Linux Architecture

What is an Kernal ?

A set of functions that make up the heart of an OS.

• It is used to provide an application interface between

programs and physical devices.

• Services provided by the kernel

- Controls execution of processes.

- Scheduling processes fairly for execution

on the CPU.

• Allocating memory for an executing process.

What is Shell

Shell is the interface between the user and the kernel.

Services provided by the shell It interprets all the
commands to the kernel The kernel after processing the
commands gives back to the shell.
Shell Name Developed by Where Remark
BASH Brian Fox and Free Software Most common shell in
( Bourne- Chet Ramey Foundation Linux. It's Freeware
Again SHell ) shell.
CSH Bill Joy University of The C shell's syntax
(C SHell) California (For and usage are very
BSD) similar to
the C programming
language.
KSH David Korn AT & T Bell --
(Korn SHell) Labs
See the man -- TCSH is an enhanced
TCSH page. but completely
Type $ man compatible version of
tcsh the Berkeley UNIX C
shell (CSH).
Linux Architecture works
Linux Architecture works
History of Unix

MULTICS PROJECT

It was started in 1965 on Main frame GE 645 by the joint

effort of :

❖ AT & T Bell Labs

❖ General Electricals
❖ Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT)

Multics was written in Assembly Language.

In 1969 Multics project was dropped.

History of Unix

In 1969, Ken Thompson & Dennis Ritchie at Bell Labs -AT&T

redesigned the Multics and introduced New OS UNICS
(Uniplexed Information & Computing System)
It is written in 80 percent of C language and 20 percent
assembly language.
Later on totally rewritten in C language and named as UNIX
(1973 ).
History of Unix

In 1988, AT&T shocked the UNIX community by purchasing a

percentage of Sun Microsystems which became a threat for
other vendors.

So, other vendors quickly formed a consortium group called

OSF (Open Software Foundation) and former formed their
group named UI (Unix International).
History of Unix

In 1990 s, Linus Torvalds ,a graduate student form University

of Helsinky designed a UNIX like kernel on 386 Intel machine
and gave this to OSF.

Linux Kernel was bundled with many software's from various

distributors and it gave rise to many flavors of LINUX.
Unix Principles

Every thing is a file

UNIX system have many powerful utilities designed to
create and manipulate files.
Configuration data stored in text format
Text is a universal interface and many UNIX utilities exist to
manipulate text.
Small Single purpose programme
UNIX provide many small utility that perform one task very
well.
Unix Principles

Ability to chain Programmes together to perform complex

task:-
A core programme feature of UNIX is that the output of one
programme can be the input for another.
What is free software

The term “Free software” may have a different meaning than

you except. The term doesn’t refer to the cost of the software
but the fact that end user has the freedom to modify and
change the programm.

“Free software” refers to the users freedom to run, copy

distribute, study change and improve the software.
GNU Project

The GNU Project was launched in 1984 to develop a

complete Unix-like operating system which is free
software: the GNU system.

GNU's kernel isn't finished, so GNU is used with the

kernel Linux. The combination of GNU and Linux is
the GNU/Linux operating system, now used by
millions.

Sometimes this combination is incorrectly called

Linux. There are many variants or “distributions” of
GNU/Linux.
Why Linux ?

• Open Source -Free

• Multi-User Multitasking
That means one person can be logged on to the same Linux
computer at the same time and a user can have more than
one process executing at the same time.
• Wide hardware support
• Biggest servers on this planet running Linux without single
second of downtime from last 10yrs
• Security Inbuilt firewall (iptables)
Who uses Linux?

Linux is freely available, and no one is required to register their

copies with any central authority, so it is difficult to know how
many people use Linux. Several businesses now survive solely
on selling and supporting Linux, and the Linux newsgroups are
some of the most heavily read on the internet, so the number is
likely in the millions, but firm numbers are hard to come by. The
best market research currently indicates between 7.5 and 11
million users.
Linux Distributions
RedHat Linux Versions
RHEL- 4 Requirements
About Linux Certificate

RedHat Certified System

Administrations (RHCSA)
RedHat Certified Engineer-RHCE
Booting

Booting is a process in which your computer gets

initialized. This process includes initializing all your
hardware components in your computer and get them to
work together and to load your default operating system
which will make your computer operational.
Hardware Boot

