Farming Based Livelihood Systems (2+1) Theory Note

LECTURE NOTE
MDC-I
FARMING BASED LIVELIHOOD SYSTEMS
(2+1)
(As per ICAR VIth
Deans Committee Syllabus)
Prepared by
Dr. Ravindra M. Muchhadiya
Ph. D. (Agri.) Agronomy
College of Horticulture
Junagadh Agricultural University
Junagadh - 362001

MDC-I “Farming Based Livelihood Systems” (2+1) | Dr. R. M. Muchhadiya (JAU)
MDC-I Farming Based Livelihood Systems (2+1)
(As per ICAR VIth
Deans Committee Syllabus)
Objectives
To make the students aware about farming-based livelihood systems in agriculture
To disseminate the knowledge and skill how farming-based systems can be a source of
livelihood
Theory
Status of agriculture in India and different states, Income of farmers and rural people in
India, Livelihood-Definition, concept and livelihood pattern in urban and rural areas,
Different indicators to study livelihood systems. Agricultural livelihood systems (ALS):
Meaning, approach, approaches and framework, Definition of farming systems and
farming based livelihood systems, Prevalent Farming systems in India contributing to
livelihood. Types of traditional and modern farming systems. Components of farming
system/ farming based livelihood systems- Crops and cropping systems, Livestock,
(Dairy, Piggery, Goatry, Poultry, Duckery etc.), Horticultural crops, Agro-forestry
systems, Aquaculture Duck/Poultry cum Fish, Dairy cum Fish, Piggery cum Fish etc.,
Small, medium and large enterprises including value chains and secondary enterprises as
livelihood components for farmers, Factors affecting integration of various enterprises of
farming for livelihood. Feasibility of different farming systems for different agro-climatic
zones, Commercial farming- based livelihood models by NABARD, ICAR and other
organizations across the country, Case studies on different livelihood enterprises
associated with the farming. Risk and success factors in farming-based livelihood
systems, Schemes and programs by Central and State Government, Public and Private
organizations involved in promotion of farming based livelihood opportunities. Role of
farming-based livelihood enterprises in 21st
Century in view of circular economy, green
economy, climate change, digitalization and changing life style.
Practical
Survey of farming systems and agriculture-based livelihood enterprises, Study of
components of important farming based livelihood models/ systems in different agro-
climatic zones, Study of production and profitability of crop based, livestock based,
processing based and integrated farming based livelihood models, Field visit of
innovative farming system models, Visit of Agri-based enterprises and their functional
aspects for integration of production, processing and distribution sectors and Study of
agri-enterprises involved in industry and service sectors (Value Chain Models), Learning
about concept of project formulation on farming- based livelihood systems along with
cost and profit analysis, Case study of Start-Ups in agri-sectors.

MDC-I “Farming Based Livelihood Systems” (2+1) | Dr. R. M. Muchhadiya (JAU)
Suggested readings
1. Agarwal, A. and Narain, S. 1989. Towards Green Villages: A strategy for
Environmentally, Sound and Participatory Rural Development, Center for Science and
Environment, New Delhi, India.
2. Ashley, C. and Carney, D. 1999. Sustainable Livelihoods: Lessons from Early
Experience; Department for International Development: London, UK, Volume 7.
3. Carloni, A. 2001 Global Farming Systems Study: Challenges and Priorities to 2030 –
Regional Analysis: Sub-Saharan Africa, Consultation Document, FAO, Rome, Italy.
4. Dixon, J., Gulliver, A. and Gibbon, D. 2001. Farming Systems and Poverty:
Improving Farmers’ Livelihoods in a Changing World. FAO and World Bank, Rome,
Italy and Washington, DC, USA.
5. Evenson, R. E. 2000. Agricultural Productivity and Production in Developing
Countries. In FAO, The State of Food and Agriculture, FAO, Rome, Italy.
6. Reddy, S. R. 2016. Farming System and Sustainable Agriculture, Kalyani Publishers,
New Delhi.
7. Walia, S. S. and Walia, U. S. 2020. Farming System and Sustainable Agriculture,
Scientific Publishers, Jodhpur, Rajasthan.

Status of agriculture in India and different states
India’s agriculture sector plays a vital role in economic growth of the nation. However, the
contribution of this sector has steadily declined due to the rise in contribution of manufacturing
and services sectors. In 1950-51, 69 percent of India’s total workforce was engaged in agriculture,
contributing 53 percent to the national income. The Economic Survey 2023-24 indicated that the
Indian agriculture sector provides livelihood support to about 42.3 per cent of the population and
has a share of 18.2 per cent in the country’s GDP at current prices. Agriculture employment
continues to be a significant source of livelihood in India. Agriculture sector has registered an
average annual growth rate of 4.18 per cent over the last five years at constant prices.
Indian agriculture, which began around 11,000 years before present (BP) with the
domestication of animals and early cultivation of plants, has made significant progress over the
millennia. Historically, food shortage in pre-independent India caused serious impacts as
agriculture was monsoon-dependent and unfavourable rains and natural calamities resulted in crop
failures. Post-independence, Indian agriculture achieved several landmarks primarily due to
science-led agricultural development. In the history of independent India, there has been multi-
fold increase in the production of all the commodities, in spite the net sown area remaining almost
constant. The country has witnessed a rainbow revolution in the agricultural commodities viz.,
Foodgrain (Green revolution), Milk (White revolution), Oilseeds (Yellow revolution), Fisheries
(Blue revolution), Fruits/Honey (Golden revolution), Eggs (Silver revolution), Potato (Round
revolution), Meat (Pink revolution), Fertilizers (Grey revolution). Thus, the concept of Rainbow
revolution is an integrated development of crop cultivation, horticulture, forestry, fishery, poultry,
animal husbandry and food processing industry. A blend of science, technology, extension and
policy has contributed in this journey of transforming the country from food scarce to food surplus
nation.
India’s food grain production is increasing every year. Foodgrain production hit an all-
time high of 329.7 million tonnes in 2022-23. India exports more than 7% of its total food grains,
contributing to its position as a significant player in the global agricultural market. India is among
the top producers of several crops such as wheat, rice, pulses, sugarcane and cotton. Within the
crop sector, India is second highest producer of fruits and vegetables, contributing significantly to
the economy. India currently showed a record production of 351.9 million tonnes of horticultural
products from 28.1 million ha area. The productivity of horticulture crops has increased by 50
percent over the past two decades; it now stands at 12.5 tons per hectare (t/ha). Crops such as
spices, plantation crops, and aromatic crops contribute significantly to the development of the
country’s horticultural sector. However, the productivity is found to be lower in the case of most
crops, as compared to other top producing countries such as China, Brazil and the United States.
Crops Percent share
Total Cereals 49.61
Total Pulses 13.64
Total Food-grains 63.26
Total Fruits 2.29
Total Vegetables 3.48
Total Oil Seeds 14.65
Total Fibers 5.97
The livestock and fisheries sectors of the economy have been playing a vital role in
improving the socioeconomic conditions of farmers, especially those operating at a small and
marginal scale. The contribution of the livestock sector to the GVA in agriculture has risen from
24.32% in 2014-15 to 30.38% in 2022-23, reflecting its growing significance in the agricultural
landscape. India is the world’s largest milk-producing country, with a record production of 230.6
million tons in 2022-23. Globally, it is also the largest producer of buffalo meat, the second-largest
producer of goat meat, and the third-largest producer of eggs and fish. India stands eighth in the
world for overall meat production (9.8 mT). Poultry contributes significantly to the overall growth

of the livestock sector, with a sustained increase observed in egg and poultry meat production.
India’s annual fish production has increased to a record 17.4 mT in 2022-23. It presently holds the
distinction of being the world’s second-largest aquaculture producer and fourth-largest capture
fishery producer. Inland fisheries currently contribute about three-fourths of the total fish
production, with the remainder coming from marine capture fisheries.
Allied activities such as livestock and fisheries are performing better indicating that greater
emphasis should be placed on them to boost farmers’income. Small farmers need to move to high-
value agriculture such as fruits, vegetables, poultry, and dairy.
Agricultural land use
Geographical Area = 328.74 million ha
Net sown area = 141.01 million ha
Area Sown more than once = 78.15 million ha
Gross Cropped Area = 219.16 million ha
Net Irrigated Area = 77.92 million ha
Gross Irrigated Area = 120.38 million ha
Land holding (2015-16)
No. of holdings: '000 number, Area operated: '000 ha
Category of holding Number of Holdings Area
Marginal (< 1.0 ha) 100251 (68.45) 37923 (24.03)
Small (1.0 to 2.0 ha) 25809 (17.62) 36151 (22.91)
Semi-medium (2.0-4.0) 13993 (9.55) 37619 (23.84)
Medium (4.0-10.0 ha) 5561 (3.80) 31810 (20.16)
Large (10.0 ha & above) 838 (0.57) 14314 (9.07)
All holdings 146454 (100.0) 157817 (100.0)
Figures in parentheses indicate percentage share out of total holdings/area.
Around 85 percent of the operational holdings in the country are small and marginal.
Increasing demand for industrialization, urbanization, housing and infrastructure is forcing
conversion of agricultural land to non-agricultural uses. The scope for expansion of the area
available for cultivation is limited. Medium holdings are getting converted frequently into small
and marginal holdings
Status of Agriculture in Different States
Gujarat
Gujarat is a leading agricultural state, particularly known for its cotton and groundnut
production. The state's diverse climate and soil conditions support the cultivation of a variety of
crops, including wheat, rice, and pulses. Gujarat also has a significant horticulture sector,
producing fruits like mangoes and bananas. The state's dairy industry is robust, with the famous
Amul cooperative headquartered here. Gujarat's progressive agricultural policies and
infrastructure contribute to its agricultural prosperity.
Punjab
Punjab, often called the “the “Food Basket of India” and “Granary of India,” is renowned
for its extensive wheat and rice cultivation. However, issues like soil degradation and water
scarcity are becoming critical. Punjab also grows significant quantities of maize and barley. The
dairy sector is strong, with substantial milk production. Punjab's agriculture is characterized by
mechanization and high yields, making it a crucial player in ensuring national food security.
Haryana:
Similar to Punjab, Haryana is a major producer of wheat and rice. The state has also seen
diversification into horticulture and dairy farming.

Uttar Pradesh
Uttar Pradesh is the largest agricultural state in India. It is a leading producer of sugarcane,
wheat, rice, potatoes and various fruits and vegetables. The fertile Gangetic plains and favorable
climate allow for double cropping in most parts of the state, contributing immensely to agricultural
production. Rice-wheat is the dominant cropping system practised here.
Maharashtra
This state has a mix of traditional and modern farming practices. It is known for its
production of cotton, sugarcane, soybeans, and horticultural crops. However, it faces challenges
with drought and water management. The state's dairy industry is well-developed, contributing to
its agricultural output. Additionally, Maharashtra's progressive farming techniques and irrigation
projects enhance its agricultural productivity.
Madhya Pradesh
Madhya Pradesh, known as the "Heart of India," is a leading agricultural state with
significant production of soybeans and pulses. The state's diverse topography and climate support
the cultivation of wheat, rice, and maize. MP is also a major producer of oilseeds, particularly
soybeans, contributing to India's vegetable oil industry. Horticulture is another vital sector, with
the state producing various fruits and vegetables, bolstering its agricultural output and rural
economy.
Tamil Nadu
Known for its diversity, Tamil Nadu produces both food and cash crops like rice,
sugarcane, and cotton. The state has been proactive in adopting technology and sustainable
practices.
Karnataka
Karnataka stands out for its diverse agricultural activities, notably the cultivation of coffee
and spices in the Western Ghats region. The state is also a major producer of silk, earning it the
title of India's "Silk State." Millets, rice, and sugarcane are other significant crops grown in
Karnataka. Its favorable climate and varied geography enable the cultivation of a wide range of
horticultural crops, including fruits and vegetables, supporting the state's agricultural economy.
Andhra Pradesh
Andhra Pradesh is a key agricultural state, prominently producing rice, making it one of
India's top rice producers. The state's favorable climate supports the cultivation of various crops,
including tobacco, cotton, and chilies. Andhra Pradesh is also known for its horticulture,
particularly the production of mangoes, bananas, and citrus fruits. The state's extensive coastline
supports a thriving fishing industry, contributing to its diverse agricultural and allied activities.
Kerala
Agriculture in Kerala is characterized by spices, coconut, and rubber. The state is focusing
on organic farming and sustainable practices.
West Bengal
The state excels in rice production and has significant aquaculture activities. It also has a
growing focus on organic farming. The state also excels in growing jute, earning it the nickname
"Jute Bowl of India." Tea plantations in Darjeeling produce world-famous tea. The state's
agriculture is diversified with fruits, vegetables, and flowers, playing a vital role in its economy.
Odisha
Primarily known for rice, Odisha is also focusing on diversifying its agriculture with
horticulture and aquaculture initiatives.
Assam
Assam, located in northeastern India, is famous for its tea plantations, particularly in the
Assam Valley, producing some of the finest teas in the world. The state's agriculture also includes
the cultivation of rice, jute, and oilseeds. Horticulture and fishery sector also well developed.

Income of Farmers and Rural People in India
The income of farmers and rural people in India is a critical aspect of the agricultural
economy and the overall development of the country. Farming forms the backbone of the rural
economy in India. However, income levels among farmers and rural households vary widely due
to several factors, including landholding size, access to technology, government support, and
market conditions.
Average income of farmers in India
According to the Economic Survey, the average monthly income of a farmer in India was
estimated to be around 10,218 from all the sources during 2018-19. However, this figure varies
significantly across regions, types of crops, and the size of landholdings. Small and marginal
farmers earn much less than large-scale farmers.
Income disparities between different states in India are significant. States like Punjab,
Haryana, and Maharashtra, which have better irrigation facilities, infrastructure, and access to
markets, tend to have higher average farmer incomes compared to states like Bihar, Uttar Pradesh,
and Madhya Pradesh. Rural-urban income inequality is also a growing concern, with urban areas
generally offering higher income opportunities due to better access to non-farm employment,
education, and healthcare.
Sources of income
(1) Agriculture allied activities
Agriculture is the primary source of income for a significant portion of rural population.
Small and marginal farmers rely on mixed source of income such as crop cultivation and allied
activities such as livestock, dairy farming, poultry, etc.
(2) Non-agricultural income
Many rural people also rely on non-agricultural sources of income such as rural industries,
handicraft, construction, service sectors and government schemes like MGNREGA, which
provides guaranteed employment for 100 days in a year.
(3) Government initiatives
The PM-KISAN scheme provides farmers with Rs. 6000 annually. Other initiatives
include subsidies for seed, fertilizer, irrigation, etc.
Key factors influencing farmers’ income in India
(1) Land holding
The income of farmers in India is often linked to the size of their landholdings. Small and
marginal farmers tend to have low income due to the limited scale of production. These farmers
are often trapped in cycles of low income and debt. Large farmers, on the other hand, generally
have higher incomes due to economies of scale, access to modern technology, and better market
linkages.
(2) Market access and prices
Income levels are heavily influenced by farmers' access to local and national markets.
Fluctuations in crop prices due to supply-demand imbalances, weather conditions, or international
trade can lead to income volatility.
The minimum support price (MSP) set by the government for certain crops helps stabilize
income, but only a fraction of farmers is able to benefit from MSP schemes due to logistical and
infrastructure limitations.
(3) Type of crops
Farmers’ income is also impacted by the types of crops they grow. Crops like rice, wheat,
and pulses are staple food crops that often provide modest income, while high-value crops like

fruits, vegetables, and cash crops such as cotton, sugarcane, and tobacco can generate higher
returns. The shift from traditional crops to cash crops, or diversification into horticulture, dairy,
and poultry farming, can enhance farmers’ incomes.
(4) Weather and climatic conditions
India’s agricultural income is highly dependent on the monsoon season and the overall
climate. Irregular rainfall, droughts, floods, and other climate change- induced impacts often lead
to crop failure, which can significantly reduce farmers' income. Farmers in rain-fed areas are
particularly vulnerable, and the unpredictability of weather patterns poses a major risk to their
income.
(5) Government support and subsidies
The Indian government provides several support schemes aimed at improving farmers’
income, such as the Pradhan Mantri Kisan Samman Nidhi (PM-KISAN) scheme, which provides
direct income support to farmers.
There are also subsidies for fertilizers, electricity, and irrigation, which help reduce
production costs, but the effectiveness of these schemes often depends on proper implementation
and equitable distribution.
(6) Debt and financial stress
Many farmers in India depend on loans to finance their agricultural activities. However,
high levels of indebtedness are a significant concern, as interest rates on informal loans (from
moneylenders) can be very high. This debt trap is a major factor contributing to rural distress and
low-income levels.
Challenges to increase farmers’ income
(1) Low productivity
Indian agriculture often faces low productivity due to outdated farming practices,
inadequate access to modern machinery, and limited research and development.
(2) Fragmented landholdings
The average size of landholding in India is very small, which limits the ability of farmers
to adopt efficient farming practices and invest in modern technology.
(3) Dependence on monsoons
Despite advances in irrigation, a large portion of Indian agriculture still relies on the
monsoon, making income susceptible to weather fluctuations.
(4) Marketing and storage issues
Poor storage facilities and insufficient access to organized markets often result in post-
harvest losses, which reduce the overall income of farmers.

