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A microcontroller is a small and low-cost computer built for the purpose of
Create content dealing with specific tasks, such as displaying information in a microwave LED or

Log out receiving information from a television’s remote control. Microcontrollers are

ACTIVE
mainly used in products that require a degree of control to be exerted by the user.
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how to
interface
8051 with
8bit serial adc
assembly
language
programming
for min no.
assembly
language
pc controlled
wireless
spybot

more Microcontroller v/s microprocessor

How does a Microcontroller work?

General architecture of a microcontroller

Features of Microcontrollers

Applications

History & Key developments

Comparative study of different families: 8051, AVR/ATmega, PIC

Criteria for choosing a microcontroller

Future of microcontrollers and applications

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Microcontroller v/s microprocessor

Microprocessors are used to execute big and generic applications, while a

microcontroller will only be used to execute a single task within one application.
Some of the benefits of microcontrollers include the following:

· Cost advantage: The biggest advantage of microcontrollers against

larger microprocessors is that the design and hardware costs are
much lesser and can be kept to a minimum. A microcontroller is
cheap to replace, while microprocessors are ten times more
expensive.

· Lesser power usage: Microcontrollers are generally built using a

technology known as Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor
(CMOS). This technology is a competent fabrication system that
uses less power and is more immune to power spikes than other
techniques.

· All-in-one: A microcontroller usually comprises of a CPU, ROM,

RAM and I/O ports, built within it to execute a single and
dedicated task. On the other hand, a microprocessor generally does
not have a RAM, ROM or IO pins and generally uses its pins as a
bus to interface to peripherals such as RAM, ROM, serial ports,
digital and analog IO.
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How does a Microcontroller work?

Microcontroller has an input device in order to get the input and an output device
(such as LED or LCD Display) to exhibit the final process. Let us look into the
illustration of how a microcontroller works in a Television.

The Television has a remote control as an Input device and the TV screen as the
output device. The signal sent from the remote control is captured by the
microcontroller. The microcontroller controls the channel selection, the amplifier
system and picture tube adjustments such as hue, brightness, contrast etc.
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General architecture of a microcontroller

The architecture of a microcontroller depends on the application it is built for. For

example, some designs include usage of more than one RAM, ROM and I/O
functionality integrated into the package.

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The architecture of a typical microcontroller is complex and may include the

following:
i. A CPU, ranging from simple 4-bit to complex 64-bit processers.
ii. Peripherals such as timers, event counters and watchdog.
iii. RAM (volatile memory) for data storage. The data is stored in the form
of registers, and the general-purpose registers store information that
interacts with the arithmetic logical unit (ALU).
iv. ROM, EPROM, EEPROM or flash memory for program and operating
parameter storage.
v. Programming capabilities.
vi. Serial input/output such as serial ports.
vii. A clock generator for resonator, quartz timing crystal or RC circuit.
viii. Analog-to-digital convertors.
ix. Serial ports.
x. Data bus to carry information.
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Features of microcontrollers

i. Architectural features:
Most microcontrollers built today are based on the CISC (Complex
Instruction Set Computer) platform. A typical CISC microcontroller has

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over 80 instructions and it is quite common for the instructions to CPANEL

all
behave quite differently.
The main advantage of CISC architecture is that the instructions are
macro-like, allowing the programmer to use one instruction in place of
many simpler instructions.

ii. Advanced Memory features:

a. Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory (EEPROM)

Many microcontrollers use the economic EEPROM for smaller

amount of memory that have frequently changeable data. This type of

memory is relatively slow, and the number of erase/write cycles

allowed in its lifetime is limited.

b. FLASH (EPROM)
Flash provides microcontrollers with a better solution than EEPROM

for requirements of large amounts in non-volatile program memory.

EPROM is faster and permits more erase/write cycles than EEPROM.

iii. Power Management features

A majority of microcontrollers usually support an operation of 3 - 5.5 V.

As consumer goods become trendier, compact and lighter, the focus is on

microcontrollers to ensure that products with less power usage are

efficiently built and then used by end-users.
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Applications

Microcontrollers are used in products that are controlled automatically.

The various products that make use of microcontrollers in our everyday life are

given below:

i. Home: Television, DVD player, Telephone, Fax machine, Cellular

phones, Security systems, Camera, Sewing machine, Musical Instrument,

Exercising machine, Video games, Computer, Microwave oven.

