DATABASE MANAGEMENT

SYSTEMS (22CS43)

Course In charge
DR. MANJULA RAMANNAVAR

Slide 1-1
 UNIT 4
SQL: SQL Data Definition and Data Types; Specifying basic constraints
in SQL; Schema change statements in SQL;

Basic queries in SQL;

More complex SQL Queries; Nested and Correlated Queries, IN, ALL,
EXIST operators. Insert, Delete and Update statements in SQL.

Introduction to Query Optimization techniques;

SQL Web Programming using PHP

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 CHAPTER 8

SQL-99: Schema Definition,

Basic Constraints, and Queries
SQL
Structured Query Language – Originally, was called SEQUEL
(Structured English Query Language)
SQL Standards
 ANSI 1986 / SQL-86 / SQL 1
 SQL-92 / SQL 2
 SQL-99
 SQL – 2003
 SQL – 2008
 SQL – 2011
 SQL – 2016
 SQL – 2019
SQL is divided into Core specification + Packages

Slide 1-4
 SQL
SQL – Comprehensive database language that is DDL+DML+DQL

DDL – Data Definition Language

CREATE – schema, table, domain, view, assertion and trigger

DML – Data Manipulation Language

INSERT, DELETE, UPDATE

DQL – Data Query Language

SELECT

Slide 1-5
 Schema and Catalog
Concepts in SQL
SQL 1 – All tables were part of the same schema

SQL 2 – Concept of schemas was introduced to group together tables

and other constructs that belong to the same database application

SQL Schema – identified by: Schema Name + AuthorizationID +

Descriptors for each element

Schema Element – Tables, Constraints, Views, etc.

Slide 1-6
 Schema and Catalog
Concepts in SQL
CREATE SCHEMA COMPANY AUTHORIZATION Jsmith
Schema creation requires special privileges

Catalog – Named collection of schemas in an SQL Environment

SQL Environment – Installation of an SQL compliant RDBMS
INFORMATION_SCHEMA – Special schema in every catalog that
contains information about all other schemas

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Data Definition,
Constraints, and Schema
Changes

Used to CREATE, DROP, and ALTER the

descriptions of the tables (relations) of

a database

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Relational Model
Constraints
Constraints are restrictions on data that can be specified on a
relational database

Three main categories:

1)Inherent Model based / Implicit Constraints
2)Schema based / Explicit Constraints
3)Application based / Semantic Constraints / Business Rules

Slide 1-9
 Schema based / Explicit
Constraints
1) Domain Constraints – Each attribute value must be
atomic and drawn from a domain - Datatype
2) Key Constraints – Super, Candidate & Primary Keys
3) Constraints on NULLs – Some attributes can’t be NULL
4) Entity Integrity Constraints – Primary key value cannot be
NULL
5) Referential Integrity Constraints – A tuple in one relation
that refers to another relation must refer to an existing
tuple in that relation.

Slide 1-10
CREATE TABLE
Specifies a new base relation by giving it a name, and
specifying each of its attributes and their data types
(INTEGER, FLOAT, DECIMAL(i,j), CHAR(n), VARCHAR(n))
A constraint NOT NULL may be specified on an attribute
CREATE TABLE DEPARTMENT
( DNAME VARCHAR(10) NOT NULL,
DNUMBER INTEGER NOT NULL,
MGRSSN CHAR(9),
MGRSTARTDATE CHAR(9) );

Slide 8-11
CREATE TABLE
In SQL2, can use the CREATE TABLE command for specifying the
primary key attributes, secondary keys, and referential integrity
constraints (foreign keys).
Key attributes can be specified via the PRIMARY KEY and UNIQUE
phrases

CREATE TABLE DEPT

( DNAME VARCHAR(10) NOT NULL,
DNUMBER INTEGER NOT NULL, MGRSSN CHAR(9),
MGRSTARTDATE CHAR(9),
PRIMARY KEY (DNUMBER),
UNIQUE (DNAME),
FOREIGN KEY (MGRSSN) REFERENCES EMP );

