System Analysis and Development and models
Module 4
What is Software?
Instructions (computer programs) that when executed provide desired function and performance Data structures enable the programs to adequately manipulate information Documents that describe the operation and use of the program
Software engineering : A Practitioner's Approach
A definition of the software development:
The application of a systemic, disciplined, quantifiable approach to development, operation, and maintenance of software.
EEE Standard Computer Dictionary, 610, ISBN 1-55937-079-3 Software Engineering: A Practitioner's Approach
Whos Who
CUSTOMER
Sponsors system development
$$$, needs USER Uses system Contractual obligation Needs Software system
DEVELOPER
Builds system
Two Main Approaches
Both traditional and object-oriented approaches to system development use the system development life cycle (SDLC) as a project management and a process management framework. The predictive approach to the SDLC is used for projects that are well understood and low risk. The adaptive approach to the SDLC is used for projects that are not well understood and are higher risk. Adaptive SDLCs are more iterative and allow the project team to adapt the project to changing circumstances. Sometimes very important in today's rapidly changing environments.
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The System Development Life Cycle
What is an information system (IS)?
Hardware, software, data, people, and procedures that work together to produce quality information
SystemSet of components that interact to achieve common goal
Businesses use many types of systems
The System Development Life Cycle
What are the phases of the system development cycle?
Phase 2. Analysis
Phase 1. Planning
Review project requests Prioritize project requests Allocate resources Identify project development team
Conduct preliminary investigation Perform detailed analysis activities: Study current system Determine user requirements Recommend solution
Phase 3. Design
Acquire hardware and software, if necessary Develop details of system
Phase 5. Support
Phase 4. Implementation
Conduct post-implementation system review Identify errors and enhancements Monitor system performance
Develop programs, if necessary Install and test new system Train users Convert to new system
The System Development Life Cycle
What are guidelines for system development?
Arrange tasks into phases Involve users (anyone for whom system is being built)
Develop clearly defined standards (procedures company expects employees to follow)
The System Development Life Cycle
Who participates in the system development life cycle?
The System Development Life Cycle
What is the role of a systems analyst?
Responsible for designing and developing information system Liaison between users and IT professionals
The System Development Life Cycle
What is the project team?
Formed to work on project from beginning to end
Consists of users, systems analyst, and other IT professionals
Project leaderone member of the team who manages and controls project budget and schedule
The System Development Life Cycle
What is feasibility?
Operational feasibility
Measure of how suitable system development will be to the company
Four feasibility tests:
Schedule feasibility Economic feasibility (also called cost/benefit feasibility)
Technical feasibility
The System Development Life Cycle
What is documentation?
Collection and summarization of data and information
Includes reports, diagrams, programs, and other deliverables
The System Development Life Cycle
What are six data and information gathering techniques? Review documentation Observe Questionnaire Interview Joint-application design (JAD) session Research
The System Development Life Cycle
What are some reasons to create or modify an information system?
To correct problem in existing system
To improve existing system
Outside group may mandate change
Competition can lead to change
The System Development Life Cycle
What is a request for system services?
Formal request for new or modified information system
Also called project request
The System Development Life Cycle
What is the planning phase?
Begins when steering committee receives project request
Steering committee decision-making body for the company
Function of committee:
Review and approve project requests
Form project development team for each approved project
Prioritize project requests
Allocate resources
The System Development Life Cycle
What is the analysis phase?
Conduct preliminary investigation, also called feasibility study Perform detailed analysis
The System Development Life Cycle
What is the preliminary investigation?
Determine exact nature of problem or improvement and whether it is worth pursuing
Findings are presented in feasibility report, also known as a feasibility study
The System Development Life Cycle
What is detailed analysis?
1. Study how current system works 2. Determine users wants, needs, and requirements
3. Recommend solution
Sometimes called logical design
The System Development Life Cycle
What is the system proposal?
Assesses feasibility of each alternative solution Recommends the most feasible solution for the project Presented to steering committee, which decides how system will be developed
The System Development Life Cycle
What are possible solutions?
Buy packaged softwareprewritten software available for purchase
Horizontal market softwaremeets needs of many companies
Write own custom softwaresoftware developed at users request
Vertical market softwaredesigned for particular industry
Outsourcehave outside source develop software
The System Development Life Cycle
What is the design phase?
