DIGITAL MODULATIONS (Chapter 8)

Why digital modulation?

q

If our goal was to design a digital baseband communication system, we have done that Problem is baseband communication wont takes us far, literally and figuratively Digital modulation to a square pulse is what analog modulation was to messages

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A block diagram

Messsage source

Source coder

1011 Line coder

Pulse shaping

modulator

channel

decision

detector

demodulator

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GEOMETRIC REPRESENTATION OF SIGNALS

The idea
q

We are used to seeing signals expressed either in time or frequency domain There is another representation space that portrays signals in more intuitive format In this section we develop the idea of signals as multidimensional vectors

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Have we seen this before?

q

Why yes! Remember the beloved ej2fct which can be written as ej2fct=cos(2fct)+jsin(2fct)
quadrature

inphase

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Expressing signals as a weighted sum

q

Suppose a signal set consists of M signals si(t),I=1,,M. Each signal can be represented by a linear sum of basis functions

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Conditions on basis functions

q

For the expansion to hold, basis functions must be orthonormal to each other Mathematically: Geometrically:

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Components of the signal vector

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Each signal needs N numbers to be represented by a vector. These N numbers are given by projecting each signal onto the individual basis functions:
si

sij means projection of si (t)on j(t)

sij

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Signal space dimension

q

How many basis functions does it take to express a signal? It depends on the dimensionality of the signal Some need just 1 some need an infinite number. The number of dimensions is N and is always less than the number of signals in the set N<=M

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Example: Fourier series

q

Remember Fouirer series? A signal was expanded as a linear sum of sines and cosines of different frequencies. Sounds familiar? Sines and cosines are the basis functions and are in fact orthogonal to each other

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Example: four signal set

q

A communication system sends one of 4 possible signals. Expand each signal in terms of two given basis functions
1 2 1

-0.5 1 1

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Components of s1(t)
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This is a 2-Dsignal space. Therefore, each signal can be represented by a pair of numbers. Lets find them For s1(t) s (t)
1

1 t -0.5 1
1

s=(1,-0.5)
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t 13

Interpretation
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s1(t) is now condensed into just two numbers. We can reconstruct s1(t) like this s1(t)=(1) 1(t)+(-0.5) 2(t) Another way of looking at it is this 2
1 -0.5

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Signal constellation
q

Finding individual components of each signal along the two dimensions gets us the constellation 2 s4
s2

-0.5 -0.5

0.5 s1

s3

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Learning from the constellation

q

So many signal properties can be inferred by simple visual inspection or simple math Orthogonality:
s1 and s4 or orthogonal. To show that, simply find their inner product, < s1, s4>

< s1, s4>=s11xs41+s12xs42(1)(0.5)+(1)(-0.5)=0

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Finding the energy from the constellation

q

This is a simple matter. Remember,

Replace the signal by its expansion

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Exploiting the orthogonality of basis functions

q

Expanding the summation, all cross product terms integrate to zero. What remains are N terms where j=k

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Energy in simple language

q

What we just saw says that the energy of a signal is simply the square of the length of its corresponding constellation vector
2

E=9+4=13
3

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Constrained energy signals

q

Lets say you are under peak energy Ep constraint in your application. Just make sure all your signals are inside a circle of radius sqrt(Ep )

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Correlation of two signals

q

A very desirable situation in is to have signals that are mutually orthogonal. How do we test this? Find the angle between them
transpose s1 s2

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Find the angle between s1 and s2

q

Given that s1=(1,2)T and s2=(2,1)T, what is the angle between the two?

