Introduction to
Microcontrollers
Outline
▶ Definition of Microcontroller
▶ Types of Microcontrollers
▶ Microcontroller Architecture
▶ Core Microcontroller Components
▶ Peripheral Microcontroller Components
▶ Internal and External Operation of
Microcontrollers
▶ Advantages of Microcontrollers
▶ Application Areas of Microcontrollers
▶ A Typical Microcontroller Application
▶ Microcontroller vs. Microprocessor
▶ Choosing a Microcontroller for a Specific
Application
Definition of Microcontroller
▶ A microcontroller is an integrated circuit (IC) that can be programmed to perform
a set of functions to control a collection of electronic devices.
▶ A self-contained system in which a processor, support, memory, and input/output
(I/O) are all contained in a single package.
▶ Being programmable is what makes the microcontroller unique.
Definition of Microcontroller (Continued)
From left to right: PIC 12F508, PIC 16F84A, PIC 16C72, Motorola 68HCO05B16, PIC 16F877,
Motorola 68000.
Types of Microcontrollers
4-bit Microcontrollers
▶ ALU performs arithmetic and logical operations on a nibble (4-bits) at an
instruction.
▶ Internal bus width is 4-bit.
▶ Small size, minimum pin count and low cost controllers.
▶ Low power consumption and used for low end applications like LED & LCD
display
drivers, portable battery chargers etc.
▶ Examples: Renasa M34501 256 and ATAMS862 series from Atmel.
8-bit Microcontrollers
▶ ALU performs arithmetic and logical operations on a byte (8-bits) at an
instruction.
▶ Internal bus width is 8-bit.
▶ Examples: Intel 8051 family and Motorola MC68HCI11 family.
16-bit Microcontrollers
▶ ALU performs arithmetic and logical operations on a word (16-bits) at an
instruction.
▶ Internal bus width of 16-bit microcontroller is 16-bit.
▶ Enhanced performance, computing capability and precision as compared to the 8-
bit microcontrollers.
▶ Examples: Intel 8096 family, Motorola MC68HCI12 and MC68332 families.
32-bit Microcontrollers
▶ ALU performs arithmetic and logical operations on a
double word (32-bits) per instruction.
▶ Internal bus width is 32-bit.
▶ Much more enhanced performance, computing capability with greater precision as
compared to 16-bit microcontrollers.
▶ Examples: Intel 80960 family, Motorola M683xx and Intel/Atmel 251 family.
Embedded Microcontrollers
▶ An embedded system has a microcontroller unit that has all the functional blocks
(including program as well as data memory) available on the same chip.
▶ Example: 8051 having Program & Data Memory, I/O Ports, Serial Communication,
Counters and Timers and Interrupt Control logic on the chip.
An Embedded PIC Microcontroller
External Memory Microcontrollers
▶ An external system has a microcontroller unit that does not have all the functional
blocks available on a chip.
▶ All or part of the memory units are externally interfaced using an interfacing circuit
called the glue circuit.
▶ Example: Intel 8031 has no program memory on the chip.
An External Memory Microcontroller
CISC Microcontrollers
▶ Has an instruction set that supports many addressing modes for the arithmetic
and logical instructions, data transfer and memory accesses instructions.
▶ Many of the instructions are macro like.
▶ Allows the programmer to use one instruction in place of many simpler
instructions.
▶ Example: Intel 8096 family.
RISC Microcontrollers
▶ Contains an instruction set that supports fewer addressing modes for the
arithmetic and logical instructions and for data transfer instructions.
▶ Allows simultaneous access of program and data.
▶ Instruction pipelining increases execution speed.
▶ Allow each instruction to operate on any register or use any addressing
mode.
▶ Smaller chip and pin count.
▶ Very low power consumption.
Von-Neuman Architecture
▶ A single data bus that is used to fetch both instructions and data.
▶ Program instructions and data are stored in a common main memory.
▶ When such a controller addresses main memory, it first fetches an instruction,
and then it fetches the data to support the instruction.
▶ Simplifies the microcontroller design because only one memory is accessed.
▶ The weakness is that two separate fetches can slow up the controller’s
operation.
▶ Example: Motorola 68HC11.
Von-Neuman Architecture Block Diagram
Harvard Architecture
▶ Separate data bus and an instruction bus.
▶ Execution occur in parallel.
▶ Much faster execution than Von-Neuman
architecture.
▶ Design complexity.
▶ Example: Intel MCS-51 family and PIC
microcontrollers.
Harvard Architecture Block Diagram
Microcontroller CPU Architecture
Diagra
Block
m
Generalized Microcontroller
Block
Architecture
Diagram
Core Microcontroller Components
▶ CPU: The Central Processing Unit (CPU) processes the program. It executes the
instructions stored in the program memory pointed to by the program counter in
synchronization with the clock signal.
▶ ALU: The Arithmetic/Logic Unit (ALU) performs mathematical and logical
operations on data.
▶ Oscillator: A complex digital device that generates steady pulse rate required
for timing. All of the separate functions are controlled by one central timing
system. The timing pulse provides the basis for proper sequence of all the
separate sections of the microcontroller chip.