Acquire hardware and software
Develop all details of new or modified information system
The System Development Life Cycle
What is needed to acquire new hardware and software?
Identify all hardware and software requirements of new or modified system
Talk with other systems analysts
Surf Web
Visit vendors stores
Read print and online trade journals, newspapers, and magazines
The System Development Life Cycle
What are three basic documents used to summarize technical specifications?
Identifies product(s) you want
Request for quotation (RFQ)
Vendor quotes price(s) for listed product(s)
Vendor selects product(s) that meet(s) your requirements and then quotes price(s)
Request for proposal (RFP)
Request for information (RFI)
Less formal method that uses standard form to request information about product or service
The System Development Life Cycle
How do systems analysts test software products?
References from vendor Talk to current users of product Product demonstrations Trial version of software Benchmark test measures performance
The System Development Life Cycle
What is a detailed design?
Detailed design specifications for components in proposed solution
Includes several activities
Database design Input and output design Program design
The System Development Life Cycle
What is a mockup?
Sample of input or output that contains actual data
The System Development Life Cycle
What is a prototype?
Working model of proposed system Beginning a prototype too early may lead to problems
The System Development Life Cycle
What is computer-aided software engineering (CASE)?
Software tools designed to support activities of system development cycle
The System Development Life Cycle
What is the implementation phase?
Purpose is to construct, or build, new or modified system and then deliver it to users
Convert to new system Train users
Install and test new system
Develop programs
The System Development Life Cycle
What are the three types of tests performed by system developers?
Unit Test
Verifies each individual program works by itself
Systems test
Verifies all programs in application work together
Integration Test
Verifies application works with other applications
The System Development Life Cycle
What is training?
Showing users exactly how they will use new hardware and software in system
The System Development Life Cycle
What is the support phase?
Provides ongoing assistance after system is implemented
Conduct post-implementation system reviewmeeting to find out if information system is performing according to expectations
Identify errors
Identify enhancements
Monitor system performance
SYSTEM DEVELOPMENT MODELS
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Two Approaches to System Development
1. Traditional Approach
Structured system development
Structured analysis Structured design Structured programming
Known as Structured Analysis and Design Technique (SADT)
2. Object-Oriented Approach
Structured Programming
Improves computer program quality Allows other programmers to easily read and modify the code Each program module has one beginning and one ending Three programming constructs
Three Structured Programming Constructs
Satzinger et al (2006) Fig 2-12
Top-Down Programming
Divides complex programs into hierarchy of modules Module at top controls execution by calling lower level modules Modular programming
Similar to top-down programming One program calls others to work as single system
Top-Down or Modular Programming
Satzinger et al (2006) Fig 2-13
Structured Design
Developed to provide guidelines
What the set of programs should be What each program should accomplish How programs should be organized into a hierarchy Structure Chart
Main principles of program modules
Loosely coupled Highly cohesive
Structure Chart
Satzinger et al (2006) Fig 2-14
Structured Analysis
Helps developer define what the system needs to do (processing requirements)
Data to store and use Inputs and outputs How functions work together
DFDs and ERDs commonly show results of structured analysis
Structured Analysis Leads to Structured Design and Structured Programming
Satzinger et al (2006) Fig 2-17
Automated Tools and Technology
Computer-aided systems engineering (CASE) Application Development Environments (ADE) or Integrated Development Environments (IDE) Process and project managers
ADE Tools
Application development environments (ADEs) are:
integrated software development tools provide all the facilities necessary to develop new application software maximise speed and quality
A common synonym is integrated development environment (IDE)
Project Managers
A project manager is an automated tool to:
help plan system development activities (preferably using the approved methodology) estimate and assign resources (including people and costs) schedule activities and resources monitor progress against schedule and budget control modify schedule and resources report project progress
Computer-Aided System Engineering (CASE)
Automated tools to improve the speed and quality of system development work Support the drawing of models Provide for the translation of system models into application programs Database of information about system called repository Upper CASE, Lower CASE, ICASE
CASE repository
is a system developers or project database it is a place where developers can store system models, detailed descriptions and specifications, and other products of system development synonyms include dictionary and encyclopedia
Forward and Reverse Engineering
Forward engineering requires the systems analyst to draw system models, either from scratch or from templates. The resulting models are subsequently transformed into program code Reverse engineering allows a CASE tool to read existing program code and transform that code into a representative system model that can be edited and refined by the systems analyst
CASE Tool
Repository contains all system Information
Satzinger et al (2006) Fig 2-22
System Process Modeling
Process Analysis
Three main analysis techniques to be reviewed here are:
Data
Flow Diagrams (DFDs)
Dictionary Definitions Specifications
Data
Process
Introduction to Data Flow Diagrams
Basic Constructs:
Processes
Data
flows
Files
External
Entities: sources or sinks
The Interrelation Between Specification Components
Example of a Data Flow Diagram(1)
Example of a Data Flow Diagram(2)
Introduction to Data Flow Diagrams (cont.)
