CSE2008 – Operating Systems

Module-1: Introduction
• What operating systems do,
• Computer System Organization,
• Operating system operations – Process Management, Memory
Management, Storage Management, I/O Systems, Protection & Security,
• Types of Operating Systems – Batch O.S., Multi programmed O.S., Time
Sharing O.S., Distributed O.S., Virtualization, Real Time Embedded
Systems, Open source O.S.,
• System calls & Overview on Types of System calls.

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 Booting
• Booting is the process of loading the operating system into main
memory (RAM) so that it can begin functioning.
Bootstrap Loader
• The bootstrap loader is a small program stored in ROM (Read-Only
Memory) that loads the OS into RAM.

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 Introduction to Operating Systems
• An Operating System(OS) is a software that manages and
handles hardware and software resources of a computing
device.
• An Operating System (OS) is system software that acts as an
intermediary between computer hardware and the user.
• Responsible for managing and controlling all the activities
and sharing of computer resources among different running
applications.
• Examples are Linux, Unix, Windows 11, MS DOS, Android,
macOS and iOS.

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 What Operating Systems Do/ Operating system’s
role
• A computer system can be divided
roughly into four components – the
hardware, the operating system, the
application programs and the users.
• The hardware consisting of CPU,
memory and I/O devices provides the
basic computing resources for the
system.
• The application programs—such as
word processors, spreadsheets,
compilers, and Web browsers are
developed to solve users’ computing
problems

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 What Operating Systems Do/ Operating system’s
role
• To fully understand what an operating system (OS) does, we can look at it from
two different perspectives:
1. User’s View
2. System’s View

User’s View:
• The user’s view of the computer varies according to the interface being used.
• Based on the interface used by the user, OS has to provide either performance ,
resource utilization or both.

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 What Operating Systems Do/ Operating system’s
role
Case –I:
• Users sit in front of a PC, consisting of a monitor,
keyboard, mouse, and system unit.
• The goal is to maximize the work that the user is
performing.
• In this case, the operating system is designed mostly
for ease of use.

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 What Operating Systems Do/ Operating system’s
role
Case –II:
• a user sits at a terminal connected to a mainframe or
a minicomputer.
• Other users are accessing the same computer through
other terminals.
• The operating system in such cases is designed to
maximize resource utilization— to assure that all
available CPU time, memory, and I/O are used
efficiently.

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 What Operating Systems Do/ Operating system’s
role
Case –III:
• users sit at workstations connected to networks of
other workstations and servers.
• These users have dedicated resources at their
disposal, but they also share resources such as
networking and servers, including file, compute, and
print servers.
• Therefore, their operating system is designed to
provide both performance and resource utilization

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What Operating Systems Do/ Operating system’s
role
System View:
Resource Allocator/Resource Manager
• The OS manages and allocates hardware and software resources to various
applications and users efficiently and fairly.
• These resources include: CPU (Processor time),Main Memory (RAM),Storage
Devices (Hard drive, SSD),Input/Output Devices (Printers, USBs, etc.)
Control program.
• An OS is a control program that controls the execution of user programs to prevent
errors and improper use of the computer.
• It is especially concerned with the operation and control of I/O devices.

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 Computer System Organization

• A modern general-purpose computer system consists of one or more CPUs and a

number of device controllers connected through a common bus that provides access
to shared memory.
• Each device controller is in charge of a specific type of device.

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 Storage Structure

• ROM (Read-Only Memory) is used to store static programs that

don’t change, such as the bootstrap program.
• The CPU can load instructions only from memory, so any
program that needs to run must be stored in memory.
• Most programs on general-purpose computers run from main
memory, also called random-access memory (RAM).
• Main memory is usually too small to store all needed programs
and data permanently.
• Main memory is a volatile storage device that loses its contents
when power is turned off.
• Thus, most computer systems provide secondary storage as an
extension of main memory and able to hold large quantities of
data permanently.