Core Microcontroller Components
(Continued)
Read Only Memory (ROM): ROM holds the program instructions and the constant
data. Microcontrollers use one or more of the following memory types for this
purpose:
▶ ROM (mask-programmed ROM)
▶ PROM (one-time programmable ROM, which is not field programmable)
▶ EPROM (field programmable and usually UV erasable)
▶ EEPROM (field programmable, electrically erasable, byte erasable) and flash
(similar to EEPROM).
▶ Microcontrollers can have 4K, 8K and 16K, etc. of ROM
Core Microcontroller Components
(Continued)
Random Access Memory (RAM):
▶ Is used to hold intermediate results and other temporary data during the execution of the
program.
▶ Typically, microcontrollers have a few hundreds of bytes of RAM.
Registers:
Register is used to hold the contents of data being manipulated.
Special-Function Registers:
▶ Control various functions of a microcontroller.
▶ These are divided into two groups:
▶ Registers Wired into the CPU
▶ Do not necessarily form part of addressable memory.
▶ Used to control program flow and arithmetic functions.
▶ Examples: status register, program counter, stack pointer, etc.
▶ Registers Required by Peripheral Components
▶ The contents of these registers include set a timer or enable serial communication.
▶ Examples: A program counter, stack pointer, RAM address register, program address register, and incrementor
Core Microcontroller Components
(Continued)
Watchdog timer:
▶ A specialized program found as part of the microcontroller designed to prevent
the microcontroller from halting or “locking up” because of a user-written
program since the instructions are processed step-by-step.
▶ Uses a routine that is based on timing.
▶ If a program has not been completed or repeated as a loop within a certain
amount of time, the watchdog timer issues a reset command.
▶ A system reset sets all the register values to zero.
▶ The reset feature allows the microcontroller to recover from a crash.
▶ It releases the program and sets the MCU to start over again.
Core Microcontroller Components
(Continued)
Stack pointer:
▶ Keeps track of the last stack location used while processor is busy manipulating
checking ports, or checking interrupts.
Program counter:
▶ Is used to hold the address of the instruction to be executed next.
Buses:
▶ Bus represents a physical connection used to carry a signal from one point to
another inside a microcontroller. The signal carried by a bus may represent
address, data, control signal, or power.
Peripheral Microcontroller Components
The analog-to-digital converter:
▶ Provides an interface between the microcontroller and the sensors that produce
analogue electrical equivalents of the actual physical parameters to be
controlled.
The digital-to-analog converter:
▶ Provides an interface between the microcontroller and the actuators that
provide
the control function.
I/O ports:
▶ Provide an interface between the microcontroller and the peripheral I/O devices
such as the keyboard, display, etc.
Counters/timers:
▶ Are used to keep time and/or measure the time interval between events, count
Microcontroller Internal Operation
▶ The microcontroller consists of thousands of digital circuits that are combined into
areas to provide specific functions.
▶ The CPU components of a microcontroller are used to save data and programs,
perform math and logic functions, and generate timing signals.
▶ The different areas are connected by a bus system. The bus system contains
tiny parallel
circuits that carry the digital pulse patterns from section to section.
▶ The ROM stores the program required for the microcontroller to function and controls
how the chip components operate and how data and instructions flow through the
chip.
▶ RAM stores programs and data temporarily.
▶ Ports and registers are special memory locations dedicated to a specific function
such as
Microcontroller External Operation
▶ When a microcontroller is mounted on a circuit board with other components, it functions
as a single unit, and is referred to as a module or a microcontroller development board.
▶ A microcontroller module typically consists of a microcontroller, a power source, an
interface for connecting to a programming device, I/O ports, and additional memory.
▶ A power source powers the microcontroller and any accompanying components
located on
the printed circuit board.
▶ An interface communicates with the microcontroller.
▶ A set of input/output (I/O) ports send and receive signals from the devices the
microcontroller is designed to control. I/O ports when programmed as an output pin, each
pin can output digital signals. When programmed as an input pin, each pin can receive
digital signals.
▶ Digital-to-analog and analog-to-digital converters change the digital pulses into analog
Microcontroller External Operation
Diagra
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m
Arduino Uno – An Atmel
Development
ATMega328P
Board
Advantages of Microcontrollers
▶ Cost-Effective: Microcontrollers are typically inexpensive, making them ideal for mass-produced
devices and applications where cost is a major factor.
▶ Low Power Consumption: Many microcontrollers are designed to operate at low power, making
them suitable for battery-operated devices and energy-efficient applications.
▶ Compact Size: Their small size allows them to be embedded directly within devices, even in
small or portable electronics.
▶ Real-Time Processing: Microcontrollers can handle real-time tasks, making them ideal for
applications where timing is critical, like robotics, automotive controls, and industrial automation.
▶ Ease of Programming and Use: Most MCUs support straightforward programming, with
development environments (like Arduino IDE) that make it accessible to both beginners and
professionals.
▶ Integrated Peripherals: They often come with built-in peripherals (such as ADCs, timers, UART,
I2C, SPI) that simplify interfacing with sensors, actuators, and other components.