Constructing Data Flow Diagrams
Identify
the Static Components the Main Processes and Refine the Diagram the Diagram
Identify
Expand
Review
Context Diagram Decomposition Level: 0
Diagram 0 Decomposition Level: 1
Diagram 1 Decomposition Level: 2
Diagram 2 Decomposition Level: 2
Data Dictionaries (DD)
Purpose:
to
keep data about:
Data
Flow and Data Item Specifications File Specifications Process Specifications
Data Specification Language:
Notational
Conventions: = , + , [ ] , { } , ( ) e.g. amount due = [dollar amount, sterling amount]
Process Specifications
Process Specifications
Processing and control information omitted from a DFD belongs in a process specification Each functional primitive has one process specification
Process Specifications can be represented in a variety of languages, the most popular are:
Structured English Decision Tables and Decision Trees
Decision Tables
A tabular of conditions and actions and an indication under which conditions, which actions must be performed Consists of four quadrants Condition Stub
a list of all possible conditions that can arise within the process
Rules
contains selectors which identify different combinations of the possible conditions
Action Stub
a list of all possible actions that occur within the process
Action Entries
indicators which select the actions to be performed
Decision Tables: 3 variants
Limited Entry Decision Table
Mixed Entry Decision Table Extended Entry Decision Table
Limited Entry Decision Table
Contains only the binary selectors Y & N and the catch all selector in the rules quadrant. In the action entries, it contains only the action selector symbol X. 1 2 3 4
Credit Satisfactory Prompt Payer Special Clearance Accept Order Return Order
Y X
N Y X
N N Y X
N N N
Mixed Entry Decision Table
Contains only the binary selectors Y & N and the catch all selector in the rules quadrant. In the action entries quadrant, indicators other than X appear. 1 2 3
Salaried Employee Hours Worked > 40
N Y
N N
Y -
Pay
Overtime Regular Regular rate rate rate
Extended Entry Decision Table
Selectors in the rules quadrant are no longer simply binary (y or N) but may take on specific values or ranges of values. 1 2 3 4
Approved Credit Quantity Ordered Discount (%) Release Order Reject Order
N -
Y 0-24 0 X
Y 25-55 5 X
Y 56-99 10 X
Advantages of Decision Tables
Easily understood Alternatives are shown side by side
Cause & effect relationship is shown, thus permitting easier user validation Possible to check that all combinations of conditions have been considered
SDLC Model
A framework that describes the activities performed at each stage of a software development project.
Waterfall Model
Requirements defines needed information, function, behavior, performance and interfaces. Design data structures, software architecture, interface representations, algorithmic details. Implementation source code, database, user documentation, testing.
Waterfall Strengths
Easy to understand, easy to use Provides structure to inexperienced staff Milestones are well understood Sets requirements stability Good for management control (plan, staff, track) Works well when quality is more important than cost or schedule
Waterfall Deficiencies
All requirements must be known upfront Deliverables created for each phase are considered frozen inhibits flexibility Can give a false impression of progress Does not reflect problem-solving nature of software development iterations of phases Integration is one big bang at the end Little opportunity for customer to preview the system (until it may be too late)
When to use the Waterfall Model
Requirements are very well known Product definition is stable Technology is understood New version of an existing product Porting an existing product to a new platform.
