatic flora and fauna by altering flow patterns
and flooding regimes.

EMBANKMENTS

Embankments protect low lying-land from high tides. Embankment is a long

artificial mound of stone or earth; built to hold back water or to support a road or as
protection. Embankment can refer to any of the following.

28
Satish Modh
 Managing Natural Disasters

 A natural or artificial slope which can be made out of earth, stones or bricks, or a
combination of these. The purpose of this could be to prevent or direct flooding
by water e.g. levee and dyke;

 Hill, mound - structure consisting of an artificial heap or bank usually of earth or

stones;

 Bulwark, rampart, wall - an embankment built around a space for defensive

purposes;

 Revetment, stone facing, revetment - a facing (usually masonry) that supports an

embankment

 Embankment dam - a dam made of mounded earth and rock

Many of the river embankments in central Europe are more than 100 years old.
Recent flood events in central Europe have brought these river embankments into the focus
of attention.

Problems of river embankments

The nature of embankment failures is quite complex. An inhomogeneity of

material properties within the dike body or the subsoil will result in a failure only if
definite limits of outside influences will be exceeded. There are four main categories,
which affect the stability of a dike system:

 Problems due to soil properties of dike or subsoil material are summarized under
category A. Shear parameters of the soil and stratification of the soil layers play
a very important role. The permeability of the dike body determines the
percolation velocity of water through the dike and therefore its stability, too.

 The second influence is the effect of water, noted as category B. The water
percolates through the dike body and may cause instabilities due to processes of
suffusion and erosion. If the surface water table exceeds the top of the
embankments the surface erosion could result in an immediate breaking of the
dike. The high pore pressure behind the levees is sometimes responsible for base
failure and uplift problems. Last but not least, the high current velocity of the
river water accompanied by a direct incident flow to the levee front (flow stress)
is another cause of failure.

 The human activities in the surrounding of the dike systems, i.e. agriculture,
traffic and constructions of buildings or pipes in or beneath the dike are classified
as category C. These activities mainly affect the safety of dikes. Damages on the
grass cover of the dike could result in erosion problems. Constructions at or
within the dike body are preferential ways of strong gradient of water flow.

29
Satish Modh
 Managing Natural Disasters

 Dikes are part of the landscapes and influenced by biological processes (category
D). Digging activities of animals and roots of plants have negative effects on the
dike stability. As a result, voids may occur in levee bodies.

All these categories of failures / influences require complex investigations for

damage prevention

THE INDIAN SCENARIO

Floods are recurrent phenomena in India from time immemorial. Every year some
or the other parts of the country are affected by floods of varying magnitude. Out of the
total rainfall of India, about 75% of it is received during the four months (June to
September) due to the South-West monsoon which is non-uniformly distributed in space as
well. India is traversed by a large number of river systems.

The rivers of North and Central India are prone to frequent floods during the South-
West monsoon season, particularly in the month of July, August and September. In the
Brahmaputra river basin, floods have often been experienced as early as in late May while
in Southern rivers floods continue till November. However, the heavy and intense rainfall
is not the only factor contributing to floods. The other causes of flood are inadequate
capacity within riverbanks to contain high flows and silting of riverbeds, landslides leading
to obstruction of flow and change in the river course, retardation of flow due to tidal and
backwater effects, poor natural drainage, cyclones, snowmelt and glacial outbursts, and
dam break flow. With the increase in population and developmental activity, there has been
tendency to occupy the flood plains which has resulted in more serious nature of damage
over the years.

Flood Warnings

Common terms used by the Meteorological department to describe the warnings for
flooding are as follows:

 Minor Flooding - Causes inconvenience, closing minor roads and low-level

bridges.

 Moderate Flooding - Low-lying areas inundated, requiring removal of stock,

equipment and evacuation of isolated homes. Main road and rail bridges may be
covered.

 Major Flooding - Higher areas inundated, towns/properties isolated, and

extensive damage.

 Local Flooding - Intense rainfall, some high run-off, but usually no flooding in
main streams.

30
Satish Modh
 Managing Natural Disasters

 Significant River Rises - This warning is issued if it is not certain that the initial
flood levels will be exceeded in the main streams. It lets people know that
appreciable rises are expected.

Special flood problems in India

Following are some of the special problems related to flooding in India:

 River bank/bed erosion: A river erodes its banks due to various reasons causing
considerable loss of land, deterioration of the river regime and sometimes account
for huge losses during floods. Rivers in Brahmaputra-Barak and Ganga basins are
prone to severe erosion. River erosion causes a loss to the land resources. The river
behaviour causes new riverine landmass to be built up, but these become productive
after many years and cannot compensate the land-loss due to erosion.

 Sediment transport by rivers and river migration: One of the problems

associated with the floods in India is the transport of sediments by rivers during
floods. Himalayan rivers originating from Nepal bring a lot of sediment during
floods to the alluvial plains in the valley. Transport of sediments has a major role on
river behaviour and river morphology. The Kosi River in North Bihar, once called
the “Sorrow of Bihar” is a burning example of this problem. Kosi has shifted its
course from East to West to a distance of 210 miles during past few hundred years
since 1731. Thus, this type of flood problem and its management measures depend a
lot on sediment transport.

 Dam break flows: Flooding due to dam break is a mega-disaster as it is associated

with huge loss of life and property. An unusual high peak in a short duration and
presence of a moving hydraulic shock/bore make it a different problem as compared
to other natural floods. In India, historical events (e.g. failure of Machhu dam,
Panshet dam, Nanak Saagar dam) for dam break floods are common. Sometimes,
blockage of water due to deposits caused by landslide takes place. When this natural
blockage fails due to increased amount of water at the upstream, huge flooding
occurs. The behaviour of this flood is similar to that of dam break floods.

 Urban drainage: Flooding of cities in India is a common and annual event. Due to
encroachment of the flood plain areas, presence of several structures and absence of
proper regulations for maintenance, artificial flood is created. Therefore, proper
drainage networking for a city has to be developed. Recent devastating flooding in
Mumbai (26th July, 2005), one of the largest metro city of India was also due to
poor urban drainage system.

