Unit –I Introduction :

Contents :Contents Definition and example for Sensor and transducer General
Concept and terminology of measurement system Transducer classification
General input-output configuration Static characteristics of measurement system
Dynamic Characteristics of measurement system Calibration and standards Error
analysis in measurement system

Definition of Sensor :Definition of Sensor Formal definition: “A device that

receives and responds to a signal or stimulus” (American Heritage Dictionary of
the English Language) Informally, a sensor is a device that takes in information
from the outside world. Based on the information, the sensor creates a signal on
which a system can base a decision In our case, a sensor will measure some
physical quantity and convert it into some electrical signal (e.g., voltage, current)
Examples: Resistive sensor, optical sensors, physical sensor chemical,
Biomedical sensors etc..

Definition for Transducer :Definition for Transducer A Device which converts

energy from one form to another form A Device which converts a physical
quantity into an electrical quantity A Device which for the purpose of
measurement converts the physical input quantity into electrical output quantity,
its output-input and its output-time relationship being predictable to a known
degree of accuracy at specified environmental conditions. Examples :
Thermocouple, LDR, LVDT, Piezo-electric transducer, Magnetostrictive
transducer, capacitive and inductive transducer

Difference between Sensor and Transducer :Difference between Sensor and

Transducer A sensor is a device that responds to a physical stimulus (as heat,
light, sound, pressure, magnetism, or a particular motion) and transmits a
resulting impulse (a signal relating to the quantity being measured). For example,
certain sensors convert temperature into a change in resistance. A transducer is
a device that is actuated by power from one system and supplies power usually
in another form to a second system. For example a loudspeaker is a transducer
that transforms electrical signals into sound energy. Often the words transducer
and sensor are used synonymously.

Slide 6:All sensors are Transducer But All Transducer are not Sensor

Concepts of Generalized Measurement system :Concepts of Generalized

Measurement system Sensor Signal Conditioner End/display Device Sensor
Variable Manipulation Element Data Transmission Element Data Presentation
Element Variable Conversion Element

Transducer Classification -1 :Transducer Classification -1 Based on source of

Energy Active Transducer: a transducer which does not require auxiliary energy
source for conversion. (e.g. Thermocouple, piezoelectric, photovoltaic cell)
Passive Transducer: a transducer which requires auxiliary energy source for
conversion. (e.g. LDR, Strain Gauge, LVDT)

Transducer Classification -2 :Transducer Classification -2 Based on Parameter

of Measurement Displacement transducer - (1)linear (2)Angular Velocity
transducer - (1)linear (2)Angular Acceleration transducer - (1)Linear (2)Angular
Force Temperature Light Time

Transducer Classification -3 :Transducer Classification -3 Based on

Transduction Principle Variable Resistance Transducers Variable Inductance
Transducers Variable Capacitance Transducers Piezoelectric Transducers Hall
effect Transducers Magnetostrictive Transducers Eddy Current Transducers
Fiber optic Transducers IC sensors

General input and output configuration :General input and output

configuration Measuring Instrument Desired input Interfering input Modifying
input Output Example: Strain Gauge Desired Input – Strain, Interfering Input –
Temperature ?R1 ?R2 Change in resistance due to strain Change in resistance
due to temperature R = R + ?R

Slide 12:Example: Thermistor Thermistor Temperature Light Strain Resistance

Modifying Input Modifying input changes relationship between desired input and
output and/or interfering input and output

Characteristics of measurement system :Characteristics of measurement

system Static Characteristics Involves measurement of quantities that are either
constant or vary slowly with time Dynamic Characteristics Applications like
aerospace and bio-logical inputs are subjected to vary with time

Static Characteristics :Static Characteristics D A L R Re S T S H I P?

List of Static Characteistics :List of Static Characteistics Static sensitivity

Linearity Precision/Repeata-bility Accuracy Threshold Drift, Zero Drift Stability
Resolution Hysteresis Range & Span Input Impedance/ Loading effect

Input and Output Range :Input and Output Range Input Range the interval
between the maximum and minimum admissible input range: Imax, Imin Output
Range the interval between the maximum and minimum reachable output range:
Omax, Omin

Slide 17:Span and Zero Zero: the system output corresponding to a zero input.

Slide 18:Accuracy & Error Bands Error Bands ±h manufacturer defined

performance values Error bands is an indication of accuracy in terms of a
statistical density function.

Resolution :Resolution Resolution is the smallest detectable incremental change

of input that can be detected in output signal. For any devices, their resolution is
fixed.

Slide 20:Sensitivity & Gain Sensitivity (Gain) is the rate of change in output
corresponding to the rate of change in input dO/dI. At different range, the
sensitivity may be different a device dI dO

Slide 21:Repeatability Inability of a sensor to represent the same valve under

identical conditions.

Slide 22:Bias (offset) the residual error between the output and the true value
after all possible compensations. Drift rate of change of the output with time NOT
caused by input. Bias Drift True value Bias and Drift

Deadband :Deadband Deadband (Dead Band) range of input in which the output
remains at 0: Xd i o d

Hysteresis :Hysteresis Hysteresisthe delay phenomenon in output due to energy

dissipation. The actual output is either smaller or greater than the theoretical
output depends on increasing or decreasing in input.