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Distance between two signals

q

The closer signals are together the more chances of detection error. Here is how we can find their separation
2

1 1 2

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Constellation building using correlator banks

q

We can decompose the signal into its components as follows

s1
1

s2 s(t)
2

N components

sN
N

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Detection in the constellation space

q

Received signal is put through the filter bank below and mapped to a point
s1
1

s2 s(t)
2

components mapped to a single point sN

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Constellation recovery in noise

q

Assume signal is contaminated with noise. All N components will also be affected. The original position of si(t) will be disturbed

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Actual example
q

Here is a 16-level constellation which is reconstructed in the presence of noise

Eb/No=5 dB
2

1.5

0.5

-0.5

-1

-1.5

-2 -2 -1.5 -1 -0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2

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Detection in signal space

q

One of the M allowable signals is transmitted, processed through the bank of correlators and mapped onto constellation question is based on what we see , what was the transmitted signal?
received signal which of the four did it come from

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Minimum distance decision rule

q

It can be shown that the optimum decision, in the sense of lowest BER, is to pick the signal that is closest to the received vector. This is called maximum likelihood decision making
this is the most likely transmitted signal

received

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Defining decision regions

q

An easy detection method, is to compute decision regions offline. Here are a few examples
decide s2 decide s1 measurement s2 s1 s3 decide s3 s4 decide s4 30 s2 decide s1 s1 decide s1

s1

decide s2

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More formally...
q

Partition the decision space into M decision regions Zi, i=1,,M. Let X be the measurement vector extracted from the received signal. Then if XZi si was transmitted

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How does detection error occur?

q

Detection error occurs when X lands in Zi but it wasnt si that was transmitted. Noise, among others, may be the culprit
X si
departure from transmitted position due to noise

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Error probability
q

we can write an expression for error like this P{error|si}=P{X does not lie in Zi|si was transmitted} Generally

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Example: BPSK (binary phase shift keying)

q

BPSK is a well known digital modulation obtained by carrier modulating a polar NRZ signal. The rule is 1: s1=Acos(2fct) 0:s2= - Acos(2fct)

1s and 0s are identified by 180 degree phase reversal at bit transitions

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Signal space for BPSK

q

Look at s1 and s2. What is the basis function for them? Both signals can be uniquely written as a scalar multiple of a cosine. So a single cosine is the sole basis function. We have a 1-D constellation

cos(2pifct) -A A

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Bringing in Eb
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We want each bit to have an energy Eb. Bits in BPSK are RF pulses of amplitude A and duration Tb. Their energy is A2Tb/2 . Therefore Eb= A2Tb/2 --->A=sqrt(2Eb/Tb) We can write the two bits as follows

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BPSK basis function

q

As a 1-D signal, there is one basis function. We also know that basis functions must have unit energy. Using a normalization factor

E =1

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Formulating BER
q

BPSK constellation looks like this

received X|1=[Eb+n,n] if noise is negative enough, it will push X to the left of the boundary, deciding 0 instead

-Eb

noise

noise

Eb
transmitted

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Finding BER
q

Lets rewrite BER

But n is gaussian with mean 0 and variance No/2

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BER for BPSK

q

Using the trick to find the area under a gaussian density(after normalization with respect to variance) BER=Q[(2Eb/No)0.5] or BER=0.5erfc[(Eb/No)0.5]

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BPSK Example
q

Data is transmitted at Rb=106 b/s. Noise PSD is 10-6 and pulses are rectangular with amplitude 0.2 volt. What is the BER? First we need energy per bit, Eb. 1s and 0s are sent by

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Solving for Eb
q

Since bit rate is 106, bit length must be 1/Rb=10-6 Therefore, Eb=20x10-6=20 w-sec Remember, this is the received energy. What was transmitted are probably several orders of magnitude bigger

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Solving for BER

q

Noise PSD is No/2 =10-6. We know for BPSK BER=0.5erfc[(Eb/No)0.5] What we have is then

Finish this using erf tables

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Binary FSK (Frequency Shift Keying)

q

Another method to transmit 1s and 0s is to use two distinct tones, f1 and f2 of the form below

But what is the requirements on the tones? Can they be any tones?

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Picking the right tones

q q

It is desirable to keep the tones orthogonal Since tones are sinusoids, it is sufficient for the tones to be separated by an integer multiple of inverse duration, i.e.