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Attribute Data Types and
Domains in SQL
Refer Text book

Slide 8-13
DROP TABLE
Used to remove a relation (base table) and its definition
The relation can no longer be used in queries, updates, or any other
commands since its description no longer exists
Example:

DROP TABLE DEPENDENT;

Slide 8-14
ALTER TABLE
Used to add an attribute to one of the base relations
The new attribute will have NULLs in all the tuples of the
relation right after the command is executed; hence, the NOT
NULL constraint is not allowed for such an attribute
Example:

ALTER TABLE EMPLOYEE ADD JOB VARCHAR(12);

The database users must still enter a value for the new
attribute JOB for each EMPLOYEE tuple. This can be done
using the UPDATE command.

Slide 8-15
Features Added in SQL2
and SQL-99
CREATE SCHEMA
REFERENTIAL INTEGRITY OPTIONS

Slide 8-16
CREATE SCHEMA
Specifies a new database schema by giving it a name

Slide 8-17
REFERENTIAL
INTEGRITY OPTIONS
We can specify RESTRICT, CASCADE, SET NULL or SET DEFAULT
on referential integrity constraints (foreign keys)

CREATE TABLE DEPT

( DNAME VARCHAR(10) NOT NULL,
DNUMBER INTEGER NOT NULL,
MGRSSN CHAR(9),
MGRSTARTDATE CHAR(9),
PRIMARY KEY (DNUMBER),
UNIQUE (DNAME),
FOREIGN KEY (MGRSSN) REFERENCES EMP
ON DELETE SET DEFAULT ON UPDATE CASCADE );

Slide 8-18
REFERENTIAL
INTEGRITY OPTIONS
(continued)
CREATE TABLE EMP
( ENAME VARCHAR(30) NOT NULL,
ESSN CHAR(9),
BDATE DATE,
DNO INTEGER DEFAULT 1,
SUPERSSN CHAR(9),
PRIMARY KEY (ESSN),
FOREIGN KEY (DNO) REFERENCES DEPT
ON DELETE SET DEFAULT ON UPDATE CASCADE,
FOREIGN KEY (SUPERSSN) REFERENCES EMP
ON DELETE SET NULL ON UPDATE CASCADE );

Slide 8-19
Additional Data Types
in SQL2 and SQL-99
Has DATE, TIME, and TIMESTAMP data types
DATE:
◦ Made up of year-month-day in the format yyyy-mm-dd

TIME:
◦ Made up of hour:minute:second in the format hh:mm:ss

TIME(i):
◦ Made up of hour:minute:second plus i additional digits specifying
fractions of a second
◦ format is hh:mm:ss:ii...i

TIMESTAMP:
◦ Has both DATE and TIME components

Slide 8-20
Additional Data Types
in SQL2 and SQL-99
(cont.)
INTERVAL:
◦ Specifies a relative value rather than an absolute value
◦ Can be DAY/TIME intervals or YEAR/MONTH intervals
◦ Can be positive or negative when added to or subtracted
from an absolute value, the result is an absolute value

Slide 8-21
Retrieval Queries in
SQL
SQL has one basic statement for retrieving information from a
database; the SELECT statement
This is not the same as the SELECT operation of the relational algebra
Important distinction between SQL and the formal relational model;
SQL allows a table (relation) to have two or more tuples that are
identical in all their attribute values
Hence, an SQL relation (table) is a multi-set (sometimes called a bag)
of tuples; it is not a set of tuples
SQL relations can be constrained to be sets by specifying PRIMARY KEY
or UNIQUE attributes, or by using the DISTINCT option in a query

Slide 8-22
 Retrieval Queries in
SQL (cont.)
Basic form of the SQL SELECT statement is called a mapping
or a SELECT-FROM-WHERE block

SELECT <attribute list>

FROM <table list>
WHERE <condition>

◦ <attribute list> is a list of attribute names whose values are to be

retrieved by the query
◦ <table list> is a list of the relation names required to process the query
◦ <condition> is a conditional (Boolean) expression that identifies the
tuples to be retrieved by the query

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Relational Database Schema--Figure 5.5

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Populated
Database--
Fig.5.6

Slide 8-25
Simple SQL Queries
Basic SQL queries correspond to using the SELECT, PROJECT, and JOIN operations
of the relational algebra
All subsequent examples use the COMPANY database
Example of a simple query on one relation
Query 0: Retrieve the birthdate and address of the employee whose name is 'John
B. Smith'.

