Data & Signals (Part
2)
Course Code: COE 3201 Course Title: Data
Communication Dept. of Computer Engineering
Faculty of Engineering
Lecture No: 6 Week No: 6 Semester:
Lecturer: DEBRAJ DAS
Lecture Outline
1. Analog to Digital Conversion
2. Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)
Analog to Digital Conversion
Sometimes we may want to change an analog signal in our hand to a
digital signal (analog to digital conversion) before transmission due to
digital signal’s superiority over analog signal. Some of the reasons why
digital signal is preferable over analog signal are as follows:
Digital is more robust than analog to noise and interference
Digital is more viable to using regenerative repeaters
Digital hardware more flexible by using microprocessors and VLSI
Can be coded to yield extremely low error rates with error correction
Easier to multiplex several digital signals than analog signals
Digital is more efficient in trading off SNR for bandwidth
Pulse Code
Modulation
Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)
A PCM encoder has three processes:
1. The analog signal is sampled.
2. The sampled signal is quantized.
3. The quantized values are encoded as streams of bits.
Sampling:
The first step in PCM is sampling. The analog signal is sampled
every Ts s, where Ts is the sample interval or period.
The inverse of the sampling interval is called the sampling rate or
sampling frequency and denoted by fs, where fs = 1/Ts.
Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)
There are three sampling methods—ideal, natural, and flat-top—
as shown in the figure below
Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)
In ideal sampling, pulses from the analog signal are sampled.
This is an ideal sampling method and cannot be easily
implemented.
In natural sampling, a high-speed switch is turned on for only a
small period when the sampling occurs. The result is a sequence
of samples that retains the shape of the analog signal.
The most common sampling method, called sample and hold,
however, creates flat-top samples by using a circuit.
The sampling process is sometimes referred to as pulse
amplitude modulation (PAM).
Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)
According to the Nyquist theorem, the sampling rate must be
at least 2 times the highest frequency contained in the signal.
Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)
Quantization:
The result of sampling is a series of pulses with amplitude
values between the maximum and minimum amplitudes of the
signal. The set of amplitudes can be infinite with non-integral
values between the two limits. These values cannot be used in
the encoding process.
Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)
Quantization:
The following are the steps in quantization:
1. We assume that the original analog signal has instantaneous amplitudes
between Vmin and Vmax.
𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 −
2. We divide the range into L zones, each of height Δ (delta).
𝑉𝑚𝑖𝑛
Δ= 𝐿
3. We assign quantized values of 0 to L − 1 to the midpoint of each zone.
4. We approximate the value of the sample amplitude to the quantized
values. As a simple example, assume that we have a sampled signal
and the sample amplitudes are between −20 and +20 V. We decide to
have eight levels (L = 8). This means that Δ = 5 V.
Quantization Levels:
The choice of L, the number of levels, depends on the range of the
amplitudes of the analog signal and how accurately we need to recover the
signal.
Quantization Example
Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)
Quantization Error:
The contribution of the quantization error to the SNRdB of the signal
depends on the number of quantization levels L, or the bits per sample nb,
𝑆𝑁𝑅𝑑𝐵 = 6.02𝑛𝑏 + 1.76 dB
as shown in the following formula:
Problem:
A telephone subscriber line must have an SNRdB above 40. What is the
minimum number of bits per sample?
Solution:
We can calculate the𝑆𝑁𝑅
number of bits−as,1.76 40 − 1.76
𝑑𝐵
𝑛� = = = 6.35≈
7� 6.02
6.02
Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)
Encoding:
The last step in PCM is encoding. After each sample is quantized and the
number of bits per sample is decided, each sample can be changed to an nb-bit
code word. Note that the number of bits for each sample is determined from
the number of bits is 𝒏𝒃 = 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝟐 𝑳. Required bit rate for the encoding
the number of quantization levels. If the number of quantization levels is L,
scheme can be determined as, 𝑩𝑹 = 𝒇𝒔 𝒙 𝒏𝒃.
Problem:
We want to digitize the human voice. What is the bit rate, assuming 8 bits per
sample?
Solution:
The human voice normally contains frequencies from 0 to 4000 Hz. So the
sampling rate and bit rate are calculated as follows:
Sampling rate = 4000 x 2 = 8000 samples/s
Bit rate = 8000 x 8 = 64,000 bps or 64 kbps
Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)
Original Signal Recovery:
• The recovery of the original signal requires the PCM decoder. The decoder
first uses circuitry to convert the code words into a pulse that holds
the amplitude until the next pulse.
• After the staircase signal is completed, it is passed through a low-pass filter
to smooth the staircase signal into an analog signal.
• The filter has the same cutoff frequency as the original signal at the sender.
If the signal has been sampled at (or greater than) the Nyquist sampling
rate and if there are enough quantization levels, the original signal
will be recreated.
• Note that the maximum and minimum values of the original signal can be
achieved by using amplification.
Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)
Components of a PCM Decoder:
Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)
Bandwidth:
1
𝑚𝑖𝑛 =𝑐𝑥𝑁𝑥
𝐵
𝑟
Minimum bandwidth of a line-encoded signal is .
1
substitute the value of N in this formula:
𝐵𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝑐 𝑥 1𝑁 𝑥 = 𝑐 𝑥
We
𝑟
𝑓𝑠 𝑥 𝑛𝑏 𝑥
𝑟
11
When = 1 (for an NRZ 𝑐 = (the average situation),
1
= or
𝑐 bipolar
𝑥 𝑛 𝑏 𝑥 signal)
2 𝑥 𝐵and
𝑟 𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑔 2
The minimum bandwidth is 𝑟
𝐵 𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝑛 𝑏 𝑥 𝐵 𝑎𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑔
This means the minimum bandwidth of the digital signal is nb times greater
than the bandwidth of the analog signal. This is the price we pay for
digitization
Theory of Bottleneck
In network communication, a bottleneck refers to a component or process that limits
the overall throughput of a system, often due to insufficient bandwidth. It's the point
where data flow is restricted, slowing down the entire network's performance. Think
of it like a narrow pipe in a plumbing system – even if the rest of the pipes are wide,
the bottleneck limits the overall water flow
Bandwidth:
Bandwidth is the maximum amount of data that can be transmitted over a network
connection in a given amount of time (usually measured in bits per second).
Throughput:
Throughput is the actual amount of data successfully transmitted over a network
connection in a given amount of time.
Bottleneck:
A bottleneck occurs when a component or process in the network has a lower capacity
(bandwidth) than other components, causing a reduction in throughput.
Example:
Imagine a network with a fast internet connection (high bandwidth) but a slow Wi-Fi
router (lower bandwidth). The router becomes a bottleneck, limiting the overall download
and upload speeds for all devices connected to that Wi-Fi network.
Throughput Calculation
Throughput=Total transmission time (seconds)
Total successfully transmitted data (bits)
Quantization Math
Assume an analog signal’s voltage varied from -10v to +10v i) the number of
quantization levels; (ii) the step size (iii) the quantization level of 7.89 volts, (iv) the
binary code for 7.89 volts
Example 4.12, P4-16.
Books
1. Forouzan, B. A. "Data Communication and Networking. Tata McGraw." (2005).
References
1. Prakash C. Gupta, “Data communications”, Prentice Hall India Pvt.
2. William Stallings, "Data and Computer Communications”, Pearson
3. Forouzan, B. A. "Data Communication and Networking. Tata McGraw." (2005).