 Flash floods: Flash floods are characterized by sudden rise and recession of flow of
small volume and high discharge which causes damages because of suddenness.
They generally take place in hilly region where the bed slope is very steep. Typical
examples are flash flood of Arunachal Pradesh and flash flood of Sutlej in 2000.
Large reservoir downstream of flood prone areas can absorb the flood wave. Flash
31
Satish Modh
 Managing Natural Disasters

floods are also experienced in arid and semi-arid regions due to the intense and short
duration rainfall in the small catchments of the region.

 Flood due to snowmelt: Snowmelt is a gradual process and does not produce
floods. However, sometimes, glaciers hold large quantity of bounded water. When
released suddenly, this causes severe flooding. The rivers originating from the
Himalayas in the North are fed by snowmelt from glaciers. In 1929, the outburst of
the Chong Khundam glacier (Karakoram) caused a massive flood at Attock.

 Flood in Coastal Areas: Floods in Indian River basins are also caused by cyclones.
Coastal areas of Andhra Pradesh, Orissa, Tamilnadu, and West Bengal experience
heavy floods regularly. During past 110 years (1891-2000), over 1,000 tropical
cyclones and depressions, originating in the Bay of Bengal and Arabian Sea, moved
across India. Passage of such storms over a river basin leads to severe floods.

 Floods in the Himalayas: The analysis of more than 5000 Himalayan glaciers and
lakes revealed 20 in Nepal and 24 in Bhutan that are at bursting point. Hundreds
more lakes elsewhere in the Himalayas remain unsurveyed. The lakes are formed as
mountain glaciers melt, a process much accelerated by global warming. The water is
kept in place by ice or piles of sediment, known as moraines that were deposited
when the glacier was at its longest. But as the lakes grow, the moraines are starting
to collapse and every monsoon season, the risk of a disaster grows.

These glacial lake outbursts used to be events that happened once every 500 years,
but they have become frequent since 1950. There have been 12 glacial lake bursts in
Tibet since 1935. There have been three major bursts in Bhutan since 1950 and a
similar number in Nepal, he says. When the Sangwang Cho glacial lake in Tibet
burst in 1954, the flood damaged a city 120 kilometres away. A 15-metre wall of
water burst from the Dig Tsho Lake in Nepal in 1985, destroying 14 bridges and
drowning dozens of people.

RIVER BASINS IN INDIA

There are 20 river basins/draining areas, large and small, in India. The Ganga basin
is the largest. Narmada River is the fifth largest river and is also the largest west flowing
river. Table 1.1 lists these river basins. The rivers in India can be broadly divided into the
following four regions for a study of flood problem:

(a) Brahmaputra River region,

(b) Ganga River region,

(c) North-West Rivers region, and

(d) Central India and Deccan Rivers region.

32
Satish Modh
 Managing Natural Disasters

Indus a) Ganga (Upto Border) b)

Brahmaputra (Upto Border) c)
Barak etc. (Upto Border)

Godavari Krishna

Cauvery Pennar

East flowing rivers between East flowing rivers between

Krishna and Pennar and Krishna and Kanyakumari
between Mahanadi and
Godavari

Mahanadi Brahmani and Baitarani

Subernarekha Sabarmati

Mahi West flowing rivers of Kutch

and Kathiawar including Luni

Narmada Tapi

West flowing rivers from West flowing rivers from Tadri

Tapi to Tadri to Kanyakumari

Area of Inland drainage in Minor river basins drainage to

Rajasthan Bangladesh & Burma

Table 1.1: River Basins in India

Brahmaputra River region

The first zone belongs to the basins of the rivers Brahmaputra and Barak with their
tributaries. It covers the States of Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, Meghalaya, Mizoram,
northern parts of West Bengal, Manipur, Sikkim, Tripura and Nagaland. The catchments of
these rivers receive large amount of rainfall ranging from 110 cm to 635 cm a year which
occurs mostly during the months of May/June to September. As a result of this, floods in
this region take place very often and are severe by nature. The general tectonic wrapping
up of North-East region has also significant effect on river Brahmaputra. Almost all
Northern tributaries of Brahmaputra are affected by landslides in the upper catchment.
Further, the rocks in the hills, where these rivers originate are fragile and susceptible to
erosion and thereby cause exceptionally high silt charge in the rivers. In addition, the
region is subject to severe and frequent earthquakes causing numerous landslides in the
hills, which upset the regime of the rivers. Important problems in this region are flood

33
Satish Modh
 Managing Natural Disasters

inundation due to spilling of banks, drainage congestion due to natural as well as man-
made structures and change of river flow. In recent years, the erosion along the banks of
the Brahmaputra has assumed serious proportions.

Considering the individual states in the region, main problems of flooding in Assam
are inundation caused by spilling of the rivers Brahmaputra and Barak as well as their
tributaries. In addition, the erosion along the Brahmaputra is a serious problem. In
Northern parts of West Bengal, the rivers Teesta, Torsa and Jaldakha are in floods every
year and inundate large areas.

During flooding, these rivers carry large amount of silt and have a tendency to
change their courses. The rivers in Manipur spill over their banks frequently. The lakes in
the territory are filled up during the monsoon and spread to large marginal areas. In
Tripura, flood problems are the spilling and erosion by rivers.

Ganga River region

The Ganga and its many tributaries (the Yamuna, the Sone, the Ghaghra, the
Gandak, the Kosi and the Mahananda) constitute this river region. It covers the states of
Uttaranchal, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, South and central parts of West Bengal, parts of
Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh and Delhi. The normal annual
rainfall of this region varies from about 60 cm to 190 cm of which more than 80 per cent
occurs during the South-West monsoon. The rainfall increases from West to East and from
South to North.

The flood problem is mostly confined to the areas on the Northern bank of the
Ganga River. The damage is caused by the northern tributaries of the Ganga by spilling
over their banks and changing their courses. Even though the Ganga is a mighty river
carrying huge discharges of 57,000 to 85,000 cumecs (2 to 3 million cusecs), the
inundation and erosion problems are confined to some specific places only. In general, the
flood problem increases from West to East and from South to North. In the North- Western
parts of the region, there is the problem of drainage congestion. The drainage problem also
exists in the Southern parts of West Bengal.