Q0: SELECT BDATE, ADDRESS

FROM EMPLOYEE
WHERE FNAME='John' AND MINIT=‘B’ AND LNAME='Smith’

◦ Similar to a SELECT-PROJECT pair of relational algebra operations; the SELECT-clause

specifies the projection attributes and the WHERE-clause specifies the selection
condition
◦ However, the result of the query may contain duplicate tuples

Slide 8-26
UNSPECIFIED
WHERE-clause
A missing WHERE-clause indicates no condition; hence, all
tuples of the relations in the FROM-clause are selected
This is equivalent to the condition WHERE TRUE
Query 9: Retrieve the SSN values for all employees.

Q9: SELECT SSN

FROM EMPLOYEE

If more than one relation is specified in the FROM-clause and

there is no join condition, then the CARTESIAN PRODUCT of
tuples is selected

Slide 8-27
UNSPECIFIED
WHERE-clause (cont.)
Example:

Q10: SELECT SSN, DNAME

FROM EMPLOYEE, DEPARTMENT

◦ It is extremely important not to overlook specifying any selection and join

conditions in the WHERE-clause; otherwise, incorrect and very large
relations may result

Slide 8-28
 USE OF DISTINCT
SQL does not treat a relation as a set; duplicate tuples can appear
To eliminate duplicate tuples in a query result, the keyword DISTINCT is
used
For example, the result of Q11 may have duplicate SALARY values
whereas Q11A does not have any duplicate values

Q11: SELECT SALARY

FROM EMPLOYEE

Q11A: SELECT DISTINCT SALARY

FROM EMPLOYEE

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EXPLICIT SETS
It is also possible to use an explicit (enumerated) set of
values in the WHERE-clause rather than a nested query
Query 13: Retrieve the social security numbers of all
employees who work on project number 1, 2, or 3.

Q13: SELECT DISTINCT ESSN

FROM WORKS_ON
WHERE PNO IN (1, 2, 3)

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NULLS IN SQL QUERIES
SQL allows queries that check if a value is NULL (missing or
undefined or not applicable)
SQL uses IS or IS NOT to compare NULLs because it considers
each NULL value distinct from other NULL values, so equality
comparison is not appropriate .
Query 14: Retrieve the names of all employees who do not have
supervisors.
Q14: SELECT FNAME, LNAME
FROM EMPLOYEE
WHERE SUPERSSN IS NULL
Note: If a join condition is specified, tuples with NULL values for
the join attributes are not included in the result

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SUBSTRING
COMPARISON
The LIKE comparison operator is used to compare partial strings
Two reserved characters are used: '%' (or '*' in some implementations)
replaces an arbitrary number of characters, and '_' replaces a single
arbitrary character

Slide 8-32
SUBSTRING
COMPARISON (cont.)
Query 25: Retrieve all employees whose address is in
Houston, Texas. Here, the value of the ADDRESS attribute
must contain the substring 'Houston,TX'.

Q25: SELECT FNAME, LNAME

FROM EMPLOYEE
WHERE ADDRESS LIKE ‘%Houston,TX%’

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 SUBSTRING
COMPARISON (cont.)
Query 26: Retrieve all employees who were born during the
1950s. Here, '5' must be the 3rd character of the string (according
to our format for date), so the BDATE value is '_______5_', with
each underscore as a place holder for a single arbitrary character.