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 Storage Structure
Registers
• Located inside the CPU.
• Very small in size , Fastest and Volatile
• Stores temporary data, such as operands and results of operations.
Cache Memory
• Located between CPU and main memory.
• Faster than RAM but smaller in size.
• Stores frequently accessed data and instructions.
Magnetic Disk (Hard Disk Drive - HDD)
• Slower than SSDs.
• Stores large amounts of data at low cost.
• Non-volatile – retains data after shutdown
Solid-State Disk (SSD)
• A type of secondary storage.
• Faster than traditional hard drives.
• Uses flash memory (non-volatile).
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 I/O Systems
I/O Devices: Keyboard, Mouse, Monitor, Disk, Printer, Network card.
• A device controller maintains some local buffer storage and a set of special-purpose registers.
• The device controller is responsible for moving the data between the I/O devices that it
controls and its local buffer storage.
• Typically, operating systems have a device driver(software) for each device controller.
Step-by-Step I/O Operation Flow
1. To initiate an I/O operation, the device driver writes instructions (such as read or write)
into the registers of the device controller
2. The device controller, in turn, examines the contents of these registers to determine
what action to take (such as “read a character from the keyboard”).
3. The controller starts the transfer of data from the device(KB) to its local buffer.
4. Once the transfer of data is complete, the device controller informs the device driver via
an interrupt that it has finished its operation.
5. The device driver then returns control to the operating system, possibly returning the
data/status.
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 I/O Systems
• This form of interrupt-driven I/O is fine for moving small
amounts of data but can produce high overhead when used
for bulk data movement such as disk I/O.
• To solve this problem, direct memory access (DMA) is used.
 DMA controller transfers data directly between memory
and device without involving the CPU.
I/O Operation Flow Using DMA
•CPU sends request to DMA controller
→ Includes what data to transfer.
•DMA controller sends command to I/O device
→ Starts the data transfer.
•Data is transferred directly between I/O device and main
memory
→ CPU is not involved during the transfer.
•DMA controller sends an interrupt to CPU
→ Informs that the transfer is complete.
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 Functions of an OS

1. Process Management
1. Memory Management
2. File-System Management
3. Disk management
4. Device management
5. Protection and Security
6. Networking
 Functions of an OS
Process Management
• A program in execution is a process.
The operating system is responsible for the following activities
• Creating and deleting both user and system processes
• Scheduling processes on the CPUs
• Suspending and resuming processes
• Providing mechanisms for process synchronization
• Providing mechanisms for process communication
Memory Management
• Main memory is a large array of bytes. Each byte has its own address.
The operating system is responsible for the following activities
• Keeping track of which parts of memory are currently being used and who is using
them
• Deciding which processes (or parts of processes) and data to move into and out of
memory
• Allocating and deallocating memory space as needed
 Functions of an OS
File-System Management
• A file is a collection of related information. A file represents code and data.
The operating system is responsible for the following activities
• Creating and deleting files
• Creating and deleting directories to organize files
• Supporting primitives for manipulating files and directories
• Mapping files onto secondary storage
• Backing up files on stable (non-volatile) storage media
 Functions of an OS

Disk management
• Disk Management means how the operating system (OS) controls and uses the hard
disk to store files, read data, and keep things organized.
• The operating system is responsible for the following activities
Free-space management
• The OS keeps track of which parts of the disk are empty and can be used to
store new files.
Storage allocation
• OS decides where and how to keep each file on the disk.
Disk scheduling
• Choose best order to read/write data from disk.
 Functions of an OS
Device management
• Device management in an operating system refers to the process of controlling
and coordinating input/output (I/O) devices, such as printers, disk drives,
keyboards, and monitors.
The operating system is responsible for the following activities
Device Allocation
• Gives the right device to the right program or user
Deallocation
• Frees the device after use, so others can use it
Device Tracking
• Keeps track of all connected devices (mouse, printer, etc.)
Device Communication
• Sends and receives signals using device drivers
Error Handling
• Finds and fixes errors or problems with devices
 Functions of an OS
Protection and Security
• The Operating System (OS) is responsible for keeping your computer and data safe
from unauthorized access, misuse, and malicious attacks.
User Authentication
• Checks who is using the system.
• Example: Username and password login.
Authorization
• Decides what a user can do.
• Example: You can open your file, but not system files.
Access Control
• Controls who can access what.
• Example: Only admin can install new software.
 Functions of an OS
Networking
• Manages data transfer across networks.
• Supports network communication protocols and remote access.
 Types of Operating Systems

1. Batch O.S.,
2. Multi programmed O.S.,
3. Time Sharing O.S.,
4. Distributed O.S.,
5. Network OS
6. Real Time OS
7. Real Time Embedded Systems,
8. Open source O.S
9. Multiprocessor Operating System
10.Virtualization
 Batch O.S.
• A Batch Operating System is an early type of operating system where similar jobs are
grouped together and executed in batches without user interaction.
• Users prepare jobs with program code and input data using punch cards
• A punch card is a stiff paper card that encodes information using holes punched in
predefined positions.
• Each card typically represents one line of code or data.

How it works:
• Jobs are submitted to the computer operator.
• Operator groups similar jobs into batches.
• The OS executes jobs one by one in the batch
sequentially.
• Output is collected and returned to users after
execution.
 Batch O.S.

Advantages
✅ High CPU utilization.
✅ Suitable for large, repetitive jobs.

