Communication in Schools
W. K. Hoy 2003, 2008, 2011
Four Caveats for Educational Administrators
Communication is difficult to isolate from other
administrative processes.
Not all school problems involve
miscommunication.
Communication reveals, hides, and eliminates
problems.
Communication is a process that evokes action
but is far from the substance of good
administration.
W. K. Hoy 2003, 2008, 2011
Key Terms
Communication sharing ideas or attitudes in ways that produce a degree of
understanding between two or more people.
Message the verbal or non-verbal cues or symbols that each communicator conveys.
Channel the vehicle, medium, or form in which a message travels.
Sender the person or generalized source sending a message
Receiver the destination of the message or the individual or deciphers it.
Transmission the actual sending and receiving of messages through designated
channels or media.
Encoding using cognitive structures and processes to convert the intended message
into symbolic form by the sender.
Decoding using cognitive structures and processes to retranslate the message by the
receiver.
Feedback the message sent in response to the initial message; information that
enables corrections (Ch. 1).
Communication effects the outcomes of the message exchange process.
W. K. Hoy 2003, 2008, 2011
General Model of Communication
Sender Receiver
(source, Message (reader,
Encoding Decoding
speaker, In Channel listener,
communicator) communicator)
Feedback
W. K. Hoy 2003, 2008, 2011
One-way communication
Unilateral - initiated by the sender and terminated by the receiver
Common examples in schools
Classroom lecture
Exhortation by the principal
PA announcements
Administrative directive
Advantages
Emphasizes the skills of the sender and encourages
administrators and teachers to think through, accurately
articulate, and provide clarity to their ideas
Imply strong linkages between communication behavior and
action
W. K. Hoy 2003, 2008, 2011
Two-way communication
Reciprocal all participants in the process initiate and receive messages
Common forms in schools
Conversation
Inquiry
Debate
Instruction (Socratic Method)
W. K. Hoy 2003, 2008, 2011
Individual Communication Competence
Sending Skills
Use appropriate direct language
Avoid jargon and complex concepts
Information must be clear and complete
Build on or reorganize receivers cognitive schema
Minimize noise from the physical or psychological
environment
Use multiple and appropriate channels of media
Use face-to-face communication and redundancy when
communicating complex messages
W. K. Hoy 2003, 2008, 2011
1. Be confident: Avoid hesitant and uncertain speech; it
communicates doubt.
2. Be direct: Get to the point without excuses.
3. Speak quickly: A rapid pace of speech is functional.
4. Pronounce your consonants: Pronunciation is important in
conveying status, respect, and confidence.
5. Use sophisticated speech: Refined vocabulary communicates
status.
6. Use Standard English: Slang and street language undermine
respect, status, as well as the message.
7. Speak up: Talking is an expectation of authority figures; in fact, it
is a necessary condition for status.
8. Dominate: Be aggressive in your speech; your goal should be to
communicate.
W. K. Hoy 2003, 2008, 2011
Individual Communication Competence
Receiving Skills (Listening Skills)
Attending
Eye contact, receptive body language, focus
Questioning
Encouraging
Verbal and non-verbal cues
Paraphrasing
Reflecting feeling
Summarizing
W. K. Hoy 2003, 2008, 2011
Individual Communication Competence
Feedback Skills- Sending and receiving skills that convey knowledge of
results or effects of previous communications and behaviors.
Can be verbal or non-verbal
Asking questioning, describing behavior, paraphrasing
Information should be helpful to the recipient
Specific rather than general
Recent rather than old
Directed toward behavior the person could change
Timely, the more immediate the better
W. K. Hoy 2003, 2008, 2011
Channels of Communication
Verbal symbols
Human speech direct, face to face conversation or electronic exchanges via
telephone, radio, television, video conferencing
Written media memos, letters, faxes, electronic mail and bulletin boards,
instant messaging, newspapers.
Non-verbal symbols
Body language or gestures facial expressions, posture, hand and arm
movements
Physical items or artifacts with symbolic value office furnishings, clothing,
and jewelry
Space Territoriality and personal space
Touching and hugging
Time
Intonation, accents, pitch, intensity, rate of speech
W. K. Hoy 2003, 2008, 2011
Sources in Communication Processes: Senders and
Receivers
Credibility
Believability, identity and reputation of the sender
Senders expertness and trustworthiness
Trust and confidence the receiver has in the words and actions of the
sender
Cognitive Capacities
Psychological characteristics limit individual communication
Communication skills
Knowledge of subject
Personality
Motivation factors (attitudes, values, interests, expectations)
W. K. Hoy 2003, 2008, 2011
Communicating in Context
Noise - Contextual, physical, cultural, environmental distractions that
interfere with the communication process
Examples in schools
Closed organizational climates
Punishment-centered bureaucratic structures
Cultural or gender differences
Authoritarian leadership
Teacher militancy
Demographic prejudice
Outdated or obscure technology
W. K. Hoy 2003, 2008, 2011
Information Does the language or symbols convey the information?