Livelihood: Definition, Concept, Livelihood pattern in urban and rural areas,
Agricultural livelihood systems (ALS) framework, Different indicators to study
livelihood systems
In everyday language ‘livelihoods’ refers to a ‘means of living’. All activities involved
in finding food, searching for water, shelter, clothing and all necessities required for human
survival at individual and household level are referred to as a livelihood.
A livelihood comprises the capabilities, assets and activities required for a means of
living (Chambers and Conway, 1992).
A Livelihood can be defined as the activities, the assets and the access that jointly
determine the living gained by an individual or household (Ellis 1998).
The household, rather than the individual, is commonly adopted as the basic unit of
analysis when considering the economic situation of society. Household may be defined as a
small group of persons who share the same living accommodation and resources.
Concept of livelihood
The concept of livelihood goes beyond the income generation. It focuses on a more
holistic understanding of the way people secure the essentials of life, such as food, water,
shelter, clothing, and access to education and healthcare. It also includes social, cultural, and
environmental dimensions. The main difference between livelihood and poverty line is that
livelihood is a broad concept that includes a person's capabilities, assets, and activities, while
the poverty line is a specific income level below which a person is considered to be living in
poverty. Livelihood analysis can provide a more comprehensive understanding of poverty than
traditional poverty measurements that only consider income and expenditure.
Key components of livelihood
(1) Assets
Assets include tangible (e.g. land, livestock) and intangible (knowledge, skill, social
network etc.) resources that individuals or households have access to.
(2) Activities
The specific actions that individuals or households undertake to meet their needs, such
as farming, trading, labouring, or working in industries, etc.
(3) Capabilities
The ability of individuals or households to use their assets effectively to generate
income and secure their livelihood. This can include knowledge, skills, health, and access to
services.
Livelihood pattern in urban and rural areas
People in rural areas engage in a variety of activities that are often tied to the traditional
way of life. People in urban areas engage in a wide range of activities because of the many
opportunities and facilities available in these densely populated places.
Livelihoods in rural areas are primarily based on primary activities, such as farming,
fishing, forestry, and crafts work. Income of rural people varies with geography, climate,
resources, and economic development. Processing agricultural products into value-added
goods, such as making jams, pickles, or milling grains into flour, provides additional income
for rural communities. Various government initiatives and support programs aimed at rural
development can also contribute to the income of people in rural areas. Livelihoods in urban
areas are based on secondary and tertiary activities, such as manufacturing, services, and

trade. Urban people may be self-employed or employed in government offices, multinational
companies, banks, hospitals, educational institutes, or training and business concerns. Due to
the abundance of diverse opportunities in urban environments, residents often have a variety
of income sources.
Rural areas have limited educational facilities, whereas urban areas usually have a lot
of schools, colleges, universities, and places for vocational training.
The lifestyle of people in urban and rural areas differs significantly due to various
factors, including the environment, infrastructure, and economic opportunities. Rural life is
slower, often centered around traditional work like farming. Urban life is fast-paced and busy,
with modern jobs and a dynamic atmosphere. Access to amenities also differs. Rural areas have
fewer modern facilities, contributing to a simpler lifestyle, whereas cities provide numerous
conveniences.
Rural areas typically have smaller populations, lower population densities with open
space and slower population growth rates due to limited job opportunities, fewer educational
and healthcare facilities, lifestyle preferences and migration to urban centers. Urban areas are
characterized by larger populations, higher population densities with crowded living spaces
and higher population growth rates due to factors like migration, job opportunities, and better
access to education and healthcare.
Community structure also differs in rural and urban areas. Rural people have a strong
sense of community with close-knit relationships and informal social interactions, whereas
more diverse population with formal and business-oriented social interactions in urban areas.
Some of the key differences are summarized below.
Aspects Rural Livelihood Urban Livelihood
Primary Activities Agriculture, fishing, forestry,
artisanal work
Industry, services, retail,
small enterprises
Land and Natural Resources Heavily dependent on land
and natural resources
Limited dependence on
natural resources, more
industrialized
Income Stability Seasonal and climate-
dependent; often low and
fluctuating
More diverse opportunities
but often unstable in the
informal sector
Migration Patterns Outmigration to urban centers
or other rural areas for work
Migration within or to other
urban areas for better
opportunities
Government Support Schemes like MGNREGA,
agricultural subsidies, rural
development programs
Urban employment schemes,
social security programs,
housing subsidies
Sustainable Livelihood (SL)
A livelihood is sustainable when it can cope with and recover from stresses and shocks,
maintain or enhance its capabilities and assets while not undermine the natural resource base.
Sustainable Livelihood means how individuals and communities can maintain and
improve their means of living in a manner that is environmentally sustainable, economically
viable, and socially equitable.
Agricultural Livelihood System (ALS)
The Agricultural Livelihood System (ALS) refers to the integrated and holistic
approach to managing agricultural activities that contribute to the economic and social well-

being of individuals and communities. This system is vital in rural areas where agriculture is a
primary source of income, food security, and cultural identity.
ALS encompasses the various agricultural-based activities and strategies employed by
households and communities to secure their livelihoods. It includes the farming activities,
income diversification strategies, access to markets, inputs, and support services that shape the
living conditions of individuals who depend on agriculture for their sustenance.
Sustainable Livelihood Framework
According to Solesbury (2003), the sustainable livelihoods framework presents the key
factors that influences people's livelihoods decisions, outcomes, and relationships between
these. The livelihoods framework is a way of understanding how households derive their
livelihoods using their assets and capabilities to develop livelihood strategies composed of a
wide range of activities.
It provides a holistic and multidimensional approach to assess and understand the
various dimensions of livelihoods. It emphasizes the multiple interactions between the various
factors which affect livelihoods.
It considers the different assets or capitals that households possess, including human,
financial, physical, natural, and social capital. The framework also takes into account how
households cope with shocks and stresses. It also considers the impact of livelihood strategies
on livelihood outcomes and livelihood sustainability.
The Sustainable Livelihoods Framework is a tool that can help analyze the causes of
poverty and develop strategies to alleviate it. It is used for planning new development activities
and assessing the impact of present development activities and interventions. It can be used as
a practical tool for policymakers and researchers to inform interventions and prioritize
resources for sustainable development.
Vulnerability context
Vulnerability context means the external environment in which the households live.
People’s livelihoods are fundamentally affected by trends, shocks and seasonality over which
they have little or no control.

(1) Trends: Trends influence the choice of livelihood strategies. Population trends, economic
trends, resource trends, new technologies, etc.
(2) Shocks: Shocks are sudden happenings over short periods such as conflict, economic
shocks, health shocks and natural shocks such as earthquakes. Shocks can destroy assets
directly. e.g. selling of livestock in case of drought or economic crisis.
(3) Seasonality: Seasonality is a periodic change such as seasonal fluctuations in prices,
rainfall, production, health, employment opportunities, etc.
Vulnerability context can be changed by support and policies. e.g. compensation for
crop losses by the government.
Assets
Livelihood assets refer to the various resources possessed by individuals and
households which enable them to pursue and sustain their livelihoods. Livelihood assets can
be divided into five core categories (types of capital). The livelihood asset pentagon lies at the
core of the livelihood framework. It depicts important inter-relationships among various assets.
e.g. if someone has more access to land, he may be financially rich.
Livelihood assets play a crucial role in determining livelihood patterns as well as in
reducing rural poverty. They also influence their ability to cope with risks, shocks, adverse
situations and explore different livelihood options.
(a) Human capital
Human capital includes knowledge, education, skills, health, and ability to work. They
make it possible for people to pursue different livelihood strategies and achieve their livelihood
objectives.
(b) Natural capital
Natural assets refer to the natural resources available to individuals viz., land, water,
forest, fisheries, biodiversity, etc. There is a wide variation in the resources that make up natural
capital, from intangible public goods such as the atmosphere and biodiversity to divisible assets
used directly for production (trees, land, etc.). Natural capital is especially important to those
who derive all or part of their livelihoods from direct use of resources. There is a close
relationship between natural capital and vulnerability context. e.g. fires that destroy forests,
floods and earthquakes that destroy agricultural land.
(c) Financial capital
Financial assets include income, economic condition, savings, access to credit, and type
of work, etc. Money can be used for direct achievement of livelihood outcomes. e.g. Food
purchase to reduce food insecurity.
(d) Physical capital
Physical assets encompass tangible assets like infrastructure, equipment, tools, etc.
needed to support livelihood. (Intangible assets means non-physical assets with monitory
value, e.g. Brand, copyright, patent, trademark, etc.). Insufficient physical capital (producer
goods) limits peoples’ productive capacity.
(e) Social capital
Social capital includes social resources such as social networks, relationships, and
community support which them to achieve their goals. e.g. membership in formal groups (self
help groups, cooperatives), village or caste groups, etc. Social capital has a direct impact upon
other types of capital. e.g. Social capital can help increase people’s incomes and rates of saving
(financial capital)
Those with more assets are more likely to have greater livelihood options with which
to pursue their goals and reduce poverty.

People’s ability to escape from poverty is dependent upon their access to assets. e.g.
legal ownership rights, community institutions regulating access to common resources, etc.
Many livelihood programmes in India have helped the poor to create assets. e.g. Awas
Yojna enables poor people to build their houses.
Transforming structures and policies
Transforming structures are institutions and organisations (private and government)
that set policies and legislation, services, trade, etc. that shape livelihoods. They operate at all
levels, from household level to international level) global, national, regional, district and local
levels).
Processes determine the way in which structures and individuals operate and interact.
e.g. policies and legislations.
If structures can be thought of as hardware, processes can be thought of as software.
They determine peoples’ access to various types of capitals, livelihoods strategies, etc.
Transforming structure and policies support people to be more resilient to the negative effects
of trends, shocks and seasonality. e.g. Relief policies, well-functioning markets. Some
institutions can restrict people’s choice of livelihood, e.g. some rigid cast or social systems
prevent women from doing some activities.
Livelihood strategies
Livelihood strategies are the combination of activities that people choose to achieve
their livelihood goals. The choice of strategies is a dynamic process in which people combine
activities to meet their changing needs. For example, farming households also include non-
farm activities to diversify income and meet household needs. People’s choice of livelihood
strategies is greatly influenced by their access to assets as well as the policies, institutions and
processes that affect their ability to use these assets to achieve positive livelihood outcomes.
Migration, whether seasonal or permanent, is also one common livelihood strategy.
Livelihood outcomes
Livelihood outcomes are the achievements or outcomes that the people gain through
their livelihood strategies. Examples of livelihood outcomes are increased income, increased
well-being (e.g. self-esteem, physical security & health, access to services, maintenance of
cultural heritage), improved food security, reduced vulnerability, more sustainable use of
natural resources. Livelihood outcomes help understand peoples’ priorities for particular
strategies, results of these strategies and how people respond to new priorities and constraints.

Different indicators to study livelihood systems
The success of the livelihood interventions can be assessed by understanding their
contribution to livelihood outcomes that people consider important. e.g. Rise in income,
increased livestock, education to children are some easily monitored outcomes.
Livelihood status can be measured using various approaches. One approach is to
construct a scale/score to measure livelihood status based on multiple indicators such as
income, vulnerability, risk, health, nutrition, education, and other household objectives. Various
livelihoods indices can be calculated using the score of different indicators.
Economic Efficiency Indicators
(1) Net cropped area
Proportion of net sown area in the total cropped area, represents the extent of utilization
of land resources for farming activities.
(2) Net irrigated area
Area under assured irrigation reflecting the irrigation potential of the region.
(3) Grain yield of food crops
Total food grain production of cereals and pulses per unit area. Productivity of output
indicates the efficiency of all the resources used in its production.
(4) Fertilizer use
Right quantity, method, and timing of fertilizer usage based on soil test are crucial in
the optimum usage of fertilizers. It not only economizes production but also results in
sustainability.
(5) Productivity of land
Income earned from agriculture and its related activities per unit cultivated area
represents the productivity of land in monetary terms. It varies depending on the type of crops
being cultivated, livestock components being reared, technologies being used, etc.
(6) Productivity of labour
It reflects the per capita income of the agricultural labourers earned from agriculture
and its related activities. It is a crucial element in economic growth.
Ecological Security Indicators
(7) Forest cover
Forest cover plays an important role in ecological balance. It has a greater influence on
the hydrological cycle and carbon concentration.
(8) Human density
(9) Density of livestock
The number of individuals and livestock component per unit of geographical area
represents the density of the human and livestock population, respectively. The extent of
pressure exerted by human and livestock population have a direct effect on natural resources
like land, water, etc. and ecological balance.
(10) Degraded land
The extent of degradation of natural resources influences social cost to be borne by the
society.
(11) Rainfall variability
Agriculture mainly depends on rainfall, and its variation has greater influence on net
cropped area. Net irrigated area depends on availability of groundwater, and its recharge which
further depends on rainfall pattern. Optimum rainfall with uniform distribution is considered
as the robust indicator of ecological balance.

(12) Pressure on ground water
It indicates the availability of ground water for future generations. Recharge of
groundwater mainly depends on rainfall. Excess utilization of groundwater as compared to
recharge, leads to tremendous pressure on groundwater.
(13) Cropping intensity
Growing a greater number of crops per unit area is a feasible alternative for attaining
food and fodder security. Higher cropping intensity leads to more productivity from arable
land.
Social Equity Indicators
(14) Availability of food grains
(15) Availability of milk
In addition to food security, nutritional security is of immense importance in attaining
development. Availability of food and milk to adults, children, pregnant women as per the
recommendation of ICMR is crucial in determining the development of any region.
Malnutrition and malnourishment have a negative bearing on development.
(16) Literacy of rural female
Gender equity is crucial in the development of any region. Both genders (male and
female) should have equal opportunities in terms of access to resources, ownership of
resources, decision making, etc.
(17) Rural electrification
Energizing pump sets is essential for the effective and efficient usage of groundwater,
a major source of irrigation. It is essential to run small cottage industries, handicrafts, agro-
based industries. It is also essential for performing usual activities at home, for education of
children, people residing in remote areas having poor road connectivity, etc. Proper supply of
power has a greater influence on the economic growth of the region.
(18) Village road connectivity
Proper road connectivity is essential for the marketing of produce from any production
activity. Transportation alone forms more than 50 percent of the marketing costs. It is
considered as the key factor in determining infrastructural development in the region.
(19) Mortality rate of infants
This is a key factor reflecting the overall physical health of the community and
eventually influencing regional socio-economic development.
(20) Availability of ground water
Adequate ground water is crucial for agricultural growth. It is considered the major
source of irrigation and its availability varies depending on various factors having a positive
bearing on its recharge.

Farming systems, Farming-based livelihood systems and
Prevalent Farming systems in India contributing to livelihood
Over the history of human settlements on the planet earth, agriculture has transformed in
tune with the growing population and its needs. The transformation has been quite remarkable
since the end of World War II. Food and fibre productivity spared up due to adoption of new
technologies viz., high yielding varieties (HYV), from mechanization, increased fertilizer and
pesticide use, specialized farming practices, water resource development and improved irrigation
practices and Government policies that favoured maximizing production. It was in the early 1960s,
the Green Revolution took shape in developing countries, including India. It led to the attainment
of self-sufficiency in food grain production.
While the green revolution led to dramatic production increase, the increase in production
was not sustainable. Moreover, it has also adversely affected human health and environment due
to excessive and inappropriate use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides.
Adverse effects of modern high-input agriculture
• Overuse of natural resources, causing depletion of groundwater, and loss of forests, wild
habitats, and of their capacity to absorb water, causing waterlogging and increased salinity
• Contamination of the atmosphere by ammonia, nitrous oxide, methane and the products of
burning, which play a role in ozone depletion, global warming and atmospheric pollution
• Contamination of food and fodder by residues of pesticides, nitrates and antibiotics
• Contamination of water by pesticides, nitrates, soil and livestock water, causing harm to
wildlife, disruption of ecosystems and possible health problems in drinking water
• Build-up of resistance to pesticides in pests and diseases including herbicide resistance in
weeds
• Damage of farm and natural resources by pesticides, causing harm to farm workers and
public, disruption of ecosystems and harm to wildlife
• Erosion of genetic diversity - the tendency in agriculture to standardize and specialize by
focusing on modern varieties, causing the displacement of traditional varieties and breeds
• New health hazards for workers in the agrochemical and food processing industries
Added to the above adverse effects, increasing population, decreasing per head land
holding, increasing cost of farm inputs, more dependence upon monsoon rain, natural calamities,
global climate change and global competition are the major challenges faced by Indian agriculture.
This situation creates intense pressure on available natural resources. Our generation has been
willing to use the resources of the future to meet our own short-term goals.
Sustainable agriculture has emerged as an alternative agricultural system that addresses
the many issues/constraints faced by resource poor farmers and ensures environmental
sustainability. Sustainable agriculture refers to the capacity of agriculture over time to contribute
to overall welfare by providing sufficient food and other goods and services in ways that are
economically efficient and profitable, socially responsible, while also improving environmental
quality (Crosson, 1992).
This system involves a combination of inter-related soil, crop and livestock production
practices in conjunction with the discontinuation or the reduced use of external harmful inputs. It
emphasizes on the natural processes such as nutrient cycling, biological nitrogen fixation, soil
regeneration, natural enemies of pests, etc. Farming system is one of the several approaches of
sustainable agriculture.
What is a system?
A system is defined as a set of components that are interrelated and interact among
themselves. A system is a group of interacting components, operating together for a common
purpose, capable of reacting as a whole to external forces.

For example, the human body is a system-it has a boundary (e.g., the skin) enclosing a
number of components (heart, lungs) that interact (the heart pumps blood to the lungs) for a
common purpose (to maintain and operate the living body). Collection of unrelated items does not
constitute a system.
Farm
A farm is organized economic unit in which crop and animal production is carried out with
purpose of producing economic net returns. It is an area of land, including various structures,
devoted primarily to the practice of producing and managing food, fibers and fuel.
Farming
The term farming covers a wide spectrum of agricultural production work. At one end of
this spectrum is the subsistence farmer, who farms a small area with limited resource inputs, and
produces only enough food to meet the needs of his family. At the other end is commercial
intensive agriculture, including industrial agriculture. Such farming involves large fields and/or
numbers of animals, large resource inputs (pesticides, fertilizers. Etc.) and a high level of
mechanization. These operations generally attempt to maximize financial income from grain,
produce or livestock.
Farming system
A farm is a system in that it has inputs, processes and outputs. The type and amount of
inputs, processes and outputs may vary depending on the type of farming.
Input Process Output
Labour Ploughing Wheat
Capital Sowing Potato
Seeds Spraying Milk
Animal Fertilizer application Crop waste
Fertilizer Harvesting Wool
Pesticide Grazing Eggs
Milking
Farming system represents an appropriate combination of farm enterprises (cropping
systems, horticulture, livestock, fishery, forestry, poultry, etc.) and the means available to the
farmer to raise them for profitability. It interacts adequately with environment without
dislocating the ecological and socioeconomic balance.
Or
A farming system is defined as a complex interrelated matrix of soil, plants, animals,
power, implements, labour, capital and other inputs controlled in part by farming families and
influenced to varying degrees by political, economical, and institutional and social forces that
operate at many levels.
Mixed farming
Mixed farming is defined as a system of farming on particular farm which includes crop
production, raising livestock, poultry, fisheries, bee keeping, etc., to sustain and satisfy as many
needs of the farmer as possible. Subsistence is important objective of mixed farming while higher
profitability without altering ecological balance is important in farming systems.
Concept of farming system
Farming system consist of several enterprises like cropping system, dairying, piggery,
poultry, fishery, bee, keeping, etc. These enterprises are interrelated and interact with one another.
The byproducts and wastes of one enterprise are used as inputs in other enterprises. For example,
the waste of dairying like dung, urine, refuse, etc. is used for preparation of FYM, which is an
input in cropping systems. The straw obtained from the crops is used as fodder for cattle which
are used for different field operations for growing crops.