Disadvantages
❌ No user interaction during execution.
❌ Not suitable for real-time or interactive applications.
 Multi programmed O.S.
• A Multiprogrammed Operating System is designed to run multiple programs
simultaneously
• It keeps several programs in main memory at once and switching the CPU among
them to maximize utilization.
How It Works :
1. OS loads Multiple programs into the main
memory.
2.The OS selects one job and assign CPU to that job.
3.The CPU starts running the first program.
4.When the program needs I/O (like reading a file),
it stops.
5.The OS switches the CPU to another program that
is ready.
6.This process keeps repeating, so the CPU is always
working.
 Multi programmed O.S.

Advantages:
✅ Better resource utilization (CPU, memory, I/O)
✅ Increases system throughput (more jobs completed per time)
✅ Reduces idle time of CPU

Disadvantages:
❌ Complex OS design (requires scheduling, memory protection)
❌ One job can affect another if not properly isolated
 Time Sharing O.S
• It is also called a multitasking operating system.
• A Time Sharing Operating System allows many users/tasks to use a computer at
the same time by sharing CPU time.
• Time-sharing is sharing the processor’s time with multiple users to perform multiple
tasks concurrently
How it works:
•Each user submits a task
•OS stores tasks in a queue
•CPU is given to one task for a short time (called a time
slice).
•After the time slice , task is paused.
•Then CPU switches to another task.
•This cycle repeats quickly for all tasks
 Time Sharing O.S

Advantages:
• Better CPU utilization
• Quick response time for users
• Minimized idle time for CPU

Disadvantages:
• Complex System: Managing many users and tasks needs a complex OS design.
• Security Issues: Data must be protected between users; otherwise, one user may
access another's data.
• Scheduling Overhead: Frequent switching between tasks uses CPU time and
memory.
 Distributed O.S.
• A Distributed Operating System (D.O.S) is a type of operating system that manages
a group of independent computers and makes them appear to the users as a single
computer.
• Multiple systems (nodes) are connected via a network.
• Each node has its own local memory and CPU.
• Distributed O.S. coordinates resources and tasks among nodes.
• It schedules jobs, manages files, and handles communication across nodes.
 Distributed O.S.
Advantages:
•Improved performance and scalability
•Enhanced reliability and availability
•Efficient resource utilization

Disadvantages:
• Complex Design and implementation
• Network Dependency – system fails if network goes down
• Security Risks – data travels between nodes
• Synchronization Issues – managing time and data
consistency
 Network Operating System
• Network Operating Systems runs on a server.
• A network operating system manages and coordinates network resources, allowing
multiple computers to communicate and share data within a network.
• It provides essential services like file sharing, printer sharing, and network security.
• Novell NetWare and Windows Server (with Active Directory) are popular network
operating systems.
 Real-Time Operating System

• A Real-Time Operating System is designed to respond to inputs or events

immediately (within a guaranteed time).
• The RTOS is suitable for domains that require precise timings and immediate
responsiveness, such as industrial automation, robotics, avionics, medical devices,
and telecommunications.
Examples of RTOS: VxWorks,FreeRTOS,RTLinux etc

Key Features:
Fast Response Time – completes tasks within a deadline.
Deterministic Behavior – predictable and consistent output.
Prioritized Scheduling – tasks are scheduled based on urgency.
Minimal Delays (Low Latency) – quick reaction to external inputs.
Reliability and Stability – runs continuously for long periods.
 Real-Time Operating System

Types of Real-Time Operating System

Hard Real-Time OS: The process should be completed at the exact time.
These OS’s are meant for applications where time constraints are very strict and even
the shortest possible delay is not acceptable.
Example: - Aircraft systems, Medical critical care System, etc.
Soft Real-Time OS: The processes should be completed within the time-bound. These
OS’s are for applications where the time constraint is less strict.
Example: - Live stock price and Online Transaction System.

Advantages: Disadvantages:
• Fast and predictable response • Complex to design and program
• High reliability and stability • Limited multitasking compared to general-
• Efficient CPU usage purpose OS
• Handles multiple tasks with priority • Expensive for some systems
• Difficult to upgrade or modify once deployed
 Real Time Embedded Systems
• A Real-Time Embedded System is a combination of hardware and software
designed to perform specific tasks within strict time constraints.
• These systems are embedded into larger devices (like cars, medical machines, or
washing machines) and must respond to inputs instantly or within a fixed time.

