Geographic information system

• A geographic information system (GIS) is a conceptualized framework that provides the ability to
capture and analyze spatial and geographic data. GIS applications (or GIS apps) are computer-based
tools that allow the user to create interactive queries (user-created searches), store and edit spatial and
non-spatial data, analyze spatial information output, and visually share the results of these operations
by presenting them as maps.
• Geographic information science, the scientific study of geographic concepts, applications, and
systems is commonly initialized as GIS, as well.
• Geographic information systems are utilized in multiple technologies, processes, techniques and
methods. It is attached to various operations and numerous applications, that relate to: engineering,
planning, management, transport/logistics, insurance, telecommunications, and business. For this
reason, GIS and location intelligence applications are at the foundation of location-enabled services,
that rely on geographic analysis and visualization.
• GIS provides the capability to relate previously unrelated information, through the use of location as
the "key index variable". Locations and extents that are found in the Earth's spacetime, are able to be
recorded through the date and time of occurrence, along with x, y, and z coordinates; representing,
longitude (x), latitude (y), and elevation (z). All Earth-based, spatial–temporal, location and extent
references, should be relatable to one another, and ultimately, to a "real" physical location or extent.
This key characteristic of GIS, has begun to open new avenues of scientific inquiry and studies.
 Components of a GIS

• Hardware
Hardware is the computer on which a GIS operates. Today, GIS software runs on a wide range of hardware types, from
centralized computer servers to desktop computers used in stand-alone or networked configurations.
• Software
GIS software provides the functions and tools needed to store, analyze, and display geographic information. Key
software components are:
 Tools for the input and manipulation of geographic information
 A database management system (DBMS)
 Tools that support geographic query, analysis, and visualization
 A graphical user interface (GUI) for easy access to tools
• Data
Possibly the most important component of a GIS is the data. Geographic data and related tabular data can be collected
in-house or purchased from a commercial data provider. A GIS will integrate spatial data with other data resources and can
even use a DBMS, used by most organizations to organize and maintain their data, to manage spatial data.
• People
GIS technology is of limited value without the people who manage the system and develop plans for applying it to real
world problems. GIS users range from technical specialists who design and maintain the system to those who use it to help
them perform their everyday work.
• Methods
A successful GIS operates according to a well-designed plan and business rules, which are the models and operating
practices unique to each organization.
 How GIS Works
A GIS stores information about the world as a collection of thematic layers that can be linked together by
geography. This simple but extremely powerful and versatile concept has proven invaluable for solving many real-world
problems from tracking delivery vehicles, to recording details of planning applications, to modeling global atmospheric
circulation.
• Geographic References:
Geographic information contains either an explicit geographic reference such as a latitude and longitude or national grid
coordinate, or an implicit reference such as an address, postal code, census tract name, forest stand identifier, or road
name. An automated process called geocoding is used to create explicit geographic references (multiple locations) from
implicit references (descriptions such as addresses). These geographic references allow you to locate features such as a
business or forest stand and events such as an earthquake on the Earth's surface for analysis.
• Vector and Raster Models:
Geographic information systems work with two fundamentally different types of geographic models--the "vector model"
and the "raster model.“ In the vector model, information about points, lines, and polygons is encoded and stored as a
collection of x,y coordinates. The location of a point feature, such as a bore hole, can be described by a single x,y
coordinate. Linear features, such as roads and rivers, can be stored as a collection of point coordinates. Polygonal
features, such as sales territories and river catchments, can be stored as a closed loop of coordinates. The vector model is
extremely useful for describing discrete features, but less useful for describing continuously varying features such as soil
type or accessibility costs for hospitals.
The raster model has evolved to model such continuous features. A raster image comprises a collection of grid cells
rather like a scanned map or picture. Both the vector and raster models for storing geographic data have unique
advantages and disadvantages. Modern GISs are able to handle both models.
 Remote sensing
• Remote sensing is the acquisition of information about an object or phenomenon
without making physical contact with the object and thus is in contrast to on-site
observation. The term is applied especially to acquiring information about the
Earth. Remote sensing is used in numerous fields, including geography, land
surveying and most Earth science disciplines (for example, hydrology, ecology,
meteorology, oceanography, glaciology, geology); it also has military, intelligence,
commercial, economic, planning, and humanitarian applications, among others.
• In current usage, the term "remote sensing" generally refers to the use of satellite or
aircraft-based sensor technologies to detect and classify objects on Earth. It
includes the surface and the atmosphere and oceans, based on propagated signals
(e.g. electromagnetic radiation). It may be split into "active" remote sensing (when
a signal is emitted by a satellite or aircraft to the object and its reflection detected
by the sensor) and "passive" remote sensing (when the reflection of sunlight is
detected by the sensor)
• Passive sensors gather radiation that is emitted or reflected by the object or surrounding areas.
Reflected sunlight is the most common source of radiation measured by passive sensors. Examples
of passive remote sensors include film photography, infrared, charge-coupled devices, and
radiometers. Active collection, on the other hand, emits energy in order to scan objects and areas
whereupon a sensor then detects and measures the radiation that is reflected or backscattered from
the target. RADAR and LIDAR are examples of active remote sensing where the time delay
between emission and return is measured, establishing the location, speed and direction of an
object.
• Remote sensing makes it possible to collect data of dangerous or inaccessible areas. Remote
sensing applications include monitoring deforestation in areas such as the Amazon Basin, glacial
features in Arctic and Antarctic regions, and depth sounding of coastal and ocean depths. Military
collection during the Cold War made use of stand-off collection of data about dangerous border
areas. Remote sensing also replaces costly and slow data collection on the ground, ensuring in the
process that areas or objects are not disturbed.
• Orbital platforms collect and transmit data from different parts of the electromagnetic spectrum,
which in conjunction with larger scale aerial or ground-based sensing and analysis, provides
researchers with enough information to monitor trends. Other uses include different areas of the
earth sciences such as natural resource management, agricultural fields such as land usage and
conservation, oil spill detection and monitoring, and national security and overhead, ground-based
and stand-off collection on border areas.
 Types of remote sensing