In farming system, the farm is viewed in a holistic manner. A combination of more than
one enterprise when carefully chosen, planned and executed, gives greater dividends than a single
enterprise, especially for small and marginal farmers.
It is a resource management strategy to achieve economic and sustain agricultural
production to meet diverse requirement of the farm household. Sustainability is the objective of
the farming system where the production process is optimized through efficient utilization of
inputs without impairing on the quality of environment.
Advantages of farming system
(1) Productivity: Farming system provides an opportunity to increase economic yield per unit
area per unit time by virtue of intensification of crop and allied enterprises.
(2) Profitability: The system as a whole provides an opportunity to make use of produce or
waste material of one enterprise as an input in another enterprise at low cost. Thus, by
reducing the cost of production, the profitability and benefit cost ratio works out to be high.
(3) Soil health: Soil health is a key factor for sustainability. It is getting deteriorated and polluted
due to faulty agricultural management practices viz., excessive use of inorganic fertilizers,
pesticides, herbicides, irrigation, etc. In farming system, organic manures and waste
recycling maintain soil health for longer time.
(4) Balanced food: In farming system, diversification of enterprises provides opportunity to
produce different sources of nutrition namely proteins, carbohydrates, fats and minerals, etc.
from the same unit land. This helps in solving the malnutrition problem prevalent among the
marginal and sub-marginal farming households.
(5) Environmental safety: In farming system, eco-friendly practices like efficient use of
byproducts, recycling of waste, biocontrol measures for pests and diseases, etc. bring down
the application of huge quantities of fertilizers, pesticides and herbicides, which pollute the
soil water and environment. Integrated Farming System (IFS) greatly reduces environmental
pollution.
(6) Income or cash flow round the year: In single enterprise like crop activity, income is
expected only at the time of disposal of economic produce. IFS enables cash flow round the
year by way of sale of products from different enterprises. This enhances the purchasing
power of the farmer and provides an opportunity to invest in improved technologies for
enhanced production.

(7) Saving energy: Availability of fossil fuel has been declining at a rapid rate. In farming
system, effective recycling of organic wastes to generate energy from biogas plant can
mitigate energy crisis to certain extent
(8) Meeting fodder crises: In IFS, every inch of land area is effectively utilized. Practices like
alley cropping, growing fodder legumes along the borders, inclusion of fodder in cropping
systems help to produce sufficient fodder for livestock component of the farming system.
(9) Solving timber and fuel crises: The current production level of fuel wood and timber wood
is insufficient to meet the current demand. Agro-forestry component in farming system
would increase timber and fuel wood production and reduce deforestation, which will help
to preserving our natural ecosystem.
(10) Employment generation: Various farm enterprises viz., crop +livestock or any other allied
enterprise in the farming system would increase labour requirement significantly and would
help to solve the problem of under employment. An IFS provides enough scope to employ
family labour round the year.
(11) Scope for establishment of agro-industries: Surplus production from different components
of IFS in the region provides opportunity for value addition establishment of agro-industries.
(12) Enhancement in input use efficiency: An IFS provides good scope for resource utilization
in different components leading to greater input use efficiency and benefit- cost ratio.
Principles of farming system
(1) Minimization of risk
(2) Recycling of wastes and residues
(3) Integration of two or more enterprises
(4) Optimum utilization of all resources
(5) Maximum productivity and profitability
(6) Ecological balance
(7) Generation of employment potential
(8) Increased input use efficiency
(9) Use of end products from one enterprise as input in other enterprise
Farming-based livelihood systems
Farming-based livelihood systems refer to livelihood strategies adopted by rural
households which are centred on agriculture and related activities. In these systems, agriculture is
the primary means of livelihood and in addition, households also include allied sectors such as
animal husbandry, fisheries, forestry, and non-farm rural activities to enhance their income and
reduce risk.
Prevalent farming systems in India
India's farming systems are diverse due to variations in agro-climatic conditions, socio-
economic factors, and cultural practices. The major farming systems prevalent in India include:
(1) Crop-based farming systems
Rice-wheat system: Common in northern states like Punjab, Haryana, and Uttar Pradesh. Rice is
grown during the Kharif season (monsoon), and wheat is grown during the Rabi season (winter).
This system contributes to food security in India.
Rice-based systems: Prevalent in eastern and southern states such as West Bengal, Odisha, Tamil
Nadu, and Andhra Pradesh. In these regions, rice is grown with other crops like pulses, oilseeds,
and vegetables.
Millet-based systems: Found in semi-arid regions like Rajasthan, Karnataka, and parts of
Maharashtra, where millets like sorghum, pearl millet, and finger millet are the staple crops.
Sugarcane-based systems: Common in states like Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh, and Karnataka.
Sugarcane is a major cash crop and contributes significantly to the income of farmers.

(2) Mixed farming systems
Crop-livestock systems: In many parts of India, small and marginal farmers rely on a
combination of crop farming and livestock rearing. For instance, in states like Gujarat and
Rajasthan, farmers grow crops and rear livestock (cows, buffaloes, goats) to diversify income
sources and meet household needs for milk, meat, and manure.
Agroforestry systems: These systems integrate trees with crops and livestock. Farmers in
southern and northeastern India practice agroforestry. These systems are sustainable and increase
farm resilience.
(3) Horticulture-based systems
Fruit and Vegetable Farming: India is a leading producer of fruits and vegetables such as mango,
banana, papaya, citrus fruits, potato, tomato, and onion. Horticulture-based systems are prevalent
in states like Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Maharashtra, and West Bengal. These systems provide high
returns, although they are more labour-intensive and susceptible to price fluctuations.
Spice-based systems: States like Kerala, Karnataka, and Tamil Nadu are known for cultivating
spices such as cardamom, pepper, ginger, and turmeric. These high-value crops contribute to both
domestic consumption and export.
(4) Livestock-based farming systems
Dairy Farming: India is the largest milk producer in the world, and dairy farming is an important
livelihood for millions of rural households. Dairy- based systems are prominent in states like Uttar
Pradesh, Punjab, Gujarat, and Maharashtra.
Poultry farming: Poultry is a significant sector in states like Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, and
West Bengal. The rising demand for eggs and poultry meat provides steady income to small
farmers.
(5) Fishery-based systems
Inland fisheries: With its vast network of rivers, lakes, and ponds, India has a well-established
inland fishery system. States like West Bengal, Assam, Andhra Pradesh, and Odisha are prominent
in freshwater fish production.
Marine fisheries: The coastal states of Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Maharashtra, and Gujarat have
vibrant marine fishing communities. Fisheries contribute to both livelihoods and nutritional
security in these regions.
(6) Integrated farming systems
These systems combine various components of farming, such as crops, livestock,
aquaculture, and agroforestry, to enhance farm productivity and sustainability. Integrated farming
systems maximize resource use efficiency, improve soil fertility, and reduce input costs.
Contribution of farming systems to livelihoods in India
(1) Employment generation: Agriculture and allied activities provide employment to nearly 60%
of India's rural population. Farming systems support both on-farm labour and off-farm rural
employment.
(2) Food security: Farming systems, particularly rice-wheat and other cereal-based systems, are
critical for ensuring food security in India. India is largely self-sufficient in food grains production.
(3) Income diversification: Farming systems help farmers diversify their sources of income. By
incorporating livestock, fishery, or agroforestry, farmers reduce their dependence on a single crop
or enterprise, thus minimizing risk.
(4) Sustainability and resource conservation: Integrated farming systems promote sustainable
agricultural practices, such as crop rotation, organic farming, and soil conservation. This helps in
preserving soil fertility and protecting natural resources.
(5) Economic growth: High-value farming systems, such as horticulture and dairy farming,
contribute significantly to the rural economy. These systems provide higher returns and enable
smallholder farmers to improve their standard of living.

(6) Women empowerment: Livestock-based farming systems and horticulture involve women
significantly in day-to-day activities. These systems provide income-generation opportunities for
rural women and contribute to their empowerment.
(7) Export earnings: Farming systems that produce high-value cash crops (sugarcane, spices,
cotton, and horticulture) contribute to India's export earnings and enhance the livelihoods of
farmers involved in these sectors.

Types of traditional and modern farming systems
Comparison between Traditional and Modern Farming Systems
Technology: Traditional systems rely on minimal technology, while modern systems use
advanced technology like machinery, GMOs, and precision tools.
Scale: Traditional farming is usually small-scale and subsistence-oriented, whereas modern
farming is large-scale and profit-driven.
Inputs: Traditional systems use organic methods and low inputs, while modern systems depend
heavily on synthetic inputs (fertilizers, pesticides).
Environmental Impact: Traditional methods often conserve biodiversity and maintain soil
health, whereas modern systems may lead to environmental degradation if not managed
sustainably.
Traditional Farming Systems
(1) Shifting Cultivation (Slash and Burn Agriculture)
Farmers clear a patch of forest, burn vegetation, and grow crops on the nutrient-rich ash.
After a few years of cultivation, the soil fertility declines, and the field is abandoned. The process
is then repeated on a new patch of land.
Advantages: It allows soil recovery over time and requires fewer inputs like fertilizers or
pesticides.
Disadvantages: Deforestation, loss of biodiversity, and unsustainable with increasing population
pressure.
(2) Subsistence Farming
Farming system where crops are grown mainly for personal consumption rather than for
sale. It is labour intensive, often reliant on family labour, and uses traditional tools like hoes and
ploughs.
Advantages: Low input costs and minimal environmental degradation.
Disadvantages: Low yields, limited surplus for trade, and high vulnerability to climate variations.
(3) Pastoralism (Nomadic and Semi-Nomadic)
A system where livestock (cattle, sheep, goats) are moved seasonally in search of grazing
areas. Nomadic pastoralists are constantly on the move, while semi-nomadic ones have a home
base but still move with their herds.
Advantages: Utilizes marginal lands that are unsuitable for crop production and allows flexible
use of resources.
Disadvantages: Overgrazing, land degradation, and conflict over grazing rights.
(4) Mixed Farming
Mixed farming includes crop production with raising livestock, poultry, fisheries, bee
keeping, etc., to sustain and satisfy as many needs of the farmer as possible.
Advantages: Diversifies income, improves soil fertility through animal manure, and reduces risk
through multiple income streams.
Disadvantages: Requires more labour, expertise in both animal husbandry and crop production,
and may need more land.
(5) Terrace Farming
Farming on sloped land by constructing terraces (step-like structures) to prevent soil
erosion and conserve water.
Advantages: Makes use of hilly terrain, conserves water, reduces erosion, and supports food
production in mountainous areas.
Disadvantages: Labor-intensive to construct and maintain terraces.

(6) Rainfed Farming
Farming that depends solely on rainfall for water, with little to no irrigation.
Advantages: Minimal cost for irrigation infrastructure, promotes local crop varieties suited to
rainfall patterns.
Disadvantages: Highly vulnerable to weather changes, droughts, and inconsistent rainfall.
Modern Farming Systems
(1) Monoculture
The practice of growing a single crop on a large scale over a vast area.
Advantages: Simplifies management, efficient use of machinery, and maximizes output for high-
demand crops.
Disadvantages: Depletes soil nutrients, increases vulnerability to pests and diseases, and leads to
biodiversity loss.
(2) Commercial Farming
Large-scale production of crops or livestock for sale and profit, usually relying on
advanced technologies, high inputs of fertilizers, and mechanization.
Advantages: High yields, increased efficiency through mechanization, and contribution to food
security and export economies.
Disadvantages: High input costs, environmental damage from overuse of fertilizers and
pesticides, and social inequalities in land ownership.
(3) Agroforestry
A system that integrates trees and shrubs into crop and livestock farming systems to
improve land use and diversify production.
Advantages: Increases biodiversity, improves soil fertility, and provides multiple products
(timber, fruits, fuelwood).
Disadvantages: Complex management system and longer time to see economic returns from tree
crops.
(4) Hydroponics and Aquaponics
Soilless farming systems where plants are grown in nutrient-rich water solutions
(hydroponics) or integrated with fish farming (aquaponics).
Advantages: Uses less water, no soil degradation, high efficiency in small spaces, and reduced
use of pesticides.
Disadvantages: High setup costs, need for technical expertise, and dependence on external inputs.
(5) Precision Farming
A technology-driven approach that uses GPS, sensors, and data analytics to optimize farm
inputs (fertilizers, water, seeds) and monitor crop conditions in real-time.
Advantages: Increases efficiency, reduces waste, and enhances productivity by fine-tuning inputs
to specific field conditions.
Disadvantages: High initial investment and dependence on technology.
(6) Vertical Farming
Growing crops in vertically stacked layers or vertically inclined surfaces, often in
controlled environments (indoors or greenhouses).
Advantages: Efficient use of space, controlled environment allows year-round production,
reduces need for pesticides.
Disadvantages: High energy costs for artificial lighting and climate control, expensive setup, and
limited crop variety.

(7) Protected cultivation
Protected cultivation, also known as greenhouse or controlled environment agriculture
(CEA), is a method of growing crops in a controlled environment to protect them from
environmental stresses and produce healthier, higher-quality crops.
Advantages: Higher yield, better quality, reduced pesticide use, precise application of inputs
Disadvantages: High energy costs for structure and climate control, expensive setup, requires
technical knowledge, suitable for high value crops
(8) Genetically Modified (GM) Crops
A system that utilizes genetically modified crops that are engineered for traits like pest
resistance, herbicide tolerance, and improved nutritional content.
Advantages: Higher yields, reduced use of pesticides, and resistance to environmental stresses.
Disadvantages: Ethical concerns, potential environmental risks, and market resistance to GM
products.

Components of farming system/farming-based livelihood systems
Cropping
Cropping is the most important component of farming system. It is considered as the
backbone of farming system, because it can be implemented in all type of situations like wetland,
garden land and dry land. There are many types of crops and cropping systems raised by the
farmers to fulfil their food, fiber and fuel requirements. Cereals, pulses, oilseed, fiber, fodder and
cash crops are the important crops cultivated by majority of farmers. Cropping component also
serves as base for many other components as it provides raw material and inputs to other
components.
Horticulture
The demand and production of different horticultural crops viz., fruit, flower and vegetable
crops are increasing day to day. A large number of farmers have included cultivation of
horticultural crops as a component of farming system in garden land and dry land areas to fulfil
the market demand and receiving higher economic returns. The horticulture-based food processing
industries are also developing which support this component and create parallel economy and
employment opportunities for the people.
Livestock/Dairy farming
For the centuries, farmers of India are growing crops and livestock together. Livestock has
been integral part of the system. Apart from contributing to food basket and nutritional security, it
provides constant income to the farmers throughout the year. This system plays a significant role
in generating employment to landless, small and marginal farmers and farm women. Many farmers
are shifting their activities to livestock and agroforestry when crop production becomes difficult
due to failure of monsoon.
Majority of the cattle owners in the country maintain only 1 or 2 milch animals as an
integral part of the mixed farming system. They utilize family labour for various practices
concerned with dairying. Successful dairy farming needs sound management practices. It is
imperative to provide good managerial inputs (feed, fodder, housing, health care, breeding,
general management and marketing) to exploit the full genetic potential of livestock and to make
this economically viable. The success of dairy farming depends on the availability of inputs and
better marketing facilities to milk.
Besides producing milk, dairy animals are also good source of draft power and farmyard
manure, which is good source of organic matter for improving soil fertility. The farm byproducts
in turn are gainfully utilized for feeding the animals.
(a) Cattle
Cattle rearing in India is carried out under a variety of adverse climatic and environmental
conditions. The breeds are broadly classified into three groups.
(i) Draft breeds: The bullocks of these breeds are good draft animals, but the cows are poor
milkers, e.g. Khillari, Nagore, Hallikar,, Mali.
(ii) Dairy breeds: The cows are high milk yielders, but the bullocks are of poor draft quality,
e.g., Sahiwal, Red Sindhi, Gir.
(iii) Dual purpose: The cows are fairly good milkers and the bullocks are with good draft work
capacity, e.g., Tharparkar, Hariana, Ongole, Kankrej and Deoni.
Exotic breeds: The exotic breeds are high milk yielder e.g., Jersey, Holstein-Friesian, Aryshire,
Brown Swiss and Guernsey.
(b) Buffalo
Buffaloes digest more of roughage than cows and thrive well on dry fodder. Buffaloes are
able to utilize coarse feed even rejected also. Majority of the dairy products in the country are

based on buffalo. The higher fat percentage in buffalo milk is more profitable in dairy enterprises,
particularly for toned and double toned milk. The higher fat content around 7-8%, and sometimes
up to 12-15% enables the farmers to get a higher income as the price of the milk is based on fat
content. Buffalo milk is comparatively cheaper to produce, since a buffalo is able to utilize coarse
feed even rejected also. Buffaloes are also utilized as a source of power for various field
operations. They are slow, but heavy and strong and are well suited to work in muddy and
submerged fields where they are able to pull heavier loads than cattle.
Breeds:
The important buffalo breeds are Murrah, Nili Ravi, Kundi, Bhadawari, Tarai, Nagpuri,
Pandharpuri, Mandya, Kalahandi, Sambalour (Central region), Toda, Surti, Jaffarbadi and
Mehsani, Dharwari.
(c) Goat farming
India is blessed with the largest population of goats, i.e., about 23% of the world
population. Employing goat rearing in integrated farming system is profitable and gives assured
dividends. Goats are small animals and easy to manage. Goats are also a source of bones, hooves,
glands, offal, fibre, urine and droppings. Goats are browsing rather than grazing. They obtain their
intake from a wide variety of vegetation throughout the year. Goat farming can be more profitable
if good pastures are available. The average milk production is 1 litre/day/animal. Goats produce a
low-fat meat. The smallest viable unit of goats comprise 50 does (female) + 2 bucks (male). One
can establish organized goat farms in multiples of 50+ 2.
Breeds
Milk & Meat: Jamnapari, Osmanabadi, Barbari , Beetal
Meat and skin: Black Bengal, Kanni adu
Meat, skin and milk: Barvari, Malabari (Tellicherry), Sirohi, Surti
Meat, hair and skin: Gaddi, Kutchi, Marwari
Fibre: Angora, Gaddi, Pashmina, Chegu, Changthangi
Surti Goat is one of the best breeds in India for dairy. This breed is very small and is native
of Surat in Gujarat. They are most economical to the rear. Surti female goats are bigger than male
goats.
(d) Sheep farming
Sheep is also a small ruminant with a high adaptability to extreme climate. Sheep can
thrive well in all agroclimatic conditions except in high rainfall areas. Sheep plays important role
in the animal production in arid and semi-arid regions and largely in marginal and small holdings.
Sheep with its multi-facet utility for wool, meat, milk, skins and manure, form an important
component of rural economy. Sheep rearing can be recommended as an occupation to the rural
people especially to the weaker sections in hilly, drought prone and desert area. In the event of
failure of seasonal rains and crops, sheep rearing gives a helping hand to the farmers. Sheep can
subsist on low set and sparse vegetation whereas other species of farm livestock may be struggling
to thrive. This is possible because of their inherent capacity to browse very close to the roots of
herbage. Sheep penning in harvested field enhances soil fertility due to addition of faecal
materials, rich in nutrients.
Breeds: Deccani, Nellore, Bellari, Mandya, Banur, Nilgiri, Gurez, Bhakarwal, Gaddi, Lohi,
Bikaneri, Marwari, Kutchi, Coimbatore white, etc.
Poultry
Poultry is one of the fastest growing food industries in the world. Poultry meat accounts
for about 27% of the total meat consumed worldwide and its consumption is growing at an average
of 5% annually. Poultry industry in India is relatively a new agricultural industry. Poultry in IFS
plays a pivotal role in fulfilling the ever-increasing demand for meat and eggs in the country.