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ii. Office: Computers, Printers, Telephones, Fax machine, Security

systems.
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History and Key Developments

In 1975, Intel fabricated a chip (Intel 8048) with inbuilt RAM and ROM which

was widely used in numerous applications. The microcontrollers had two variants

namely EPROM which was erasable but expensive and PROM which could be

programmed only once. In 1993, EEPROM memory was introduced in the

microcontrollers which electrically erasable and at affordable price. Atmel used

the Flash memory and launched the first microcontroller. After this, many

companies fabricated microcontrollers with both type of memory.

The microcontroller became popular after Intel Corporation released an 8-bit

version in 1981 called the 8051. Intel allowed other manufacturers to make

alternate versions of the 8051, and this ensured that numerous versions of the

8051 entered the market. Some of these controllers had different speeds with
multiple ROMs mounted on a single chip.

The family of 8051 microcontrollers signalled an electronic revolution with the

end user reaping the benefits in technology and science.

As years passed by, microcontrollers have grown to offer much more to end-users

and businesses. Some of the key developments in the microcontroller lifecycle are

as follows:
i. More ease-of-use and ability to reach market faster.

ii. More energy efficiency.

iii. More integrated features like RF and USB.

iv. Smaller form factors.

v. Increasing processing power.

In future, MRAM (Magnetoresistive Random Access Memory) could be used in

microcontrollers as it can store large amount of data which allows it to access

faster consuming less power of battery.

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Comparative study of different families: 8051, AVR/ATmega, PIC CPANEL

8051:

These

microcontrollers are old but still trendy and most of the companies fabricate these

microcontrollers. The older types of 8051 have 12 clocks per instruction that make
it sluggish whereas the recent 8051 have 6 clocks per instruction. The 8051

microcontroller does not have an in built memory bus and A/D converters. In

1980, Intel fabricated the single chip microcontroller 8051 with Harvard

architecture.

PIC: Programmable Interface Controller is usually referred as PIC. They are

slightly older than 8051 microcontrollers but excel cause of their small low pin
count devices. They perform well and are affordable. The Microchip technology

fabricated the single chip microcontroller PIC with Harvard architecture. The

programming part is very tedious and hence it is not recommended.

AVR: In 1996, Atmel fabricated this single chip microcontroller with a modified

Harvard Architecture. This chip is loaded with C- compiler, Free IDE and many

more features. This microcontroller is a bit difficult for the starters to handle.
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Criteria for choosing a microcontroller

The most important factor is that the microcontroller should be cost-efficient and
work capably to handle the dedicated task. Some questions that should be asked

while deciding on a microcontroller are as follows:

i. What is the maximum speed of the microcontroller?

ii. What is the amount of RAM and ROM on chip?
iii. How easy it is to upgrade to higher upgrade or lower consumption
versions?

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iv. Is the microcontroller readily available at cheaper rates? CPANEL

v. What is the number of I/O pins and timer on the chip?
vi. How easy is it to develop applications around a microcontroller?

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Future of microcontrollers and applications

The future is bright and shining for microcontroller manufacturers. This is because

the global economies are booming and microcontrollers have a role to play in

almost every gadget present on earth. The list of applications for these
microcontrollers is:

i. Energy Management:

Technology for energy management is in great demand due to

government initiatives that focus on energy. Efficient metering systems

help in controlling energy usage in homes and industrial applications.

These metering systems are made capable by incorporating

microcontrollers.

ii. Touch screens:

A touch screen is accepted as the most efficient method to implement

user control. They enable dynamic user interfaces and allow increased

productivity. Touch screen controller implementation is microcontroller

-based and therefore, ample opportunities lie ahead for microcontroller

providers that incorporate touch-sensing capabilities in their designs.

Portable electronics such as home appliances, cell phones, media

players, gaming devices are some of the domains where microcontroller

-based touch screens will be in demand.

iii. Automobiles:

Microcontrollers find wide usage in hybrid vehicles, especially to

ensure smooth and simultaneous functioning of electric and petrol

engines. Additionally, almost every car manufacturer uses

microcontrollers to control functions within their vehicles and to ensure

error-free rides for their customers.

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iv. LED Lighting: CPANEL

Microcontrollers are used for led lighting in residential and industrial

locations to enable greater control and power savings.

v. Personal Medical Devices

The rise and popularity of portable medical devices such as blood

pressure and glucose monitors have ensured that microcontrollers will

have a role in the medical industry. Microcontrollers are used to display

date and increase reliability in providing medical results.

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