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Principles of Intro to Programming Languages
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- 3. 1-3 CONCEPTS • Introduction tosyntax and semantics • The General Problem of Describing Syntax • Formal Methods of Describing Syntax • Attribute Grammars • Describing the Meanings of Programs: Dynamic Semantics
- 4. 1-4 ❖ Reasons forStudying Concepts of Programming Languages ● Increased ability to express ideas. ● Improved background for choosing appropriate languages. ● Increased ability to learn new languages. ● Better understanding of significance of implementation. ● Better use of languages that are already known. ● Overall advancement of computing.
- 5. ❖Programming Domains • ScientificApplications – Large numbers of floating point computations; use of arrays. – Example:Fortran. • Business Applications – Produce reports, use decimal numbers and characters. – Example:COBOL. • Artificial intelligence – Symbols rather than numbers manipulated; use of linked lists. – Example:LISP. 1-6
- 6. 7 ❖Programming Domains ● Systemprogramming - Need effieciency because of continous use. - Example:C ● Web Software -Eclectic collection of languages: markup(example:XHTML),scripting(example:PHP), general-purpose(example:JAVA).
- 7. ❖Language Evaluation Criteria ●Readability: ➢ The ease with which programs can be read and understood. ● Writability: ➢ The ease with which a language can be used to create programs. ● Reliability: ➢ Conformance to specifications (i.e., performs to its specifications). ● Cost: ➢ The ultimate total cost. 1-8
- 8. ❖Evaluation Criteria: Readability ➔Overall simplicity ◆ A manageable set of features and constructs. ◆ Minimal feature multiplicity . ◆ Minimal operator overloading. ➔ Orthogonality ◆ A relatively small set of primitive constructs can be combined in a relatively small number of ways ◆ Every possible combination is legal ➔ Data types ◆ Adequate predefined data types.
- 9. 10 ❖Evaluation Criteria:Readability ➔ Syntaxconsiderations -Identifier forms:flexible composition. -Special words and methods of forming compound statements. -Form and meaning:self-descriptive constructs,meaningful keywords.
- 10. 1-10 ❖Evaluation Criteria: Writability •Simplicity and orthogonality – Few constructs, a small number of primitives, a small set of rules for combining them. ● Support for abstraction -The ability to define and use complex structures or operations in ways that allow details to be ignored. ● Expressivity – A set of relatively convenient ways of specifying operations. – Strength and number of operators and predefined functions.
- 11. 1-11 ❖Evaluation Criteria: Reliability •Type checking – Testing for type errors. • Exception handling – Intercept run-time errors and take corrective measures. • Aliasing – Presence of two or more distinct referencing methods for the same memory location. • Readability and writability – A language that does not support “natural” ways of expressing an algorithm will require the use of “unnatural” approaches, and hence reduced
- 12. 1-12 ❖Evaluation Criteria: Cost •Training programmers to use the language • Writing programs (closeness to particular applications) • Compiling programs • Executing programs • Language implementation system: availability of free compilers • Reliability: poor reliability leads to high costs • Maintaining programs
- 13. 1-13 Evaluation Criteria: Others •Portability – The ease with which programs can be moved from one implementation to another. • Generality – The applicability to a wide range of applications. • Well-definedness – The completeness and precision of the language’s official definition.
- 14. 1-14 ❖Influences on LanguageDesign • Computer Architecture – Languages are developed around the prevalent computer architecture, known as the von Neumann architecture • Programming Methodologies – New software development methodologies (e.g., object-oriented software development) led to new programming paradigms and by extension, new programming languages
- 15. 1-15 ❖Computer Architecture Influence •Well-known computer architecture: Von Neumann • Imperative languages, most dominant, because of von Neumann computers – Data and programs stored in memory – Memory is separate from CPU – Instructions and data are piped from memory to CPU – Basis for imperative languages • Variables model memory cells • Assignment statements model piping • Iteration is efficient
- 16. ❖The Von NeumannArchitecture 1-16
- 17. 1-17 ❖The Von NeumannArchitecture • Fetch-execute-cycle (on a von Neumann architecture computer) initialize the program counter repeat forever fetch the instruction pointed by the counter increment the counter decode the instruction execute the instruction end repeat
- 18. 1-18 ❖Programming Methodologies Influences • 1950sand early 1960s: Simple applications; worry about machine efficiency • Late 1960s: People efficiency became important; readability, better control structures – structured programming – top-down design and step-wise refinement • Late 1970s: Process-oriented to data-oriented – data abstraction • Middle 1980s: Object-oriented programming – Data abstraction + inheritance + polymorphism