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Example tones
q

Lets say we are sending data at the rate of 1 Mb/sec in BFSK, What are some typical tones? Bit length is 10-6 sec. Therefore, possible tones are (use nc=0) f1=1/Tb=1 MHz f2=2/Tb=2MHz

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BFSK dimensionality
q

What does the constellation of BFSK look like? We first have to find its dimension s1 and s2 can be represented by two orthonormal basis functions:

Notice f1 and f2 are selected to make them orthogonal

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BFKS constellation
q

There are two dimensions. Find the components of signals along each dimension using

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Decision regions in BFSK

q

45 d

eg

re el in e

Decisions are made based on distances. Signals closer to s1 will be classified as s1 and vice versa

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Detection error in BFSK

q q

Let the received signal land where shown. Assume s1 is sent. How would a detection error occur?
s2

x2>x1 puts X in the

Pe1=P{x2>x1|s1 was sent}

x2 s1 x1

X=received

s2 partition

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Where do (x1,x2) come from?

q

Use the correlator bank to extract signal components

x1(gaussian) x= s1(t)+noise
1

x2(gaussian)

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Finding BER
q

We have to answer this question: what is the probability of one random variable exceeding another random variable? To cast P(x2>x1) into like of P(x>2), rewrite P(x2>x1|x1) x1 is now treated as constant. Then, integrate out x1 to eliminate it

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BER for BFSK

q

Skipping the details of derivation, we get

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BPSK and BFSK comparison: energy efficiency

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Lets compare their BERs

What does it take to have the same BER? Eb in BFSK must be twice as big as BPSK Conclusion: energy per bit must be twice as large in BFSK to achieve the same BER

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Comparison in the constellation space

q

Distances determine BERs. Lets compare

Both have the same Eb, but BPSKs are farther apart, hence lower BER

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Differential PSK
q

q q

Concept of differential encoding is very powerful Take the the bit sequence 11001001 Differentially encoding of this stream means that we start we a reference bit and then record changes

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Differential encoding example

q

Data to be encoded 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 Set the reference bit to 1, then use the following rule
Generate a 1 if no change Generate a 0 if change

1 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 1

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Detection logic
q

Detecting a differentially encoded signal is based on the comparison of two adjacent bits If two coded bits are the same, that means data bit must have been a 1, otherwise 0 ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 1

unknown transmitted bits Encoded received bits

58

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DPSK: generation
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Once data is differentially encoded, carrier modulation can be carried out by a straight BPSK encoding
Digit 1:phase 0 Digit 0:phase 180

1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Differentially encoded data Phase encoded(BPSK)

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DPSK detection
q

Data is detected by a phase comparison of two adjacent pulses

No phase change: data bit is 1 Phase change: data bit is 0

0 0 0 0
Detected data 1 0 0 1 0

0 0 0
0 1 1

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Bit errors in DPSK

q q

Bit errors happen in an interesting way Since detection is done by comparing adjacent bits, errors have the potential of propagating Allow a single detection error in DPSK 0 0 0 0 0 0
Incoming phases

Detected bits Transmitted bits

1 1

0 0

1 0

0 1

0 0

0 0

1 1

1 1
61

2 errors

Back on track:no errors

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Conclusion
q

In DPSK, if the phase of the RF pulse is detected in error, error propagates However, error propagation stops quickly. Only two bit errors are misdetected. The rest are correctly recovered

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Why DPSK?
q

Detecting regular BPSK needs a coherent detector, requiring a phase reference DPSK needs no such thing. The only reference is the previous bit which is readily available

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M-ary signaling
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Binary communications sends one of only 2 levels; 0 or 1 There is another way: combine several bits into symbols 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 Combining two bits at a time gives rise to 4 symbols; a 4-ary signaling

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8-level PAM
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Here is an example of 8-level signaling

binary 0 1 7 5 3 2 1 -1 -3 -5 -7
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1 0 0 0