The problem becomes acute when the main river, in which the water is to be
drained, already has high water level. The flooding and erosion problem is serious in Uttar
Pradesh, Bihar and West Bengal. In Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh, the problem is not so
serious. In Bihar, the floods are largely confined to the rivers of North Bihar and are an
annual feature.

North-West River region

The main rivers in this region are the Sutlej, Ravi, Beas, Jhelum, Ghaggar and the
tributaries of Indus, all flowing from the Himalayas. These carry quite substantial
discharges during the monsoon and also large volumes of sediment. They change their
courses frequently and leave behind vast tracts of sandy waste. The region covers the state
34
Satish Modh
 Managing Natural Disasters

of Jammu and Kashmir, Punjab and parts of Himachal Pradesh, Haryana and Rajasthan. In
comparison to the two regions mentioned above, the flood problem in this region is
relatively less. The major problem is that of inadequate surface drainage which causes
inundation and water logging.

Central India and Deccan Rivers region

Important rivers in this region are the Narmada, the Tapi, the Mahanadi, the
Godavari, the Krishna and the Cauvery. These rivers have mostly well defined stable
courses. They have adequate capacity within the natural banks to carry the flood discharge
except in their lower reaches and in the delta area, where the average bed slope is very flat.
The lower reaches of the important rivers on the East Coast have been embanked.

This region covers all the Southern States namely Andhra Pradesh, Chhattisgarh,
Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Orissa, Maharashtra, Gujarat and parts of Madhya
Pradesh. The region does not have very serious problems except for some of the rivers of
Orissa (the Brahmani, the Baitarni, and the Subarnarekha). The Delta areas of the
Mahanadi, Godavari and the Krishna rivers on the east coast periodically face flood and
drainage problems, in the wake of cyclonic storms. The Tapi and the Narmada are
occasionally in high floods affecting areas in the lower reaches of Gujarat. In Orissa,
damage due to floods is caused by the Mahanadi, the Brahmani and the Baitarani which
have a common delta.

FLOOD CONTROL MEASURES IN INDIA

The National Commission on Floods (1980) assessed the flood prone area in India
as 40 million ha (12% of the total area). Out of the total area liable to floods, about 80%
(32 million ha) could be provided with reasonable protection, and about half of this surface
has so far been provided with a reasonable protection through various means of flood
management measures.

The peculiar rainfall pattern in India renders the country highly vulnerable to
floods. Forty million hectares of land, roughly one-eighth of the country's geographical
area, is prone to floods. Each year, floods cause extensive damage to life and property,
losses being exacerbated by rapid population growth, unplanned development and
unchecked environmental degradation. The country has been tackling the problem through
structural and non-structural measures.

 Non-structural measures: Non-structural measures like flood forecasting aim at

improving the preparedness to floods by seeking to keep people away from
floodwaters.

 Structural measures: Structural measures involve the construction of physical

structures like embankments, dams, drainage channels, and reservoirs that prevent
floodwaters from reaching potential damage centres.

35
Satish Modh
 Managing Natural Disasters

Almost 48% of the vulnerable area has been provided with reasonable protection,
though floods continue to cause widespread losses year after year. It is apparent that the
flood protection measures have been inadequate in controlling losses and reducing
vulnerability

Summary

 Floods are caused when water overflows its normal range because of an excessive rise
in the water level. The rise in water level can results from heavy rains, the rapid
thawing of snow or ice, when ocean waves come on shore, or when dams or levees
break.

 The flood plain is formed from sediment deposits or removal accompanying the
natural, intermittent overflow of the stream above its ordinary bed. The flood plain acts
as a natural reservoir and temporary channel for the excess water.

 Human activities have deeply affected floodplains and the nature of flooding. Activities
such as drainage of wetlands and land clearance for farming; upstream development
that replaces natural vegetation with paved asphalt; and construction of channels,
levees, reservoirs change the flood cycle.

 The adverse impacts of floods and droughts include loss of life and property; mass
migration of people and animals; environmental degradation; and shortage of food,
energy, water and other basic needs. The degree of vulnerability to such natural
disasters has been highest in developing countries.

 Urbanisation aggravates flooding by restricting where flood waters can go, covering
large parts of the ground with roofs, roads and pavements, obstructing sections of
natural channels and building drains that ensure that water moves to rivers faster than it
did under natural conditions.

 The “vulnerability” of potential victims of flood losses is a function of their ability to

mobilize the assets available to them to meet the challenge posed by the flood risk
versus the extent of the challenge.

 Objectives of the flood Protection measures are to protect the safety of the people
living in floodplains and minimize human and material losses for the people and the
government.

 River Diversions attempt to replicate the natural processes that build healthy wetlands
while limiting potential damage to the people and economy.

 Embankments protect low lying-land from high tides. Embankment is a long artificial
mound of stone or earth; built to hold back water or to support a road or as protection.

36
Satish Modh
 Managing Natural Disasters

 The peculiar rainfall pattern in India renders the country highly vulnerable to floods.
Forty million hectares of land, roughly one-eighth of the country's geographical area, is
prone to floods.

Questions
1. Describe the flood phenomenon. What are the causes of floods? What are floodplains?
Explain the impact of human activity on floodplains.

2. Expalin various types of flooding in urba n areas. What is the impact of floods on urban
poor? Describe the action plan for reducing impact of flooding on urban poor.

3. Explain various flood protection measures and the role of various Flow Diversion
Structures.

4. Discuss special flood problems in India. Explain the ambitious Indian plans to link
major rivers flowing from the Himalayas and divert them south to drought-prone areas.
Discuss its advantages and disadvantages.

5. Write an essay on important river basins of India.

6. Write shortnotes on –

a. Flood and Forests

b. Flood and Drought

c. River Diversion

d. Embankments

e. Impact of flood on developing countries

References
Bryant, E.A. (1991). Natural Hazards, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.