Non-Linearity :Non-Linearity
Dynamic Characteristics :Dynamic Characteristics Speed of Response The
rapidity with which a measurement system responds to changes in the measured
quantity Dynamic error Difference between the true value of the quantity
changing with time and the value indicated by the measurement system Fidelity
Degree of which a measurement system indicates changes in the measured
quantity without any dynamic error

Dynamic analysis of measurement system :Dynamic analysis of measurement

system Time domain Analysis Time is used as an independent variable inputs is
applied to the system and the behavior of the system is studied For the purpose
of analysis and design it is necessary to assume some basic types of input signal
like step, ramp, parabolic, impuls Frequency domain Analysis : Frequency is
used as an independent variable Sinusoidal, cosine are input signals

ZERO ORDER INSTRUMENT :ZERO ORDER INSTRUMENT ZERO ORDER

SYSTEM (Example: Potentiometer) Characterized by a zero order differential
equation Infinite bandwidth Instantaneous response Static gain / Sensitivity
ABSENCE OF ENERGY STORAGE ELEMENT No time delay Step response
Frequency response

FIRST ORDER INSTRUMENT :FIRST ORDER INSTRUMENT FIRST ORDER

SYSTEM (Example: Thermocouple without thermo well, mercury in glass
thermometer) Characterized by a first order differential equation Static gain
(which determines the dynamic response) Time Constant ( which determines the
dynamic response) Settling time ( 2%, 5 % and 10 %) Slope at time t=0 will be 1/
(time constant) { based on step response of I-order instrument) Slope at time
t=infinity will be zero. PRESENCE OF ONE ENERGY STORAGE ELEMENT.

Contd.. :Contd.. Step Response of first order Instrument Ramp Response of first
order Instrument Impulse Response of first order Instrument Terminated Ramp
response of first order Instrument Frequency Response ( 3 dB bandwidth of first
order instrument {0,1/Time constant} – first order instrument will behave like a
low pass filter FIRST PRINCIPLES MODEL ( TIME CONSTANT AND GAIN WILL
BE FUNCTION OF PARAMETERS LIKE HEAT TRANSFER AREA, HEAT
TRANSFER COEFFICIENT, MASS OF THE SENSING ELEMENT ETC.)
Estimation of first order parameters ( Gain and Time constant) Least Square
Method (pseudo inverse) Number of Data Points (N)

SECOND ORDER SYSTEM :SECOND ORDER SYSTEM SECOND ORDER

SYSTEM (Example: Thermocouple with thermo well) Characterized by a second
order differential equation Damping ratio ( Under damped -Galvanometers, over
damped- T/C with thermo well, critically damped) Damping ratio recommended –
0.6 to 0.7 ( Linear phase characteristics and amplitude ratio being constant)
Undamped Natural Frequency ( Larger natural frequency will have lower settling
time) Damped Natural Frequency Rise time Peak time Settling time ( Percentage
Tolerance) Percentage Overshoot

SECOND ORDER SYSTEM – Cont’d :SECOND ORDER SYSTEM – Cont’d

Step Response of second order under damped, critically damped and over
damped systems Ramp Response of second order under damped, critically
damped and over damped systems Frequency Response second order under
damped, critically damped and over damped systems Slope at time t=0 will be
zero for second order over damped system. Estimation of Second order
parameters from step response Least Square Method ( pseudo inverse) For all
second order critically damped and over damped instruments the time for 73 %
recovery will be at about t = 1.3* (tau1+tau2) Higher order Instrument As the
order of the instrument increases the response of the instrument will become
sluggish.

Calibration :Calibration CALIBRATION is the method of checking the accuracy

of an instrument It is the comparison of two measurement devices or systems
one of known uncertainty and other of unknown uncertainty to estimate the
correct value of the unknown and its uncertainty

Why Calibration? :Why Calibration? Result of Calibration enables the estimation

of errors of measuring instrument or the assignment of values to mark or arbitrary
scales In many Instruments, suitable adjustments (range, span) are made during
calibration in order to reduce the error Calibration is an accredited laboratory
enables to establish TRACEABILITY When products are exported to other
countries, they insist on traceability In short calibration enhances CREDIBILITY
in measurement Note: Traceability is a document able link between the accuracy
of the Instrument and the highest level of standard as maintained by a
national/international laboratory

Calibration :Calibration Absolute Method Calibration Comparative Method Error

Measurement

Standards :Standards Standard is a physical representation of unit of

measurement Standard is a material measure, measuring instrument, reference
material or system intended to define, realize, conserve, reproduce a unit in order
to transmit them to other instruments by comparison

Classification of Standards :Classification of Standards Primary Standards

International Standard Working Standards Secondary Standards

Errors in measurement system :Errors in measurement system Gross Error

Random error Limiting error Relative limiting error Known error Systematic error
Instrumental error Environmental error Observational error

Error Analysis :Error Analysis Arithmetic Mean Deviation Average Deviation

Standard deviation Variance Median Mode Probable error Standard deviation of
mean Standard deviation of Standard deviation