Working :
• System is embedded in a larger device (like a car or microwave).
• A sensor or input device sends real-world data to the system.
• The real-time OS processes the data quickly.
• A decision is made, and the device responds immediately.
• This cycle continues in real-time without delays.
 Real Time Embedded Systems
Example Workflow (Car Airbag System):
1. Crash sensor detects a sudden impact.
2. Sends data to the embedded controller.
3. Real-time system decides to deploy the airbag.
4. Airbag inflates in milliseconds to save the passenger.

Real-Life Examples:
• Car systems – airbag, ABS brakes, engine control
• Medical devices – pacemakers, blood pressure monitors
• Home appliances – washing machines, microwave ovens
• Industrial machines – robotic arms, conveyor belts
• Consumer electronics – digital cameras, smart TVs
 Open Source O.S
• An Open Source Operating System is a type of OS whose source code is freely
available to the public.
• Anyone can view, modify, and distribute the code based on their needs, under an
open-source license.
• If needed, users or developers can modify the code and can be shared legally
(under license terms).
Popular Open Source OS Examples:
• Linux , Android (based on Linux kernel),ReactOS (Windows-like OS),Kali Linux

Advantages: Disadvantages:
• Free of cost • May require technical knowledge
• Faster updates and bug fixes • Not all software is compatible
• Transparent and secure • Limited professional support (compared to
paid OS)
 Multiprocessor Operating System

• A Multiprocessor Operating System is designed to manage a computer system

with two or more processors (CPUs) that work together to perform tasks.
• These processors share the same memory and input/output devices and
communicate with each other.

How It Works (in steps):

• Computer has 2 or more CPUs.
• The Operating System assigns tasks to each
CPU.
• All CPUs execute their tasks at the same time.
• The OS collects results and manages them
properly.
 Multiprocessor Operating System

Advantages:
• Faster task execution
• Better system throughput
• More reliable – CPU failure doesn’t crash the system
• Efficient use of resources

Disadvantages:
• Expensive hardware
• Complex OS design
• Requires special synchronization techniques
 Virtualization
• Virtualization is a technology that allows you to create multiple Virtual Machines on a single
physical machine, enabling better utilization of resources, flexibility, and isolation.
• Hypervisor refer to the software layer that allows multiple virtual machines (VMs) to run on
a single physical machine by managing hardware resources
How does it work?
•Install a hypervisor on the physical machine.
•Create multiple virtual machines, each with its own OS.
•The hypervisor manages hardware allocation to each VM.
•All VMs share the same physical resources (like RAM, CPU), but work independently.
Advantages:
• Better hardware utilization
• Run multiple OSes on one system
• Reduces hardware costs
Disadvantages:
• Needs powerful hardware
• Complex setup for beginners
• Security risks if not properly managed
 Operating-System Operations

•Modern operating systems are interrupt-driven — they react to events.

•If there’s nothing to do (no process, no I/O, no user input), the OS just waits.
•When something happens, it’s usually signaled by:
• An interrupt (from hardware), or
• A trap (from software).
trap:
A software-generated interrupt, caused by:
Errors (e.g., divide by zero)
Requests from user programs for services(like system calls)

Dr. Venkata Rami Reddy Ch , Sr. Assistant Professor, SCOPE 41

 Dual-Mode Operation
• To ensure the proper execution of the operating system, it is essential to distinguish
between operating-system code and user-defined code.
• This is achieved by using two separate modes of operation:
User Mode
Kernel Mode
• A special hardware-supported bit, called the mode bit, is used to indicate the
current mode of the system:
0 for kernel mode
1 for user mode

Dr. Venkata Rami Reddy Ch , Sr. Assistant Professor, SCOPE 42

 Dual-Mode Operation
• At system boot time, the hardware starts in kernel mode.
• During this phase, the operating system is loaded and then begins running user
applications in user mode.
• Whenever a trap (like a system call) or an interrupt (from hardware) occurs, the hardware
automatically switches from user mode to kernel mode by setting the mode bit to 0.
• Whenever control is returned to a user program, the system switches back to user mode
by setting the mode bit to 1.
• This dual-mode operation ensures that the operating system is protected from malicious
actions by user programs.
• To do this, some privileged instructions(malicious instructions) are only allowed in kernel
mode because they can affect the whole system (like shutting down, changing memory).
• If a user program tries to run one of these privileged instructions while in user mode, the
hardware blocks it and sends a trap to the operating system instead of letting it run.