Structured Evolutionary Prototyping Model
Developers build a prototype during the requirements phase Prototype is evaluated by end users Users give corrective feedback Developers further refine the prototype When the user is satisfied, the prototype code is brought up to the standards needed for a final product.
Structured Evolutionary Prototyping Steps
A preliminary project plan is developed An partial high-level paper model is created The model is source for a partial requirements specification A prototype is built with basic and critical attributes The designer builds
the database user interface algorithmic functions
The designer demonstrates the prototype, the user evaluates for problems and suggests improvements. This loop continues until the user is satisfied
Structured Evolutionary Prototyping Strengths
Customers can see the system requirements as they are being gathered Developers learn from customers A more accurate end product Unexpected requirements accommodated Allows for flexible design and development Steady, visible signs of progress produced Interaction with the prototype stimulates awareness of additional needed functionality
Structured Evolutionary Prototyping Weaknesses
Tendency to abandon structured program development for code-and-fix development Bad reputation for quick-and-dirty methods Overall maintainability may be overlooked The customer may want the prototype delivered. Process may continue forever (scope creep)
When to use Structured Evolutionary Prototyping
Requirements are unstable or have to be clarified As the requirements clarification stage of a waterfall model Develop user interfaces Short-lived demonstrations New, original development With the analysis and design portions of objectoriented development.
Rapid Application Model (RAD)
Requirements planning phase (a workshop utilizing structured discussion of business problems) User description phase automated tools capture information from users Construction phase productivity tools, such as code generators, screen generators, etc. inside a time-box. (Do until done) Cutover phase -- installation of the system, user acceptance testing and user training
RAD Strengths
Reduced cycle time and improved productivity with fewer people means lower costs Time-box approach mitigates cost and schedule risk Customer involved throughout the complete cycle minimizes risk of not achieving customer satisfaction and business needs Focus moves from documentation to code (WYSIWYG). Uses modeling concepts to capture information about business, data, and processes.
RAD Weaknesses
Accelerated development process must give quick responses to the user Risk of never achieving closure Hard to use with legacy systems Requires a system that can be modularized Developers and customers must be committed to rapid-fire activities in an abbreviated time frame.
When to use RAD
Reasonably well-known requirements User involved throughout the life cycle Project can be time-boxed Functionality delivered in increments High performance not required Low technical risks System can be modularized
Spiral SDLC Model
Adds risk analysis, and 4gl RAD prototyping to the waterfall model Each cycle involves the same sequence of steps as the waterfall process model
Spiral Quadrant Determine objectives, alternatives and constraints
Objectives: functionality, performance, hardware/software interface, critical success factors, etc. Alternatives: build, reuse, buy, sub-contract, etc. Constraints: cost, schedule, interface, etc.
Spiral Quadrant Evaluate alternatives, identify and resolve risks
Study alternatives relative to objectives and constraints Identify risks (lack of experience, new technology, tight schedules, poor process, etc. Resolve risks (evaluate if money could be lost by continuing system development
Spiral Quadrant Develop next-level product
Typical activites: Create a design Review design Develop code Inspect code Test product
Spiral Quadrant Plan next phase
Typical activities Develop project plan Develop configuration management plan Develop a test plan Develop an installation plan
Spiral Model Strengths
Provides early indication of insurmountable risks, without much cost Users see the system early because of rapid prototyping tools Critical high-risk functions are developed first The design does not have to be perfect Users can be closely tied to all lifecycle steps Early and frequent feedback from users Cumulative costs assessed frequently
Spiral Model Weaknesses
Time spent for evaluating risks too large for small or lowrisk projects Time spent planning, resetting objectives, doing risk analysis and prototyping may be excessive The model is complex Risk assessment expertise is required Spiral may continue indefinitely Developers must be reassigned during non-development phase activities May be hard to define objective, verifiable milestones that indicate readiness to proceed through the next iteration
When to use Spiral Model
When creation of a prototype is appropriate When costs and risk evaluation is important For medium to high-risk projects Long-term project commitment unwise because of potential changes to economic priorities Users are unsure of their needs Requirements are complex New product line Significant changes are expected (research and exploration)