Q26: SELECT FNAME, LNAME

FROM EMPLOYEE
WHERE BDATE LIKE ‘__5_______’

The LIKE operator allows us to get around the fact that each value
is considered atomic and indivisible; hence, in SQL, character
string attribute values are not atomic

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 USE OF *
To retrieve all the attribute values of the selected tuples, a * is
used, which stands for all the attributes
Examples:
Q1C: SELECT *
FROM EMPLOYEE
WHERE DNO=5

JOINS
Q1D: SELECT *
FROM EMPLOYEE, DEPARTMENT
WHERE DNAME='Research' AND DNO=DNUMBER

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Simple SQL Queries
(cont.)
Query 1: Retrieve the name and address of all employees who work for
the 'Research' department.

Q1: SELECT FNAME, LNAME, ADDRESS

FROM EMPLOYEE, DEPARTMENT
WHERE DNAME='Research' AND DNUMBER=DNO

◦ Similar to a SELECT-PROJECT-JOIN sequence of relational algebra

operations
◦ (DNAME='Research') is a selection condition (corresponds to a
SELECT operation in relational algebra)
◦ (DNUMBER=DNO) is a join condition (corresponds to a JOIN
operation in relational algebra)

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 Simple SQL Queries
(cont.)
Query 2: For every project located in 'Stafford', list the project number, the
controlling department number, and the department manager's last name,
address, and birthdate.

Q2: SELECT PNUMBER, DNUM, LNAME, BDATE, ADDRESS

FROM PROJECT, DEPARTMENT, EMPLOYEE
WHERE DNUM=DNUMBER AND MGRSSN=SSN AND
PLOCATION='Stafford’;

◦ In Q2, there are two join conditions

◦ The join condition DNUM=DNUMBER relates a project to its controlling
department
◦ The join condition MGRSSN=SSN relates the controlling department to the
employee who manages that department

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 Aliases, * and
DISTINCT, Empty
WHERE-clause
In SQL, we can use the same name for two (or more)
attributes as long as the attributes are in different relations
A query that refers to two or more attributes with the same
name must qualify the attribute name with the relation
name by prefixing the relation name to the attribute name

Example:

EMPLOYEE.NAME, DEPARTMENT.NAME

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 ALIASES
Some queries need to refer to the same relation twice
In this case, aliases are given to the relation name
Query 8: For each employee, retrieve the employee's name, and the name
of his or her immediate supervisor.

Q8: SELECT E.FNAME, E.LNAME, S.FNAME, S.LNAME

FROM EMPLOYEE as E, EMPLOYEE as S
WHERE E.SUPERSSN=S.SSN

◦ In Q8, the alternate relation names E and S are called aliases or tuple
variables for the EMPLOYEE relation
◦ We can think of E and S as two different copies of EMPLOYEE; E
represents employees in role of supervisees and S represents employees
in role of supervisors

Slide 8-39
 ALIASES (cont.)
◦ Aliasing can also be used in any SQL query for convenience
Can also use the AS keyword to specify aliases

Q8: SELECT E.FNAME, E.LNAME, S.FNAME, S.LNAME

FROM EMPLOYEE AS E, EMPLOYEE AS S
WHERE E.SUPERSSN=S.SSN

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 ARITHMETIC
OPERATIONS
The standard arithmetic operators '+', '-'. '*', and '/' (for addition,
subtraction, multiplication, and division, respectively) can be
applied to numeric values in an SQL query result
Query 27: Show the effect of giving all employees who work on
the 'ProductX' project a 10% raise.

Q27: SELECT FNAME, LNAME, 1.1*SALARY

FROM EMPLOYEE, WORKS_ON, PROJECT
WHERE SSN=ESSN AND PNO=PNUMBER AND
PNAME='ProductX’

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AGGREGATE
FUNCTIONS

COUNT, SUM, MAX, MIN, and AVG

Slide 8-42
 AGGREGATE
FUNCTIONS
Include COUNT, SUM, MAX, MIN, and AVG
Query 15: Find the maximum salary, the minimum salary, and the
average salary among all employees.

Q15: SELECT MAX(SALARY), MIN(SALARY), AVG(SALARY)

FROM EMPLOYEE

◦ Some SQL implementations may not allow more than one

function in the SELECT-clause

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 AGGREGATE
FUNCTIONS (cont.)
Query 16: Find the maximum salary, the minimum salary, and
the average salary among employees who work for the
'Research' department.