Central Water Commission (1996). Report of the Working Group on Flood

Management for the 9th five year plan (1997-2002), CWC, New Delhi, India.

Chen, Z-Q., and M.L. Kavvas, (1992). An automated method for representing,
tracking and forecasting rain fields of severe storms by Doppler weather radars, Journal of
Hydrology, 132, 179-200, 1992.

Bhalme, H.N. and D.A. Mooley. (1981). Cyclic fluctuations in the flood/drought
area and relationship with the double (Hale) sun spot cycle. Journal of Applied
Meteorology 20:1,041-1,048.
37
Satish Modh
 Managing Natural Disasters

Chowdhury, A., R.K. Mukhopadhyay, and K.C. Sinha Ray. (1988). Low frequency
oscillation in summer monsoon rainfall over India. Mausam 39:375-382.

Gole, C.V. and Chitale, S.V. (1966).Inland Delta Activity of Kosi River. J.of the
Hydraulic Division, Proc. American Society of Civil Engineers, vol. 92, pp. 111-126.

Green, C.H., (1999). The Economics of Flood Plain Use. Himganga 1(3), 4–5.

IWRS. (2001). Theme Paper on “Management of Floods and Drought”, Indian

Water Resources Society, Roorkee, India.

Miller E.W. and Miller R.M (2000): Natural Disasters, Floods: A Reference
Handbook. Publisher: Abc-clio

Mohapatra P.K., and R.D. Singh (2003). Flood Management in India, Journal of
Natural Hazards, Vol. 28, No. 1 pp. 131-143.

Mooely, D.A. and B. Parthasarathy. (1984). Fluctution in All-India summer

monsoon rainfall during 1871-1985. Climate Change 6:287-301.

Murphy, A.H., (1993). What is a good forecast? An essay on the nature of goodness
in weather forecasting, Weather and Forecasting, 8, 281-293, 1993.

National Flood Commission (1980). Report of the Rashtriya Barh Ayog, New
Delhi, India.

Newson, M., (1997). Land, Water and Development: Sustainable Management of

River Basin Systems. Routledge, London.

NIH (1988-89). Flood Plain Zoning for Downstream Area of Machhu Dam II,
Report No.TR-72, National Institute of Hydrology, Roorkee, India.

Rogers, P., Lydon, P. and Seckler, D., (1989). Eastern Waters Study: Strategies to
Manage Flood and Drought in the Ganges-Brahmaputra Basin. USAID, Washington, DC.

Sikka, D.R. (1980). Some aspects of the large scale fluctuations of summer
monsoon rainfall over India in relation to fluctuations on planetary and regional scale
circulation parameters. Proceedings of the Indian Academy of Sciences, Earth and
Planetary Sciences 89:179-195.

Singh, S.V. and R.H. Kriplani. 1985. The south to north propogation of rainfall
anomalies across India during the summer monsoon season. Pure and Applied Geophysics
123:624-637.

Singh, S.V., R.H. Kriplani, and D.R. Sikka. (1992). Nature of Madden-Julian
Oscillation in Indian Summer monsoon rainfall. Journal of Climate 5:973-978.

38
Satish Modh
 Managing Natural Disasters

Sujata Gupta, Akram Javed and Divya Datt (2003) “Economics of Flood Protection
in India”, Natural Hazards, Vol.28, No.1, January 2003

WMO, (1999). Comprehensive Risk Assessment for Natural Hazards. WMO/TD

No. 955, Geneva.

39
Satish Modh
 Managing Natural Disasters

CASE 1
Narmada Basin
This case presents the flood prevention measures in Narmada basin. Availability of
reliable data such as water levels and rainfall coupled with inflow forecasts for
existing/on-going projects in the basin is essential for taking right decisions on water
management, for optimum utilization of water resources.

The Narmada basin extends over an area of 98796 Sq.km. and lies between east
longitudes 72o 32' to 81o 45' and north latitudes 21o 20' to 23o 45'lying on the northern
extremity of the Deccan Plateau, the basin covers large areas in the states of M.P., Gujarat
and a comparatively smaller areas in Maharashtra.

The Narmada basin is bounded on the north by the Vindhyas, on the east by the
Maikala range, on the south by the Satpuras and on the west by the Arabian Sea. The basin
has an elongated shape with a maximum length of 953 Km. from east to west and a
maximum width of 234 Km. from the north south. The basin has five well defined
physiographic zones. They are (i) the Upper hilly areas covering the distt. of Shahdol,
Mandla, Durg, Balaghat and Seoni (ii) the Upper Plains covering the districts of Jabalpur,
Narsimhapur, Sagar, Damoh, Chhindwara, Hoshangabad, Betul, Raisen and Sehore (iii) the
middle plains covering the districts of East Nimar, part of west Nimar, Dewas, Indore and
Dhar (iv) the lower hilly areas covering part of the west Nimar, Jhabua, Dhulia and parts of
Baroda and (v) the lower covering mainly the districts of Broach and part of Baroda. The
hilly regions are well forested. The upper, middle and lower plains are broad and fertile
areas well suited for cultivation. The Narmada basin consists mainly of black soils. The
costal plains in Gujarat are composed of alluvial clays with a layer of black soils on the
surface.

Climate

The tropic of Cancer crosses the Narmada Basin in the Upper plains area and a
major part of the basin lies just below this line. The climate of the basin is humid and
tropical, although at places extremes of heat and cold are often encountered. In the year,
four distinct seasons occur in the basin. They are (i) Cold weather (ii) Hot weather (iii)
South west monsoon and (iv) Post monsoon.

In the cold weather, the mean annual temperature varies from 17o 5 C to 20o C and
in the hot weather from 30oC to 32o 5C. In the South west monsoon the temperature ranges

40
Satish Modh
 Managing Natural Disasters

from 27o 5 C to 30o C. In the post monsoon season, the temperatures between 25 C and
27.5 C are experienced.

