COMPUTER APPLICATIONS
• LEC STEPHEN BOSIRE NYABUTO
• 1.1 Basic Computer Concepts
• The term computer comes from the word compute.
Definition
A computer is an electronic device capable of executing
instructions, developed based on algorithms stored
• in its memory, to process data fed to it and produce the
required results faster than human beings.
It is an electronic device which processes given data to
derive the required and useful information. During the
processing the computer has to perform various functions like,
Accepting Instructions & data from the user, performing
various arithmetic and Logical operations as per Instructions
given and presenting the Information or Output to the user.
• Other Definitions;
• The definition from the Merriam-Webster Dictionary: "one that computes;
specifically : a programmable electronic device that can store, retrieve,
and process data"
• A computer is a device that accepts data in one form and processes it to
produce data in another form i.e information.
• An electronic device that takes data and instructions as an input from the
users. Processes data and provides useful information known as output.
• A computer is an electronic device that operates under the control of a
set of instructions that is stored in its memory unit. A computer accepts
data from an input device and processes it into useful information which it
displays on its output device. Actually, a computer is a collection of
hardware and software components that help you accomplish many
different tasks. Hardware consists of the computer itself, and any
equipment connected to it. Software is the set of instructions that the
computer follows in performing a task.
Data
Information
Instructions
• 1.2. History of Computers When the human race started
doing some trade, it felt a need for a calculating device. The
first calculating device, which was used 2000 years ago was
called abacus and the improvements in the calculating
device in that age were slow. The next change came after
about 1600 years. Following this, the changes were frequent
and the mechanical desk calculator was developed around
1800 A.D. In 1833, Prof. Charles Babbage, the father of the
computer, developed a machine called analytical engine
which was the vase for the modern digital computer.
• 1.3 Generation of Computers
• First Generation (1951-1958) by John W. Mauchly and J. Presper Eckert
• The first generation of computers started with the UNIVAC I (Universal
Automatic Computer) built by Mauchly and Eckert in 1951. It was sold
to the U.S. Census Bureau. This machine was dedicated to business
data processing example payroll and record keeping and not military
or scientific purposes.
Characteristics
• Use of vacuum tubes in electronic circuits: These tubes controlled
internal operations and were huge. As a consequence the machines
were large.
• Magnetic drum; used as primary internal-storage medium: Electric
currents passed through wires which magnetized the core to
represent on and off states
• Limited main-storage capacity
• Slow input/output, punched-card-oriented: Operators performed input and output
operations through the use of punched cards.
• Low level symbolic-language programming: The computer used machine language
which was cumbersome and accomplished through long strings of numbers made
up of Zeroes and Ones. In 1952, Dr. Grace Hopper (University of Pennsylvania)
developed a symbolic language called mnemonics (instructions written with
symbolic codes). Rather than writing instructions with Zeroes and Ones, the
mnemonics were translated into binary code. Dr. Hopper developed the first set of
programs or instructions to tell computers how to translate the mnemonics.
• Heat and maintenance problems: Special air-conditioning and maintenance were
required of the machines. The tubes gave off tremendous amounts of heat.
• Applications: payroll processing and record keeping though still oriented toward
scientific applications than business data processing.
• Examples: IBM 650 UNIVAC I
• Second Generation Computers (1959-1964)
• Characteristics
• Use of transistors for internal operations: tiny solid state transistors
replace vacuum tubes in computers. The heat problem was then
minimized and computers could be made smaller and faster. The cost of
the computers also reduced. Data access time was measured in micro-
seconds.
• Magnetic core as primary internal-storage medium: Electric currents pass
through wires which magnetize the core to represent on and off states.
Data in the cores can be found and retrieved for processing in a few
millionths of a second.
• Increased main-storage capacity: The internal or main storage was
supplemented by use of magnetic tapes for external storage. These
tapes substituted for punched cards or paper. Magnetic disks were also
developed that stored information on circular tracks that looked like
phonograph records. The disks provided direct or random access to
records in a file.
• Faster input/output; tape orientation: Devices could be connected directly
to the computer and considered "on-line". This allowed for faster printing
and detection and correction of errors.