Q16: SELECT MAX(SALARY), MIN(SALARY), AVG(SALARY)

FROM EMPLOYEE, DEPARTMENT
WHERE DNO=DNUMBER AND DNAME='Research'

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 AGGREGATE
FUNCTIONS (cont.)
Queries 17 and 18: Retrieve the total number of employees in
the company (Q17), and the number of employees in the
'Research' department (Q18).

Q17: SELECT COUNT (*)

FROM EMPLOYEE

Q18: SELECT COUNT (*)

FROM EMPLOYEE, DEPARTMENT
WHERE DNO=DNUMBER AND DNAME='Research’

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GROUPING
In many cases, we want to apply the aggregate
functions to subgroups of tuples in a relation
Each subgroup of tuples consists of the set of tuples
that have the same value for the grouping attribute(s)
The function is applied to each subgroup
independently
SQL has a GROUP BY-clause for specifying the
grouping attributes, which must also appear in the
SELECT-clause

Slide 8-46
 GROUPING (cont.)
Query 20: For each department, retrieve the department number, the
number of employees in the department, and their average salary.

Q20: SELECT DNO, COUNT (*), AVG (SALARY)

FROM EMPLOYEE
GROUP BY DNO

◦ In Q20, the EMPLOYEE tuples are divided into groups--each group

having the same value for the grouping attribute DNO
◦ The COUNT and AVG functions are applied to each such group of tuples
separately
◦ The SELECT-clause includes only the grouping attribute and the
functions to be applied on each group of tuples
◦ A join condition can be used in conjunction with grouping

Slide 8-47
 GROUPING (cont.)
Query 21: For each project, retrieve the project number, project
name, and the number of employees who work on that project.

Q21: SELECT PNUMBER, PNAME, COUNT (*)

FROM PROJECT, WORKS_ON
WHERE PNUMBER=PNO
GROUP BY PNUMBER, PNAME

◦ In this case, the grouping and functions are applied after the joining of the
two relations

Slide 8-48
THE HAVING-CLAUSE
Sometimes we want to retrieve the values of these functions for only
those groups that satisfy certain conditions
The HAVING-clause is used for specifying a selection condition on
groups (rather than on individual tuples)

Slide 8-49
 THE HAVING-CLAUSE
(cont.)
Query 22: For each project on which more than two
employees work , retrieve the project number, project
name, and the number of employees who work on that
project.

Q22: SELECT PNUMBER, PNAME, COUNT(*)

FROM PROJECT, WORKS_ON
WHERE PNUMBER=PNO
GROUP BY PNUMBER, PNAME
HAVING COUNT (*) > 2

Slide 8-50
 ORDER BY
The ORDER BY clause is used to sort the tuples in a
query result based on the values of some attribute(s)
Query 28: Retrieve a list of employees and the projects
each works in, ordered by the employee's department,
and within each department ordered alphabetically by
employee last name.
Q28: SELECT DNAME, LNAME, FNAME, PNAME
FROM DEPARTMENT, EMPLOYEE, WORKS_ON, PROJECT
WHERE DNUMBER=DNO AND SSN=ESSN AND PNO=PNUMBER
ORDER BY DNAME, LNAME

Slide 8-51
ORDER BY (cont.)
The default order is in ascending order of values
We can specify the keyword DESC if we want a
descending order; the keyword ASC can be used to
explicitly specify ascending order, even though it is the
default

Slide 8-52
Summary of SQL
Queries
A query in SQL can consist of up to six clauses, but only the
first two, SELECT and FROM, are mandatory. The clauses
are specified in the following order:

SELECT<attribute list>
FROM <table list>
[WHERE <condition>]
[GROUP BY <grouping attribute(s)>]
[HAVING <group condition>]
[ORDER BY <attribute list>]