Rainfall

According to the Indian Meteorological Deptt., there were ten rain gauges in 1867
in the entire Narmada basin. The number rose to 21 rain gauges in the year 1891, the year
from which published rainfall data are available. Thereafter, there has been a study growth
of the rain gauge network in the basin. In 1965, the number of reporting rain gauges above
Garudeshwar was 69. Nearly 90% of this rainfall is received during the five monsoon
months from June to October about 60% is received in the two months of July & August.

The rainfall is heavy in the upper hilly and upper plains areas of the basin. It
gradually decreases towards the lower plains and the lower hilly areas and again increases
towards the cost and south western portions of the basin.

In the upper hilly areas, the annual rainfall is, in general, more than 1400 mm (55")
but it goes up to 1650 mm (65") in some parts. In the upper plains from near Jabalpur to
near Punasa dam site, the annual rainfall decreases from 1400 mm (55") to less than 1000
mm. (40") with the high rainfall zone around Pachmarhi where the annual rainfall exceeds
1800 mm (70"). In the lower plains the annual rainfall decreases rapidly from 1000 mm.
(40") at the eastern and to less than 650 mm. (25") around Barwani, and this area
represents the most arid part of the Narmada Basin in the lower hill areas, the annual
rainfall again increases to a little over 750 mm. (30")

HYDROLOGICAL FORECASTING IN NARMADA BASIN

Availability of reliable data such as water levels and rainfall coupled with inflow
forecasts for existing/on-going projects in the basin is essential for taking right decisions
on water management, for optimum utilization of water resources.

The present conventional method of manual data observations and transmission

results in a considerable time lag between data observation in field and its receipt at
decision-making level which sometimes leaves very little time for issue of flood forecast
and remedial measures for the dam safety and also evacuation of population in the
downstream flood zone. The planned computerized network operating in real time
environment and free from such snags will improve efficacy, accuracy and also warning
time round the year for efficient integrated reservoir operation, dam safety and the flood
management.

Real-Time Data Acquisition System [RTDAS] comprising of 96 remote stations

and a Master Control Centre for the acquisition of real-time hydro-meteorological data has
been planned to be implemented in two phases for the purpose of study, formulation and
monitoring of reservoir regulation and also regulation of water releases from Indira Sagar
Project in Madhya Pradesh to Sardar Sarovar Project in Gujarat. The initial phase of
implementation comprises of 26 representative remote stations spread in the Narmada
41
Satish Modh
 Managing Natural Disasters

basin and a Master Control Centre (MCC) at Indore in Madhya Pradesh. The initial phase
of RTDAS network will facilitate:

 Automated real-time data communication through Data Relay Transponder (DRT)

on board KALPANA-I under interrogation-answer back protocol’ at a pre-
programmed interval of 15 minutes.

 Transfer of e-mail among projects and key stations within the network.

 Flood forecast / lean flow assessment for four projects.

 Water level forecast at two locations in Madhya Pradesh.

 Integrated reservoir operation.

 Water accounting and budgeting

 Creation & maintenance of user-friendly hydro-meteorological database for the

basin.

Master control centre at Indore uses a 3.6 metre dish antenna with INSAT earth
station system and GPS time code receiver for communication control of data and e-mail
transfer as well as time synchronization of the network (block diagram of MCC is given at
Plate-III). The data collected at remote stations is transmitted on real-time mode over
WAN to a Pentium server and associated work stations installed in MCC. Appropriate
application software viz. Datawise and HEC-DSS for validation & analysis of hydromet
data, maintaining the archive, Water Management Software viz Sacramento Soil Moisture
Account (SSMA), Channel Routing Model & HEC5 shall be used to fulfill different
objectives.

Technical Profile

The initial phase of RTDAS network comprising of 26 Remote stations utilizes

latest technology by deploying rugged, highly sensitive and accurate hydro meteorological
sensors with associated electronics for measurement of important parameters viz. rainfall,
wind speed, wind direction, ambient temperature, relative humidity, water level,
evaporation and solar radiation at remote stations. Float type water level sensor with
optical shaft encoder needs stilling well for its functioning. The corresponding electrical
output of the sensor is sent to microprocessor based Data Collection Platform (DCP) which
is a composite modular unit for data acquisition and up-link transmission through
KALPANA-I. Every remote station is a SATCOM Micro Earth Station (MES) to facilitate
the data/text communication under interrogation-answer back protocol for which an
INSAT receiving system with a 3 meter dish antenna has been deployed. The network uses
three channels within a bandwidth of 25 KHz at a central frequency (UHF) of 402.776
MHz to enhance the link reliability. These channels are termed as Pilot, Data and
Emergency channels. The data transmission speed is 600 bauds.
42
Satish Modh
 Managing Natural Disasters

Sensor Details

Rain gauge:`Met One’ model 370 Tipping bucket rain gauge of 20 cm orifice is an
accurate, sensitive and low maintenance sensor to measure rainfall on a continuous basis.
Water does not collect in the sensor, but it drains out each time an interval bucket fills with
rain water equivalent of 0.25 mm rainfall and tips. The other end bucket comes in its place
instantaneously any loss of rain water to be accounted. At the time of tipping, a switch
closure pulse is sent to the local Data Collection Platform (DCP) for counting.

Anemometer:`Met One’ model 010C uses a durable, three cup anemometer

assembly and solid optical link with a 40 slot chopper disk to produce output whose
frequency is proportional to wind speed.

Potentiometer type weather Vane:`Met One’ model 020C weather Vane is a wind
direction sensor which uses a light weight Vane and a micro-torque potentiometer to
produce an analog voltage output in the range 0 – 5V DC proportional to wind direction.

Ambient temperature and Relative humidity: `Vaisala’ make model HMP-45D

probes is designed for the measurement of ambient temperature and relative humidity.
Temperature measurement is based on resistive platinum (Pt 100) sensor as a passive
measurement. For relative humidity measurement a capacitive thin polymer sensor
HUMICAP 180 is used. Both the sensors are located at the tip of the probe duly protected
by a membrane filter.