0 0 0 0

1 1

1 0 1 0

0 1 1

A few definitions
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We used to work with bit length Tb. Now we have a new parameter which we call symbol length,T
1 Tb 0 1

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Bit length-symbol length relationship

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When we combine n bits into one symbol; the following relationships hold T=nTb- symbol length n=logM bits/symbol T=TbxlogM- symbol length

All logarithms are base 2

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Example
q

If 8 bits are combined into one symbol, the resulting symbol is 8 times wider Using n=8, we have M=28=256 symbols to pick from Symbol length T=nTb=8Tb

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Defining baud
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When we combine n bits into one symbol, numerical data rate goes down by a factor of n We define baud as the number of symbols/sec Symbol rate is a fraction of bit rate R=symbol rate=Rb/n=Rb/logM For 8-level signaling, baud rate is 1/3 of bit rate
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Why M-ary?
q

Remember Nyquist bandwidth? It takes a minimum of R/2 Hz to transmit R pulses/sec. If we can reduce the pulse rate, required bandwidth goes down too M-ary does just that. It takes Rb bits/sec and turns it into Rb/logM pulses sec.

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Issues in transmitting 9600 bits/sec

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Want to transmit 9600 bits/sec. Options:

Nyquists minimum bandwidth:9600/2=4800 Hz Full roll off raised cosine:9600 Hz

None of them fit inside the 4 KHz wide phone lines Go to a 16 - level signaling, M=16. Pulse rate is reduced to R=Rb/logM=9600/4=2400 Hz

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Using 16-level signaling

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Go to a 16-level signaling, M=16. Pulse rate is then cut down to R=Rb/logM=9600/4=2400 pulses/sec To accommodate 2400 pulses /sec, we have several options. Using sinc we need only 1200 Hz. Full roll-off needs 2400Hz Both fit within the 4 KHz phone line bandwidth

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Bandwidth efficiency
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Bandwidth efficiency is defined as the number of bits that can be transmitted within 1 Hz of bandwidth =Rb/BT bits/sec/Hz In binary communication using sincs, BT=Rb/2--> =2 bits/sec/Hz

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M-ary bandwidth efficiency

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In M-ary signaling , pulse rate is given by R=Rb/logM. Full roll-off raised cosine bandwidth is BT=R= Rb/logM. Bandwidth efficiency is then given by =Rb/BT=logM bits/sec/Hz For M=2, binary we have 1 bit/sec/Hz. For M=16, we have 4 bits/sec/Hz

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M-ary bandwidth
q

Summarizing, M-ary and binary bandwidth are related by BM-ary=Bbinary/logM

Clearly , M-ary bandwidth is reduced by a factor of logM compared to the binary bandwidth

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8-ary bandwidth
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Let the bit rate be 9600 bits/sec. Binary bandwidth is nominally equal to the bit rate, 9600 Hz We then go to 8-level modulation (3 bits/symbol) M-ary bandwidth is given by BM-ary=Bbinary/logM=9600/log8=3200 Hz

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Bandwidth efficiency numbers

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Here are some numbers n(bits/symbol) M(levels) 1 2 2 4 3 8 4 16 8 256

(bits/sec/Hz) 1 2 3 4 8

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Symbol energy vs. bit energy

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Each symbol is made up of n bits. It is not therefore surprising for a symbol to have n times the energy of a bit E(symbol)=nEb Eb
E

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QPSK quadrature phase shift keying

q q

This is a 4 level modulation. Every two bits is combined and mapped to one of 4 phases of an RF signal These phases are 45o,135o,225o,315o
Symbol energy

Symbol width
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QPSK constellation

01

00 45o E 10

11

Basis functions

S=[0.7 E,- 0.7 E]

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QPSK decision regions

01

00

11

10

Decision regions re color-coded

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QPSK error rate

q

Symbol error rate for QPSK is given by

This brings up the distinction between symbol error and bit error. They are not the same!