Slide 8-53
Slide 1-54
 Summary of SQL
Queries (cont.)
The SELECT-clause lists the attributes or functions to be retrieved
The FROM-clause specifies all relations (or aliases) needed in the
query but not those needed in nested queries
The WHERE-clause specifies the conditions for selection and join of
tuples from the relations specified in the FROM-clause
GROUP BY specifies grouping attributes
HAVING specifies a condition for selection of groups
ORDER BY specifies an order for displaying the result of a query
A query is evaluated by first applying the WHERE-clause, then
GROUP BY and HAVING, and finally the SELECT-clause

Slide 8-55
Joined Relations Feature
in SQL2
Can specify a "joined relation" in the FROM-clause
Looks like any other relation but is the result of a join
Allows the user to specify different types of joins (regular
"theta" JOIN, NATURAL JOIN, LEFT OUTER JOIN, RIGHT OUTER
JOIN, CROSS JOIN, etc)

Slide 8-56
Joined Relations Feature
in SQL2 (cont.)
Examples:

Q8: SELECT E.FNAME, E.LNAME, S.FNAME, S.LNAME

FROM EMPLOYEE E S
WHERE E.SUPERSSN=S.SSN

can be written as:

Q8: SELECT E.FNAME, E.LNAME, S.FNAME, S.LNAME

FROM (EMPLOYEE E LEFT OUTER JOIN EMPLOYEE S
ON E.SUPERSSN=S.SSN)

Slide 8-57
Joined Relations Feature
in SQL2 (cont.)
Q1: SELECT FNAME, LNAME, ADDRESS
FROM EMPLOYEE, DEPARTMENT
WHERE DNAME='Research' AND DNUMBER=DNO
could be written as:

Q1: SELECT FNAME, LNAME, ADDRESS

FROM (EMPLOYEE JOIN DEPARTMENT
ON DNUMBER=DNO)
WHERE DNAME='Research’
or as:

Q1: SELECT FNAME, LNAME, ADDRESS

FROM (EMPLOYEE NATURAL JOIN DEPARTMENT
AS DEPT(DNAME, DNO, MSSN, MSDATE)
WHERE DNAME='Research’

Slide 8-58
Joined Relations Feature
in SQL2 (cont.)
Another Example;
◦ Q2 could be written as follows; this illustrates multiple joins in
the joined tables

Q2: SELECT PNUMBER, DNUM, LNAME, BDATE, ADDRESS

FROM (PROJECT JOIN DEPARTMENT ON
DNUM=DNUMBER) JOIN EMPLOYEE
ON
MGRSSN=SSN) )
WHERE PLOCATION='Stafford’

Slide 8-59
Specifying Updates in
SQL
There are three SQL commands to modify the database; INSERT,
DELETE, and UPDATE

Slide 8-60
INSERT
In its simplest form, it is used to add one or more tuples to a relation
Attribute values should be listed in the same order as the attributes
were specified in the CREATE TABLE command

Slide 8-61
INSERT (cont.)
Example:

U1: INSERT INTO EMPLOYEE

VALUES ('Richard','K','Marini', '653298653', '30-DEC-52',
'98 Oak Forest,Katy,TX', 'M', 37000,'987654321', 4 )

An alternate form of INSERT specifies explicitly the attribute names that

correspond to the values in the new tuple
Attributes with NULL values can be left out
Example: Insert a tuple for a new EMPLOYEE for whom we only know the
FNAME, LNAME, and SSN attributes.
U1A: INSERT INTO EMPLOYEE (FNAME, LNAME, SSN) VALUES
('Richard', 'Marini', '653298653')

Slide 8-62
INSERT (cont.)
Important Note: Only the constraints specified in
the DDL commands are automatically enforced by
the DBMS when updates are applied to the
database
Another variation of INSERT allows insertion of
multiple tuples resulting from a query into a
relation

Slide 8-63
INSERT (cont.)
◦ Example: Suppose we want to create a temporary table that has the name,
number of employees, and total salaries for each department. A table
DEPTS_INFO is created by U3A, and is loaded with the summary information
retrieved from the database by the query in U3B.