Water Level Sensor

Float Type Water Level Sensor: Vitel make model SE512 water level sensor
comprises the assembly of SE512 shaft encoder, float, stainless beaded tape, counterweight
and pulley. It necessarily needs stilling well of appropriate range for installation. The level
of water in the water body viz river & reservoir is represented by the level of water in the
stilling well. The float and counter weight tied with the separately beaded tape ends are
suspended in the stilling well from the pulley. Pulley is coupled with the encoder shaft.
Float floats over the surface of water in the stilling well. The circumference of pulley is
375 mm. As the float rises or falls according to change in water stage in the stilling well,
the optical chopper wheels generate quadrature signals resulting in 100 pulses per
revolution of the shaft which is registered in the DCP Vx 1004 through SDI port. The
encoder performs all scaling and data conversion for reporting the absolute value in proper
engineering units. There is a local display unit of the engineering absolute value of water
level above the OFFSET value. It also helps to recalibrate the encoder.

Pneumatic water level (Bubbler) sensor: Vitel make pneumatic water level sensor
is a software controlled device which measures the light of water column above the orifice
head. The differential pressure needed to bubble out the dry air through the water head
measures the height of water column in proportionate manners. The equipment takes
several samples of readings before its averaging. The surrounding air is passed through
filter and desiccators filled with tiny calcium sulphate granules before the entering into the
43
Satish Modh
 Managing Natural Disasters

internal compressor. The compressor compresses the air optimally to 30 to 35 psi which
purges through the orifice line at the set rates during reading samples.

Evaporimeter: The evaporimeter model 3003 Novalynx make measures the

changing water level. Evaporation pan is of 250 mm depth & 120 cm dia. The pan is
physically coupled with the Evaporimeter through a 12.5 mm dia pipe without any leakage.
The diameter of the Evaporimeter housing is 203 mm and 700 mm height which also
serves as the stilling well. Evaporimeter comprises of float, a counter weight, a chain
attached to both float and counter weight, and a sprocket attached to a precision 1000 ohm
potentiometer all mounted in a protective enclosure. Water inside the evaporimeter
represents the water level in the pan. The float rests on the water surface and it transfers its
motion due to change in water level through the chain to the sprocket. The sprocket, in
turn, causes the shaft of the potentiometer to rotate, changing the resistance of the
potentiometer and thereby change in the voltage between Zero to 5 VDC.

The output of potentiometer is translated in to the height of water level. The output
of potentiometer is calibrated to give a decreasing voltage as the water level decreases. The
NRG40 wind run sensor provides the information or wind passing over the surface of water
in the pan.

Pyranometer: The Novalynx make model 3030 is a star Pyranometer to measure

the solar radiation in the spectral range of 0.3 to 3 micrometer. It measures the temperature
differences that are converted into a proportional electromotive force (EMF) through the
use of a highly sensitive thermopile. Sensing of the temperature differences in the solar
pyranometer is accomplished by means of a twelve segmental star made of metal plate that
has been painted in alternating sections with a special white reflective paint and an
absorbing black paint. Exposed to solar radiation causes the black sections of the star to
become more heated then the white sections. A difference in temperature is created
between the black and white sections. The temperature difference is then sensed by
thermocouples that have been embedded directly below the star to generate a voltage with
a value of 15 micro volts per square with internal resistance of 35 ohms. Pyranometer is
provided with a dome of optical `SCHOTT’ glass. Desiccators filled with silica gel
granules to absorb the moisture. The range of equipment is upto 1500 watt per square
meter.

Questions:

1. Discuss the developments in the Narmada River basin. In your opinion will
these developments help in reducing flood problems in the river basin?

2. What are various methods of measuring water levels and rainfall coupled with
inflow forecasts in the Narmada Basin?

3. How the flood problems in India can be resolved? Is linking of rivers a good
option?

44
Satish Modh
 Managing Natural Disasters

CASE 2
Floods in the Yellow River: China's Sorrow
China has had a particularly long and terrible history of flooding. In the last 2000
years, the Yangtze River has flooded more than 1000 times. But it is the Hwang Ho or
"Yellow River" that has been responsible for China's most catastrophic floods.

Throughout Chinese history, how to tame the waters of the country's great rivers
has been an issue of central concern to people's lives. Personalities from 2,000 years ago
are remembered as clearly as figures of yesterday for their contribution to irrigation and
flood control. One need only look at the grim statistics of lives claimed by the waters to see
why.

In the 1930s, floods throughout huge tracts of China killed more than 400,000
people. Tens of thousands died in the 1950s, while the most recent large-scale flood
disaster was in 1998, when more than 4,000 people died. Chinese leaders today continue to
battle with the problem.

They hope the controversial project to dam up one of the world's longest rivers, the
Yangtze, at a site called the Three Gorges, will help, although some engineers worry about
what will happen in a generation's time if the level of the lake they are creating gradually
rises.

In contrast, large parts of northern China suffer from regular disastrous droughts.
That provides the rationale for a second massive project to channel water from the flood-
prone Yangtze northwards to the Yellow River, which is progressively dwindling. But it is
still too early to say what impact these plans will have on the recurring patterns of Chinese
history, not least because nobody knows precisely what role new factors, such as climate
change, are playing.

China has had a particularly long and terrible history of flooding. In the last 2000
years, the Yangtze River has flooded more than 1000 times. But it is the Hwang Ho or
"Yellow River" that has been responsible for China's most catastrophic floods. Three
thousand miles long, it begins high above sea level in the northern mountain province of
Qinghai and ends at the Yellow Sea. Westerners have dubbed it "China's Sorrow," because
over the centuries it has killed more people than any other river in the world. In 1887
flooding killed nearly two million people, in 1931 the death toll was almost four million,
and in 1938 it was almost one million.
45
Satish Modh
 Managing Natural Disasters

Much of the problem stems from the high silt content of the river -- in some
stretches as much as 60% by weight. Millions of tons of yellow mud choke the channel,
causing the river to overflow and change course. In its lower reaches, the river bed has
actually become higher than the level of the surrounding countryside. Water is held in by
dikes of ever increasing height, some reaching 30 feet and more.