▶ Single-Chip Solution: A microcontroller combines CPU, memory, and I/O peripherals on a single
chip, reducing the need for additional components and saving space.
▶ Reliability: Due to their simplicity and dedicated functionality, MCUs are reliable and have lower
failure rates, which is essential for mission-critical applications.
▶ Flexible Development Options: Microcontrollers support a variety of programming
Application Areas of Microcontrollers
▶ Consumer Electronics
• Home Appliances: Washing machines, microwaves, refrigerators, and air conditioners often
use microcontrollers to manage operations.
• Smart Home Devices: Lighting systems, thermostats, security systems, and smart door
locks.
• Wearable Technology: Smartwatches, fitness trackers, and health monitors.
▶ Automotive Applications
• Engine Control Systems: Engine management and fuel
injection control for optimized performance.
• Safety Systems: Anti-lock braking systems (ABS), airbag control, and stability control.
• Infotainment: Entertainment systems, display controls, and navigation systems.
• Telematics: Communication systems for vehicle data transmission and diagnostics.
▶ Industrial Automation
• Process Control: Monitoring and control of processes in manufacturing, chemical plants,
and food production.
• Robotics: Controlling robotic arms, automated guided vehicles (AGVs), and CNC machines.
• Sensors and Actuators: Temperature, pressure, and other sensors for feedback and control
systems.
▶ Medical Devices
• Portable Medical Equipment: Blood pressure monitors, glucose meters, and heart rate
monitors.
• Diagnostic Equipment: Ultrasound machines, ECG machines, and MRI machines.
Application Areas of Microcontrollers
(Continued)
▶ Internet of Things (IoT)
• Smart Cities: Waste management, smart street lighting, and environmental monitoring.
• Agriculture: Soil moisture sensors, weather stations, and crop monitoring systems.
• Asset Tracking: For logistics, tracking, and monitoring the condition of goods in transit.
▶ Aerospace and Defense
• Avionics: Flight control systems, navigation, and autopilot.
• Missile Guidance and Control: For precision in targeting and flight path correction.
• Military Communications: Secure and low-power communication
systems for soldiers and equipment.
▶ Education and Research
• STEM Education Kits: Microcontrollers like Arduino and
Raspberry Pi are used widely in educational kits to teach
programming and electronics.
• Prototyping and Testing: For building and testing new electronic designs in academic
research labs and R&D.
▶ Environmental Monitoring
• Weather Stations: Monitoring temperature, humidity, wind speed, and other weather
conditions.
• Pollution Monitoring: Air and water quality measurement devices for industrial and
environmental monitoring.
• Wildlife and Habitat Monitoring: Remote sensors for tracking animals and monitoring
A Typical Microcontroller Application
A
– utomobile Cruise
Control
Comparison Between Microcontroller
Microprocesso
and
r
Criteria of Choosing a Microcontroller
▶ Processing Power (CPU Architecture and Clock Speed)
• CPU Architecture: ARM, AVR, PIC, RISC-V, etc. Some architectures are better for specific applications, such
as ARM for high-performance applications.
• Clock Speed: Determines the speed at which the MCU can process instructions. Applications requiring real-
time
processing or fast data handling need higher clock speeds.
▶ Memory (RAM and Flash)
• Flash Memory: For storing the program code. Applications with complex code or large libraries need more
flash memory.
• RAM: For storing variables and temporary data during runtime. Memory-intensive applications (like those
using complex algorithms or handling large datasets) require more RAM.
▶ I/O Capabilities
• GPIO Pins: Number and type of general-purpose I/O pins. Consider whether the MCU has enough pins for
the components and sensors you plan to connect.
• Analog Inputs/Outputs: For analog sensors, ensure the MCU has enough ADC (Analog-to-Digital
Converter) channels and DAC (Digital-to-Analog Converter) support if needed.
▶ Power Consumption
• Active/Idle Power: Essential for battery-powered applications. Some MCUs offer low-power modes to
conserve energy.
• Power Modes: Look for ultra-low-power or sleep modes if low energy consumption is critical, as in IoT or
wearable devices.
▶ Communication Interfaces
• UART, SPI, I2C: Basic communication protocols. Multiple peripherals often require various protocols.
• CAN, USB, Ethernet, Wi-Fi, Bluetooth: Specialized protocols for specific applications, such as
automotive (CAN),
Criteria of Choosing a Microcontroller
(Continued)
▶ Package Type and Size
• Physical Size and Form Factor: Depending on the project, consider the size (e.g., DIP,
QFN, or
BGA). Small form factors may be essential for wearables or portable devices.
• Ease of Soldering: Some packages are easier to solder manually, while others might
require specialized tools or manufacturing processes.
▶ Cost
• Choose an MCU that fits within the project’s budget. Consider production volumes, as costs
per unit may vary greatly.
▶ Development Tools and Ecosystem
• IDE Support: Look for compatible Integrated Development Environments (IDEs) and
libraries.
• Documentation and Community: Choose an MCU with good documentation, resources,
and community support, which can simplify development and debugging.
▶ Temperature and Environmental Specifications
• For applications in harsh environments, choose MCUs rated for extreme temperatures or
high humidity conditions.
▶ Security Features
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