U3A: CREATE TABLE DEPTS_INFO

(DEPT_NAME VARCHAR(10),
NO_OF_EMPS INTEGER,
TOTAL_SAL INTEGER);

U3B: INSERT INTO DEPTS_INFO (DEPT_NAME,

NO_OF_EMPS, TOTAL_SAL)
SELECT DNAME, COUNT (*), SUM (SALARY)
FROM DEPARTMENT, EMPLOYEE
WHERE DNUMBER=DNO
GROUP BY DNAME ;

Slide 8-64
INSERT (cont.)
Note: The DEPTS_INFO table may not be up-to-date if we
change the tuples in either the DEPARTMENT or the
EMPLOYEE relations after issuing U3B. We have to create a
view (see later) to keep such a table up to date.

Slide 8-65
DELETE
Removes tuples from a relation
Includes a WHERE-clause to select the tuples to be deleted
Tuples are deleted from only one table at a time (unless
CASCADE is specified on a referential integrity constraint)
A missing WHERE-clause specifies that all tuples in the
relation are to be deleted; the table then becomes an empty
table
The number of tuples deleted depends on the number of
tuples in the relation that satisfy the WHERE-clause
Referential integrity should be enforced

Slide 8-66
DELETE (cont.)
Examples:
U4A: DELETE FROM EMPLOYEE
WHERE LNAME='Brown’

U4B: DELETE FROM EMPLOYEE

WHERE SSN='123456789’

U4C: DELETE FROM EMPLOYEE

WHERE DNO IN
(SELECT DNUMBER
FROM DEPARTMENT
WHERE DNAME='Research')

U4D: DELETE FROM EMPLOYEE

Slide 8-67
UPDATE
Used to modify attribute values of one or more
selected tuples
A WHERE-clause selects the tuples to be modified
An additional SET-clause specifies the attributes to
be modified and their new values
Each command modifies tuples in the same relation
Referential integrity should be enforced

Slide 8-68
 UPDATE (cont.)
Example: Change the location and controlling department
number of project number 10 to 'Bellaire' and 5, respectively.

U5: UPDATE PROJECT

SET PLOCATION = 'Bellaire', DNUM = 5
WHERE PNUMBER=10

Slide 8-69
 UPDATE (cont.)
Example: Give all employees in the 'Research' department a 10% raise in
salary.

U6: UPDATE EMPLOYEE

SET SALARY = SALARY *1.1
WHERE DNO IN (SELECT DNUMBER
FROM DEPARTMENT
WHERE DNAME='Research')

In this request, the modified SALARY value depends on the original SALARY
value in each tuple
The reference to the SALARY attribute on the right of = refers to the old
SALARY value before modification
The reference to the SALARY attribute on the left of = refers to the new
SALARY value after modification
Slide 8-70
SET OPERATIONS
SQL has directly incorporated some set operations
There is a union operation (UNION), and in some
versions of SQL there are set difference (MINUS) and
intersection (INTERSECT) operations
The resulting relations of these set operations are sets of
tuples; duplicate tuples are eliminated from the result
The set operations apply only to union compatible
relations ; the two relations must have the same
attributes and the attributes must appear in the same
order

Slide 8-71
 SET OPERATIONS
(cont.)
Query 4: Make a list of all project names for projects that involve an employee whose
last name is 'Smith' as a worker or as a manager of the department that controls the
project.

Q4: (SELECT PNAME

FROM PROJECT, DEPARTMENT, EMPLOYEE
WHERE DNUM=DNUMBER AND MGRSSN=SSN AND
LNAME='Smith')
UNION (SELECT PNAME
FROM PROJECT, WORKS_ON, EMPLOYEE
WHERE PNUMBER=PNO AND ESSN=SSN
AND LNAME='Smith')

Slide 8-72
Comparisons Involving NULL and
Three-Valued Logic

Slide 1-73
NESTING OF QUERIES
A complete SELECT query, called a nested query , can be specified
within the WHERE-clause of another query, called the outer query
Many of the previous queries can be specified in an alternative form
using nesting
Query 1: Retrieve the name and address of all employees who work for
the 'Research' department.