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Symbol error
q

Symbol error occurs when received vector is assigned to the wrong partition in the constellation
s2 s1 11 00

When s1 is mistaken for s2, 00 is mistaken for 11

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Symbol error vs. bit error

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When a symbol error occurs, we might suffer more than one bit error such as mistaking 00 for 11. It is however unlikely to have more than one bit error when a symbol error occurs
00 00 10 11 10 10 11 11 10 symbols = 20 bits
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10 10

Sym.error=1/10 Bit error=1/20

Interpreting symbol error

q

Numerically, symbol error is larger than bit error but in fact they are describing the same situation; 1 error in 20 bits In general, if Pe is symbol error

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Symbol error and bit error for QPSK

q

We saw that symbol error for QPSK was

Assuming no more than 1 bit error for each symbol error, BER is half of symbol error

Remember symbol energy E=2Eb

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QPSK vs. BPSK

Lets compare the two based on BER and bandwidth BER Bandwidth BPSK QPSK BPSK QPSK
q

Rb

Rb/2

EQUAL

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M-phase PSK (MPSK)

q

If you combine 3 bits into one symbol, we have to realize 23=8 states. We can accomplish this with a single RF pulse taking 8 different phases 45o apart

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8-PSK constellation
q

Distribute 8 phasors uniformly around a circle of radius E

45o

Decision region
89

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Symbol error for MPSK

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We can have M phases around the circle separated by 2/M radians. It can be shown that symbol error probability is approximately given by

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Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM)

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MPSK was a phase modulation scheme. All amplitudes are the same QAM is described by a constellation consisting of combination of phase and amplitudes The rule governing bits-to-symbols are the same, i.e. n bits are mapped to M=2n symbols

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16-QAM constellation using Gray coding

16-QAM has the following constellation q Note gray coding 0000 0001 0011 where adjacent symbols differ by only 1 bit 1000 1001 1011
q

0010

1010

1100

1101

1111

1110

0100

0101

0111

0110

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Vector representation of 16-QAM

q

There are 16 vectors, each defined by a pair of coordinates. The following 4x4 matrix describes the 16-QAM constellation

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What is energy per symbol in QAM?

q

We had no trouble defining energy per symbol E for MPSK. For QAM, there is no single symbol energy. There are many We therefore need to define average symbol energy Eavg

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Eavg for 16-QAM

q

Using the [ai,bi] matrix and using E=ai^2+bi^2 we get one energy per signal

Eavg=10
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Symbol error for M-ary QAM

q

With the definition of energy in mind, symbol error is approximated by

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Familiar constellations
q

Here are a few golden oldies

V.22 600 baud 1200 bps

V.22 bis 600 baud 2400 bps

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V.32 bis 2400 baud 9600 bps

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M-ary FSK
q

Using M tones, instead of M phases/amplitudes is a fundamentally different way of M-ary modulation The idea is to use M RF pulses. The frequencies chosen must be orthogonal

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MFSK constellation: 3-dimensions

q

MFSK is different from MPSK in that each signal sits on an orthogonal axis(basis)

s3 E

s1=[E ,0, 0] s2=[0,E, 0] s3=[0,0,E]

E 1

E s2
2

s1

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Orthogonal signals: How many dimensions, how many signals?

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We just saw that in a 3 dimensional space, we can have no more than 3 orthogonal signals Equivalently, 3 orthogonal signals dont need more than 3 dimensions because each can sit on one dimension Therefore, number of dimensions is always less than or equal to number of signals

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How to pick the tones?

q

Orthogonal FSK requires tones that are orthogonal. Two carrier frequencies separated by integer multiples of period are orthogonal

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Example
q

Take two tones one at f1 the other at f2. T must cover one or more periods for the integral to be zero

Take f1=1000 and T=1/1000. Then if f2=2000 , the two are orthogonal so will f2=3000,4000 etc
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MFSK symbol error

q

Here is the error expression with the usual notations

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Spectrum of M-ary signals

q

So far Eb/No, i.e. power, has been our main concern. The flip side of the coin is bandwidth. Frequently the two move in opposite directions Lets first look at binary modulation bandwidth