Rearing poultry in a backyard system is an age-old practice. Backyard poultry is a means
of livelihood for large number of small and marginal farmers in India. Poultry farming is practiced
under a wide range of conditions viz., i) Extensive system (Free-range extensive and Backyard
extensive systems), ii) Semi-intensive system iii) Intensive system.
Under free-range extensive system, the birds are not confined and can scavenge for food
over a wide area. Under backyard extensive systems, poultry are housed at night but allowed free-
range during the day. Semi-intensive system consists of a separate shelter for the birds during the
night in which water and some feed is provided. In intensive system, more birds are reared
commercially in a poultry house, where they are provided with food, water and all other
requirements. The birds are not allowed to move outside the house.
Deep litter system and cage system are two popular methods of housing the birds in India.
In deep litter system, the birds are kept on the floor covered with litter material, while in battery
cage system, the birds are kept in small compartments of galvanized irons built into cages. Battery
cage systems are designed to maximize space utilization and provide a controlled environment for
efficient egg production.
(a) Chicken farming
Chicken farming includes (1) Broiler farming for meat and (2) Layer farming for eggs.
Besides the nutritive value, eggs have many industrial uses in preparation of adhesives, printer
inks, shampoos, soap, varnishes, vaccines, etc. The eggshells are used as mineral-feed for animals
and birds. The feathers are used for making cushions, mattresses, pillows, etc.
Breeds:
Specific poultry stocks are available for egg and broiler production. A majority of the
stocks used for egg production are crosses involving the strains or inbred lines of white Leghorn.
To a limited extent, other breeds like Rhode Island Red, California Grey and Australop are used.
(b) Duck farming
The ducks occupy second place to chicken in population in the country. They are reared
mainly for egg and meat purposes. Marshy wetland areas are ideal for duck rearing. Duck farming
is suitable for mixed farming system such as duck-cum-fish farming, duck farming with rice
culture, etc. In duck- cum-fish farming, the droppings of ducks serve as feed for the fishes and no
other feed or manuring of the pond is necessary for fishes (200-300 ducks/ha of water area). Under
integrated duck farming with rice culture, the ducks perform four essential functions viz., inter
tillage, weeding, insect control and manuring.
Duck production is mostly concentrated in the eastern states like Assam, Manipur, Tripura
and West Bengal followed by Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Jammu and Kashmir, Karnataka, Kerala,
Orissa, Tamil Nadu, and Uttar Pradesh.
Breeds: The important Indian breeds are Sylhet Mete and Nageswari, which are mostly found in
the Eastern region of the country. Khaki Campbell and Indian Runner are the most popular breeds
for egg laying.
(c) Guinea fowl farming
India has a large population of guinea fowl and ranks third after chicken and duck. It is
well adapted to diverse agro-climatic conditions prevailing in arid and semi-arid regions. It is also
well accepted by the marginal farmers and small-scale poultry enterprises raised under free-range
in the states of Madhya Pradesh, Punjab, Uttar Pradesh and some parts of India. Guinea fowls are
hardy, disease resistant, need low input and have unique ability to survive and thrive under sub-
optimal management and feeding conditions because of its foraging habit. They are highly
resistant to viral diseases and therefore, they are generally raised without any vaccination.
Varieties: Lavender, Pearl and White
(d) Quail farming
Japanese quail is mostly reared in India for meat and eggs. Quails are fast growing, hardy
and can adapt to various environments. They are more resistant to diseases than chickens. They

do not require specially designed houses. Quails require less floor space, feed and water in
comparison to chickens and ducks and hence, less capital investment.
(e) Turkey Farming
Turkeys are mostly reared for meat purpose. Turkey meat contains very less fat as
compared to meat of other avian species. In India, turkey production is still in its initial stage.
Since the turkey poults and hens are bigger in size, their cutups can be marketed in various
attractive packaging suited to the individual consumer. They are more resistant to disease than
chicken and therefore, rarely suffer from diseases. Turkeys grow very fast and can be reared under
semi-intensive system in the backyards.
(f) Emu farming
The emu is another latest addition to poultry species for commercial use. Emu meat
contains low amounts of fat and cholesterol. Emu oil is also considered to be highly medicinal.
Emu birds are practically immune to several diseases.
Piggery
Pigs are maintained for the production of pork. Pig farming is adapted to both diversified
and intensive agriculture. Pigs convert inedible feeds, forages, certain grain byproducts into
valuable nutritious meat. The faeces of pigs are useful in maintaining soil fertility. Pig raising fits
very well with integrated farming system. The reproduction interval of pig is short and pigs give
birth to many off springs at a time. Small sum invested in pig rearing can bring very good returns
in a short time.
Breeds: White Yorkshire, Barkshire, Poland china, Duroc Hampshire, Chester white
Yorkshire is the most extensively used exotic breed in India. It is a prolific breed having
good growth rate and feed conversion ability.
Fishery/Aquaculture
Farm ponds serve multiple benefits like domestic water requirements, supplementary
irrigation and pisciculture. Clay soils have higher water retention capacity and hence are best
suited for fish rearing. The depth of the pond should be 1.5-2.0 m. Pond-water should have
appropriate proportion of nutrients and slightly alkaline pH. Soil of the pond should be tested for
N and P content. If the nutrient content is less, fertilisers can be added. Organic manures such as
FYM and poultry droppings may also be applied to promote the growth of phyto and
zooplanktons.
Species of fish are:
(1) Catla (Catla catla) is the fast-growing fish. It consumes lot of vegetation and decomposing
higher plants. It is mainly a surface and column feeder.
(2) Rohu (Labeo rohita) is a column feeder and feeds on growing fish. It consumes lot of
vegetation and decomposing higher plants. It is mainly column and surface feeder.
(3) Calbasu (Labeo calbasu) is a bottom feeder on detritus. Mrigal (Cirrhinus mrigala) is also
a bottom feeder, taking detritus to large extent, diatoms, filamentous and other algae and
higher plants. Common carp (Cyprinus carpio) is a bottom feeder and omnivorous.
(4) Silver carp (Hypophthalmichthys molitrix) is mainly a surface and phytoplankton-feeder
and also feeds on micro-plants.
(5) Grass carp (Ctenopharyngodon idella) is a specialised feeder on aquatic plants, cut grass
and other vegetable matter. It is also a fast-growing exotic fish.
In composite fish culture, phytophagous fish (catla, rohu and mrigal) can be combined
with omnivorous (common carp), plankton-feed (silver carp) and mud-eaters (mrigal and calbasu)
in a composite fish culture system. For higher productivity, fish are to be provided with
supplementary feeding with rice bran and oilseed cakes. This will enable faster growth and better
yield. Each variety of carps could be stocked to 500 fingerlings with the total 5000-8000 ha. This

stocking density will enable to get a maximum yield of 2000 to 5000 kg/ha of fish annually under
good management practices.
Sericulture
Sericulture is defined as the practice of combining mulberry cultivation, silkworm rearing
and silk reeling. India occupies second position among silk producing countries in the world, next
to China. Sericulture is labour intensive in all its phases, including off-farm activities such as
twisting, dyeing, weaving, and printing. It has considerable socio-economic importance in India
largely due to its suitability for small and marginal farm-holdings by generating employment and
requiring low investment.
There are three primary steps in production of mulberry silk.
(1) Moriculture
Moriculture refers to the cultivation of mulberry plants, whose leaves are used as silkworm
feed.
(2) Silkworm rearing
Silkworm rearing process begins with the laying of eggs by the female silk moth. The
hatched larvae are transferred to feeding beds prepared on a rearing tray by spreading chopped
mulberry leaves onto it. The life cycle of mulberry silkworm completes in 45-55 days, consists of
stages egg (9-10 days), larva (24-28 days), pupa (8-10 days) and moth (3-4 days). The larvae
undergo four times moulting during the larval period. The silkworm larvae initially have a good
appetite. Late age worms are voracious feeder. Feeding, bed cleaning, maintenance of temperature
and humidity, care during moulting and maintenance of hygiene are important aspects of silkworm
rearing. After reaching maturity, the larvae begin searching for hospitable places to begin their
pupation. These mature larvae now wrap themselves in a cocoon by secreting saliva from salivary
glands. This saliva solidifies and becomes silk when it comes in contact with air.
(3) Silk reeling
Inside the cocoons, the larvae undergo metamorphosis and turn into pupae. First, the pupae
inside the cocoon are killed by boiling the cocoon and exposing it to steam and dry heat. This
process is called stifling. Now, the silk filaments are removed from the dead cocoon via a process
called reeling.
Types of silk worm
(i) Mulberry silk worm – Bombyx mori (ii) Eri silk worm – Philosamia ricini
(iii) Tassar silk worm – Antheraea mylitta (iv) Muga silk worm
Apiculture
Apiculture is the science of raising and managing honeybees’ colonies and their hives. It
requires little investment and infrastructure so it can be taken up by small, marginal and landless
farmers and the educated unemployed youth. It provides highly nutritious honey and cash income.
It earns foreign exchange. It enhances the productivity and quality of agriculture, horticulture and
fodder crops. It conserves the diversity of plant kingdom due to active role of honeybees in
pollination. Apis cerana indica and A. mellifera are important honeybee species commonly used
in India. The Indian bee (Apis cerana) colonies nest in the concealed dark places. Such colonies
can be searched in the wild habitats and captured. The colonies can also be purchased by the bee
keeping cooperative societies and other beekeepers. The apiary has to be established in the area
where rich source of bee flora is available throughout the year. The area should be cool and calm.
Honey is a sweet viscous fluid produced by honeybees mainly from the nectar of the
flowers. Honey is an excellent energy food with an average of about 3500 calories per kg. It is
directly absorbed into the human blood stream, requiring no digestion. Aroma, colour, consistency
and floral sources are important quality parameters to meet the national and international
standards. Proper honey straining and processing are needed to improve the quality of the produce.
Honey varies in the proportion of its constituents owing to the differences in the nectar produced
by different plants. The nectar collected by bees is processed and placed in comb cells for ripening.
During the ripening, sucrose is converted into glucose and fructose by an enzyme called invertase,
which is added to it by the bees.

Lac farming
Lac is a resinous secretion of lac insect (Laccifer lacca), which is a scale insect. The insect
feeds on certain trees, e.g. Ber, Palash, Kusum. The strain that thrives on Kusum tree is called
Kusum strain. The one that comes up on all other hosts is known as Rangeeni strain. Both the
strain has two generations a year. About 90% of lac produced in India comes from rangeeni strain.
The life cycle of insect consists of three stages viz., egg, nymph and adult. The nymphs emerge in
large numbers and crawl over the surface of twigs and branches of plants in search of suitable
placefor settlement, mostly shoots Once settled, the nymph thrusts its proboscis into the bark and
does not move from its place. after one or two days of settling, they start secreting resin from
glands distributed under the cuticle all over the body, except few organs. Thus, the nymphs get
covered in a cell of its secretion which increases in size with the growth of the insect. Nymphs
moult three times before reaching maturity.
Lac has multiple uses viz. ink, polishes, sealing wax, adhesive, filling material in
ornaments, etc. It is cultivated mainly in India, Thailand and Burma which produce over 90% of
the world supply of lac. India produces the maximum amount of lac (about 90%) from Bihar,
Orissa, Madhya Pradesh, West Bengal, Assam and Utter Pradesh and small quantities from other
states. Lac cultivation and processing create substantial employment opportunities, especially
during the off-season, and there is a high demand for lac products in domestic and international
markets. It also plays a vital role in the local economy and the livelihoods of rural and tribal
communities. In India, there are two strains of the lac insect.
Mushroom cultivation
Mushroom is the fungal fruiting body technically called sporophore that produces large
number of spores which are the seeds of this plant. Mushroom lacks chlorophyll and hence cannot
produce its own food and depends on other living or dead plants for its food. Mushrooms are well
known for their delicacy and flavour. They are excellent source of vitamins and minerals. The
protein of edible mushroom is superior and is rich in lysine. Mushroom cultivation is done indoor
and hence very little land area is required.
About 70 species of edible mushroom are suited for artificial cultivation. The most popular
among these are European or White button mushroom (Agaricus bisporus), Oyster mushroom
(Pleurotus spp.), Chinese or Paddy straw mushroom (Volvariella volvacea), and Japanese or
Shiitake mushroom (Lentinus edodes). Among the cultivated types, button and oyster mushrooms
can be grown in the most part of India. Paddy straw mushroom caters the demand of local
consumers only. A variety of agricultural or agro-industrial wates can be utilized for mushroom
cultivation. India with its varied agroclimatic conditions, availability of agro-wastes in abundance
and manpower is most ideal to produce all the major mushroom varieties being produced in
different regions.
Substrates used for mushroom cultivation:
Oyster mushroom : Paddy straw, Maize stalk/cob, Vegetable plant residues, etc.
Paddy straw mushroom : Paddy straw, Water hyacinth, Oilpalm waste, Banana leaves,
Sugarcane waste, Cotton waste
White button mushroom : Artificially prepared compost
Shiitake mushroom Sawdust of broad leave trees mainly tuni, mango, safeda, oak,
maple and poplar
Agroforestry
Cultivation of forest trees combining with cultivation of agricultural crops and/or animals
to fulfill the food, fodder, fiber, timber and fuel needs of farmer is known as agroforestry. It is the
best component for dry land farming system to enhance the economic and social condition of
farmers with maintaining the sustainability. Agroforestry is also important for conserving soil and
water, maintenance of soil fertility, controlling salinity and water logging, positive environment
impact and alternate land use for marginal and degraded lands. Selection of proper land use
systems conserve biophysical resources of non-arable land besides providing day-to-day needs of
farmer and livestock within the farming system.

(1) Agri-silviculture systems (Crops + Trees)
This system comprises growing multipurpose trees (fuel, fodder) in line and cultivation
of field/fodder crops in the available space between the trees as alley farming.
(2) Agri-horti-silviculture (Crops + Fruit crops + Trees)
In this system fruit trees are grown along with crops and multipurpose trees (MPTs).
(3) Silvi-Pastoral system (Trees + Fodder crops + Animal)
This is most economic agroforestry system especially in arid and semi-arid regions having
marginal, sub-marginal and degraded lands. In this system, grasses or grass legume mixture is
grown along with the woody perennial trees simultaneously on the same unit of land.
(4) Horti-silvi-pasture system (Fruit crops + Trees + Fodder + Animal)
It involves integration of fruit and trees with pasture. e.g. Guava + Sissoo + Stylo.
(5) Agri-silvi-pasture (Crops + Trees + Fodder + Animal)
Crops are grown in strips along with grass strips to avoid shifting sand reaching cropped
area. MPTs are introduced the pasture strips as well as in the crop strips, which protects the crops
from desiccating hot and cold wind.
(6) Pastoral-silvicultural system (Fodder + Tree + Animal)
Grazing pasture is the main component with scattered trees grown in the area.
Apart from above, other popular agroforestry systems include Agri-horti-silvi-pasture
(Crops + Fruit crops + Trees + Fodder + Animal), Silvi-apiculture (Trees + Honeybees), Agri-
pisci-silviculture (Crops + Fish + Trees), Pisci-silviculture (Fish + Trees), etc.
Biogas plant
A biogas unit produces good manure and clean fuel and improves sanitation. Biogas is a
clean, unpolluted and cheap source of energy, which can be obtained by a simple mechanism and
little investment. The gas is generated from the cow dung during anaerobic decomposition. Biogas
generation is a complex biochemical process. The cellulolytic material is broken down to methane
and carbon dioxide by different groups of microorganisms. It can be used for cooking purpose,
burning lamps, running pumps, etc.
The two main designs of biogas plants are the floating gas holder and fixed-dome types.
The merits and demerits of each design need to be considered while selecting a model. The size
of the biogas plant is decided by the number of family members and the availability of dung.
Slurry is obtained after the production of biogas. It is an enriched manure. Another positive
aspect of this manure is that even after weeks of exposure to the atmosphere, the slurry does not
attract fleas and worms.
Vermicomposting
Earth worms occur more than 80 per cent of soil invertebrate biomass. It acts as an aerator,
crusher, mixer, grinder, chemical degrader and biological stimulator in soil, improving physical,
chemical and biological properties of soil. The earthworm castings would improve the humus
content of soil which has direct implications on long term soil fertility and sustainability. Earth
worm causes increase in humus content would automatically influence higher uptake of major and
micro-nutrients in plants.
The process of composting organic wastes through domesticated earthworms under
controlled conditions is known as vermicomposting. It is a mixture of worm casting (faecal
excretions), organic materials including humus, live earthworms, their cocoons and other
microorganisms.
Earthworms have tremendous ability to compost biodegradable materials. Waste subjected
to earthworm consumption decompose 2 to 5 times faster than in conventional composting. During

composting, the wastes are deodorized, pathogenic microorganisms are destroyed, and volume of
wastes is reduced by about 40 to 60%. It is estimated that the earthworms feed about 4 to 5 time
their own weight of material daily. There are more than 300 species of earthworms in the world
and about 50 species in India. Eudrilus eugeniae, Esenia fetida and Perionyx excavatus are some
of the species of earth worms used for vermicomposting. Vermicomposting is a low investment
agribusiness model popular in rural area.