Dr. Venkata Rami Reddy Ch , Sr. Assistant Professor, SCOPE 43

 Multimode Operation
• The idea of using modes can be extended to include more than two modes.
• In that case, the CPU uses more than one bit to keep track of which mode it's in.
• For example, in computers that support virtualization, there's often a special mode
for the Virtual Machine Manager (VMM).
• This is the software that controls and runs virtual machines.
• The VMM mode:
• Has more privileges than user programs
• Has fewer privileges than the OS kernel
• This special mode gives the VMM just enough power to:
• Create and manage virtual machines
• Change the CPU’s state as needed

Dr. Venkata Rami Reddy Ch , Sr. Assistant Professor, SCOPE 44

 System Calls
• System calls provide an interface to the services made available by an operating system.
• These calls are generally available as routines written in C and C++
Types of system calls:
Process Control Communication
• fork() • pipe()
• exit() Protection
• wait() • chmod()

File Manipulation
open()
read()
write()
Information Maintenance
• getpid()
• sleep()

Dr. Venkata Rami Reddy Ch , Sr. Assistant Professor, SCOPE 45

 fork()
• fork system call is used to create a new process.
• OS kernel creates a new process, when an existing process calls the fork () System call
• The new process is called a child process
Syntax:
#include<sys/types.h>
#include<unistd.h>
Pid_t fork(void);
Returns : ‘0’in child
Process ID of child to parent
‘-1’ on error
• fork () function is called once but returns twice and return value in the child is zero, and
return value in the parent is process id of a new child.
• fork() creates a child that is duplicate of the parent process.
• The statements within a program will be executed twice once by parent and once by
child.
Dr. Venkata Rami Reddy Ch , Sr. Assistant Professor, SCOPE 46
 fork()
Example-1: Example-2:
main() void main() {
{
printf(“before fork()”); pid_t pid = fork();
fork(); if (pid == 0) {
printf (“after fork()”);
} printf("Child process: PID = %d\n",
getpid());
O/P :
before fork }
After fork else {
before fork
After fork printf("Parent process: PID = %d, Child PID = %d\
n", getpid(), pid);
}
}

Dr. Venkata Rami Reddy Ch , Sr. Assistant Professor, SCOPE 47

 exit()
• The exit() system call is used by a process to terminate itself in Unix-like
operating systems.

#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdlib.h>
int main() {
printf("Before Exit");
exit(0); // Exits the process with status 0 (success)
printf("After Exit");
}

O/P: Before Exit

Dr. Venkata Rami Reddy Ch , Sr. Assistant Professor, SCOPE 48

 wait()
•It is used to wait/suspend the execution of a parent process until the child process execution
is completed.
•We can control the execution of the child process by calling the wait() function in the parent
process.
•wait() blocks the parent until the child process terminates
#include <stdio.h>
#include <unistd.h>
#include <sys/wait.h>
void main() {
pid_t pid = fork();
if (pid == 0) {
// Child process
printf("Child: My PID is %d\n", getpid());
}
else {
// Parent process
wait(0); // Wait for child
printf("Parent: Parent exited after Child exited");
}
}
Dr. Venkata Rami Reddy Ch , Sr. Assistant Professor, SCOPE 49
 open()
• open() is used to create a new file or open an existing file.

#include <fcntl.h>
int open(const char *pathname, int oflag, ... );

Returns: file descriptor if OK, 1 on error

• The pathname is the name of the file to open or create.

• oflag argument specifies the following

O_RDONLY Open for reading only.

O_WRONLY Open for writing only.

O_RDWR Open for reading and writing.

Dr. Venkata Rami Reddy Ch , Sr. Assistant Professor, SCOPE 50
 read()
• read() system call is used to read the data from a file.

#include<fcntl.h>
#include<stdio.h>
int main ( )
{
int fd1;
int n;
char ch;
fd1=open("resume",O_RDONLY);
while((n=read(fd1,&ch,1))>0)
{
printf(“%s”,ch);
}
}

Dr. Venkata Rami Reddy Ch , Sr. Assistant Professor, SCOPE 51

 write()
• write() system call is used to write the data into a file

void main()
{
char buf[]=“hi this is cse”;
fd=open(“file1”,O_WRONLY);
write(fd,buf,14);
close(fd);
}

Dr. Venkata Rami Reddy Ch , Sr. Assistant Professor, SCOPE 52

 sleep()
• Suspends execution for a given number of seconds.

#include <stdio.h>
#include <unistd.h>

void main() {
printf("Sleeping for 3 seconds...\n");
sleep(3);
printf("Woke up!\n");
}

Dr. Venkata Rami Reddy Ch , Sr. Assistant Professor, SCOPE 53

 pipe() & chmod()
• The pipe() system call is used to share data between a parent and child process
by creating a unidirectional communication channel. One process writes data to
one end of the pipe, and the other reads from the other end.
• The chmod() system call in Unix is used to change the permissions (access modes)
of a file or directory.

Dr. Venkata Rami Reddy Ch , Sr. Assistant Professor, SCOPE 54