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BPSK bandwidth
q

Remember BPSK was obtained from a polar signal by carrier modulation We know the bandwidth of polar NRZ using square pulses was BT=Rb. It doesnt take much to realize that carrier modulation doubles this bandwidth

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Illustrating BPSK bandwidth

The expression for baseband BPSK (polar) bandwidth is SB(f)=2Ebsinc2(Tbf)
q

2/Tb=2Rb

BPSK

1/Tb

BT=2Rb

fc-/Tb

fc

fc+/Tb

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BFSK as a sum of two RF streams

q

BFSK can be thought of superposition of two unipolar signals, one at f1 and the other at f2
1
1

BFSK for 1 0 0 1 0 1 1

0.5

0.8

0.6

-0.5
0.4

0.2

-1

1000

2000

3000

4000

5000

6000

7000

8000

-0.2

-0.4

0.5

-0.6

0
-0.8

-1

1000

2000

3000

4000

5000

6000

7000

8000

-0.5

-1

1000

2000

3000

4000

5000

6000

7000

8000

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Modeling of BFSK bandwidth

q

Each stream is just a carrier modulated unipolar signal. Each has a sinc spectrum

1/Tb=Rb BT=2 f+2Rb f= (f2-f1)/2

f1

fc fc=(f1+f2)/2

f2

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Example: 1200 bps bandwidth

q

The old 1200 bps standard used BFSK modulation using 1200 Hz for mark and 2200 Hz for space. What is the bandwidth? Use BT=2f+2Rb f=(f2-f1)/2=(2200-1200)/2=500 Hz BT=2x500+2x1200=3400 Hz

This is more than BPSK of 2Rb=2400 Hz

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Sundes FSK
q

We might have to pick tones f1 and f2 that are not orthogonal. In such a case there will be a finite correlation between the tones

Good points,zero correlation

2(f2-f1)Tb
110

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Picking the 2nd zero crossing: Sundes FSK

q

If we pick the second zc term (the first term puts the tones too close) we get 2(f2-f1)Tb=2--> f=1/2Tb=Rb/2 Sundes FSK bandwidth is then given by BT=2f+2Rb=Rb+2Rb=3Rb The practical bandwidth is a lot smaller

remember f is (f2-f1)/2
q

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Sundes FSK bandwidth

q

Due to sidelobe cancellation, practical bandwidth is just BT=2f=Rb

1/Tb=Rb BT=2 f+2Rb f= (f2-f1)/2

f1

fc fc=(f1+f2)/2

f2

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BFSK example
q

A BFSK system operates at the 3rd zero crossing of -Tb plane. If the bit rate is 1 Mbps, what is the frequency separation of the tones? The 3rd zc is for 2(f2-f1)Tb=3. Recalling that f=(f2-f1)/2 then f =0.75/Tb Then f =0.75/Tb=0.75x106=750 KHz And BT=2(f +Rb)=2(0.75+1)106=3.5 MHz

q q

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Point to remember
q

FSK is not a particularly bandwidth-friendly modulation. In this example, to transmit 1 Mbps, we needed 3.5 MHz. Of course, it is working at the 3rd zero crossing that is responsible Original Sundes FSK requires BT=Rb=1 MHz

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Bandwidth of MPSK modulation

MPSK bandwidth review

q

In MPSK we used pulses that are log2M times wider tan binary hence bandwidth goes down by the same factor. T=symbol width=Tblog2M For example, in a 16-phase modulation, M=16, T=4Tb. Bqpsk=Bbpsk/log2M= Bbpsk/4

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MPSK bandwidth
q

MPSK spectrum is given by SB(f)=(2Eblog2M)sinc2(Tbflog2M)

Set to 1 for zero crossing BW Tbflog2M=1 -->f=1/ Tbflog2M =Rb/log2M 1/logM f/Rb
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BT= Rb/log2M Notice normalized frequency