Cropping system
Cropping System
Cropping system is as important component of a farming system. It represents cropping
patterns used on a farm and their interaction with farm resources, other farm enterprises and
available technology which determine their makeup.
Cropping pattern
Cropping pattern means the proportion of area under various crops at a point of time in a
unit area. It indicates the yearly sequence and spatial arrangement of crops and fallow in an area.
It is for larger area like zone, taluka, district, etc.
Types of Cropping Systems
Depending on the agro-climatic condition, resources and technology available, different types
of cropping systems are adopted on farms. Broadly three types of cropping systems are followed
by the farmers.
1. Sole cropping
Only a single crop or variety grown alone in a pure stand at normal density during one
farming year.
2. Mono cropping
Mono cropping refers to growing one and the same crop year after year or season after
season on the same land is called mono cropping. It may be due to climatologically and
socioeconomic conditions or due to specialization of a farmer in growing a particular crop. Under
rainfed conditions, groundnut or cotton or sorghum are grown year after year due to limitation of
rainfall. Flue cured tobacco is grown in Guntur district of Andhra Pradesh year after year due to
specialization of the farmer in growing it. In canal irrigated areas under waterlogged condition,
rice crop is grown as it is not possible to grow any other crop.
Disadvantages
(1) Inefficient utilization of resources like labour, fertilizers, water, farm machinery, etc.
(2) The soil health not cared, and nutrients are depleted.
(3) There are chances of occurrence of pest and diseases infestation.
(4) Natural resources are not fully utilized.
3. Multiple cropping/Intensive cropping
Growing two or more crops on the same piece of land in one calendar year known as
multiple cropping. It is the intensification of cropping in space and time, i.e., more number of
crops on the same piece of land and more number of crops in a year on the same piece of land at
any given period. It includes inter-cropping, mixed cropping and sequence cropping.
(1) Mixed cropping
Mixed cropping is growing of two or more crop simultaneously on the same piece of land
without any row pattern. It is a common practice in most of dry land tracts of India. Seeds of
different crops are mixed in certain proportion and are sown. The object is subsistence, i.e., to
meet the family requirement of cereals, pulses and vegetables.
(2) Intercropping
Intercropping is growing two more crops simultaneously on the same piece of land with a
definite row pattern. For example, growing sorghum + red gram in 3:1 ratio, i.e., after every 3
rows of sorghum, one row of red gram is sown. Thus, cropping intensity is achieved in space
dimension.

Based on the per cent of plant population of each crop in intercropping system, it is
dividing into two types.
(a) Additive series
▪ One crop is sown with 100% population in pure stand which is known as base crop
▪ Another crop known as intercrop is introduced into the base crop adjusting or changing
the geometry of base crop (Paired row system)
▪ Crop husbandry is according to the base crop
▪ The intercrop population is less than its recommended population in pure stand
▪ Objective is to get additional income and to cover risk
▪ Additive series intercropping is mostly adopted in India
(b) Replacement series
▪ In replacement series, both the crops are called component crops
▪ Second component crop is introduced by sacrificing certain proportion of first component
crop, i.e., replacing row/s
▪ Plant population of both component crops are lower than the plant population in sole crop
▪ This type of intercropping is popular in western countries
Requirements for successful intercropping
(1) Objective is higher productivity in unit area in unit time with yield stability.
(2) The time of peak nutrient demand of component crops should not overlap, e.g. In Maize +
Blackgram intercropping, the peak nutrient demand for blackgram is at 30 to 35 DAS,
whereas peak nutrient demand of maize is at 50 to 55 DAS.
(3) The selected component crops should be complementary to each other.
(4) The intercrop fitted should be of shorter duration than main crop at least 30 days.
(5) There should be minimum competition between component crops for CO2, water, light and
space.
(6) The component crops should have different rooting depth so as to have nutrient extraction
from different depths, e.g. Main crop deep rooted and intercrop shallow rooted.
Advantage of intercropping
(1) Intercropping gives additional yield/income per unit area than sole cropping.
(2) It acts as an insurance against failure of crops in abnormal year.
(3) Inter-crops maintain the soil fertility as the nutrient uptake is made from both layers of soil.
(4) Reduction in soil runoff and controls weeds.
(5) Intercrops provide shade and support to the other crop.
(6) Inter cropping system utilizes resources efficiently and their productivity is increased.
(7) Serves the purpose of crop diversification.
Disadvantages of intercropping
(1) Yield decreases as the crops differ in their competitive abilities.
(2) Management of crops having different cultural practices seems to be difficult task.
(3) Improved implements cannot be used efficiently.
(4) Component crops may differ in their response to inputs like fertilizer, irrigation, etc.
(5) Harvesting is difficult.
(3) Multi-storied or multi-tier cropping
Growing plants of different height, rooting pattern and duration in the same field at the
same time is termed as multi-storied cropping. It is mostly practiced in orchards and plantation
crops for maximum use of solar energy even under high planting density. The objective of this
system of cropping is to utilize the vertical space more effectively. In this system, the tallest
components have foliage tolerant of strong light and high evaporative demand and the shorter

components with foliage requiring shade and or relatively high humidity. e.g. Coconut + black
pepper + cocoa + pineapple.
(4) Sequence cropping
It is a practice of growing two or more crops in a sequence on the same piece of land during
a farming year. Crop intensification is only in time dimension and there is no intercrop
competition. Depending on the number of crops grown in a year, it is called as double, triple and
quadruple cropping involving two, three, and four crops, respectively. e.g. Double cropping: rice-
potato/mustard, sorghum-gram, soybean-wheat; Triple cropping: Rice- potato-groundnut,
cowpea-mustard-jute; Quadruple cropping: groundnut-leafy vegetables-wheat-summer green
gram.
(5) Ratoon cropping
Ratoon cropping or ratooning refers to raising a crop from regrowth coming out of roots or
stalks after harvest of the crop. e.g. raising a crop from regrowth of sugarcane, maize, sorghum,
banana, pineapple, etc.
Advantages of ratooning
(1) Ratooning can reduce the cost of cultivation, especially for multiple ratoons. This is because
it requires less preparatory cultivation, seed material, and labor.
(2) Ratoon crops usually mature at least one month earlier than plant crops.
(3) Ratooning can lead to better quality in some crops, e.g. sugarcane.
(4) Ratooning can help conserve soil quality and structure because it requires minimal tillage.
(5) Ratooning can reduce water requirements because the crop duration is shorter.
(6) Fallen leaves and other trash left in the field are converted into organic matter over time.
However, ratooning has also limitations or disadvantages like, poor crop quality in some
crops, lower yield, depletion in soil fertility, reduced and thinner crop stand, risk of pests and
diseases, etc.
(6) Relay cropping
Relay cropping refers to planting of the succeeding crop before harvesting the preceding
crop. e.g. sowing of pigeon pea in-between two rows of kharif groundnut just one month before
groundnut harvest.
Advantages of relay cropping
(1) Minimum tillage is needed for relay cropping and primary cost of cultivation is less.
(2) Weed infestation is less, as land remains covered with crops for longer period.
(3) Crop residues are added in the soil and thus, more organic matter.
(4) Residual fertilizer of previous crops benefits succeeding crops.
(7) Alley cropping
Alley cropping is an agroforestry practice that involves planting trees or shrubs in rows to
create alleys within which agricultural or horticultural or forage crops are grown. The essential
feature of this system is that hedge rows are cut back at about one meter height at planting to
prevent shading and reduce competition with field crops.
Advantages of alley cropping
(1) Provision of green fodder during lean period of the year.
(2) Higher biomass production per unit area than arable crops.
(3) Efficient use off season rainfall in the absences of the crop.
(4) Additional employment during off-season.
(5) It serves as a barrier to surface runoff leading to soil and water conservation.
(6) It improves soil fertility and is more remunerative under rainfed conditions.

3. Crop rotation
Crop rotation refers to recurrent succession of crop on the same piece of land either in a
year or over a longer period of time. Component crops are chosen in such a way that soil health is
not impaired.
Advantages of crop rotation
(1) Addition of considerable amount of organic matter in the soil form of crop residues
(2) The system helps in building up of physical properties of soil
(3) It increases the input use efficiency
(4) It results in efficient utilisation of available resources
(5) Less incidence of pests, diseases and also weeds
Principles of crop rotation
(1) Leguminous crops should be grown before non-leguminous crops because legumes fix
atmospheric N into the soil and add organic matter to the soil.
(2) Crops with tap roots (deep rooted like cotton) should be followed by those which have
fibrous (shallow rooted crops like sorghum or maize) root system. This facilitates uniform
nutrients extractions from different depths of soil.
(3) More exhaustive crops should be followed by less exhaustive crops because crops like
potato, sugarcane, maize, etc. need more inputs such as better tillage, fertilizers, number of
irrigations, etc.
(4) Selection of crop should be based on need or demand.
(5) Crops of same family should not be grown in succession because they act as alternate hosts
for insect pests and diseases.
(6) The selection of crops should suit farmers financial conditions.
(7) The crop selected should also suit to the soil and climatic condition.
(8) Selection of crops should be based on the situations such as:
• On sloppy lands, alternate cropping of erosion permitting and erosion resisting crops
should be adopted.
• Under rain fed situations, crops which can tolerate drought should be selected.
• In low-lying and flood prone areas, crops which can tolerate water stagnation should be
selected.
• In areas where salt affected soils are there, salt tolerant varieties should be grown.
An ideal crop rotation must provide maximum employment to the farm families and
labours and permits farm mechanization to ensure timely operations besides maintaining soil
health.
Efficient cropping systems
(1) It depends on farm resources, farm enterprise and farm technology.
(2) Farm resources are land, labour, water, capital and infrastructure.
(3) When land is limited, intensive cropping is adopted to fully utilise available water and labour.
(4) When sufficient and cheap labours are available, vegetable crops are also included in the
cropping system.
(5) When capital is not a constraint, commercial crops like sugarcane, banana, turmeric, etc. can
be fitted in cropping system.
(6) In low rainfall (<750 mm/annum) mono cropping is followed.
(7) When rainfall is > 750 mm, intercropping is practiced.
(8) When water is plenty, triple and quadruple cropping is adopted while other climatic factors
are not limiting.
(9) Farm enterprises like dairying, poultry, etc. also influence the type of cropping system

(10) When farm enterprises include dairy, the cropping system should contain fodder crops as
component crops.
(11) The day-to-day changes in available technology in agriculture/horticulture also determines
the cropping systems.
(12) Four crop sequences are followed in Gangetic alluvial plains which pave way for multiple
cropping.
Interactions in cropping systems
(A) Interactions in intercropping
When crops are grown in association as in intercropping, there is interaction between
different component crops. This interaction may be competitive or non-competitive or
complementary.
(1) Competition for growth factors
Plant requires growth factors such as solar radiation, water, nutrients and carbon dioxide
for their growth. In inter or mixed cropping different kinds of plants compete with one another for
the limited growth factors.
(2) Allelopathy
Allelopathy is any direct or indirect harmful effect that one plant on another plant through
the release of chemical substances or toxins into the root environment. Some crops may be
unsuitable to be grown as intercrops because they may produce and excrete toxins into the soil
which are harmful to other components.
(3) Annidation
Annidation refers to complementary interaction which occurs both in space and time.
(a) Annidation in space
The canopies of component crops may occupy different vertical layers with taller
component tolerant to strong light and high evaporative demand and shorter component favouring
shade and high relative humidity. Thus, one component crop helps the other. Multistoried cropping
in coconut gardens, planting of shade trees in coffee, tea and cocoa plantations use this principle.
Similarly, root systems of component crops exploit nutrients from different layers thus utilising
the resources efficiently.
(b) Annidation in time
When two crops of widely varying duration are planted, their peak demands for light and
nutrients are likely to occur at different periods, thus reducing competition. When the early
maturing crop is harvested, conditions become favourable for the late maturing crop. This has
been observed to occur in sorghum + redgram, groundnut + redgram and maize + greengram
intcrcropping systems.
(4) Other complementary effects
In an intercropping system, involving a legume and a non-legume, part of the nitrogen
fixed in the root nodule of the legume may become available to the non-legume component.
Another example is the provision of physical support by one species to the other in intercropping
system. Erect crop plants may improve the yield of a climber as in the case of coconut+ pepper.
The taller component acts as wind barrier protecting the short crop.
Interactions in sequence cropping
Competition for light, water and nutrients as in mixed crop communities does not occur
when sole crops are grown in sequence. It occurs only in relay cropping for short overlapping
span.

In sequential cropping, the preceding crop has considerable influence on the succeeding
crop mainly due to changes in soil conditions, presence of allelopathic chemicals, shift in weeds,
and carry over effects of fertilizers, pests and diseases. Field preparation is difficult after rice crop
since soil structure is destroyed due to puddling. Crops like sorghum and sunflower leave toxic
chemicals in the soil which do not allow germination of subsequent crops. The previous
leguminous crop leaves considerable amount of nitrogen for the succeeding crop. Phosphorous
applied to the previous crop is available for the succeeding crop. Weed number and species differ
in the succeeding crop due to the effect of the previous crop. Wheat crop that follows rice suffers
from high density of weed Phalaris minor. The pests and diseases in crop stubbles and other
residues of the previous crop may infect the subsequent crop.

Small, medium and large enterprises including value chains and secondary enterprises as
livelihood components for farmers
Agricultural enterprise means a business primarily engaged in the production of food and
fibre, ranching and raising of livestock, aquaculture and all other farming and agriculture-related
industries. They play crucial roles in supporting agricultural production and the livelihoods of
farmers. These are classified as micro, small, medium and large enterprises based on their nature,
scale, investment limit and turnover. The size enterprises are defined differently in every country.
Micro, small and medium enterprises (MSMEs) are enterprises with limited manpower
and financial turnover. MSMEs are covered under the MSME Development Act, 2006. Business
owners can get registered and get MSME certificates to avail of the benefits made available by
the government for the growth and support of such enterprises. The Government extends support
in the form of easy credit facilities, marketing support, and other steps to facilitate their growth.
Small enterprises
Small enterprises are generally businesses that have fewer than 50 employees and modest
revenue. For the farmers, these are often on-farm or near-farm activities that require minimal
investment but provide additional income. e.g. livestock, poultry, sericulture, apiculture, nursery
raising, vermicomposting, etc. Small enterprises operate in localized markets. Small enterprises
reduce dependency on crop yield alone, provide year-round employment and lower risks by
diversifying income sources.
Medium enterprises
Medium enterprises generally have between 50 and 250 employees and generate moderate
revenues. For farmers, medium enterprises typically involve more formalized business activities
that are larger in scale and may involve external investment or partnerships. e.g. processing units,
larger dairy farms, etc. Medium enterprises involve regional and national market integration.
Medium enterprises increase employment opportunities, provide stable income and create
opportunities for market expansion.
Large enterprises
Large enterprises are enterprises which have an investment of more than ten crore rupees.
These enterprises are important for the country and employ a substantial number of people, these
enterprises require no support from the government and are self-sustaining. Large enterprises
provide access to global markets, advanced agricultural technologies and bulk-buying
opportunities. e.g. large agro-processing units.
Small and Medium Enterprises (SME)
Macro
10 Emplyess
<INR 25 lacs
Small Scale
50 Emplyess
INR 25L-5Cr
Medium Scale
250 Employees
INR 5-10Cr

Secondary agriculture enterprises
Under the situation of multiple challenges faced by Indian agriculture, primary agriculture
by itself would not be able to sustain the agriculture based Indian economy. Primary agriculture
is to be complemented by secondary agriculture. Secondary agriculture activities do not compete
with the time required for primary agriculture production activities.
Despite the fact that India is doing remarkably well in terms of output, extent of value
addition to raw food material is very small. Besides main products, agriculture also produces lots
of residues and by products which need proper handling. In addition, huge quantities of produce
are lost annually in India due to non-availability of appropriate processing and preservation
technologies and improper or insufficient facilities for their handling, transportation and storage.
These main products and byproducts can be utilized for secondary agriculture to generate extra
income and employment.
Secondary agriculture is defined as a productive activity at enterprise level that utilizes
raw material and byproducts of the primary agriculture and locally other biological resources
available locally, deploying locally available skills and manpower to operate/manage/maintain the
production of goods and services. Secondary agriculture enterprises are covered under the Micro,
Small or Medium Enterprises Development (MSMED) Act 2006. e.g. cotton ginning unit to
separate lint and seed from locally grown cotton (within norms of MSME) is an example of
secondary agriculture enterprise but cotton textile factory may not be qualified as secondary
agriculture.
Types of secondary agriculture
Secondary Agriculture
Type A
(Value addition to Primary
Agriculture Production
Systems)
Input centric
e.g. Nursery,
Vermicompost,
biofertilizer
Harvest/Post-harvest
centric
e.g. Turmeric powder,
pickles, preconditioning
produce for market, etc.
Type B
(Alternative enterprises)
e.g. bee keeping, poultry,
agrotourism, off-farm
enterprises. etc.
Type C
(Enterprises that thrive on
crop residues and byproducts)
e.g. Biogas, fibre boards,
banana fibre extration, etc.