• High-level programming languages (COBOL,FORTRAN):These languages
resembled English.
FORTRAN (FORmula TRANslator) was the first high-level language that was
accepted widely. This language was used mostly for scientific applications.
COBOL (Common Business-Oriented Language) was developed in 1961 for
business data processing. Its main features include: file-processing, editing,
and input/output capabilities.
• Increased speed and reliability: Modular-hardware was developed through
the design of electronic circuits. Complete modules called "breadboards"
could be replaced if malfunctions occurred, or the machine "crashed". This
decreased lost time and also new modules could be added for added
features such as file-processing, editing and input/output features
• Batch-oriented applications: billing, payroll processing,
updating and inventory files: Batch processing allowed for
collection of data over a period time and then one processed
in one computer run. The results were then stored on
magnetic tapes.
• Examples:IBM 1401*(most popular business-oriented
computer. Honeywell 200 CDC 1604
Third generation computers (1965-1970)
• Characteristics
• Use of integrated circuits: The use of integrated circuits (Ics)
replaced the transistors of the secondgeneration machines.
The circuits are etched and printed and hundreds of
electronic components could beput on silicon circuit chips
less than one-eighth of an inch square.
• Magnetic core and solid-state main storage: Greater storage
capacity was developed. They have higher main memory
capacity, reliable and increased processing power (have the
capability of holding more than one set of instructions and
operate on them) than the second generation computers.
• More flexibility with input/output; disk-oriented:
• Smaller size and better performance and reliability: Advances in
solid-state technology allowed for the design and building of
smaller and faster computers. The small circuitry that resulted
improved the processing speed i.e. 10 times the past. The speed of
these machines was described in nanoseconds(1/1,000,000,000 of
a second).
• Extensive use of high-level programming languages: The software
industry evolved during this time. Many users found that it was
more cost effective to buy pre-programmed packages than to write
the programs themselves. The programs from the second
generation had to be rewritten since many of the programs were
based on second generation architecture.
• Emergence of minicomputers: The mini computers offered many of
the same features as the mainframe computers only on a smaller
scale. These machines filled the needs of the small business owner.
• Remote processing and time-sharing through communication:
Computers were then able to perform several operations at the same
time. Remote terminals were developed to communicate with a
central computer over a specific geographic location. Time sharing
environments were established.
• Availability of operating-systems (software) to control I/O and do tasks
handled by human operators:Software was developed to take care of
routine tasks required of the computer freed up the human operator.
• Applications such as airline reservation systems, market forecasting,
credit card billing: The applications also included inventory, control,
and scheduling labor and materials. Multitasking was also
accomplished.
• Both scientific and business applications could be run on the same
machine.
• Examples: IBM System/360 NCR 395 Burroughs B6500
Fourth Generation (1970-)
• Characteristics:
• Use of Large Scale Integrated (LSI) and very Large Scale
Integration (VLSI) circuits which housed hundreds of transistors
and very large IC which are between 200,000 to 400, 000 in one IC.
• Smaller and cheaper
• Increased storage capacity and speed. Memory used includes
magnetic disc and optical disc. Memory size expanded up to
several MB and speed was 10 times faster.
• Modular design and compatibility between equipment
• Special application programs
• Versatility of input/ output devices
• Increased use of minicomputers
• Introduction of microcomputers. This generation marked the
origin of microcomputers in use today
• Applications: mathematical modeling and simulation,
electronic funds transfer, computer-aided instruction and
home computers. Internet Explosion.
• Enabled creation of Local Area Networks (LAN) and Wide Area
Networks (WAN) which facilitates connection and
communication of hundred of computers located across
multiple locations.
• Operating systems includes; DOS and Windows. Use of GUI –
Graphical User Interface – a user friendly interface that
provides ICONS and Menus to the user to interact with the
various computer applications.
• Fifth generation computers (1990-current)
• The Fifth Generation Computer Systems project (FGCS) was an initiative
by Japan's Ministry of International Trade and Industry, begun in 1982,
to create a "fifth generation computer" which was supposed to perform
much calculation using massive parallel processing.
