Introduction
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Outline
Introduction to Linux
Linux File System
Linux Basic Commands
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A brief history of Linux OS
The problem between the 1980 and 1990
expensive UNIX Operating System
inexpensive Personal Computers(PC)
Explode research into a system similar to UNIX
running on PC
In 1991, Linus Torvalds led the creation of an OS similar to UNIX
and publish it on Internet with name Linux
this became an important open source project people were able
to obtain it freely and develop applications to improve it the way it
was license also deprived people from claiming ownership.
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What is Linux Distribution?
Linux OS = core (kernel) + no. of applications this
means even if you get the core (kernel), you still
require to get additional applications.
Note: Although, additional application is free, it was
difficult getting them. (download!!)
Linux Distribution = Kernel + all additional applications
normally on CD or DVD
commercial companies do provide unique additional application
Obtaining Linux OS does not require a license fee.
no pirated copies!
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Terminology
Linux Kernel:
provide a technology to interact with computer hardware.
Linux Operating System:
kernel, installation and configuration programs
Linux Distribution:
kernel, needed components to make up the OS and enough
application to create full working environment.
Linux Server:
no clear definition, but normally a stable and reliable platform for
mission critical services.
Desktop:
User Desktop system with ease_to_use applications that takes
advantage of the computers full power.
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Difference between Linux & Windows
Linux is case sensitive:
lower-case and upper-case are not the same
e.g. hello.txt Hello.txt
Slash instead of Backslash
in windows backward slash is use (\) but Linux (/)
In Linux there are no device characters
In windows hard disk is C:
There are no EXE file in Linux
In Linux executable files do not have .exe instead
executable permission is set.
In Linux Graphical User interface Is not part of OS
No GUI in Linux stability, performance and flexibility
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Linux Kernel
The Kernel by Tolvards became public
Rapid development of Linux OS
Was developed under GNU-GPL
Kernel Types:
Mach kernel(BSD), GNU Hurd Kernel, Linux kernel
Kernel Functions:
Input & output control
Device control
Process management
File management, etc...
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Multi-user Environment
Like Unix, Linux is also a multi-user OS
Multi-user capability Multitasking
Normal Situation:
Multiprocessor --> multi-user + multitasking
Unix & Linux uses a pre-emptive strategy to implement
multitasking.
Why?
A non-pre-emptive strategy can lead to a deadlock situation.
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Important Terms
Program: exist only once in a system
Process: started by a program
Thread: several can be started by a process
Multi-threading: several threads co-existing.
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Linux Distro for Hackers
Kali Linux:
debian-based distro for forensics and penetration testing.
BackBox
Ubuntu-based distro for security assessment and pentration testing.
CAINE
Ubuntu-based GNU/Linux live distribution created as a project of digital
forensics
BlackArch/ArchAssault
Arch-based GNU/ Linux distribution for pentesters and security researchers
Pentoo:
Pentoo is a security-focused livecd based on Gentoo
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Other Linux Distros
Distro Where to obtain it
Debian www.debian.org
Redhat www.redhat.com
Suse www.novell.com
CentOS www.centos.org
...
Choice of a distribution over the other varies
Single important choice of Vendor over stock Linux - time
Downloading time
Installation time
Learning time
Quality assurance time
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File System and Commands
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File System Hierarchy Standard (FHS)
FHS is a De-facto file hierarchy standard for
Linux OS
FHS Characteristic
FHS is becoming a standard
FHS specify directory directly under /
Makes working on Unix and Linux easy
All directory specified need not be on one machine.
FHS is not concern about directory content
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File System Hierarchy Standard
Root directory (/)
System Binaries (/sbin)
Essential binaries (/bin)
Data directories for services (/srv)
Boot directory (/boot)
Temporary directory (/tmp)
Device Files (/dev)
The hierarchy below (/usr)
Configuration File (/etc)
Variable Files (/var)
User directory (/home)
Process Files (/proc)
Libraries (/lib) System information diretory (/sys)
Mount points for Removable media (media)
Temporary mountpoint (/mnt)
Application directory (/opt)
Root home (/root)
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Example Typical Directory Structure
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FHS Directories
/ root
Where all file system begins
Must be mounted before booting!!