Value chain
A ‘value chain’ in agriculture defined as the set of actors and activities that bring a basic
agricultural product from production in the field to final consumption, where at each stage value
is added to the product.
At the one end of agricultural value chain, there are producers, i.e., farmers who grow
crops and raise animals and at the other end, there are the consumers who eat, drink, wear and use
the final products. In the middle, many persons and businesses perform steps in the chain, and
each adds value by growing, buying, selling, processing, transporting, storing, checking, and
packaging.
Actors and stakeholders of value chain
The value chain includes: (1) Input suppliers, (2) Technology delivering agencies, (3)
Scientists engaged in developing appropriate technologies, (4) Extension officers who are
involved in capacity building and providing various services to farmers, (5) Stakeholders involved
in post-production activities like agencies collecting produce, grading, storage, transportation,
processing, marketing of the produce, etc. (6) Financial institutions (7) Marketing agencies.
Efficient linkage of various stakeholders improves production, price realisation and
profitability. Value chains perform well when actors in the value chain coordinate and cooperate
to produce higher-quality products and generate higher income for all stakeholders along the
chain.
Value chain development
(1) Identification of products and activities
(2) Mapping of core processes
(3) Mapping of actors
(4) Mapping constraints and solutions
(5) Developing relationships, linkage and trust
(6) Deciding costs and margins

Factors Affecting the Integration of Various Enterprises of Farming for Livelihood
The integration of different farming enterprises (such as crops, livestock, fisheries,
agroforestry, and horticulture) is essential for creating a sustainable and diverse livelihood for
farmers. The process of integrating these enterprises involves combining activities to optimize
resource use, increase income, and reduce risks.
Integrating various enterprises in farming is a multifaceted approach that depends on
environmental, economic, technological, social, cultural, and policy related factors. A
successful integration strategy focuses on maximizing resource use, improving income
diversity, and ensuring ecological sustainability. With proper planning and support, integrated
farming systems can improve farmers' livelihoods and make them more resilient to economic
and environmental challenges.
(A) Natural resources and Climatic conditions
Sustainable integration of various enterprises requires careful management of soil,
water, and biodiversity to avoid depletion.
(1) Type of soil
The type of soil available influences the crops that can be grown and the success of
integrating livestock or agroforestry. For example, fertile soils may support multiple crops or
trees that provide fodder for livestock, while poor soils may limit integration options.
(2) Climate and weather conditions
Climate affects which crops, livestock, or fish can thrive in a region. For instance, dairy
farming and fish farming may thrive in temperate regions, while dry areas may be better suited
to drought-tolerant crops and hardy livestock. Integrated farming systems that include a mix of
crops, livestock, and trees can provide greater resilience to climate change by diversifying
risks.
(3) Water availability
Access to sufficient and reliable water is crucial for integrating farming systems such
as crop production, livestock, and fisheries. Irrigation infrastructure and rainfall patterns
directly impact integration, especially in water-intensive activities like horticulture and
aquaculture.
(4) Biodiversity and ecosystem health
A healthy ecosystem with diverse plant and animal species promotes natural pest
control, soil fertility, and water conservation, creating better opportunities for integration of
enterprises. Practices like crop rotation, agroforestry, and conservation agriculture can enhance
ecological sustainability while integrating various enterprises. Degraded ecosystems, on the
other hand, limit options for farmers.
(B) Economic Factors
(1) Market Access
The availability of local, regional, or international markets plays a significant role in
the success of integrated farming systems. For instance, farmers may choose to focus on high-
demand products (like dairy, fish, or organic vegetables) if they have access to markets that
offer fair prices.
(2) Capital and investment

The initial cost of setting up integrated enterprises can be high, especially for
infrastructure (e.g., irrigation systems, livestock pens, or fish ponds). Farmers with limited
access to credit or financial resources may face challenges in adopting integrated systems.
(3) Price Volatility
Fluctuations in the prices of agricultural products can affect the stability of income from
integrated farming systems. Farmers may hesitate to invest in high-risk enterprises if there is
uncertainty in product prices or demand.
(C) Technological factors
(1) Access to modern farming technologies
Availability and adoption of modern technology (e.g., precision agriculture, improved
seeds, artificial insemination for livestock, aquaculture innovations) greatly influence the
integration of different farming enterprises. Efficient use of these technologies improves
productivity and sustainability.
(2) Mechanization
Mechanized farming tools and machinery can increase efficiency in integrating
enterprises like crop-livestock farming. Lack of mechanization may limit integration potential,
especially for smallholder farmers.
(3) Knowledge and skills
Farmers must have the technical know-how to manage multiple enterprises effectively.
Training and extension services are critical to enable them to integrate crop, livestock, and fish
production, as well as adopt modern farming practices.
(4) Information and communication technology
Information and communication technology can support integration by providing
farmers with real-time data on market trends, weather forecasts, and farming techniques. This
helps in making informed decisions regarding enterprise integration.
(D) Social and Cultural Factors
(1) Traditional farming practices
Some farming communities may rely on traditional, single-enterprise methods (e.g.,
subsistence farming) that resist integration. Changing these practices requires education,
incentives, and community involvement.
(2) Family labour and workforce
The availability of family labour or hired help affects the ability to manage multiple
enterprises. Labor-intensive enterprises, such as livestock or horticulture, may require more
workforce, and successful integration depends on the capacity to meet labour demands.
(4) Land tenure and ownership
Secure land ownership or long-term leasing arrangements encourage farmers to invest
in diverse enterprises and adopt sustainable practices. In contrast, insecure land tenure limits
long-term investment in integrated systems.
(5) Gender and social roles
In many farming communities, gender roles influence enterprise integration. Women
may focus on specific enterprises (like small livestock or horticulture), while men may

dominate larger-scale or more mechanized enterprises. Promoting gender equality in access to
resources can improve integration.
(6) Cultural preferences
Local preferences for certain crops or livestock also play a role in what enterprises are
integrated. Cultural significance attached to specific enterprises can affect the willingness to
adopt others.
(E) Policy and Institutional Factors
(1) Government policies and subsidies
Supportive government policies, subsidies, and incentives can encourage farmers to
adopt integrated farming systems. Policies that promote crop diversification, agroforestry, and
livestock integration, as well as access to credit, can boost integration.
(2) Land use regulations
Zoning laws, environmental regulations, and land use policies can either promote or
restrict the integration of enterprises. In some regions, laws may restrict activities like livestock
farming or fish ponds, which limits integration opportunities.
(3) Cooperatives and farmer organizations
Cooperative groups and farmer associations can provide resources, training, and market
access, making it easier for farmers to adopt integrated systems. Institutional support helps
share knowledge and resources among farmers.
(4) Access to extension services
Availability of agricultural extension services that provide technical knowledge,
support, and training on integrated farming practices is crucial. Without access to such services,
farmers may not be able to effectively integrate enterprises.
(5) Rural infrastructure
Infrastructure such as roads, storage facilities, and energy access directly impact the
ability of farmers to integrate enterprises and bring products to market.

Feasibility of different farming systems for different agro-climatic zones
India is divided into 15 agro-climatic zones based on soil, climate, rainfall, vegetation,
cropping system, etc. Hence, any single IFS model can not be applicable to all the zones/region.
Components should be selected judiciously and wisely to suit different situations. There are
several factors, such as agroclimatic condition, available resources, demand, market, etc. which
determine the selection of farming system components. IFS model should be most profitable and
sustainable.
Table: Agro-climatic regions/zones in India
S.No. Agro-climatic regions/zones States represented
I Western Himalayan region Himachal Pradesh, Jammu & Kashmir,
Uttarakhand
II Eastern Himalayan region Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Manipur,
Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, Sikkim,
Tripura, West Bengal
III Lower Gangetic plain region West Bengal
IV Middle Gangetic plain region Uttar Pradesh, Bihar
V Upper Gangetic plain region Uttar Pradesh
VI Trans Gangetic plain region Chandigarh, Delhi, Haryana, Punjab,
Rajasthan
VII Eastern plateau and hills region Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh,
Maharashtra, Odisha, West Bengal
VIII Central plateau and hills region Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh
IX Western plateau and hills region Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra
X Southern plateau and hillsregion Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu
XI East coast plains and hills region Andhra Pradesh, Odisha, Puducherry,
Tamil Nadu
XII West coast plains and ghatregion Goa, Karnataka, Kerala, Maharashtra,
Tamil Nadu
XIII Gujarat plains and hills region Gujarat, Dadra & Nagar Haveli, Daman &
Diu
XIV Western dry region Rajasthan
XV Island region Andaman & Nicobar Islands, Lakshadweep
For the purpose of developing IFS models for different regions, these 15 agroclimatic
zones are clubbed into 8 regions.
Farming system models for different Agro-climatic zones of India
(1) High altitude cold deserts
Western Himalayan region, encompassing Ladakh and adjoining area is desert area and
remains very cold and covered with ice. Hence, cultivation of annual crops is very difficult in this
region.
Pastures with forestry; angora goats, angora rabbits and yak for fine quality wool purpose
and limited settled agricultural crops like millets, wheat, barley and fodder. Wool of angora goat
is famous as mohair wool.
(2) Western arid and desert region
This region comprises parts of Gujarat and Rajasthan, characterized by low rainfall, poor
fertility and sandy soils.
Centring mainly in animal husbandry with the camels, sheep and goat with moderate
cropping components involving sorghum, pearl millet, millets, wheat, pulses and fodders.

(3) Western and central Himalayas
Western and central Himalayan region is characterized by hills, snowfall during part of the
year. It covers parts of Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh and Uttarakhand.
Emphasis is on horticultural crops like apple, peach and pear. Mostly terrace cultivation is
followed for crop cultivation. Major crops include like maize, wheat, rice, pulses and fodders.
Pastures with forestry, poultry, and livestock viz., sheep, goats, rabbits, and yak (at altitudes above
2,500 m amsl) forms important components of farming system in this region.
(4) Eastern Himalayas
This region is characterized by high rainfall and high forest area covering parts of Manipur,
Assam, Nagaland. Shifting cultivation is followed by the farmers of this area.
Important IFS components include (1) Horticultural crops with crops like maize, wheat,
rice, pulses and pasture on terraces, pastures with forestry, sheep, goats, rabbits, yak and cold
water fisheries at altitudes above 2000 m msl (2) Maize, rice, French bean, rice bean, piggery,
poultry, fishery and cole crops above 1000 m msl (3) Rice, pulses, dairying, fish culture,
vegetables in case of less than 1,000 m msl.
(5) Indo-Gangetic plains
This region covers parts of Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar. It is characterized by
fertile alluvial soil with canal irrigation and good rainfall. Hence, intensive agriculture is followed
in this area and crop diversity is observed.
Major component is crop cultivation viz., rice-wheat sequence, maize, sugarcane in some
areas, pulses. Livestock, dairy and poultry are also significant components in this area.
(6) Central and southern highlands
Parts of peninsular India falls under semi-arid regions, characterized by less rainfall and
low fertile lands. Hence, less water requiring hardy crops are grown in these areas.
Main crops of this region include cotton, sorghum, millets, pulses, etc. Major livestock
comprises sheep, goat and poultry while dairy cattle to some extent.
(7) Western Ghats
This region includes parts of Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Maharashtra receiving good
rainfall.
Cultivation of plantation crops (coconut, rubber, coffee, tea) is the major activity in this
region whereas cultivation of rice and pulses are the secondary agricultural activities. Cattle, sheep
and goats are the livestock components which in most parts are maintained as large herds and
allowed to range.
(8) Delta and coastal plains
This region is characterized by high rainfall and coastal ecosystem.
IFS components include rice cultivation along with fish culture, goat, poultry and piggery
enterprises. Capture fish (marine fishery) also important component in coastal areas.
Site-specific IFS models
The site-specific development of an IFS model for different agro-climatic zones is
important for ensuring the productivity and sustainability of the system. By taking into account
the local conditions and selecting appropriate components and practices, an IFS can provide a
range of benefits such as improved soil fertility, diversified income, and enhanced food security.
ICAR-Indian Institute of Farming Systems Research, Modipuram is engaged in on station
and on-farm research through AICRP on Integrated Farming Systems. Farming system models
developed at various locations gives hope for realizing higher returns for farmers from a unit land.
Region specific integrated farming systems models are synthesized under this network project
using (1) On-station data (2) Benchmark information from characterization survey (3) Secondary
information available.

Development of IFS model in Gujarat
The AICRP project is operating since 1972 in Gujarat. Integrated Farming System
Research Centre, Sardarkrushinagar is working as the main centre in Gujarat whereas Junagadh
and Navsari centres are working as sub-stations.
Brief highlights of the synthesized IFS model developed by SDAU under AICRP
District : Sabarkantha
NARP Zone : North Gujarat Plains
Agroclimatic zone : Gujarat Plains and Hills
Soil type : Medium black
Rainfall : 807 mm
Model area : 0.88 ha
• Synthesized IFS model (0.88 ha) for Sabarakantha district comprise cropping systems
(0.70 ha), horticulture with vegetables (0.15 ha), dairy (1 Cross bred cow + 2 buffalos),
fishery (0.07 ha), backyard poultry (15 birds), Goatary (4+1) along with supplementary
enterprises like vermicomposting and boundary plantation
• Total cost of Rs. 1,81,449 provides estimated net profit of Rs. 2,22,071.
• Improved IFS model results in significantly higher production (80%), profit (222%),
employment (150%) as compared to existing farming system besides meeting the 100%
family nutrition.
• Improved IFS model also results in 61% higher water productivity.

Commercial farming-based livelihood models by NABARD, ICAR and other organizations
across the country
Commercial farming-based livelihood models are designed to transform agriculture from
subsistence farming into a profit-oriented business. The primary goal is to ensure a sustainable
increase in income for farmers while maintaining environmental balance. These models
emphasize market-driven crop production, value addition, and diversification of agricultural
activities.
NABARD
NABARD plays a crucial role in promoting farmer welfare and improving the livelihoods
of rural communities in a variety of ways.
(1) Self-help group (SHG)
A Self-Help Group (SHG) is a small, voluntary group of individuals who come together
to support each other, share experiences, and work towards common personal or community goals.
SHGs are a major part of that mission to promote sustainable rural development The NABARD
plays a key role in supporting SHGs in India. NABARD provides support to SHGs through a
variety of programs and initiatives covering financial, operational, capacity building supports.
NABARD links SHGs with mainstream banks through SHG-Bank Linkage Program (SBLP) and
helps SHGs access microfinance loans for income-generating activities.
(2) Farmers Producer Organisation (FPO)
A Producer Organisation is a legal entity formed by primary producers, viz. farmers, milk
producers, fishermen, etc. FPO is a producer organisation whose members are farmers. The FPO
scheme was launched by NABARD to promote sustainable agriculture and empower farmers in
India. By working together in an FPO, farmers can get better deals for seeds, fertilizers, machinery,
and sell their produce at higher prices due to collective bargaining power. Key support of
NABARD to FPOs include financial support, capacity building, market linkages and governance
support.
(3) Integrated Watershed Management Programme (IWMP)
The Integrated Watershed Management Programme (IWMP) by NABARD is a scheme
designed to improve the productivity of land and water resources in rural areas. Its main goal is to
address issues like soil erosion, water scarcity, and land degradation by promoting sustainable
land and water management practices. Under the program, NABARD provides financial and
technical assistance to implement watershed management project activities like soil and water
conservation, rainwater harvesting, afforestation and vegetation restoration.
(4) Dairy Entrepreneurship Development Scheme (DEDS)
The Dairy Entrepreneurship Development Scheme (DEDS) is an initiative by NABARD
aimed at promoting the establishment and growth of dairy farming in India. The key objectives of
the DEDS are to promote dairy farming, increase milk production, enhance rural employment and
modernization of dairy farming. The scheme provides financial assistance and technical support
to encourage entrepreneurs to start or expand dairy farming activities.
(5) Contract farming
Considering benefits of contract farming, NABARD developed a special refinance
package for contract farming arrangements aimed at promoting increased production of
commercial crops and creation of marketing avenues for the farmers.

ICAR
(1) Integrated farming systems
ICAR-Indian Institute of Farming Systems Research, Modipuram (Uttar Pradesh) is
engaged in on station and on-farm research through AICRP on Integrated Farming Systems.
Farming system models developed at various locations gives hope for realizing higher returns for
farmers from a unit land. Region specific integrated farming systems models are synthesized under
this network project.
Important features of IFS models
▪ Representative district of the NARP zone was selected for developing an IFS model.
▪ Site specific IFS models have been developed for mean of the holding size of small and
marginal farmers in the representative
▪ The first priority of synthesized IFS model is to meet the demand of household for 6F’s
(food, feed, fodder, fibre, fertilizer and fuel). The remaining area can be utilized for
commercial cropping systems/activities to enhance the profit for the family.
▪ Requirement of various commodities for the family was worked out using ICMR
standards. The gaps in production of required commodities in the existing systems were
identified and cropping system and related components were selected to meet the gaps.
▪ The best available technologies in the domain area were employed for synthesized models.
▪ Standard values of different parameters were worked out for existing farming systems and
synthesized models. e.g. input requirements, available residues/waste, water productivity,
man days required, cost of farming system, saving of produce for sale, sustainability
parameters, etc.
(2) Krishi Vigyan Kendras (KVKs)
Krishi Vigyan Kendras (KVKs), established under the Indian Council of Agricultural
Research (ICAR), play a crucial role in enhancing agricultural productivity and improving
farmers' livelihoods across India through different types of extension activities. The Indian
Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) is the apex body responsible for overseeing the
establishment and functioning of KVKs. The main functions of KVKs are 1) Technology
dissemination 2) Training and capacity building 3) Demonstrations 4) On-farm testing 5)Advisory
services 6) Entrepreneurship Development 7) Linkage with research institutes.
OTHER ORGANISATIONS
AMUL
AMUL has not only revolutionized India's dairy industry but also created sustainable
livelihood opportunities for millions of rural farmers. The cooperative model, centred around dairy
production, has had a profound impact on both the agricultural economy and rural development.
The Amul Model is a three-tier cooperative structure. This structure consists of a Dairy
Cooperative Society at the village level affiliated to a Milk Union at the District level which in
turn is further federated into a Milk Federation at the State level. The above three-tier structure
was set-up in order to delegate the various functions, milk collection is done at the Village Dairy
Society, Milk Procurement & Processing at the District Milk Union and Milk & Milk Products
Marketing at the State Milk Federation. This helps in eliminating not only internal competition
but also ensuring that economies of scale is achieved. This structure was first evolved at Amul in
Gujarat and thereafter replicated all over the country under the Operation Flood Programme, it is
known as the 'Amul Model' or 'Anand Pattern' of Dairy Cooperatives.
NDDB
The National Dairy Development Board (NDDB) plays a pivotal role in improving the
livelihoods of rural farmers, particularly in the dairy sector, through the promotion of dairy-based
livelihoods across India. The NDDB's work is deeply embedded in the cooperative structure that
empowers farmers, particularly in rural regions, by providing access to resources, knowledge, and
markets.