• The design of these computers was based on VLSI (very large scale
integration) technology, the micro chip technology that gave rise to the
smaller computers known as the micro computers in use today.
• These computers are used in networking .examples of micro computers
are IBM PCs BBC micro etc. the micro computers are usually described
as PCs or stand alone or desktop computers because they were
designed primarily to serve single person at a time.
• The fifth generation is still a state of the art technology that relies on
predictions and further technological refinements.
• It has been predicted that such a computer will be able to
communicate in natural spoken language with its user;
• store vast knowledge databases;
• search rapidly through these databases,
• making intelligent inferences and drawing logical
conclusions; and
• process images and ‘see’ objects in the way that humans do.
• Reliable and vault tolerance
• Research shows that the trend in computer technology
revolution is that there is;
• Continual decrease in computer size
• Improved speed and power processing
• Decrease in computers and the related facilities cost
• Number of components in computer per circuit (IC) greatly
increased over 500,000 physical elements e.g. transistors,
capacities, diodes etc per chip(IC).
KEY CHARACTERISTICS OF A COMPUTER
1. Speed
• Computers can process data at incredible speeds, performing
millions of calculations per second. This rapid execution of
mathematical calculations and tasks allows them to perform
operations in microseconds and nanoseconds, and faster than
human capabilities. This characteristic makes computers
valuable for time-sensitive applications.
2. Diligence
• Computers perform millions of calculations consistently and
accurately without tiring, unlike humans who need rest. Their
ability to work continuously ensures that they maintain high
performance and reliability over extended periods, making them
ideal for repetitive tasks.
• 3. Reliability
• Computers are designed to produce consistent results; if the
input data remains unchanged, the output will always be the
same. This reliability results from the precision of computer
operations, ensuring that users can trust the results they
receive, which is critical for applications like data analysis
and scientific calculations.
• 4. Automation
• With advancements in technology, particularly in artificial
intelligence, computers can perform tasks automatically
based on programmed instructions. This automation
minimizes the need for manual intervention, streamlining
processes and enhancing productivity. Tasks that require a
workforce can be handled efficiently by computers.
• 5. Versatility
• Computers possess the versatility to perform a wide range of
tasks with the same level of accuracy and efficiency. They
can multitask seamlessly, allowing users to engage in various
activities such as developing documents while listening to
music simultaneously without sacrificing performance.
• 6. Memory
• Computers have extensive memory capabilities, allowing
them to store vast amounts of data. This storage is measured
in various units, including Bytes, Kilobytes, Megabytes,
Gigabytes, and Terabytes. Computers utilize both primary
memory (for immediate access) and secondary storage (like
hard drives and USB drives) to manage data efficiently.
• 7. Accuracy
• Computers are known for their high level of accuracy in
computations. When executing operations, the possibility of
errors is minimal, with mistakes typically arising only from
incorrect data input by users. This characteristic is crucial in
fields that demand precision, such as engineering, finance,
and scientific research.
LIMITATIONS OF COMPUTERS
1. Virus and Hacking Attacks
• Viruses and hacking represent significant threats in the digital landscape. A
virus, often in the form of a worm, can spread through various ways such as
email attachments, infected advertisements on websites, or removable
devices like USB drives. Hacking refers to unauthorized access to computer
systems for illegal purposes, which can lead to data breaches and privacy
violations.
2. Online Cyber Crimes
• Cybercrimes involve illegal activities conducted through computers and
networks. These include cyberstalking, where individuals are harassed
digitally, and fraud, which involves stealing money.
3. Reduction in Employment Opportunities
• The transition to a digital economy has posed challenges for those unfamiliar
with computers, particularly older generations. Many individuals face
significant barriers due to a lack of computer literacy, limiting their job
opportunities and ability to adapt to modern workplaces.
• 4. High Costs of Computers
• While computers are essential tools for empowerment and
connectivity, they can be expensive, particularly in regions
like South Africa.
• 5. Distractions and Disruptions
• Computers offer vast entertainment options, which can lead
to distractions.
• 6. Health Problems
• Using computers for a long time can cause health problems.
Looking at a screen too much can strain your eyes, and
sitting for a long time can give you neck and back pain.