Attempts at controlling the Yellow River were begun as early as the third century
B.C. An engineer named Yu came up with the idea of dredging the river to encourage the
water to flow in its proper channel. Yu was made Emperor of China for his contribution,
but managing the river's silt would continue to be an ongoing challenge.

Over the years, the Chinese have tried to control the Yellow River by building
higher levees, digging channels and building dams. Dams have tended to be the most
helpful in controlling floods, but the river's thick silt has clogged many of them. Currently,
the Chinese are constructing a massive new dam called the Xiaolangdi Multipurpose Dam
Project. Boasting 10 intake towers, nine flood and sediment tunnels, six power tunnels and
an underground powerhouse, the structure may finally mitigate "China's Sorrow."

Questions:

1. Why the Yellow River is called ‘China’s Sorrow’?

2. What steps are being taken to reduce the history of flooding in China?

46
Satish Modh
 Managing Natural Disasters

CASE 3
History of floods in Netherlands
Netherlands is one country in the world which has faced a series of flood disasters.
When a storm develops and the wind stirs up the waves, the Dutch coastal area can
become flooded. This case study presents the history of floods in Netherlands.

For the past 2000 years, the inhabitants of the Netherlands have often had to cope
with flood disasters. The name 'Netherlands' gives a clue to the problem: 'Nether' means
'low'. It literally means 'The Low Countries'. When a storm develops and the wind stirs up
the waves, the Dutch coastal area can become flooded. The last time this happened on a
large scale was just over fifty years ago. Almost 2000 people died following the flood
disaster of 1953.

The first floods

On 26 December 838, a large area of the northwest of the Netherlands was hit by a
storm tide. The major factor contributing to the severity of this disaster was the lack of
effective dikes. There is very little information available about this disaster because only
two reports are known to exist. The first report comes from Bishop Prudentius of Troyes.
In his annals, which cover the years from 835 to 861, he wrote that the whole of ‘Frisia’
was flooded by the sea. People, animals and houses were devoured by the water. The water
rose as high as the dunes. According to the counts there were 2,437 victims. With Frisia,
Prudentius was not only referring to the present-day area of Friesland, but the entire Dutch
coastal area. The second source comes from the so-called ‘Annales Xantenses’. On the
same day, the 26th of December, these annals refer to a heavy tornado, which made the
water surge over the coasts, resulting in floods that destroyed a large number of
settlements.

The next known disaster occurred on the 28th of September 1014. For the first time
ever, the partially closed coastal line of the Low Lands was breached. One of the sources
mentioned that “Walcheren” suffered a particularly large amount of damage. It took years
before people managed to get their lives back on track. The chronicle of the Quedlinburg
abbey in Saxony reports that thousands of people met their deaths.

47
Satish Modh
 Managing Natural Disasters

St. Elizabeth floods

St. Elizabeth flood 1 (1404)

On the 19th of November 1404, large areas of Flanders, Zeeland, and Holland, were
flooded. The storm tide responsible became known as the First Saint Elizabeth’s flood. The
damage was catastrophic. The area of Zeeland-Flanders had already been flooded 20 years
earlier, in 1375. Through this, the Zuudzee was created. Around the Zuudzee, polders were
diked, and within these polders, new parishes arose. Unfortunately, in 1404, everything
was destroyed again. This time, a complete spit that was home to a number of small towns
such as Ijzendijke and Hugevliet, which were spared in 1375, was engulfed during the
flood.

St. Elizabeth flood 2 (1421)

In 1421, the notorious Saint Elizabeth’s flood caused death and destruction in
Zeeland and Holland for a second time. It is thought that the flood was caused by an
extremely heavy north-western storm, followed by an extremely high storm tide. A spring
tide was not responsible, as in 1953, but instead, wet weather led to the increase in river
water levels. Gaps in the coastal line of the ‘Grote Waard’ (the southern side of the present-
day province of South-Holland), resulting from previous floods, increased the severity of
the flood. As a result, the flood reached a large sea arm between South-Holland and
Zeeland, destroying the Grote Waard. The Grote Waard would never return to its original
shape and form again. At the lowest point in-land where the flood waters reached, which
was passed the city of Dordrecht, the water still remains today. At this point, the
“Biesbosch” was born. It was not developed over a period of one day as the Myth tells us,
but actually over a number of decades. Luckily, the impact of the floods in Zeeland was, on
the whole, not too bad. The western section of Zeeland-Flanders was barely affected this
time, but North-Beveland on the other hand was ravaged. The island was hit so severely
that Jan van Beieren decided to cut taxes, so that people were more able to afford vital
repairs. South-Beveland was also heavily affected. The parishes of Beoosten and Yerseke
were at risk of being flooded again, in the event of another storm tide. In the years
following the Elizabeth’s flood, the parishes of Schouwen and Duiveland were unable to
pay their contributions to the bishop of Utrecht, because they too had to carry out costly
repairs. On November the 19th, 1421, a total of thirty villages and 2,000 lives were lost in
the floods.

Saint Felix Flood

On November 5th 1530, Saint-Felix Day, Zeeland was hit by a storm flood which
was later named the Saint-Felix flood. Once again large parts of Zeeland were washed
away by the water. The area east of Yerseke, at that time known as Oost-Watering, was
completely swept away. Eighteen villages and the city of Reimerswaal were situated in the
area. The Saint-Felix flood led to the final downfall of the city of Reimerswaal. Because
the city was situated higher than the rest of the area, it was left isolated as a small island.
The land around it couldn’t be protected despite numerous attempts to dam up the area.
48
Satish Modh
 Managing Natural Disasters

The area that was flooded is now known as ‘the drowned land of Zuid-Beveland’. Oost-
Watering, Noord-Beveland, and Schouwen-Duiveland were hit very hard by the Saint-
Felix flood. Noord-Beveland was completely inundated, leaving only the tower of
Kortgene visible. Fortunately the island was able to be saved, but it turned into a salt marsh
area. Noord-Beveland was slowly regained in the years after 1530: almost seventy years
after the flood hit, the first polder was again dammed.