National Horticulture Board (NHB)
The main objectives of the NHB are to improve integrated development of Horticulture
industry. NHB helps in coordinating, sustaining the production and processing of fruits and
vegetables. NHB focuses on development of production clusters/hubs for integrated Hi-tech
commercial horticulture, development of post-harvest and cold chain infrastructure, ensuring
availability of quality planting material and to promote adoption of new technologies/tools/
techniques for Hi-tech commercial horticulture, etc.
National Fisheries Development Board (NFDB)
NFDB enhances the livelihoods of those dependent on fisheries and aquaculture,
especially in coastal and inland rural areas. NFDB provides focused attention to production,
processing, storage, transport and marketing of fish and aquaculture products. It also aims at
conservation of natural aquatic resources. It promotes application of modern tools of research and
development for optimizing production and productivity from fisheries. It provides for training
and empower women in the fisheries sector.
APEDA
APEDA plays an important role in livelihood development in India by promoting the
export of agricultural products and developing consumer bases for Indian products in other
countries. Primary Functions of APEDA are promotion of exports, quality control and standards,
training, market development, financial assistance, registration of exporters, certification, etc.
APEDA implements the National Programme for Organic Production (NPOP), which includes
promoting organic farming, setting standards for organic production, and accrediting Certification
Bodies
Commodity Boards
There are five statutory Commodity Boards under the Department of Commerce. These
Boards are responsible for production, development and export of tea, coffee, rubber, spices and
tobacco. The functions of these boards include increasing production and productivity, improving
the quality, improvement of processing, market promotion, welfare measures for plantation
workers, supporting research and development, collection & dissemination of statistical
information to stakeholders, exporter registration, support infrastructure, etc. for respective
commodities.

Schemes and programs by Central and State Government
PM-Kisan Samadhan Nidhi (PM-KISAN)
PM-KISAN is a central sector scheme launched in 2019 that aims to provide minimum
income support to all small and marginal farmers per year. Under the scheme, financial benefit of
Rs. 6000/- per year is transferred in three equal four-monthly instalments into the bank accounts
of farmers’ families across the country, through Direct Benefit Transfer (DBT) mode.
Pradhan Mantri Fasal Bima Yojana (PMFBY)
PMFBY was launched in 2016 in order to provide a simple and affordable crop insurance
product to ensure comprehensive risk cover for crops to farmers against all non-preventable
natural risks from pre-sowing to post-harvest and to provide adequate claim amount. The scheme
is demand driven and available for all farmers.
Pradhan Mantri Kisan MaanDhan Yojana (PM-KMY)
Pradhan Mantri Kisan Maandhan Yojna (PMKMY) is a central sector scheme launched
in 2019. PM-KMY is contributory scheme for small and marginal farmers (SMFs). Farmers can
opt to become member of the scheme by paying monthly subscription to the Pension Fund.
Similar, amount will be contributed by the Central Government. Small and marginal farmers
between 18-40 years age are eligible for the benefits.
National Food Security Mission (NFSM)
The Mission aims at increasing production of rice, wheat, pulses, coarse cereals (Maize
and Barley) and Nutri-Cereals through area expansion and productivity enhancement in a
sustainable manner. Other objectives include restoring soil fertility and productivity at the
individual farm level, enhancing farm level economy and post-harvest value addition at farm gate.
Government has taken many steps to achieve the aim of International Year of Millets
(IYM) 2023. Millet missions have been launched across 13 states including. Start-ups and FPOs
have been established and are operational in the millet ecosystem.
Rashtriya Krishi Vikas Yojana
Rashtriya Krishi Vikas Yojana (RKVY), a centrally sponsored scheme was launched in
2007 as an umbrella scheme to promote the development of agriculture and allied sectors. The
scheme aims to fill the resources gap of agriculture and allied sectors by providing financial
support to states. The scheme focuses on creation of infrastructure in agriculture and allied sectors
that help in supply of quality inputs, market facilities, etc. to farmers. It provides flexibility to
states to implement projects as per the local farmers’ needs and priorities. In 2017, the scheme
was renamed as RKVY-RAFTAAR, which stands for Remunerative Approaches for Agriculture
and Allied Sector Rejuvenation.
Mission for Integrated Development of Horticulture (MIDH)
MIDH, a Centrally Sponsored Scheme was launched during 2014-15 for holistic growth
of the horticulture sector covering fruits, vegetables, root and tuber crops, mushrooms, spices,
flowers, aromatic plants, coconut, cashew, cocoa and Bamboo. Major components include
plantation infrastructure development, establishment of new orchards and gardens for fruits,
vegetables, spices and flowers, rejuvenation of unproductive, old, and senile orchards, protected
cultivation, promotion of organic farming, pollination support through bee keeping, horticulture
mechanization, post-harvest management and marketing infrastructure, etc.
National Agro-forestry Policy
Agro-forestry was conceived on the recommendation of the National Agro-forestry Policy
2014 to promote plantation on farmlands. The restructured agro-forestry under RKVY is aimed to
provide Quality Planting Materials (QPM) and the certification in order to promote planting of
trees on farm land for improving the livelihood of farmers.

National Bamboo Mission (NBM)
NBM mainly focus on the development of complete value chain of the bamboo sector. It
is envisaged to link growers with consumers with a cluster approach mode. NBM is now merged
with MIDH.
National beekeeping and Honey Mission (NBHM)
Keeping in view the importance of beekeeping, a Central Sector Scheme entitled National
Beekeeping & Honey Mission (NBHM) was launched in 2020 under Atmarirbhar Bharat Abhiyan
for its implementation in the field for overall promotion and development of scientific beekeeping
and to achieve the goal of “Sweet Revolution”.
Soil Health Card (SHC)
Soil Health Cards (SHCs) Scheme introduced in the year 2014-15. Soil health card
provides information to farmers on nutrient status of their soil along with recommendation on
appropriate dosage of nutrients to be applied for improving soil health and its fertility. Now,
Government of India has made some technological interventions in New Soil Health Card
Scheme.
Modified Interest Subvention Scheme (MISS)
The Interest Subvention Scheme (ISS) provides concessional short term agri-loans to the
farmers practicing crop husbandry and other allied activities like animal husbandry, dairying and
fisheries. ISS is available to farmers availing short term crop loans up to Rs.3.00 lakh at an interest
rate of 7% per annum for one year. Additional 3% subvention is also given to the farmers for
prompt and timely repayment of loans thus, reducing the effective rate of interest to 4% per annum.
Agriculture Infrastructure Fund (AIF)
In order to address the existing infrastructure gaps and mobilize investment in agriculture
infrastructure, AIF was launched under Aatmanirbhar Bharat Package. AIF was introduced with a
vision to transform the agriculture infrastructure landscape of the country. The AIF is a medium-
long term debt financing facility for investment in viable projects for post-harvest management
infrastructure and community farming assets through interest subvention and credit guarantee
support.
Formation and Promotion of Farmer Producer Organizations (FPOs)
The Government of India launched the Central Sector Scheme (CSS) for the formation
and promotion of FPOs in 2020. The scheme aims to: Improve the economic strength and market
linkages of farmers, create jobs for rural youth, improve the rural economy, increase farmers'
income, and double exports by 2022.
Integrated Scheme for Agriculture Marketing (ISAM)
ISAM supports state governments in governing the agricultural produce marketing
through creation and improvement of market structures, capacity building and generating access
to market information.
During 2017-18, National Agriculture Market Scheme popularly known as e-NAM
scheme has also been made part of the same. National Agriculture Market (e-NAM) is a pan-India
electronic trading portal which networks the existing APMC mandis to create a unified national
market for agricultural commodities.
Market Intervention Scheme and Price Support Scheme (MIS-PSS)
PSS is implemented for procurement of pulses, oilseeds and copra. MIS is implemented
for procurement of agricultural and horticultural commodities which are perishable in nature and
are not covered under PSS. The objective of intervention is to protect the growers of these
commodities from making distress sale in the event of a bumper crop during the peak arrival
period when the prices tend to fall below economic levels and cost of production.

Rainfed Area Development (RAD)
RAD is being implemented since 2014-15. RAD adopts an area-based approach in cluster
mode for promoting Integrated Farming System (IFS) which focuses on multi-cropping, rotational
cropping, inter-cropping, mixed cropping practices with allied activities like horticulture,
livestock, fishery, apiculture, etc. to enable farmers not only in maximizing the farm returns for
sustaining livelihood, but also to mitigate the impacts of drought, flood or other extremes weather
events.
Paramparagat Krishi Vikas Yojana (PKVY)
PKVY, launched in 2015 aims to increase soil fertility and produce agricultural products
free from chemicals and pesticides residues by adopting eco-friendly, low-cost technologies. The
scheme is implemented in a cluster mode with unit cluster size of 20 hectares. A group shall
comprise minimum 20 farmers (may be more if individual holdings are less). Farmers in a group
can avail benefit of maximum of 2 ha as per provision of PKVY.
Per drop more crop (PDMC)
In order to increase water use efficiency at the farm level through Micro Irrigation
technologies, i.e., drip and sprinkler irrigation systems, PDMC scheme was launched during 2015-
16. The micro irrigation helps in water saving as well as reduced fertilizer usage through
fertigation, labour expenses, other input costs and overall income enhancement of farmers. It also
supports micro level water harvesting, storage, management, etc. activities to supplement source
creation for micro irrigation.
National Mission on Edible Oils-Oil Palm (NMEO-OP)
A new Centrally Sponsored Scheme namely, NMEO-OP has been launched 2021 in order
to promote oil palm cultivation for making the country Aatamnirbhar in edible oils.
Namo Drone Didi
The Government has recently approved a Central Sector Scheme for providing drones to
the Women Self Help Group (SHGs) for the period from 2024-25 to 2025-26. The scheme aims
to provide drones to 15000 selected Women Self Help Group (SHGs) for providing rental services
to farmers for agriculture purpose (application of fertilizers and pesticides).
Sub-Mission on Agriculture Mechanization (SMAM)
SMAM is implemented from 2014 which aims to accelerate agricultural mechanization in
India for small and marginal farmers and to the regions where availability of farm power is low.
Sub-Mission on Seed and Planting Material (SMSP)
SMSP covers seed production chain, from production of nucleus seed to supply of certified
seeds to the farmers, creation of infrastructure for development of the seed sector, support to the
public seed producing organisations, creating seed banks. SMSP has launched the first phase of
Seed Authentication, Traceability & Holistic Inventory (SATHI) portal for effective monitoring
of seed chain. SMSP is now merged with NFSM.
Sub-Mission on Agriculture Extension (SMAE)
SMAE is a part of the National Mission on Agricultural Extension and Technology
(NMAET). The SMAE's objectives include Technology dissemination, Farmer-driven extension
system, Multi-agency extension strategies, Group approach, Gender concerns, Awareness
creation, Market-led technologies. To accelerate technology dissemination, Agricultural
Technology Management Agency (ATMA) at district level is a new institutional arrangement to
operationalize extension reforms in a participatory mode.

Deendayal Antyodaya Yojana-National Rural Livelihoods Mission (DAY-NRLM)
DAY-NRLM is a flagship programme of the Ministry of Rural Development, Government
of India. Livelihood promotion activities of DAY-NRLM include interventions in both on-farm
activities like Agro Ecological Practices (AEP), improved livestock management practices,
sustainable Non-Timber Forest Produce (NTFP) collection practices, etc. and off-farm activities
like traditional occupations.
Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme (MGNREGS)
The Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MGNREGA) is now
known as the Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme (MGNREGS). It
is a landmark social security initiative launched by the Government of India in 2005. It aims to
enhance the livelihood security of rural households by providing guaranteed at least 100 days of
wage employment to every rural household whose adult members volunteer to do unskilled
manual labour. The primary focus of MGNREGA is to provide income security to rural families,
reduce poverty, and create sustainable livelihood opportunities in rural areas, thereby promoting
rural development. It supports asset creation activities like new farm ponds, dug wells, other water
harvesting structures, livestock shelters, fish drying yards, etc.
Khadi and Village Industries Commission (KVIC)
KVIC promotes the development of Khadi, village industries, and handicrafts to create
sustainable livelihoods, especially in rural areas. The Commission works toward fostering
economic independence, self-reliance, and employment generation in rural India, primarily
through artisan-based enterprises. It encourages niche farming activities like bee kipping,
sericulture and organic farming.
State Government Agricultural schemes (Gujarat)
▪ Mukhya Mantri Pashupalan Yojana
▪ Kisan Parivahan Yojana
▪ Kisan Suryoday Yojana
▪ Horticulture Development Mission
▪ Skill Development for Farmers (Krushi Mahotsav)
▪ Vanbandhu Kalyan Yojana
▪ Gujarat Agro-Industries Corporation (GAIC)
▪ Organic and Natural Farming Schemes
▪ Farm Mechanization scheme
▪ Distribution of Seeds scheme
▪ Programme for Women Farmers and Farmers
▪ Scheme for establishment of new garden (Fruits)
▪ Cultivation of Aromatic and Medicinal Crops
▪ Scheme for vegetable cultivation
▪ Spice Crops to Increase Productivity
▪ Mushroom and Bee Keeping

Public and Private organizations involved in promotion of farming-based livelihood
opportunities
Both public and private organizations play crucial roles in promoting farming-based
livelihood opportunities. These organizations often focus on areas such as sustainable agriculture,
capacity building, financial assistance, market linkages, and technological advancements.
PUBLIC ORGANISATIONS
Central Government Ministries and Departments
(1) Ministry of Agriculture & Farmers’ Welfare
o Department of Agriculture, Cooperation & Farmers Welfare
Implements schemes like PM-Kisan, Soil Health Card Scheme, and Pradhan Mantri
Fasal Bima Yojana (PMFBY).
o Department of Agricultural Research and Education (DARE)
Manages agricultural education and research through institutions like the Indian Council
of Agricultural Research (ICAR).
(2) Ministry of Fisheries, Animal Husbandry and Dairying
The Department is responsible for matters relating to livestock production, preservation,
protection from diseases and improvement of stocks and dairy development, and also for matters
relating to Delhi Milk Scheme (DMS) and National Dairy Development Board (NDDB).
(3) Ministry of Rural Development
Focuses on rural employment, women’s empowerment in agriculture and supports
agricultural activities through schemes like Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment
Guarantee Act (MGNREGA) and National Rural Livelihood Mission (NRLM)
(4) Ministry of Food Processing Industries
Supports value addition and market linkages for agricultural produce through schemes
like PM Formalisation of Micro Food Processing Enterprises (PMFME).
(5) Ministry of Environment, Forest, and Climate Change
Promotes sustainable farming practices and agroforestry.
(6) Ministry of Commerce and Industry
The Ministry of Commerce and Industry (MoCI) in India has an Agriculture Export Policy
that aims to help farmers improve their income and empower the farming community.
State Agricultural Departments
Each state has its own Department of Agriculture that implements both central and state-
specific schemes.
Research and Development Institutions
(1) Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR)
ICAR is an autonomous organization under the Department of Agricultural Research and
Education (DARE) in the Indian Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers Welfare. ICAR plays a key
role in the development of agriculture in India by conducting research, coordinating education,
and promoting the application of research in agriculture.
(2) State and Central Agricultural Universities
State and Central Agricultural Universities are part of the ICAR-Agricultural Universities
System. They are given responsibilities for agricultural research, education and training or
extension education. The SAUs are given autonomous status and direct funding from the state
governments.

Financial Institutions
(1) National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development (NABARD)
The National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development (NABARD) is a development
bank in India that focuses on the agriculture and rural sectors. It provides credit and support to
institutions working in the rural sector, including agricultural finance, rural infrastructure, and
various other rural development initiatives.
(2) Regional Rural Banks (RRBs)
RRBs bridge the credit gap in rural areas and provide financial services to the marginal
farmers, agricultural labourers, artisans, and small entrepreneurs.
(3) Cooperative Banks and Societies
These financial cooperatives are organized by farmers and other agricultural professionals
to provide credit and other services to farmers. Primary agricultural credit societies are often
organized in rural areas where access to traditional banking services may be limited.
Specialized Boards and Authorities
(1) The National Dairy Development Board (NDDB)
Established in 1965, the NDDB is a statutory body of the Government of India, tasked
with the mission of supporting the development of the dairy industry, improving the welfare of
dairy farmers, and promoting sustainable livelihoods in rural areas.
(2) National Horticulture Board (NHB)
NHB was set up by the Government of India in 1984 as an autonomous organization under
the administrative control of Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers Welfare and registered as a
society. The main objectives of the NHB are to improve integrated development of Horticulture
industry.
(3) National Fisheries Development Board (NFDB)
The National Fisheries Development Board (NFDB) is a statutory body established by the
Government of India under the Ministry of Fisheries, Animal Husbandry and Dairying in 2006 to
promote sustainable fisheries development in India.
(4) Agricultural and Processed Food Products Export Development Authority (APEDA)
APEDA is an organization established by the Government of India under the Ministry of
Commerce and Industry to promote the export of agricultural and processed food products.
(5) Commodity Boards
Currently there are five commodity boards created under the administrative control of the
Department of Commerce in the Ministry of Commerce and Industry. These Boards are
responsible for production, development and export of tea, coffee, rubber, spices and tobacco.
(6) Khadi and Village Industries Commission (KVIC)
KVIC is a statutory body established by the Government of India under the Khadi and
Village Industries Commission Act, 1956 that promote livelihood, especially in rural area.
Cooperatives
(1) AMUL
AMUL is a brand owned by the Gujarat Co-operative Milk Marketing Federation
(GCMMF). AMUL is one of India’s most iconic dairy cooperatives and has significantly
contributed to rural livelihoods, particularly through its innovative and inclusive approach to dairy
farming.
(2) IFFCO
Indian Farmers Fertiliser Cooperative Limited, is a multi-state cooperative society in
India. IFFCO plays a key role in agriculture development in India by promoting sustainable
agriculture, providing agricultural inputs like produces and distributes fertilizers, seeds,

pesticides, and micro-nutrients, research, rural development programmes, promoting
entrepreneurship, etc.
PRIVATE ORGANISATIONS
Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs)
(1) Self-Employed Women’s Association (SEWA)
The Self-Employed Women’s Association (SEWA) is a membership-based organization
created in 1972 from a combination of the labour, women, and cooperative movements, to
organize self-employed women in the informal economy. It supports women farmers.
(2) ActionAid India
ActionAid Association is a nationally registered organisation working with the poor and
marginalised people in India since 1972. The association works across 25 States and three Union
Territories. ActionAid India advocates for sustainable agriculture practices and technologies that
are eco-friendly and suitable to the local climate.
(3) Bharatiya Agro Industries Foundation (BAIF)
BAIF has adopted the Gandhian approach to rural prosperity with emphasis on Climate
Change Mitigation and Resilient and Sustainable Community Livelihoods. BAIF is implementing
major Nature-positive programmes such as Livestock Development, Natural Resources
Management, Agri-Horti-Forestry (Wadi) and Agrobiodiversity Conservation for Sustainable
Livelihoods and Enriched Environment.
Agri-tech Companies
Agri-tech companies provide seeds, crop protection solutions, agricultural tools and other
input supplies and agricultural services.
WORLD ORGANIZATIONS
(1) Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO)
Implements global initiatives for sustainable agriculture.
(2) World Bank
Funds rural development and agricultural projects.
(3) International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD)
Supports small-scale farmers in developing countries.