1. Active sensor
The sensor embodies within itself the source of illumination like a satellite equipped with a
RADAR sensor. Active sensors throw their own energy to scan the object. RADAR and
LIDAR are examples of active remote sensing which measure the time delay between
emission and return.

2. Passive sensor
The sensors gather radiation that is emitted or reflected by the object or surrounding areas.
Sunlight reflection is the most common source of radiation measured by passive sensors.
Examples of passive remote sensors are photography, infrared, and radiometers. Passive
sensors are more used because it provides great quality satellite imagery. The passive
sensor is superior within the field of technical observation of the planet, such as
Multispectral and Hyperspectral technology.
 Applications of remote sensing
• Resource Exploration: Geologists use remote sensing to study the formation of sedimentary rocks and
identify deposits of various minerals, detect oil fields and identify underground storage of water. Remote
sensing is used for identifying potential fishing zone, coral reef mapping and to find other wealth from
ocean.
• Environmental Study: Remote sensing is used to study cloud motion and predict rains. With satellite data
it is possible to study water discharge from various industries to find out dispersion and harmful effects, if
any, on living animals. Oil spillage and oil slicks can be studied using remote sensing.
• Land Use: By remote sensing, mapping of larger areas is possible in short time. Forest area, agricultural
area, residential and industrial area can be measured regularly and monitored. It is possible to find out
areas of different crops.
• Site Investigation: Remote sensing is used extensively in site investigations for dams, bridges, pipelines.
It can be used to locate construction materials like sand and gravel for the new projects.
• Archaeological Investigation: Many structures of old era are now buried under the ground and are not
known. But by studying changes in moisture content and other characteristics of the buried objects and
upper new layer, remote sensors are able to recognize the buried structures of archaeological importance.
• Natural Hazard Study: Using remote sensing the following natural hazards can be predicted to some
extent and hazards minimized like Earthquake, Volcanoes, Landslides, Floods and Hurricane and
Cyclones
 Environmental Impact Assessment
• Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) is a process of evaluating the likely
environmental impacts of a proposed project or development, taking into account inter-
related socio-economic, cultural and human-health impacts, both beneficial and adverse.
• Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) is a tool used to identify the environmental,
social and economic impacts of a project prior to decision-making. It aims to predict
environmental impacts at an early stage in project planning and design, find ways and
means to reduce adverse impacts, shape projects to suit the local environment and
present the predictions and options to decision-makers.
• It is a tool of environmental management forming a part of project approval and
decision-making. Environmental assessments may be governed by rules of
administrative procedure regarding public participation and documentation of decision
making, and may be subject to judicial review.
• Environment Impact Assessment in India is statutorily backed by the Environment
Protection Act, 1986 which contains various provisions on EIA methodology and
process.
 The Environmental Impact Assessment Process
EIA involves the steps mentioned below. However, the EIA process is cyclical with interaction between the various steps.
• Screening: The project plan is screened for scale of investment, location and type of development and if the project
needs statutory clearance.
• Scoping: The project’s potential impacts, zone of impacts, mitigation possibilities and need for monitoring.
• Collection of baseline data: Baseline data is the environmental status of study area.
• Impact prediction: Positive and negative, reversible and irreversible and temporary and permanent impacts need to be
predicted which presupposes a good understanding of the project by the assessment agency.
• Mitigation measures and EIA report: The EIA report should include the actions and steps for preventing, minimizing
or by passing the impacts or else the level of compensation for probable environmental damage or loss.
• Public hearing: On completion of the EIA report, public and environmental groups living close to project site may be
informed and consulted.
• Decision making: Impact Assessment Authority along with the experts consult the project-in-charge along with
consultant to take the final decision, keeping in mind EIA and EMP (Environment Management Plan).
• Monitoring and implementation of environmental management plan: The various phases of implementation of the
project are monitored.
• Assessment of Alternatives, Delineation of Mitigation Measures and Environmental Impact Assessment Report:
For every project, possible alternatives should be identified, and environmental attributes compared. Alternatives should
cover both project location and process technologies. Once alternatives have been reviewed, a mitigation plan should be
drawn up for the selected option and is supplemented with an Environmental Management Plan (EMP) to guide the
proponent towards environmental improvements.
• Risk assessment: Inventory analysis and hazard probability and index also form part of EIA procedures.
 Salient Features of 2006 Amendments to EIA Notification
• Environment Impact Assessment Notification of 2006 has decentralized the environmental clearance projects by
categorizing the developmental projects in two categories, i.e., Category A (national level appraisal) and Category B
(state level appraisal).
• Category A projects are appraised at national level by Impact Assessment Agency (IAA) and the Expert Appraisal
Committee (EAC) and Category B projects are apprised at state level.
• State Level Environment Impact Assessment Authority (SEIAA) and State Level Expert Appraisal Committee
(SEAC) are constituted to provide clearance to Category B process.
• After 2006 Amendment the EIA cycle comprises of four stages:
o Screening
o Scoping
o Public hearing
o Appraisal
• Category A projects require mandatory environmental clearance and thus they do not undergo the screening process.
• Category B projects undergoes screening process and they are classified into two types.
• Category B1 projects (Mandatorily requires EIA).
• Category B2 projects (Do not require EIA).
• Thus, Category A projects and Category B, projects undergo the complete EIA process whereas Category B2 projects
are excluded from complete EIA process.
 Importance of Environmental Impact Assessment
• EIA links environment with development for environmentally safe and
sustainable development.
• EIA provides a cost effective method to eliminate or minimize the adverse
impact of developmental projects.
• EIA enables the decision makers to analyse the effect of developmental
activities on the environment well before the developmental project is
implemented.
• EIA encourages the adaptation of mitigation strategies in the developmental
plan.
• EIA makes sure that the developmental plan is environmentally sound and
within the limits of the capacity of assimilation and regeneration of the
ecosystem.
 Shortcomings of Environmental Impact Assessment Process
• Applicability: There are several projects with significant environmental impacts that
are exempted from the notification either because they are not listed in schedule, or
their investments are less than what is provided for in the notification.
• Composition of expert committees and standards: It has been found that the team
formed for conducting EIA studies is lacking the expertise in various fields such as
environmentalists, wildlife experts, Anthropologists and Social Scientists.
• Public hearing: Public comments are not considered at an early stage, which often
leads to conflict at a later stage of project clearance. A number of projects with
significant environmental and social impacts have been excluded from the mandatory
public hearing process. The data collectors do not pay respect to the indigenous
knowledge of local people.
• Quality of EIA: One of the biggest concerns with the environmental clearance process
is related to the quality of EIA report that are being carried out.
• Lack of Credibility: There are so many cases of fraudulent EIA studies where
erroneous data has been used, same facts used for two totally different places etc.
 Environmental Management System
An Environmental Management System (EMS) is a framework that helps an organization achieve its
environmental goals through consistent review, evaluation, and improvement of its environmental performance.
The assumption is that this consistent review and evaluation will identify opportunities for improving and
implementing the environmental performance of the organization. The EMS itself does not dictate a level of
environmental performance that must be achieved; each organization's EMS is tailored to the its own individual
objectives and targets.
An EMS helps an organization address its regulatory demands in a systematic and cost-effective manner.
This proactive approach can help reduce the risk of non-compliance and improve health and safety practices for
employees and the public. An EMS can also help address non-regulated issues, such as energy conservation,
and can promote stronger operational control and employee stewardship. Basic Elements of an EMS include the
following:
• Reviewing the organization's environmental goals
• Analyzing its environmental impacts and legal requirements
• Setting environmental objectives and targets to reduce
environmental impacts and comply with legal requirements
• Establishing programs to meet these objectives and targets
• Monitoring and measuring progress in achieving the objectives
• Ensuring employees' environmental awareness and competence.
• Reviewing progress of the EMS and making improvements.
 Benefits of environmental management systems