/bin Essential binaries
Contains common programs run by both normal and
admin. Users
eg. cd, ls, bash, etc...
/boot Boot directory
Contains all files needed to boot the system except
configuration files not needed for booting.
Where the kernel lives
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FHS Directories 2
/dev dev directory
Contains device and special files
NB: in Linux everything device is a file
We have two types of device files
Major device file : main driver for the device (disk)
Minor device file : drivers for various partition on the disk
For example try: ls -l /dev/hda*
Serial port : /dev/ttyS*
Parallel port : /dev/lp*
Usb port : /dev/usb7lp*
IDE tape drive: /dev/ht*
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FHS Directories 3
/etc configuration directory
Contains system configuration files(cf)
cf is a local file use to control a program
Files are in ASCII format
Normal users can view almost all the files
Examples:
/etc/X11 configuration files for the X-Server
/etc/samba configuration files for samba server
/etc/sysconfug/network contains network configuration files
/etc/passwd contains users configuration info.
/etc/shadow contains user password information
/etc/group contains group information
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FHS Directories 4
/home home directory
By default all individual users home are created within
this directory.
User home directory - /home/$USER (~/)
Hidden files files names beginning with (.)
It also contains personal configuration files
Examples :
.bashrc bash configuration file
.bash_history contains history of all commands typed in bash
shell.
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FHS Directories 5
/lib library directory
Contains shared libraries for programs
This can be compared to dll in windows
The library have (.so) extensions
/media media mount directory
Use to mount removable devices
cd-rom, dvd, usb sticks, etc.
/sys System Information directory
Contains information on various devices such as hardware
buses, hardware devices, etc..
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FHS Directories 6
/mnt temporary mount directory
A generic mount point for filesystems and media
Note: it is used to mount only temporal filesystems.
/tmp temporary directory
All temporary files are kept here
/srv service data directory
Contains sub-directories with service data for ftp, http,
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FHS Directories 7
/sbin System binary directory
Contains all programs run by System Administration
Some of the command found here are:
reboot
route
mkfs, etc...
/var variable directory
Contains information generated during system run
Some are shareable other are not
Examples: /var/log/, /var/lock, /var/lib, etc...
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FHS Directories 8
/usr user directory
Contains all user binaries, libraries , header files, their
documentation, etc..
? not in /bin, bin is distribution specific
Initially all user's home directories were in /usr
Examples:
/usr/bin user binaries
/usr/lib libraries for the programs kept here
/usr/src source files for programs
/usr/share/doc program documentation
/usr/share/man manual pages
/usr/share/info info pages
/usr/local locally installed program related files
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Linux Basic Commands
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Basic File and Directory Command
ls command: is used to display specified files or directory content.
It can also be used to get more information about files such as
- file type
- creation date & time
- file owner and owner's group, etc...
Exercise: Start virtual terminal 1 Ctrl+Alt+F1 and login with username & password
1.) type ls
2.) type ls /etc (list the content of /etc)
Options:
- None : display the content of current directory in columns
-l : display a detail information of files & directories
-F : display the file type
-a : display all hidden files
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Basic File and Directory Command 2
Typically ls is aliased to color_ls --> /etc/DIR_COLORS
This enable file identification without ls
Color Scheme Default suffix scheme
Blue --> directories Nothing --> regular file
Red --> compressed files / --> directory
White -->text files * --> executable
Pink --> image
@ -- > links
Cyan ---> links
= --> socket
Yellow --> device
| --> named pipe
Green --> executables
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Changing directory
cd command: used to change between directories
Variant:
- cd : changes directory to home
- cd . : points to the current directory
- cd .. : moves to the parent directory
- cd - : moves to the last valid directory
- cd ../.. : move to two directory level higher
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Text File creation
touch command: is use to create file
touch can also be use to modify file properties
Options:
-a : change the access time only
-m : change modification time
-c : does not create file if file do not exist
Examples:
touch file1
touch file2, file3. files 4
touch /tmp/file4
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View File content
cat command: use to view the content of a file
default output medium is the monitor
can be use to redirect output to other file
Examples:
cat file1
cat file2
cat /tmp/file4
cat file1 file10
cat file2 > file11
more command: use to display the content of the file
at once.