Risk and success factors in farming-based livelihood systems
Farming-based livelihoods in India are a vital component of the economy. However, these
livelihoods are influenced by various risk factors and success determinants.
Risk factors
India's agricultural sector faces multiple risks. The uncertainties in weather, yields, prices,
government policies, markets, and other factors cause wide swings in farm income. Key risk
factors include:
(A) Environmental risks
(1) Unpredictable rainfall
Agriculture in India is dependent on the monsoon season, which is erratic leading to
droughts and floods. Erratic monsoon rainfall patterns in India frequently disrupts agricultural
production.
(2) Climate change and natural disasters
Rising temperatures, unpredictable weather patterns, and extreme climate events threaten
crop yields, especially in the regions dependent on rain-fed agriculture. Floods, earthquakes, and
cyclones can destroy infrastructure, crops, and livestock.
(3) Soil degradation
Loss of fertility due to overuse of chemical fertilizers and inadequate organic inputs, soil
erosion due to over cultivation and poor land management practices and soil salinization due to
excess irrigation have degraded the soil health impacting crop productivity.
(4) Outbreak of pests and diseases
Increasing incidence and severity of pest and disease outbreaks due to climate change and
excessive use of agro-chemicals poses significant risks to primary productivity and increases input
costs. Indian farmers face frequent infestations of pests like locusts and certain diseases. Many
farmers lack access to effective and affordable pest management solutions.
(B) Economic risks
(1) Price volatility
Fluctuations in prices for outputs impact income stability of farmers. Crop prices fluctuate
due to seasonal supply, policy shifts, and global market influences, leading to uncertain incomes.
(2) Credit access
Small and marginal farmers often struggle to obtain credit, making it hard to invest in
quality inputs and technology.
(3) Market access
Poor infrastructure, such as limited transportation and storage facilities hinders farmers’
ability to access profitable markets.
(4) High input costs
Rising costs for seeds, fertilizers, and machinery can strain farmers’ profitability. Small
holders may struggle to afford modern equipment and methods.
(C) Policy and institutional risks
(1) Inconsistent agricultural policies
Frequently changing inconsistent government policies on subsidies, tariffs, or exports can
lead to uncertainty and disrupt farming operations.

(2) Land ownership issues
Fragmented landholdings and uncertain land rights in some regions restrict farmers’
opportunities.
(D) Social risks
(1) Personal risks
Personal risk refers to factors such as problems with human health or personal
relationships that can affect the farm business. e.g. accidents, illness, death, etc.
(2) Labour shortage
Indian agriculture faces labour shortage due to agricultural workers’ preference for non-
agricultural sector and migration of young people to urban areas for better job prospects. It poses
a significant challenge in agriculture, impacting the timely execution of agricultural operations
and crop management.
(3) Skill and education
Farmers often lack technical knowledge of modern agricultural techniques and
technologies due to poor literacy and insufficient extension services, which limit their ability to
maximize productivity.
Success factors
Despite these challenges, there are several factors that contribute to the success of farming-
based livelihoods in India. Risk management involves adopting strategies that can mitigate
negative financial effects from such uncertainties.
(A) Environment management
(1) Sustainable practices
Adoption of sustainable practices like crop diversification, precision farming, organic
methods, natural farming practices, conservation agriculture, low-input practices and agroforestry
reduce input costs, maintain soil health and enhance long-term viability.
(2) Climate smart agriculture
Agricultural practices which respond effectively to climate change can help adapt climate
change. Use of resilient crop varieties, efficient water management techniques including
watershed programmes and ground water recharge, and sustainable practices together with use of
weather apps and services offering short-term and long-term weather forecast, etc. reduce the
impact of climate change.
(B) Economic resilience
(1) Diversification
Engaging in multiple income-generating activities reduces dependency on a single source
of income.
(2) Access to markets
Connectivity to local and international markets through cooperatives ensures better
pricing. Digital platforms like e-NAM facilitates fair prices by connecting farmers with buyers
nationwide, bypassing intermediaries.
(3) Financial inclusion
Loans and microfinance enable farmers’ investment in inputs and technologies. Insurance
reduce vulnerability to economic shocks.

(C) Policy and institutional support
(1) Effective policies
Stable and farmer-friendly policies, incentives to encourage sustainable farming practices,
subsidies on farm inputs and machineries, crop and livestock insurance, direct benefit transfer,
promotion of research and development, etc. play an important role in helping farmers to manage
their risks.
(2) Infrastructure development
Investment in roads, transportation, storage, water systems, and electrification boosts
efficiency.
(3) Credit access
Loans and microfinance enable investment in inputs and technologies.
(D) Social support and human capital
(1) Community support
Strong social networks and cooperative models such as FPOs help small farmers access
larger markets, better inputs, and credit by aggregating their resources provide risk-sharing
mechanisms and collective bargaining power.
(2) Education and training
Education and training to impart knowledge in modern agricultural practices,
entrepreneurship, use of modern digital tools for weather forecast, market trends, farm
management, precision farming practices, etc. enhance efficiency and profitability.
(3) Youth engagement and women empowerment
Inspiring youth to participate in farming could encourage innovative approaches. Women
empowerment in agriculture can positively impact agricultural production, food security, and child
nutrition.

Case studies on different livelihood enterprises associated with the farming
Here are some notable case studies on different livelihood enterprises associated
with farming. These examples highlight various approaches that have successfully
improved farmer incomes and livelihoods:
1. Amul Dairy Cooperative (Gujarat):
Overview: Amul is one of India’s largest dairy cooperatives, established in 1946. It
empowers farmers by providing them with a stable income through milk production.
Key Features:
▪ Cooperative Model: Farmers are members of the cooperative, sharing profits.
▪ Value Addition: Amul processes milk into a variety of products (cheese, butter, ice
cream) that cater to diverse markets.
▪ Training and Support: The cooperative provides training in dairy farming,
hygiene, and animal husbandry.
Impact: Amul has transformed the livelihoods of millions of farmers, significantly
increasing their income and promoting rural development.
2. Self-Help Groups (SHGs) in Tamil Nadu:
Overview: The SHG movement in Tamil Nadu focuses on empowering women through
collective savings and income-generating activities.
Key Features:
▪ Microfinance: SHGs provide access to small loans for agricultural and non-
agricultural enterprises.
▪ Skill Development: Training in various skills (e.g., tailoring, handicrafts, and
organic farming) enhances income opportunities.
▪ Market Access: SHGs facilitate collective marketing of products, improving
bargaining power.
Impact: Many women have started successful enterprises, leading to improved family
incomes and enhanced social status.
3. Integrated Farming System (IFS) in Punjab:
Overview: This model combines crop production, livestock, and aquaculture to optimize
resource use and increase income.
Key Features:
▪ Diversification: Farmers grow crops, raise poultry and livestock, and practice fish
farming.
▪ Waste Utilization: Organic waste from livestock is used as fertilizer, while crop
residues serve as animal feed.
▪ Economic Resilience: By diversifying income sources, farmers reduce risks
associated with single-crop farming.
Impact: Increased overall productivity and income stability for participating farmers.

4. Organic Farming Initiative in Sikkim:
Overview: Sikkim has become India’s first fully organic state, promoting organic farming
practices among its farmers.
Key Features:
▪ Government Support: Policies and training programs encourage the transition to
organic farming.
▪ Market Development: Establishment of markets for organic produce, both locally
and nationally.
▪ Sustainable Practices: Emphasis on sustainable farming techniques that improve
soil health and biodiversity.
Impact: Farmers have seen increased demand and premium prices for organic products,
significantly enhancing their livelihoods.
5. Horticulture Development in Maharashtra:
Overview: The government of Maharashtra promotes horticulture as a key livelihood
option for farmers.
Key Features:
▪ Crop Diversification: Farmers are encouraged to grow high-value crops like fruits
and vegetables.
▪ Market Linkages: Support in establishing connections with markets and
processors.
▪ Training Programs: Capacity building for best practices in cultivation, post-
harvest handling, and marketing.
Impact: Many farmers have transitioned from traditional crops to horticulture, leading to
higher incomes and reduced risk.
6. Fish Farming in West Bengal:
Overview: Fish farming has become an important livelihood option in West Bengal,
leveraging the state’s abundant water resources.
Key Features:
▪ Pond-Based Aquaculture: Farmers utilize ponds for raising fish, often integrating
it with rice cultivation.
▪ Cooperative Model: Formation of cooperatives to market fish collectively,
enhancing income.
▪ Training and Resources: Support from government and NGOs for best practices
in aquaculture.
Impact: Increased fish production has led to improved household incomes and food
security for many families.
These case studies illustrate diverse livelihood enterprises associated with farming,
showcasing how innovative approaches, cooperation, and government support can lead to
significant improvements in farmer livelihoods. By leveraging local resources and fostering
community engagement, these models provide valuable lessons for scaling similar
initiatives across regions.
******

Role of farming-based livelihood enterprises in 21st
Century in view of circular
economy, green economy, climate change, digitalization and changing lifestyle
Agricultural production together with food processing significantly contribute to
greenhouse gas emission and carbon footprint. Agricultural production consumes large
amounts of water, energy and harmful chemicals, and follow the practices that maximize
crop yields but not sustainable. Many farm and food processes operating in a linear model
(take-make-consume-throw away pattern), contribute large amount of agro-wastes
annually. All together adversely affect the climate, natural resource, biodiversity, and
pollute the environment.
CIRCULAR ECONOMY
Circular economy refers to a model of production and consumption, which involves
sharing, leasing, reusing, repairing, refurbishing and recycling existing materials and
products as long as possible. Goals of circularity are to minimise resource use, reduce
waste, repurpose materials to turn into value products and protect the environment. It is a
kind of value-chain loop and lessens waste from every stage of a product's lifecycle.
Benefits of circular economy
(1) It helps to meet customers’ expectations
(2) It encourages waste utilization to diversify income and thus, mitigate vulnerability and
increase farm efficiencies.
(3) It takes care of future regulations and help earn distinction of being pioneer.
(4) It distinguishes one’s business from competitors by highlighting their sustainable
practices.
Role of farming-based enterprises in circular economy
IFS involves the synergistic integration of crops, livestock, aquaculture, forestry,
and other components. Reuse of byproducts and wastes from one enterprise as input in the
other enterprise of process minimizes waste generation, need for external inputs, energy
consumption and emissions. e.g., using crop residues for livestock feed.

Cyclic processes in water use such as water harvesting, ground water recharge,
wastewater utilization, aquaculture provide efficient utilization of water resources. e.g. By
adopting aquaculture with farming, fishpond supplies nutrient-rich water for irrigation.
Thus, farming-based enterprises promote a circular economy through recycling,
reducing waste and innovative practices.
GREEN ECONOMY
A green economy is an economic model that aims to improve human well-being and
social equity while reducing environmental risks. Farming-based enterprises play a crucial
role in advancing the green economy by promoting sustainable practices that integrate
environmental responsibility with economic growth.
Role of farming-based enterprises in green economy
(1) Production of green products
Farming enterprises supply raw materials for eco-friendly products such as organic
foods, bioplastics, biofuels, natural fibers.
(2) Encouraging green energy
IFS integrates renewable energy sources into farming systems, reducing emissions.
o Solar-powered irrigation: Solar panels power irrigation systems for crops.
o Biogas units: Animal waste is converted into biogas for cooking and lighting, reducing
deforestation and fossil fuel use.
(3) Ecosystem services
Agroecological practices like crop rotation, polycultures, agroforestry, etc.
encourages diversity which supports ecological balance and reduces vulnerability to pests
and diseases. Mixed farming and agroforestry provide habitats for various species,
enhancing ecosystem services.
CLIMATE CHANGE
Climate change refers to long-term shifts in temperatures and weather patterns.
These shifts can be natural, but human activities, which produces heat-trapping gases have
been the main driver of climate change. The agriculture sector significantly contributes to
greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and the global carbon footprint. The three primary GHGs
of concern are carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide. The source of carbon dioxide is
combustion of fossil fuel for agricultural machinery, transportation, irrigation, etc. and
deforestation for agriculture expansion. Methane gas is produced due to decomposition of
wastes, enteric fermentation (process in the digestive systems of ruminants) and rice
cultivation. The major source of nitrous oxide are soil and manure management and
wastewater treatments.
Though agriculture is a major cause of greenhouse gas emission, agricultural
producers can play a big role in mitigating climate change by reducing greenhouse gas
emissions or removing carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and storing it above or below
ground. Integrated Farming Systems (IFS) play a significant role in mitigating climate
change by enhancing resource efficiency, reducing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions,
promoting carbon sequestration, and increasing resilience to climate variability.

Role of farming-based enterprises in climate change
(1) Carbon sequestration
Carbon sequestration is the process of transferring carbon from the atmosphere to
plants and soil through photosynthesis. Farming-based enterprises has the potential to act
as a carbon sink and mitigate climate change effects.
o Regenerative agriculture: Regenerative agriculture practices like no-till farming,
cover cropping, and composting increase carbon storage in the soil.
o Reforestation and agroforestry: These practices integrate trees with agricultural crops
and livestock. These activities maintain green cover, reduce emissions of greenhouse
gases and store carbon in the soil and above-ground biomass.
(2) Reducing emissions
Improved livestock management practices and fertilizer management strategies like
slow-release fertilizers, use of amendments, biofertilizers, fertigation reduces greenhouse
gas emissions.
(3) Resilience to climate shocks
By diversifying farm activities, IFS enhances resilience to climate shocks like
droughts, floods, and erratic weather patterns. e.g. A mix of crops, livestock, and
aquaculture reduces the risk of total loss due to extreme events.
DIGITALIZATION
Integrated approach creates opportunities for digitalization to enhance productivity,
resource management, and profitability.
(1) Enterprise performance: IFS involves various components such as crops, livestock,
aquaculture, and agroforestry. Digital tools help measure and compare productivity,
profitability, and resource use efficiency across all components of IFS.
(2) Precision farming: IFS, coupled with digital tools like GPS, IoT, and sensors, ensures
precise application of inputs like water, fertilizers, and pesticides across different farming
components.
(3) Digital audits: Systems like blockchain ensure transparency and traceability in the
production chain, which is crucial for organic and sustainable certification.
(4) E-Marketing platforms: Digital tools enable farmers to access markets directly,
reducing dependency on intermediaries and increasing profitability.
(5) Demand forecasting: IFS data integrated with digital market trends helps predict
demand for diverse products like crops, milk, fish, or wood.
(6) Knowledge and capacity building: Digital platforms foster knowledge sharing among
IFS practitioners, promoting best practices and innovation. Online modules, mobile apps,
and videos help educate farmers about modem techniques in integrated farming.
(7) Climate resilience and risk management: Digitalization provides real-time weather
updates, helping farmers plan activities for different IFS components.
CHANGING LIFESTYLE
Integration of different farming-based livelihood enterprises such as crops,
livestock, poultry, fisheries, and agroforestry within a farm creates a sustainable,
diversified, and efficient production system. It plays a crucial role in transforming
lifestyles, especially in rural and agricultural communities. It impacts the lifestyle in the
following ways:

(1) Income and economic stability
• Diversified income sources: Integration of different enterprises enhances income
and reduces dependency on a single source of income by combining multiple
agricultural activities. For example, if crop yields are poor, income from livestock
or fishery can compensate. It also reduces the risk of market fluctuations and
climatic adversities.
• Year-round employment: Integration of year-round productive components like
dairy farming or poultry, etc. provides consistent employment and income.
(2) Food and nutritional security
• Self-sufficiency: Combination of different livelihood farming enterprises enables
farmers to produce a variety of food items (grains, vegetables, milk, meat, fish, and
fruits) on their farms, reducing dependency on external markets.
• Improved nutrition: Diverse farm produces provide a balanced diet, improving the
health and well-being of families.
(3) Quality of life
• Healthier living: Reduced use of chemical inputs and reliance on natural cycles
contribute to healthier food production and a cleaner environment.
• Better livelihoods: Increased and stable incomes enable farmers to afford better
housing, education for children, healthcare, and access to modern conveniences.
• Reduced urban migration: With sustainable income opportunities in rural areas,
families are less likely to migrate to cites in search of work, preserving community
bonds and cultural heritage.
(4) Environmental sustainability
• Reduced waste: IFS emphasizes resource recycling. For instance, animal waste is
used as manure for crops, and crop residues can feed livestock.
• Conservation of natural resources: By integrating systems like agroforestry or
aquaculture, farmers make efficient use of water, land, and other natural resources.
• Climate resilience: Diverse systems are more resilient to climatic changes,
ensuring long-term sustainability and reducing the stress of climate-related
uncertainties.
(5) Knowledge and technology adoption
Farmers practicing IFS learn and adopt sustainable practices, advanced tools, and
modern techniques, improving their efficiency and confidence.
(6) Cultural and social transformation
• Empowering women and youth: Integrated systems involving different
enterprises like poultry, horticulture, or beekeeping, providing opportunities for
women and youth to contribute to family income.
• Community development: Collaborative efforts to implement IFS often lead to
shared knowledge, collective problem-solving, and stronger community networks.
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Farming Based Livelihood Systems (2+1) Theory Note

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