Boot Loader

Kernal

Init

Login Screen
Hardware Boot

Boot Loader

Kernal

Init

Login Screen
Hardware Boot

Boot Loader

Kernal

Init

Login Screen
Hardware Boot

Boot Loader

Kernal

Init

Login Screen Local host login :

Local Logins

• Text Mode Login at Virtual Console

• Graphical Login
Virtual Console

The virtual console enable a user to have multiple logins even when
not using an X window System. They provide full screen non-GUI
access to the system. The virtual console available through
Ctrl+Alt+(F1-F6)

If X is running it is available as Ctrl+Alt+F7.

File System Hierarchy
/

This Directory is called as root Directory. It is the

top of the file system structure. All other
Directories are mounted under it.
/root

This is the default home directory of administrator (i.e., root).

/home

It contains all users home directories.

/boot

This Directory contains the Kernel, the core of the

operating system. This also contains the files related to
booting the system such as the boot loader and the
initial ramdisk.
/sbin

It contains administrative commands used by superuser.

/bin

This Directory contains command used by the

superuser and the normal users.
/usr

It contains the programs and applications

which are available for users (similar to
program files on windows)
/var

It contains variable information , such as logs and

print queues.
/dev

This Directory contains devices nodes through

which the operating system can access
hardware and software devices on the system.
/etc

It contains all configuration files.

/proc

This Directory is a mount point for virtual

information about currently running
system processes. This Directory is empty
until the proc file system is mounted.
/tmp

This Directory contains temporary files used by the

system
/opt

It contains the third party applications

ex:-Corel Word Perfect
Sun Star Office
/media

It contains default mount points of removable media

such as cdrom, floppy disk, pendrive.
/lib

It contains libraries need by no. of different

applications as well as linuxkernel.
Types of Backup

Full Backup
Complete back up of entire system.
Incremental Backup
It includes all files that were changed since the last
backup. It always smaller than differential backup.
Differential Backup
It includes all the files that were changed since the last
full backup. As time increases since the last full-backup
the size of differential backup increases.
Commands for Backup

tar (tape archive)

tar command

To take the backup

[root@comp1 ~]#tar <options> <destination> <source>

Options :
-c - Create
-v - Verbose
-f - File
-t - Table of content
-x - Extract to
tar Command

To take the backup

[root@comp1 ~]# tar -cvf<path><file name> <source>

To list the content of tar file

[root@comp1 ~]# tar -tvf<path><file name>

To extract the content of tar file

[root@comp1 ~]# tar -xvf<path><file name>
RPM’S

RPM stands for RedHatPackage Manager.

By using RPM utility the user can install the
new packages, can upgrade and can also
remove existing packages.
RPM Pattern
RPM -Install

To install the RPM package

[root@comp1 ~]#rpm <options> <package name-version>
--force --aid

Options :
-I - To install the package
-v - Verbose
-h - To Display the progress in hashes
--force - To install package forcefully
--aid - To install package along with dependencies
RPM -Upgrade

To upgrade the existing RPM package

[root@comp1 ~]#rpm <options> <package name.version>

Options :
-U - To Upgrade the existing the package
-v - Verbose
-h - To Display the progress in hashes
RPM - Remove

To remove the existing RPM package

[root@comp1 ~]#rpm <options> <package name> --nodeps

Options :

-e - To uninstall the package from the system

--nodeps - To uninstall package even if dependencies

are there.
 RPM Options

To query the RPM Package

[root@comp1 ~]# rpm <options> <package name>

Options :

-qa - Queries all installed RPM

Does not require any package specification.
-qc - Lists only the configuration files stored in the queried RPM.
-qd - Lists only the documentation files stored in the queried RPM.
-qi - Displays complete information about the queried RPM.
-qs - Displays the states of files in the queried RPM.
-ql - Display all the files related to the queried RPM.
Naming Conventions
Commands

To view list of partitions

[root@comp1 ~]#fdisk-l <device name>
Creation of Partition

Creating a new partition

[root@comp1 ~]#fdisk<device name>
Creation of Partition
Commands

Updates the partition table to kernel without restarting

[root@comp1 ~]#partprobe
Ext2 vs Ext3

Ext2 Ext3
No journaling support Journaling supported
Less speed More speed
Less Secure More secure
Formatting of partition