The former area of Oost-Watering, inundated by the Saint-Felix flood, now

provides ideal subsoil for the shellfish culture in Zeeland. Mussels are able to easily loosen
the sand and silt on top of the hard layer of peat from which the soil is made. These
freshwater beds provide an excellent area to move mussels to.

All Saints’ Flood (1570)

The worst disaster in pre-modern times, the All Saints’ Flood, occurred in 1570.
That year, on the 1st of November, the water rose even higher than it did in 1953. Unlike
previously, this was the first time that there was any pre-warning. On the morning of the
floods the ‘Domeinraad’ (Domain council) in Bergen op Zoom released a warning (in old-
fashioned Dutch) for an ‘extremely high flood’. Ironically, the warning had no effect. It
would be the worst flood disaster in the history of the Netherlands.

Numerous dikes on the Dutch coast collapsed and the water continued to wreak
complete havoc. The entire coast was flooded between Flanders and Groningen, and up to
the northwest of Germany. Antwerp (the land of Saefthinge, where four villages were
buried in a thick layer of silt), Friesland (where more than 3,000 people died) and Zeeland,
were hit particularly heavily. It was a disaster felt by the entire nation. In a letter to King
Phillip II, the Duke of Alfa wrote that no less than five sixths of Holland was under water.
The exact number of casualties is not known, but there is no doubt that the number exceeds
2,000. Tens of thousands of people were made homeless. Livestock and winter supplies
were destroyed.

Christmas Flood (1717)

During the night of Christmas, 1717, the coastal areas of the Netherlands, Germany,
and Scandinavia were hit by a severe north-western storm. It is estimated that 14,000
people died. It was the worst flood for four centuries and the last large flood to hit the north
of the Netherlands.

In the countryside to the north of the Netherlands, the water level rose up to a few
metres, and in the city of Groningen, up to a few feet. In the province of Groningen,
villages that were situated directly behind the dikes were near enough completely swept
away. Action had to be taken against looters, who robbed houses and farms under the
pretence of rescuing the flood victims. In total, the flood caused 2,276 casualties in
Groningen. 1,455 houses were either destroyed or suffered extensive damage. Much
livestock was lost.

49
Satish Modh
 Managing Natural Disasters

The water also poured into Amsterdam and Haarlem, as well as in the areas around
Dokkum and Stavoren. Over 150 people died in Friesland alone. Large sections of
Northern-Holland were left under water, as well as the area around Zwolle and Kampen. In
these areas the flood only caused material damage. In Vlieland however, the sea poured
over the dunes, almost entirely sweeping away the already-damaged village of West-
Vlieland.

Zuyderzee Flood (1916)

The Zuyderzee Flood of 1916 was not as severe as any of the other disasters
described on this site. This however, does not mean it was unimportant. It had a large
influence on the decision to build the Zuyderzeeworks. That is, the reclamation of the
Zuyderzee.

The storm had been brewing for the few days leading up to January the 14th, 1916.
Finally, on that day, the winds increased to over 100 km/h. usually, this would not have
been a problem. Unfortunately though, this time, the water levels were already very high
due to the continuing storm. Some areas were already slightly flooded. Dikes eroded on
two sides. The “Waterland’s Seadike’, which was on the westside of what was then the
island of Marken, was swept away for over a distance of 1.5 kilometres. The dike near
Edam also collapsed, resulting in the surrounding areas, including Purmerend and Broek in
Waterland and Durgerdam being flooded. Dikes also collapsed near the Anna Paulowna
polder.

The lower part of the ‘Gelderse Vallei’ (Valley of Gelder) was also hit, particularly
the area between Eemnes, Spakenburg, and Bunschoten. Amersfoort was also flooded. The
disaster caused mostly material damage, but sixteen people were killed on the island of
Marken. Marken was only protected by low quays, so the water was able to engulf the
island with ease. Various fishing boats were washed inland and many people were just
unable to escape. The water also caused problems outside North-Holland. Further dikes
collapsed in Friesland, leading to the area near the Tjeukermeer and the area around
Wolvega being flooded.

The significance of this disaster was not only due to the number of victims and the
level of material damage, but also because it instigated a discussion about the reclamation
of the Zuyderzee. Mansholt, a farmer from Groningen, thought that damming the
Zuyderzee was both unnecessary and dangerous, and would likely lead to new disasters.

The plan to dam the Zuyderzee came from Ir. C. Lely, who had previously been the
Minister of Public Works. Following the advise of Lely, Queen Wilhelmina announced in
the Queen’s Speech of 1913, that the time had come to begin the reclamation of the
Zuyderzee. The First World War however put a sudden stop to this, but on June the 13th,
1918, the Dutch Parliament passed a bill to finally start with the reclamation of the
Zuyderzee.

50
Satish Modh
 Managing Natural Disasters

The Flood of 1953

In 1953, the Dutch were once again confronted with the power of the sea. The
colossal disaster happened on February the 1st. It was to be one of the biggest floods in the
history of the Netherlands. What caused this flood? What were the consequences?

Studies conducted in 1937 by Rijkswaterstaat (Department of Public Works),

showed that safety in many parts of the Netherlands could not be guaranteed at times of
storms and high sea levels. In the densely populated areas near the river mouths of the
Rhine, the Meuse, and the Schelde, it proved very difficult to build new dikes or strengthen
the original ones. The first solution was to close all the river mouths: the Western Schelde,
the Eastern Schelde, the Haringvliet, and the Brouwershavense Gat. This proposal was
christened 'the Deltaplan'. In 1950, the first river mouths of the Brieles' Gat and the Botlek
were closed. The Brielse Maas became a freshwater basin. This not only made the area
safer, but it also provided Voorne with a freshwater supply. The plan was to build the
remaining dams in the following decades. Unfortunately though, the infamous flood of
1953 prevented this from happening. Nearly two thousand people died and more than
150,000 hectares of land were flooded. People soon became aware that something had to
be done, and very, very quickly.

Questions:

1. Discuss the various types of flooding in Netherlands?

2. Discuss the measures being taken by the inhabitants of the Netherlands to cope
with flood disasters.

51
Satish Modh

View publication stats