- 19. 1-19 ❖Language Categories • Imperative –Central features are variables, assignment statements, and iteration – Include languages that support object-oriented programming – Include scripting languages – Include the visual languages – Examples: C, Java, Perl, JavaScript, Visual BASIC .NET, C++ • Functional – Main means of making computations is by applying functions to given parameters – Examples: LISP, Scheme • Logic – Rule-based (rules are specified in no particular order) – Example: Prolog • Markup/programming hybrid – Markup languages extended to support some programming – Examples: JSTL, XSLT
- 20. 1-20 ❖Language Design Trade-Offs •Reliability vs. cost of execution – Example: Java demands all references to array elements be checked for proper indexing, which leads to increased execution costs • Readability vs. writability Example: APL provides many powerful operators (and a large number of new symbols), allowing complex computations to be written in a compact program but at the cost of poor readability • Writability (flexibility) vs. reliability – Example: C++ pointers are powerful and very flexible but are unreliable
- 21. 1-21 ❖Implementation Methods • Compilation –Programs are translated into machine language • Pure Interpretation – Programs are interpreted by another program known as an interpreter • Hybrid Implementation Systems – A compromise between compilers and pure interpreters
- 22. ❖Layered View ofComputer The operating system and language implementation are layered over machine interface of a computer 1-22
- 23. 1-23 Compilation • Translate high-levelprogram (source language) into machine code (machine language) • Slow translation, fast execution • Compilation process has several phases: – lexical analysis: converts characters in the source program into lexical units – syntax analysis: transforms lexical units into parse trees which represent the syntactic structure of program – Semantics analysis: generate intermediate code – code generation: machine code is generated
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- 25. 1-25 Additional Compilation Terminologies •Load module (executable image): the user and system code together • Linking and loading: the process of collecting system program units and linking them to a user program
- 26. 1-26 Von Neumann Bottleneck •Connection speed between a computer’s memory and its processor determines the speed of a computer • Program instructions often can be executed much faster than the speed of the connection; the connection speed thus results in a bottleneck • Known as the von Neumann bottleneck; it is the primary limiting factor in the speed of computers
- 27. 1-27 Pure Interpretation • Notranslation • Easier implementation of programs (run-time errors can easily and immediately be displayed) • Slower execution (10 to 100 times slower than compiled programs) • Often requires more space • Now rare for traditional high-level languages • Significant comeback with some Web scripting languages (e.g., JavaScript, PHP)
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- 29. 1-29 Hybrid Implementation Systems •A compromise between compilers and pure interpreters • A high-level language program is translated to an intermediate language that allows easy interpretation • Faster than pure interpretation • Examples – Perl programs are partially compiled to detect errors before interpretation – Initial implementations of Java were hybrid; the intermediate form, byte code, provides portability to any machine that has a byte code interpreter and a run-time system (together, these are called Java Virtual Machine)
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- 31. 1-31 Just-in-Time Implementation Systems •Initially translate programs to an intermediate language • Then compile the intermediate language of the subprograms into machine code when they are called • Machine code version is kept for subsequent calls • JIT systems are widely used for Java programs • .NET languages are implemented with a JIT system
- 32. 1-32 Preprocessors • Preprocessor macros(instructions) are commonly used to specify that code from another file is to be included • A preprocessor processes a program immediately before the program is compiled to expand embedded preprocessor macros • A well-known example: C preprocessor – expands #include, #define, and similar macros
- 33. 1-33 Programming Environments • Acollection of tools used in software development • UNIX – An older operating system and tool collection – Nowadays often used through a GUI (e.g., CDE, KDE, or GNOME) that runs on top of UNIX • Microsoft Visual Studio.NET – A large, complex visual environment • Used to build Web applications and non-Web applications in any .NET language • NetBeans – Related to Visual Studio .NET, except for Web applications in Java
- 34. 1-34 Programming Environments • Zuse’sPlankalkül • Minimal Hardware Programming: Pseudocodes • The IBM 704 and Fortran • Functional Programming: LISP • The First Step Toward Sophistication: ALGOL 60 • Computerizing Business Records: COBOL • The Beginnings of Timesharing: BASIC
- 35. 1-35 Programming Environments • Everythingfor Everybody: PL/I • Two Early Dynamic Languages: APL and SNOBOL • The Beginnings of Data Abstraction: SIMULA 67 • Orthogonal Design: ALGOL 68 • Some Early Descendants of the ALGOLs • Programming Based on Logic: Prolog • History's Largest Design Effort: Ada
- 36. 1-36 Programming Environments • Object-OrientedProgramming: Smalltalk • Combining Imperative ad Object-Oriented Features: C++ • An Imperative-Based Object-Oriented Language: Java • Scripting Languages • A C-Based Language for the New Millennium: C# • Markup/Programming Hybrid Languages