To format partition using ext2 filesystem

[root@comp1 ~]#mke2fs <partition>

To format partition using ext3 filesystem

[root@comp1 ~]#mke2fs -j <partition>
Mounting Filesystem

Created a directory for mounting the partition

[root@comp1 ~]#mkdir <directory name>

To mount the filesystem on the created directory

[root@comp1 ~]#mount <partition> <directory name>

To unmount the filesystem

[root@comp1 ~]#umount<directory name>
Mounting Filesystem-Permanently

To mount file system permanently

[root@comp1 ~]#vi /etc/fstab
/etc/fstab
Converting from Ext3 to Ext2

Converting from Ext2 to Ext3 filesystem

[root@comp1 ~]#tune2fs -j <partition>
RAID’s available in Linux

RAID 0 (striping without parity)

RAID 1 (disk mirroring)
RAID 4 (parity)
RAID 5 (disk striping with parity)
RAID 0

Minimum -2 Hard Disks

Maximum -32 Hard Disks
Data is written alternately and evenly to two or more disks
Read & Write Speed is Fast
Fault Tolerance is not available
How RAID 0 works ?
RAID 1

Minimum -2 Hard Disks

Maximum -2 Hard Disks
Simultaneously data will be written to two volumes on two
different disks
Read Speed is Fast & Write Speed is Slow
Fault Tolerance is available
How RAID 1 works ?
RAID 4

Minimum -3 Hard Disks

Maximum -32 Hard Disks
Data is written alternately and evenly to two or more disks
and a parity is only written on one disk
Read & Write Speed is Fast
Fault Tolerance is available
How RAID 4 works ?
RAID 5

Minimum - 3 Hard Disks

Maximum - 32 Hard
Disks Data is written alternately and evenly to two disks and a
parity is written on all disk
Read & Write Speed is Fast
Fault Tolerance is available
Also Known as Striped with parity
How RAID 5 works ?
Steps

Create multiple partitions

[root@comp1 ~]#fdisk /dev/hda

To update the Kernel without restarting

[root@comp1 ~]#partprobe
RAID Commands

To club all the RAID partitions in to a single array

[root@comp1 ~]#mdadm -C /dev/md0 -n3 /dev/hda8
/dev/hda9 /dev/hda10 -l5

To display RAID device

[root@comp1 ~]#mdadm -D /dev/md0

To format RAID device

[root@comp1 ~]#mke2fs -j /dev/md0
RAID Commands

Create Mount Point of RAID Device

[root@comp1 ~]#mkdir /raid

Mount the Raid device

[root@comp1 ~]#mount /dev/md0 /raid
[root@comp1 ~]#cd /raid
RAID Commands

To make a partition faulty

[root@comp1 ~]#mdadm -f /dev/md0 /dev/hda10

To remove partition from RAID array

[root@comp1 ~]#mdadm -r /dev/md0 /dev/hda10

To add a new device into the RAID array

[root@comp1 ~]#mdadm -a /dev/md0 /dev/hda11
RAID Commands

To stop the RAID

[root@comp1 ~]#mdadm -S /dev/md0

To activate RAID
[root@comp1 ~]#mdadm -A /dev/md0 /dev/hda8
/dev/hda9 /dev/hda10
Basic File Permission

The Unix/Linux file has 8 attributes which

are listed with ls l
Access Permission
File Permission Modes

Permissions

Symbolic Mode Absolute Mode

r w x 4 2 1
Default File Permission

When a file created with the help of cat, touch, vi will

get the permissions as 644.

- rw- r-- r--

i.e.
read-write for the owner.
read-only for the owner’s group and
read-only for the others
Default File Permission

Actually in the basic UNIX system when a file is created it

gets the permission as 666.