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View File content 2
less command: use to display the content of a file
one page/ a window at a time
gives you the ability to navigate through the file keystrokes.
the way it works with keystrokes:
for navigation use the direction keys
b : moves one tip mask
such through the file using
/ : search forward
? : search backwards
n for next
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Head & Tail commands
head command:
enables you to view the first few lines in a text file
tail command:
enables you to view the last few lines in a text file
BUT! tail gives more
can allow you to view the last few lines continuous
mode with option (-f)
Syntax for both is
command [option] filename
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Operations on Files
cp command:
cp is use to copy file(s) and directories
cp will normally overwrite existing file
Syntax:
cp fromfile tofile
Options:
-i : interactive copying
-r /R: use for recursive copying
-s : us to create a symbolic links
-p : preserve ownership
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Operations on Files 2
mv command:
mv is use to move file(s) and directories
mv will normally overwrite existing file
Syntax:
mv currentposition newposition
Options:
-i : interactive moving
-f : non interactive moving
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Directory operations
mkdir command:
is use to create a directory
-p : use to create parent directories as when needed.
Syntax:
mkdir new_directory_name
rm command:
is use to delete files and directories
with (-r) option you can delete recursively
rmdir is use to delete empty
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Link files
A link refer to a physical file on harddisk
soft link
has own inode number
point to the inode of the original file
delete the original file link is lost
ln -s original_file softlink_file
hard link
uses the inode of the original file
delete the original file the link still works
any update affects the original file
ln original_file hlink_file_name
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Regular Expressions Basics
Used in many programs to express patterns in text
Very useful for searching for patterns
Two forms simple and extended
Use depends on the program
Extended:
Bracket expression: use to match any of the characters
within the bracket. e.g [abc] / b[aeiou]g
Range expression: use to list start and end of range eg.
a[2-4]z
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Regular Expressions Basics -2
Extended:
Any single character: the dot (.) use to represent any
character except newline. eg. a.z
Start and end of line: the carat (^) represent start of line
and ($) denotes end of line
Repetition operators: (*) denotes zero or many
occurrences and (+) denotes one or many occurrences.
Parentheses: ( ) use to surround subexpressions.
Escapeing: (\) use to specify special characters like ?, +, |
etc...
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Finding files
The following commands will be treated
find
which
type
whereis
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Finding files 2
find command:
searches one or more directories for files matching certain
criteria
Syntax
find path option(s)
Options:
-name file_name (*,?,[]) are applicable
-type file_type (f,d,s,l, etc..)
-user owner_name
-group group_name
-ctime [-/+] days
-exec command
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Finding files 3
Example
find /home -type f -name file_1
searches through /home and its sub-directories file_1
find ~ -type d -name Documents
searches the home directory of the user login for directory
Documents
find ~ -name letter -type f -exec cat {} \;
searches user home for file letter pass it as an argument
to command cat to display the the content
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Finding command files
whereis command:
attempt to find (-s)source, (-m)manual page, (-b) binaries of specified
command
Syntax:
whereis [option(s)] command
Example:
whereis ls
whereis cat
whereis -b ifconfig
Exercise: (TRY)where can you find the binaries of route?
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Finding command file 2
which command:
specify the version which is run when command is type
search for command using PATH environment variable
Syntax:
which command
Example:
which ls
which cat
which ifconfig
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Finding command file 3
type command:
shows whether a command is shell built-in or from an external
source
Syntax:
type command
Example:
type ls
type cd
type type
type which
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Search file content
grep command:
use to search for a pattern in a file or list of files without
opening them.
pattern can be a keyword or a phrase.
Syntax:
grep [option(s)] pattern file_name
Options:
(-i) if you want to ignore state
(-v) print out lines that do not contain the pattern
(-n) show line numbers
(-L) file that do not contain the pattern
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