Can it be understood by both sender and receiver?
What is the content and effect of the communication?
Communicators Who is speaking to whom?
What roles do they occupy?
Media What methods/media are being used?
Context What is the context in which the communication is taking
place?
What factors are creating noise that might block or distort
the message?
W. K. Hoy 2003, 2008, 2011
Organizational Perspectives of Communication
Communication networks - methods , vehicles, or forms a message
travels in organizations.
Formal Channels
Methods sanctioned by the organization
Related to organizational goals
Informal Channels
Grapevines
Directionally vertical or horizontal
One or Two-way
W. K. Hoy 2003, 2008, 2011
Types of roles in communication networks
Person 1 Person 2
Person A
Person 4 Person 3
Person A in Star Role
W. K. Hoy 2003, 2008, 2011
Types of roles in communication networks
Person 1 Person 2
Isolate
Person B
Person 4 Person 3
Person A in Isolate Role
W. K. Hoy 2003, 2008, 2011
Types of roles in communication networks
Person 1 Group I Person 2 Group II
Person A
Person 4 Person 3
Person A in Bridge Role
W. K. Hoy 2003, 2008, 2011
Types of roles in communication networks
Person A
Group I Group II
Person A in Liaison Role
W. K. Hoy 2003, 2008, 2011
Formal communication networks
Channels of communication must be known
Channels must link every member of the organization
Lines of communication must be a direct and short as possible
The complete network of communication is typically used
Every communication is authenticated as being from the correct person
occupying the position and within his or her authority to issue the message
W. K. Hoy 2003, 2008, 2011
Three characteristics of schools critical to formal
communication networks
Centralization
The degree to which authority is not delegated but concentrated in a single
source in an organization
Shape
The number of hierarchical levels or tallness v. flatness of the
organization
Technology
As communication technology becomes more sophisticated, its use will
dramatically alter communication in both formal and informal networks
W. K. Hoy 2003, 2008, 2011
Informal communication networks
Advantages of the grapevine
Active informal networks are indicative of a schools culture
and provide vital feedback to leaders
Informal channels may satisfy social or affiliation needs not
met by formal channels
Grapevines fill an information void and provide outlets when
formal information channels are clogged
Informal networks provide meaning for activities within the
school
W. K. Hoy 2003, 2008, 2011
Directional chain of command
Five types of communication from superior to subordinate
(Downward)
Instructions about specific tasks
Rationale about why the task needs to be done and how it relates to
other tasks
Information about organizational procedures and practices
Feedback about the performance levels of individuals
Information regarding the organizations goals
W. K. Hoy 2003, 2008, 2011
Directional chain of command
Four types of communication from lower to upper levels
of hierarchy (Upward)
Routine operational messages
Reports on problems
Suggestions for improvement
Information on how subordinates feel about each other and
the job
W. K. Hoy 2003, 2008, 2011
Use multiple communication strategies to enhance understanding:
Not everyone learns the same way.
Ensure that verbal and nonverbal communications are consistent:
Limit communication confusion.
Develop ways to verify understandings of communications:
Communicating is not the same as understanding.
Use the grapevine to assess potential reactions to communications:
Informal communication is usually more authentic than formal
communication.
Encourage questions and restatements of messages to reduce
ambiguity: Clarity comes from persistence and redundancy.
Check for understanding: Use feedback techniques to ensure that
all parties have the same understanding.
W. K. Hoy 2003, 2008, 2011
Follow oral communications with written summaries of
understanding: Clarity and redundancy avoid misunderstandings.
Complement the formal communication network with the
informal: Informal networks are more authentic.
Use richer media (e.g. one-to-one interactions) as content becomes
more complex and ambiguous: Complexity requires clarity.
Clarify your communication so as to reduce noise (e. g. extraneous
information): Clarity is crucial to understanding.
Enhance you repertoire of communication skills and strategies:
Different people and situations require a variety of
communication strategies.
W. K. Hoy 2003, 2008, 2011