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Bandwidth after carrier modulation

q

What we just saw is MPSK bandwidth in baseband A true MPSK is carrier modulated. This will only double the bandwidth. Therefore, Bmpsk=2Rb/log2M

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QPSK bandwidth
q

QPSK is a special case of MPSK with M=4 phases. Its baseband spectrum is given by SB(f)=2Esinc2(2Tbf)

B=0.5Rb--> half of BPSK 0.5 1 f/Rb

After modulation: Bqpsk=Rb

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Some numbers
q q

q q q

Take a 9600 bits/sec data stream Using BPSK: B=2Rb=19,200 Hz (too much for 4KHz analog phone lines) QPSK: B=19200/log24=9600Hz, still high Use 8PSK:B= 19200/log28=6400Hz Use 16PSK:B=19200/ log216=4800 Hz. This may barely fit

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MPSK vs.BPSK
q

Lets say we fix BER at some level. How do bandwidth and power levels compare?
Bm-ary/Bbinary (Avg.power)M/(Avg.power)bin 0.5 0.34 dB 1/3 3.91 dB 1/4 8.52 dB 1/5 13.52 dB Lesson: By going to multiphase modulation, we save bandwidth but have to pay in increased power, But why?

M 4 8 16 32
q

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Power-bandwidth tradeoff
q

The goal is to keep BER fixed as we increase M. Consider an 8PSK set.

What happens if you go to 16PSK? Signals get closer hence higher BER Solution: go to a larger circle-->higher energy
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Additional comparisons
q

Take a 28.8 Kb/sec data rate and lets compare the required bandwidths
BPSK: BT=2(Rb)=57.6 KHz BFSK: BT = Rb =28.8 KHz ...Sundes FSK QPSK: BT=half of BPSK=28.8 KHz 16-PSK: BT=quarter of BPSK=14.4 KHz 64-PSK: BT=1/6 of BPSK=9.6 KHz

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Power-limited systems
q

Modulations that are power-limited achieve their goals with minimum expenditure of power at the expense of bandwidth. Examples are MFSK and other orthogonal signaling

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Bandwidth-limited systems
q

Modulations that achieve error rates at a minimum expenditure of bandwidth but possibly at the expense of too high a power are bandwidth-limited Examples are variations of MPSK and many QAM Check BER rate curves for BFSK and BPSK/QAM cases

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Bandwidth efficiency index

q

A while back we defined the following ratio as a bandwidth efficiency measure in bits/sec/HZ =Rb/BT bits/sec/Hz Every digital modulation has its own

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 for MPSK
q q

At a bit rate of Rb, BPSK bandwidth is 2Rb When we go to MPSK, bandwidth goes down by a factor of log2M BT=2Rb/ log2M Then =Rb/BT= log2M/2 bits/sec/Hz

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Some numbers
Lets evaluate vs. M for MPSK M 2 4 8 16 32 64 .5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 q Notice that bits/sec/Hz goes up by a factor of 6 from M=2 and M=64 q The price we pay is that if power level is fixed (constellation radius fixed) BER will go up. We need more power to keep BER the same
q
128

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Defining MFSK:
q

In MFSK we transmit one of M frequencies for every symbol duration T These frequencies must be orthogonal. One way to do that is to space them 1/2T apart. They could also be spaced 1/T apart. Following The textbook we choose the former (this corresponds to using the first zero crossing of correlation curve)

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MFSK bandwidth
q

Symbol duration in MFSK is M times longer than binary T=Tblog2M symbol length Each pair of tones are separated by 1/2T. If there are M of them, BT=M/2T=M/2Tblog2M -->BT=MRb/2log2M

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Contrast with MPSK

q

Variation of bandwidth with M differs drastically compared to MPSK MPSK MFSK BT=2Rb/log2M BT=MRb/2log2M As M goes up, MFSK eats up more bandwidth but MPSK save bandwidth

