Computer-System Structures
A Modern Computer System
Computer-System Operation
I/O devices and the CPU can execute concurrently
Each device controller is in charge of a particular device type
Each device controller has a local buffer
CPU moves data from/to main memory to/from local buffers
I/O is from the device to local buffer of controller
Device controller informs CPU that it has finished its operation by
causing an interrupt
Common Functions of Interrupts
Interrupt transfers control to the interrupt service routine ,
through the interrupt vector, which contains the addresses of all
the service routines
Interrupt architecture must save the address of the interrupted
instruction
An operating system is interrupt driven
Interrupt Handling
The operating system preserves the state of the CPU by storing
registers and the program counter
Determines which type of interrupt has occurred:
Separate kernel routines determine what action should be taken
for each type of interrupt
Interrupt Time Line For a Single Process Doing Output
I/O Structure
Synchronous I/O - After I/O starts, control returns to user
program only upon I/O completion
Asynchronous I/O - After I/O starts, control returns to user
program without waiting for I/O completion
Device-status table contains entry for each I/O device
indicating its type, address, and state
Operating system indexes into I/O device table to
determine device status and to modify table entry
Two I/O Methods
Synchronous Asynchronous
Device-Status Table
Direct Memory Access Structure
Device controller transfers blocks of data from buffer storage
directly to main memory without CPU intervention
Only one interrupt is generated per block, rather than the one
interrupt per byte
Storage Structure
Main memory – only storage media that the CPU can access
directly
Secondary storage – extension of main memory that provides
large nonvolatile storage capacity
Magnetic disks – rigid metal or glass platters covered with
magnetic recording material
Disk surface is logically divided into tracks, which are subdivided
into sectors
The disk controller determines the logical interaction between the
device and the computer
Storage Hierarchy
Storage systems organized in hierarchy
Speed
Cost
Volatility
Caching – copying information into faster storage system; main
memory can be viewed as a last cache for secondary storage
Storage-Device Hierarchy
Caching
Use of high-speed memory to hold recently-accessed data
Requires a cache management policy
Caching introduces another level in storage hierarchy.
This requires data that is simultaneously stored in more than one
level to be consistent
Hardware Protection
Dual-Mode Operation
I/O Protection
Memory Protection
CPU Protection
Dual-Mode Operation
Sharing system resources requires operating system to ensure
that an incorrect program or poorly behaving human cannot
cause other programs to execute incorrectly
OS must provide hardware support to differentiate between at
least two modes of operations
1. User mode – execution done on behalf of a user
2. Monitor mode (also kernel mode or system mode) – execution done
on behalf of operating system
Dual-Mode Operation (Cont.)
Mode bit added to computer hardware to indicate the
current mode: monitor (0) or user (1)
When an interrupt or fault occurs hardware switches to
monitor mode
Interrupt/fault
monitor user
set user mode
Privileged instructions can be issued only in monitor mode
I/O Protection
All I/O instructions are privileged instructions
Must ensure that a user program could never gain control of the
computer in monitor mode (i.e., a user program that, as part of its
execution, stores a new address in the interrupt vector)
Memory Protection
Must provide memory protection at least for the interrupt vector
and the interrupt service routines
In order to have memory protection, at a minimum add two
registers that determine the range of legal addresses a program
may access:
Base register – holds the smallest legal physical memory address
Limit register – contains the size of the range
Memory outside the defined range is protected
Use of A Base and Limit Register
Hardware Address Protection
Hardware Protection
When executing in monitor mode, the operating system has
unrestricted access to both monitor and user’s memory
The load instructions for the base and limit registers are
privileged instructions
Timer – interrupts computer after specified period to ensure
operating system maintains control
Timer is decremented every clock tick
When timer reaches the value 0, an interrupt occurs
Timer commonly used to implement time sharing
Time also used to compute the current time
Load-timer is a privileged instruction
General-System Architecture
Given the I/O instructions are privileged, how does the user
program perform I/O?
System call – the method used by a process to request action by
the operating system
Usually takes the form of a trap to a specific location in the interrupt
vector
Control passes through the interrupt vector to a service routine in
the OS, and the mode bit is set to monitor mode
The monitor verifies that the parameters are correct and legal,
executes the request, and returns control to the instruction following
the system call