• Reduced environmental incidents

• Improved reputation
• Provides marketing advantage
• Improved regulatory performance
• Lowers risk of fines for non-compliance with environmental legislation
• Increases workforce motivation
• Increases focus and knowledge within the organisation
• Reduction in waste, utility waste and waste disposal
• Provides an opportunity to attract new customers, investors and shareholders
• Increased profits
 Features of environmental management system
• Serves as a tool, or process, to improve environmental performance and information mainly "design, pollution
control and waste minimization, training, reporting to top management, and the setting of goals"
• Provides a systematic way of managing an organization's environmental affairs
• Is the aspect of the organization's overall management structure that addresses immediate and long-term impacts
of its products, services and processes on the environment. EMS assists with planning, controlling and
monitoring policies in an organization.
• Gives order and consistency for organizations to address environmental concerns through the allocation of
resources, assignment of responsibility and ongoing evaluation of practices, procedures and processes
• Creates environmental buy-in from management and employees and assigns accountability and responsibility.
• Sets framework for training to achieve objectives and desired performance.
• Helps understand legislative requirements to better determine a product or service's impact, significance,
priorities and objectives.
• Focuses on continual improvement of the system and a way to implement policies and objectives to meet a
desired result. This also helps with reviewing and auditing the EMS to find future opportunities.
• Encourages contractors and suppliers to establish their own EMS.
• Facilitates e-reporting to federal, state and provincial government environmental agencies through direct
upload.
 ISO 14001 environmental stewardship
• ISO 14001 is the international standard that specifies requirements for an effective
environmental management system (EMS). It provides a framework that an organization
can follow, rather than establishing environmental performance requirements.

• Part of the ISO 14000 family of standards on environmental management, ISO 14001 is
a voluntary standard that organizations can certify to. Integrating it with other
management systems standards, most commonly ISO 9001, can further assist in
accomplishing organizational goals.

• The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) defines an environmental

management system as “part of the management system used to manage environmental
aspects, fulfill compliance obligations, and address risks and opportunities.” The
framework in the ISO 14001 standard can be used within a plan-do-check-act (PDCA)
approach to continuous improvement.
 ISO 14001:2015
ISO 14001:2015 should be used by any organization that wishes to set up, improve, or maintain an
environmental management system to conform with its established environmental policy and
requirements. The requirements of the standard can be incorporated into any environmental management
system, the extent to which is determined by several factors including the organization’s industry,
environmental policy, products and service offerings, and location.
ISO 14001:2015 is relevant to all organizations, regardless of size, location, sector, or industry.

At the highest level, ISO 14001:2015 covers the following topics with regard to environmental
management systems:

• Context of the organization

• Leadership
• Planning
• Support
• Operation
• Performance evaluation
• Improvement
 The benefits of ISO 14001:2015
• Improve resource efficiency
• Reduce waste
• Drive down costs
• Provide assurance that environmental impact is being measured
• Gain competitive advantage in supply chain design
• Increase new business opportunities
• Meet legal obligations
• Increase stakeholder and customer trust
• Improve overall environmental impact
• Manage environmental obligations with consistency