Q1: SELECT FNAME, LNAME, ADDRESS

FROM EMPLOYEE
WHERE DNO IN (SELECT DNUMBER
FROM DEPARTMENT
WHERE DNAME='Research' )

Slide 8-74
 NESTING OF QUERIES
(cont.)
The nested query selects the number of the 'Research' department
The outer query select an EMPLOYEE tuple if its DNO value is in the result of
the nested query
The comparison operator IN compares a value v with a set (or multi-set) of
values V, and evaluates to TRUE if v is one of the elements in V
In general, we can have several levels of nested queries
A reference to an unqualified attribute refers to the relation declared in the
innermost nested query
In this example, the nested query is not correlated with the outer query

Slide 8-75
 CORRELATED NESTED
QUERIES
If a condition in the WHERE-clause of a nested query references an attribute
of a relation declared in the outer query , the two queries are said to be
correlated
The result of a correlated nested query is different for each tuple (or
combination of tuples) of the relation(s) the outer query
Query 12: Retrieve the name of each employee who has a dependent with the
same first name as the employee.

Q12: SELECT E.FNAME, E.LNAME

FROM EMPLOYEE AS E
WHERE E.SSN IN (SELECT ESSN
FROM DEPENDENT AS D
WHERE E.FNAME = D.NAME)

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 CORRELATED NESTED
QUERIES (cont.)
◦ In Q12, the nested query has a different result for each tuple in the outer
query

A query written with nested SELECT... FROM... WHERE... blocks and using
the = or IN comparison operators can always be expressed as a single
block query. For example, Q12 may be written as in Q12A

Q12A: SELECT E.FNAME, E.LNAME

FROM EMPLOYEE AS E, DEPENDENT as D
WHERE E.SSN = D.ESSN AND E.FNAME=D.NAME)

◦ The original SQL as specified for SYSTEM R also had a CONTAINS comparison
operator, which is used in conjunction with nested correlated queries
◦ This operator was dropped from the language, possibly because of the
difficulty in implementing it efficiently

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CORRELATED NESTED
QUERIES (cont.)
◦ Most implementations of SQL do not have this operator
◦ The CONTAINS operator compares two sets of values , and returns TRUE if one
set contains all values in the other set
(reminiscent of the division operation of algebra).
◦ Query 3: Retrieve the name of each employee who works on all the projects controlled
by department number 5.

Q3: SELECT FNAME, LNAME

FROM EMPLOYEE
WHERE ( (SELECT PNO
FROM WORKS_ON
WHERE SSN=ESSN)
CONTAINS
(SELECT PNUMBER
FROM PROJECT
WHERE DNUM=5) )

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CORRELATED NESTED
QUERIES (cont.)
◦ In Q3, the second nested query, which is not correlated with the outer query,
retrieves the project numbers of all projects controlled by department 5
◦ The first nested query, which is correlated, retrieves the project numbers on which
the employee works, which is different for each employee tuple because of the
correlation

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THE EXISTS FUNCTION
EXISTS is used to check whether the result of
a correlated nested query is empty (contains
no tuples) or not
We can formulate Query 12 in an alternative
form that uses EXISTS as Q12B below

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THE EXISTS FUNCTION
(cont.)
Query 12: Retrieve the name of each employee who has
a dependent with the same name as the first name of
the employee.
Q12B: SELECT FNAME, LNAME
FROM EMPLOYEE
WHERE EXISTS
(SELECT *
FROM DEPENDENT
WHERE SSN=ESSN AND
FNAME=DEPENDENT_NAME)
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THE EXISTS FUNCTION
(cont.)
Query 6: Retrieve the names of employees who have no
dependents.

Q6: SELECT FNAME, LNAME

FROM EMPLOYEE
WHERE NOT EXISTS
(SELECT *
FROM DEPENDENT
WHERE SSN=ESSN)

◦ In Q6, the correlated nested query retrieves all DEPENDENT tuples related
to an EMPLOYEE tuple. If none exist , the EMPLOYEE tuple is selected
◦ EXISTS is necessary for the expressive power of SQL
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