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MFSK bandwidth efficiency

q

Lets compute s for MFSK =Rb/M=2log2M/M bits/sec/HzMFSK 2 4 8 16 32 64 1 1 .75 .5 .3 .18 Notice bandwidth efficiency drop. We are sending fewer and fewer bits per 1 Hz of bandwidth

M
q

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COMPARISON OF DIGITAL MODULATIONS*

*B. Sklar, Defining, Designing and Evaluating Digital Communication Systems, IEEE Communication Magazine, vol. 31, no.11, November 1993, pp. 92-101

Notations
q

Bandwidth efficiency measure

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Bandwidth-limited Systems
q

There are situations where bandwidth is at a premium, therefore, we need modulations with large R/W. Hence we need standards with large timebandwidth product The GSM standard uses Gaussian minimum shift keying(GMSK) with WTb=0.3

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Case of MPSK
q

In MPSK, symbols are m times as wide as binary. Nyquist bandwidth is W=Rs/2=1/2Ts. However, the bandpass bandwidth is twice that, W=1/Ts Then

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Cost of Bandwidth Efficiency

q

As M increases, modulation becomes more bandwidth efficient. Lets fix BER. To maintain this BER while increasing M requires an increase in Eb/No.

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Power-Limited Systems
q

There are cases that bandwidth is available but power is limited In these cases as M goes up, the bandwidth increases but required power levels to meet a specified BER remains stable

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Case of MFSK
q q

MFSK is an orthogonal modulation scheme. Nyquist bandwidth is M-times the binary case because of using M orthogonal frequencies, W=M/Ts=MRs Then

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Select an Appropriate Modulation

q

q q q

We have a channel of 4KHz with an available S/No=53 dB-Hz Required data rate R=9600 bits/sec. Required BER=10-5. Choose a modulation scheme to meet these requirements

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Minimum Number of Phases

q

To conserve power, we should pick the minimum number of phases that still meets the 4KHz bandwidth A 9600 bits/sec if encoded as 8-PSK results in 3200 symbols/sec needing 3200Hz So, M=8

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What is the required Eb/No?

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Is BER met? Yes

q

The symbol error probability in 8-PSK is

Solve for Es/No Solve for PE

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Power-limited uncoded system

q q q q

Same bit rate and BER Available bandwidth W=45 KHz Available S/No=48-dBHz Choose a modulation scheme that yields the required performance

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Binary vs. M-ary Model

R bits/s

M-ary Modulator

M-ary demodulator

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Choice of Modulation
q

With R=9600 bits/sec and W=45 KHz, the channel is not bandwidth limited Lets find the available Eb/No

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Choose MFSK
q

We have a lot of bandwidth but little power ->orthogonal modulation(MFSK) The larger the M, the more power efficiency but more bandwidth is needed Pick the largest M without going beyond the 45 KHz bandwidth.

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MFSK Parameters
q

From Table 1, M=16 for an MFSK modulation requires a bandwidth of 38.4 KHz for 9600 bits/sec data rate We also wanted to have a BER<10^-5. Question is if this is met for a 16FSK modulation.

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16-FSK
q

Again from Table 1, to achieve BER of 10^5 we need Eb/No of 8.1dB. We solved for the available Eb/No and that came to 8.2dB

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Symbol error for MFSK

q

For noncoherent orthogonal MFSK, symbol error probability is

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BER for MFSK

q q

We found out that Eb/No=8.2dB or 6.61 Relating Es/No and Eb/No

BER and symbol error are related by

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Example
q

Lets look at the 16FSK case. With 16 levels, we are talking about m=4 bits per symbol. Therefore,

With Es/No=26.44, symbol error prob. PE=1.4x10^-5-->PB=7.3x10^-6

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Summary
q

Given:
R=9600 bits/s BER=10^-5 Channel bandwith=45 KHz Eb/No=8.2dB

Solution
16-FSK required bw=38.4khz required Eb/No=8.1dB

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