But this lapses in security, so when ever a file is created in

UNIX system it masks some bits, with a mask value of 022.
After masking we get the default value of a file as
644. [666 - 022 = 644]
022 is as the UMASK value.
umask

To view the Umask value

[root@comp1 ~]#umask

To view Umask value from file

[root@comp1 ~]#vi /etc/bashrc
Default Directory Permission

When a directory is created with the help of

mkdir will get the permissions as 755.
d rwxr-xr-x
Default Directory Permission

Actually in the basic UNIX system when a directory is

created it gets the permission as 777.

But this lapses in security, so when ever a directory is

created in UNIX system it masks some bits, with a mask
value of 022. After masking we get the default value of a
file as 777. [777 - 022 = 755] 022 is as the UMASK value.
chmod Command

Chmod command is used to change the permissions of a

file/directory. chmod can be used by the owner of the file or
by root. With chmod command we can assign permissions
or remove permissions as required.

Applying permission to File or Directory

[root@comp1 ~]#chmod<permissions> <file/directory>

Permission parameters used with chmod command

Category u g o
Operators + -
Permissions r w x
Weight 4 2 1
Example of Permission -Absolute

Applying permission to Owner (u), Group (g) & Others (o)

for File1
Example of Permission -Symbolic

Applying permission to Owner (u), Group (g)

& Others (o) for File1
What is NFS?

The NFS environment contains the following

components:
NFS server
A system that contains the file resources to be shared
with other systems on the network.
NFS client
A system that mounts the file resources shared over the
network and presents the file resources as if they were
local.
Requirements

Packages
portmap-4.0-63.i386.rpm
nfs-utils-1.0.6-46.i386.rpm
Port Numbers
2049 Nfsd
111 Portmap
Configuration File
/etc/exports
Service
portmap
nfs
Daemons
nfsd
Configuring NFS Server

Create directory to be shared

[root@comp1~]# mkdir /var/hpes

Open configuration for editing

[root@comp1~]# vi /etc/exports
/etc/exports

To add the below

/var/zoom *
NFS Server

To restart the NFS services

[root@comp1 ~]# service nfs restart

To check NFS server

[root@comp1 ~]# showmount -e <server name or server ip>
Configuring Client

Create Mount point on client

[root@comp1 ~]# mkdir /nfs

Mount remote shared filesystem on local mount point

[root@comp1 ~]# mount 192.168.0.253:/var/zoom /nfs
[root@comp1 ~]# cd /nfs
What is SAMBA?

• Samba is the way a Linux computer communicates

with SMB (Server Message Box) and CIFS.
• With Samba, you can make your Linux computer a
part of a Microsoft-based network. Computers with
various Microsoft operating systems can communicate
with each other using the Server
• Message Block (SMB) protocol. When a Microsoft
operating system shares files or printers on a TCP/IP
network, it uses the Common Internet File System (CIFS).
Requirements

Packages
samba-common-3.0.10-1.4E.i386.rpm
samba-3.0.10-1.4E.i386.rpm
samba-client-3.0.10-1.4E.i386.rpm
Port Numbers
137 NetBIOS Name Service
138 NetBIOS Datagram Service
139 NetBIOS Session Service
Configuration File
/etc/samba/smb.conf
Service
smb
Daemons
smbd
Configuring SAMBA Server

Create directory to be shared

[root@comp1~]# mkdir /var/hpes

Open configuration for editing

[root@comp1~]# vi /etc/samba/smb.conf
/etc/samba/smb.conf

To change the options

[myshare]
comment = Hpes’s Share
path = /var/hpes
valid users = user1 user2
public = no
writable = yes
printable = no
create mask = 0765
Samba Server

To restart the Samba services

[root@comp1 ~]#service smbrestart

To test smb.conf file

[root@comp1 ~]#testparm
Samba Server

Create Users
[root@comp1 ~]#useradd user1
[root@comp1 ~]#useradd user2

Create directory to be shared Assign them Samba password

[root@comp1~]# smbpasswd -a user1
[root@comp1~]# smbpasswd -a user2
Samba password entries can be found at
/etc/samba/smbpasswd
Samba Client Windows

Map Drive Samba Drive

Right click My Network Places

Select Map Network Drive
In the dialog box provide
Drive : Z:
Folder:\\192.168.0.253\myshare
It opens authentication dialogbox, where
username : user1
password : ****
Open Windows Explorer to find Z: drive mapped to
Linux shared folder.