CELLULAR REPRODUCTION
AND GENETICS
THE CHROMOSOME
Is a thread-like structure found in the nucleus of a cell
Chromosome and the genes on them are composed of DNA
It exist in pair and are identicalhomologous
A pair of chromosomes has genes arranged in the same
way. As a result the genes also exist in pairs
Human has two sets of chromosomes in the body(one set
from the father and another set from the mother)
THE CHROMOSOME
Chromosome numbers of selected organisms
Organism Chromosome number
Saccharomyces cerevisiae 32
(common yeast)
Caenorhabdites elegans 12
(roundworm)
Drosophila melanogaster 8
(fruit fly)
Canis lupus familiaris 52
(dog)
Homo sapiens 46
(man)
Arabidopsis thaliana 10
(mouse ear cress)
Oryza sativa 24
(rice)
Zea mays 20
(corn)
Deoxyribonucleic acids (DNA)
Is a double helix, made up of a series of genes to encode
genetic information
This determine the individual characteristics of an
organism
All the information in DNA is transmitted in the form of a
genetic code
Should any information not be followed, the baby will be
born with physical or mental defects
DNA molecule is very complicated and resembles a twisted
ladder or staircase
What is genes?
Genes are sections of DNA that code for the production of
protein and are arranged along the chromosomes
Carry the inherited characteristics of a person
Genes occurs in pairs, therefore each inherited characteristics is
carried by two genes
One gene from each pair comes from the father and the mother
Example of inherited characteristics carried by genes are:
- Colour of the eyes
- Pattern of finger prints
- Type of hair
- Blood group
- Intelligence
The Chromosome
All living things contain what we call the genetic material that
serves as the set of instructions that direct the activities and
functions of the cells. These genetic materials, also known as
the deoxyribonucleic acid or DNA, are passed on from one
generation to the next to ensure the continuity of life. In
eukaryotic cells (cells with organelles), the DNA are bound with
proteins and are organized as beads on strings to form
chromosomes
The Cell Cycle
The chromosomes of a cell change form as the cell
transitions from one stage to another in a typical cell
cycle. The cell cycle may be divided into two stages:
the interphase where the chromosomes are long and
extended and are also referred to as chromatin, and
the cell division phase where the chromosomes
become condensed or thickened.
INTERPHASE
G1 (First Gap Period)
-the cell grows initially
-protein and ribonucleic acid (RNA) synthesis
S (Synthesis Stage)
-period of DNA synthesis or replication
G2 (Second Gap Period)
- period of rapid cell growth to prepare for cell
division
CELL DIVISION
MITOSIS
-somatic or body cells
MEIOSIS
-germ or sex cells or gametes
MITOSIS
PROPHASE
METAPHASE
ANAPHASE
TELOPHASE
PROPHASE
The nuclear membrane and nucleoli may still be present. The
chromosomes are thicker and shorter because of repeated coiling. At
this stage, each chromosome is made up of two identical sister
chromatids as a consequence of replication of DNA during the S
phase. The two chromatids produced from one chromosome are still
attached at one point, called the centromere. The centromere may
divide the chromosome into the shorter arms, also called the p arms
(‘p’ stands for petite in French) and the longer q arms. If the
chromosomes are stained using Giemsa, alternating dark and light
regions will appear. These are the heterochromatin and euchromatin,
respectively. The heterochromatin are more coiled and dense than
the euchromatin (Figure 3).
Chromosomes thicken and shorten, and become clearly visible
Each chromosome duplicates itself and forms two chromatids
attached at the centromere
The nuclear membrane dissapears
METAPHASE
The nuclear membrane has disappeared while the highly coiled
chromosomes align at the metaphase plate, an imaginary plane
equidistant between the cell’s two poles. Spindle fibers are also
formed. Each fiber binds to a protein called the kinetochore at
the centromere of each sister chromatid of the chromosome.
A fibrous spindle is formed between the chromosomes
Each chromosome is attached to a spindle by its centromere
The chromosome arrange themselves at the equator of the spindle
ANAPHASE
The paired centromeres of each chromosome separate towards
the opposite poles of the cells as they are pulled by the spindle
fibers through their kinetochores. This liberates the sister
chromatids. Each chromatid is now regarded as a full-fledged
chromosome and is only made up of one sister chromatid.
The centromere of each chromosome splits into two
The chromatids separate and move to opposite poles.
TELOPHASE
The chromosomes are now at the opposite poles of the spindle.
They start to uncoil and become indistinct under the light
microscope. A new nuclear membrane forms around them while
the spindle fibers disappear. There is also cytokinesis or the
division of the cytoplasm to form two separate daughter cells
immediately after mitosis.
A nuclear membrane is formed around the chromosomes at each pole
The cell begins to divide and form two daughter cells
Each daughter cell has the same number of chromosomes as the parent
cell
In a plant cell, the cytoplasm does not constrict. Instead a new cell wall
is developed across the cytoplasm
Importance of mitosis
Important for the following reasons:
(a) Growth
(b) Replacing old or damaged cells
Enables organisms to reproduce themselves (Ex: by asexual
reproduction; binary fission in amoeba)
Ensures that the new cells produced have the same number of
chromosomes as the parent cells
MEIOSIS
The number of chromosomes normally remains the same within
the species. It does not double or triple for every generation.
This suggests that a different kind of cell division must take
place in an individual. This kind of cell division is called meiosis,
from a Greek word which means “to make smaller.” Meiosis
reduces the chromosome number in half. It takes place in plants
and animals whenever gametes, or sex cells, are formed
through the process called gametogenesis.
MEIOSIS
Meiosis is a special type of cell division where the cell
undergoes two rounds of cell division to produce four daughter
cells, each with half the chromosome number as the original
parent cell and with a unique set of genetic material as a result
of exchange of chromosome segments during the process of
crossing over.
The first round of meiotic division, also known as meiosis I,
consists of four stages: prophase I, metaphase I, anaphase I,
and telophase I. Prophase I of meiosis I, unlike its counterpart in
mitosis, is more elaborate and should be understood well in
order to grasp the mechanisms of heredity.
MEIOSIS
Meiosis is the process by which a nucleus divides by two divisions
into four nuclei, each containing half the number of chromosome of
the mother cell
Resulting nuclei are haploid (n)
The cells produced are genetically different to the parent cell and to
each other
Occurs in 2 stages that is meiosis 1 and meiosis 2
Produces genetic variation (caused by crossing over between
homologous chromosome)
In animals, meiosis occurs in testes and ovaries, whereas in plants, it
occurs in the anthers and ovaries
Importance of meiosis
1. Production of gamete – the only process that produces gametes
2. Reduction in chromosome number – ensures that each gamete has
only half the number of chromosomes of the parent cell
3. Maintenance of chromosome number in somatic cells – the somatic
cells have their number of chromosomes maintained
4. Production of variation – causes genetic variation in the
descendants(can produce individuals who do not resemble their
parents closely
* Variation occurs in TWO ways:
1. Different combination of chromosomes
2. Crossing over
